Medical Terminology for Beginners

2023

The Ultimate Study Guide to Memorize and Understand

Medical Terms for a Brilliant Health Care Career

Jason Nathan Wilson

 Table of Contents
Introduction
Why is Learning Medical Terminology Important?
Communication Tool
Chapter 1: Understanding medical terms.
How to Identify Word Parts When Defining Medical Terms
Chapter 2: Pronouncing Medical Words
The Importance of Pronunciation
Stress Patterns
Tips for Pronouncing Medical Words
Syllable Emphasis
Rules for Pronunciation
Common Pronunciation Challenges
Practice and Repetition
Chapter 3: Basics Of Root Words, Prefixes, And
Suffixes
Word Roots
Prefixes
Suffixes
Chapter 4: Medically Specific Root Words, Prefixes,
and Suffixes
Chapter 5: Pluralizing Medical Terms
Latin and Greek Nouns in the Plural
Making Compound Nouns Plural
Pluralizing Definitions of Common Abbreviations
The Value of Repetition and Practice
Medical Transcription and Pluralizing Words
Chapter 6: Structure and Organization Of The Body
Anatomical Terminology
Chapter 7: Anatomy Terms
Skeletal System
Muscular System
Skin
Sensory Terms
Chapter 8: Physiology terms
Cardiovascular
Respiratory
Additional Respiratory Suffixes and Prefixes
An overview of the respiratory system's structure and function
Gastrointestinal
Endocrine
Nervous
Musculoskeletal System Word Roots and Combining Vowels
Tips for Helping Students Understand Medical
Terminology
Help students understand medical terminology by simplifying common root
words
Medical Terminology Fracturing and Dissecting
The medical terms should be taught in a system-based fashion.
Translate medical jargon into everyday language.
Interactively Reinforce Meaning
Tailor Your Study To Your Needs
Fact Sheets On Medical Terminology
Video recorded Lessons
Presentations On Slideshow Of Medical Terms
 Expandable, Labelled Schematic Representations
Retention Of Medical Terminology By Students
increases the quality of care for patients
allows for uniform treatment
Maximized Patient Protection
Improved Health Care Efficiency
Get some education first.
Emphasize the importance of patient safety
The need for duplications should be eliminated.
Increasing Interdepartmental Cooperation
Construct a more reliable procedure for making choices.
Conclusion
 Introduction

The terms and expressions used to describe parts of the human body and how
they work are medical terminologies. Additionally, it is used by professionals to
describe ailments, diseases, and medical diagnoses.
The term "medical terminology" refers to the specialized vocabulary and
language employed by doctors and other healthcare workers. This word alludes
to medical and scientific terms that describe the human body. It's safe to say that
healthcare professionals will encounter medical terminology at some point.
In medicine, the original language plays a vital role in understanding the
meaning and derivation of terms. Medical terminology relies heavily on Latin
and Greek prefixes and suffixes to create new words. This approach is very
different from Standard English. In this instance, the word's origin can stand on
its own. The English expression "nose" is an example of an unaltered word root.
All healthcare professionals should have a solid grasp of medical terminology. It
is essential for a healthcare worker to understand medical terminology in order
to communicate with patients. It's the language used in the medical field.
Professionals in the healthcare industry require it since using the correct
terminology is critical in providing high-quality care to patients with minimal
room for error.
Accurately describing a patient's condition is made easier with medical
terminology, which medical professionals use. This scenario makes efficient and
correct information exchange possible using standard medical language. There is
no common language among doctors that do not use medical terminology.
As a result, it makes it easier for patients to transfer between different medical
facilities without experiencing any disruption in their treatment. When the
medical data is properly coded, this process runs smoothly. A shared
understanding of medical language greatly aids healthcare workers' ability to
interact with one another and patients. When medical professionals have a firm
grasp of the vocabulary used to describe the human body, they can better
pinpoint the exact location of vital organs and the processes that keep them
running.
Administrative, secretarial, and housekeeping personnel are also part of the
medical support team. Every group member, not just the doctors, must
understand basic medical jargon. Without this information, they risk being fired.
After being hired by a healthcare provider, they participate in a medical support
program designed to prepare them for employment in doctor's waiting rooms and
clinics. In many circumstances, they will collect patient notes and ensure that the
appropriate medical expert receives access to the patient's vital documents.
Using medical jargon helps them get their work done faster. If something is
written down, it can be checked again for spelling. In such a scenario, the
medical jargon comes in handy, allowing a medical officer to record the patient's
words immediately. In this situation, secretaries or office managers can
mistakenly write "nothing by mouth" (NPO), "diagnostic" (DX), and "sexually
transmitted disease" (STD) for their respective terms.
Thus, language is critical in situations where patients tend to talk a lot. As a
result, they can understand what is being stated since they have the requisite
vocabulary. Personnel in this role are considered to be a component of health
services. Therefore, it would be inappropriate to bar frontline workers from
using medical terminology.
Communicating effectively in the workplace demands the usage of medical
terminology for anyone working in the medical industry. In the medical sector, it
is not acceptable not to know medical terminology. A thorough understanding of
medical terminology is essential for everyone involved in the medical industry,
including doctors, nurses, and patients. It is critical to the success of the medical
community and of inquiring patients that everyone engages and understand the
terminology used in the field.
The fundamentals in use can be seen in the following examples:
 Who Uses It:
Medical Terminology is used daily by medical assistants, nurses, doctors,
dentists, pharmacists, and other allied health professionals. It is also utilized by
medical office administrators, coders, and billers responsible for processing
patient insurance claims.
Researchers and educators in the medical field also utilize medical terminology,
as do patient advocates and medical writers engaged in patient education and
health communication.
Medical terminology is an essential tool for anyone working in or around the
healthcare profession, allowing for more transparent communication and a better
grasp of complex subjects.
What:
The vocabulary used by medical practitioners to describe the human body, its
functions, and illnesses is called medical terminology. Medical jargon is a set of
terms used in the medical field that helps doctors and other medical staff convey
information about a patient’s health, diagnosis, and treatment plan clearly and
concisely.
Terms with Latin and Greek origins and specialized medical meanings make up
medical terminology. Medical experts rely on these often-complex and-technical
terms to describe ailments and treatments with clarity and precision.
Those who want to succeed in the healthcare industry must have a firm grasp of
the specialized language used in the sector. Learning the meanings of the
prefixes, suffixes, and root words that make up medical jargon is essential to
proficiency in the field.
When:
Medical language is essential for doctors and nurses when diagnosing and
treating patients.
The terms used in medicine describe the signs and symptoms of a patient, as
well as their medical history and test results. Suppose a patient comes in
complaining of abdominal discomfort. In that case, the doctor will likely use
medical jargon to explain the problem and its symptoms (such as “epigastric
pain”) (e.g., “nausea” or “vomiting”).
Medical language is used to explain the diagnosis and create a treatment plan
when a diagnosis has been made. All aspects of the patient’s care must be
communicated, including the suggested treatment, any risks or adverse effects,
and the parameters for evaluating the patient’s progress.
Explaining medications and treatments to patients requires an understanding of
medical terminology. Healthcare providers use medical vocabulary to describe a
treatment’s intended impact, potential drawbacks, and the steps necessary to
achieve that result.
In the healthcare industry, proper medical terminology is essential for clear
communication, precise diagnosis, and precise treatment of patients.
Where
Medical terminology is used in various areas of the healthcare industry,
including:
Medical Documentation: Medical terminology is used in medical
documentation, such as medical records, prescriptions, discharge summaries, and
reports. It enables healthcare professionals to accurately describe the patient's
condition, medical history, diagnosis, and treatment.
Diagnosis and Treatment: Medical terminology describes symptoms,
diagnoses, and treatment plans. It is essential for accurate communication
between healthcare professionals, leading to the correct diagnosis and effective
treatment of patients.
Medical Education: Medical terminology is a fundamental part of medical
education for healthcare professionals such as doctors, nurses, medical
assistants, and pharmacists. As a result, they can communicate effectively with
one another and provide quality care for their patients.
Medical Research: Medical terminology is used to identify and classify
diseases, conduct clinical trials, and create medical databases.
Medical Billing and Coding: Medical terminology is used in billing and coding
to ensure accurate billing and reimbursement for medical services and
procedures.
Medical terminology is critical in the healthcare industry, enabling effective
communication and ensuring high-quality patient care.
How:
Employing prefixes, roots, and suffixes to produce words with precise meanings
in the medical sector is fundamental to developing the medical terminology
system. These Latin and Greek-derived word components offer a standardized
vocabulary for discussing the human body, illnesses, and therapies.
Adding a prefix to the beginning of a word can change its meaning. The prefix
"hypo-," for instance, signifies "under" or "below." The medical term
"hypothyroidism" is derived from the root word "thyroid" and refers to a lack of
thyroid hormone.
Term Origins: The foundation of any medical vocabulary is its root terms. They
are the essence of the word and supply its primary significance. The prefix
"cardi-" denotes cardiac function, for instance. The cardiovascular system study
becomes known as "cardiology" when the word is coupled with the suffix "-
ology" in the medical field.
A suffix is an additional word piece that changes the meaning of a root word. For
instance, the "-itis" ending implies a condition of inflammation. The medical
term "bronchitis" is derived from the root word "branch" and refers to
inflammation of the bronchial tubes.
The medical community can precisely define a wide range of illnesses,
processes, and therapies because of the ingenious use of prefixes, root words,
and suffixes in developing new terminology. The ability of healthcare providers
to clearly communicate and accurately record patient care depends on their
shared use of a common language.
 Why is Learning Medical Terminology Important?
Sometimes potential students will question the relevance of studying Medical
Terminology. Recognizing and interpreting complex medical jargon can be a
game-changer in various careers. Although it may surprise, quite a few
professions call for familiarity with the medical language. We commonly
consider medical professionals, including doctors, nurses, PAs, and billing
experts.
Even though electronic health records replace paper ones, there are still times
when the former is preferable. The role of a medical assistant still requires
knowledge of paper records and their applications. Forms used to record patient
information include medical histories, permission forms, medical charts, letters,
and notes. The medical assistant's primary function is to maintain and update
patient records. Patients might receive inadequate care if their medical records
are incomplete or inaccurate. Information on a patient's physical and mental
health, as well as their medical history and current treatment, can all be found in
their medical records. A patient's medical records can be used to communicate
with doctors and as evidence in court.
 Communication Tool
Sometimes potential students will question the relevance of studying Medical
Terminology. Recognizing and interpreting complex medical jargon can be a
game-changer in various careers. Although it may surprise, quite a few
professions call for familiarity with the medical language. We commonly
consider medical professionals, including doctors, nurses, PAs, and billing
experts.
Even though electronic health records replace paper ones, there are still times
when the former is preferable. The role of a medical assistant still requires
knowledge of paper records and their applications. Forms used to record patient
information include medical histories, permission forms, medical charts, letters,
and notes. The medical assistant's primary function is to maintain and update
patient records. Patients might receive inadequate care if their medical records
are incomplete or inaccurate. Information on a patient's physical and mental
health, as well as their medical history and current treatment, can all be found in
their medical records. A patient's medical records can be used to communicate
with doctors and as evidence in court.
 Chapter 1:
Understanding medical terms.

Professionals in the medical field have developed a unique vocabulary to define

and discuss diseases, conditions, diagnostic tests, and therapeutic interventions;
this vocabulary is known as medical terminology. It's a large and varied
vocabulary, but one that doctors and nurses need to know to do their jobs well.
This chapter will give you a foundational understanding of medical terminology
by explaining the origins, evolution, and medical usage of key terms in the field.
The terminology used in the medical field can sound odd at first. However,
dissecting medical terminology into its constituent parts is often the key to
grasping its meanings (prefixes, roots, and suffixes). For instance, the word
"spondylolysis" refers to the dissolving of vertebrae since it combines the words
"spondylo," which means vertebra, and "lysis," which means dissolve.
Many different medical terminologies share the same core vocabulary. The
medical term for inflammation of the spinal column is spondylitis, derived from
the Greek words for "spondylo" and "itis," respectively. Spondylomalacia refers
to a condition in which the vertebrae have become pliable; the term is formed by
adding the prefix spondylo- to the word malacia, which means soft.
Understanding the significance of a few key elements can facilitate
understanding several medical expressions. The following is a glossary of
several prefixes, roots, and suffixes used in the medical field.
above supra
absence of a(n)
across; through dia
action; state of being tion
after post
after post
again re
against anti
against, counter contra
air aer(o)
all pan
alone sol
among, between inter
animal zoo
anus proct(o)
around peri
around circum
around; both amb/ambi
artery arteri(o)
away ab
back dors
back, behind poster(i)
back; backwards retro
bad, abnormal mal
bad, faulty, abnormal dys
bad; evil mal
become, originate gen
before ante
before pre
believe cred
beneath infra
beside; related para
between inter
bile, or referring to gall-bladder chol(e)
black melan(o)
bladder cyst(o)
bladder vesic(o)
blood emia
blood hem(ato)
blue cyan(o)
body corpor
body somat(o)
body; nature phys
bone osse(o)
bone oste(o)
born gen
brain cerebr(o)
brain encephal(o)
break frac/frag
break rupt
break, burst rhag
breast mamm(o)
breast mast(o)
breath, air pneum(ato)
breathe spir
breathing pnea
build struct
cancer carcin(o)
capable of able/ible
carry fer
carry port
cartilage chondr(o)
cell cyt(o)
cheek bucc(o)
chest steth(o)
chest thorac(o)
child ped(o)
circle cycl
clot, lump thromb(o)
cold cry(o)
come ven
condition osis
condition; belief in ism
craft; skill tech
crooked, curved ankyl(o)
cut sect
death necr(o)
death mort
deficient, deficiency penia
deficient, low hypo
digest peps, pept
disease path(o)
disease; feeling path
dissolve lys(is)
doctor iatr(o)
double dipl(o)
double, twice, two bi, bis
drag; pull tract
drug pharmaco
dry xer(o)
ear aur(i)
ear ot(o)
earth geo
eat, destroy phag(o)
eight oct/octo
elder presby
empty vac
equal equ
examination opsy
examination scopy
excessive, high hyper
excision (removal by cutting) ectomy
eye ocul(o)
eye ophthalm(o)
far tele
fast, quick tachy
fat lip(o)
fat steat(o)
fatty ather(o)
fear phob(ia)
fear phobia
fever, fire pyr(o)
finger or toe dactyl(o)
flank, abdomen lapar(o)
flow rhe
foot pod(o)
foot ped
former; past ex
four quad
front, forward anter(i)
full of ful
fungus myc(o)
gland aden(o)
god the/theo
good ben/bene
half hemi
half semi
hand man
hard scler(o)
having ous
having to do with al
having to do with ic/tic
head cephal(o)
hear acou, acu
hear aud
hearing audi(o)
heart cardi(o)
heat therm(o)
heat therm
how; how often ly
human anthrop
hundred cent
incision (operation by cutting) tomy
inflammation itis
inside end(o)
inside intra
instrument scope
intestine enter(o)
join junct
joint arthr(o)
joint articul
kidney nephr(o)
kidneys ren(o)
land; earth terr/terra
large megal(o)
large mega
large; great magn
life bio
light photo
liver hepat(o)
look; see scope
lung pneumon(o)
lung pulmon(o)
make, produce poie
man andr(o)
many multi
many poly
marrow myel(o)
measure meter
membranes mening(o)
middle medi
milk lact(o)
mind psych(o)
mind psych
mouth, opening stom
much, many poly
muscle my(o)
narrow, compressed sten(o)
neck cervic
nerve neur(o)
normal eu
nose nas(o)
nose rhin(o)
not dis
not in
not non
not un
nourish nutri
one mon/mono
one uni
opposing counter
outer, superficial, upon epi
outside extra
ovaries oophor(o)
over; beyond hyper
over; greater super
pain alg
pain odyn(o)
paralysis pleg(ia)
parts; units plex
pelvis of kidney pyel(o)
people dem/demo
people soci
person who does ist
poison tox(i)
put; place pos
red erythr(o)
related to ile
related to; like ian
repair plasty
rib cost(o)
see spec
see vid/vis
self aut(o)
self auto
send miss/mit
short brachy
side latero
skin cut
skin derm(ato)
skull crani(o)
slow brady
small micro
small min
soft malac
sound phon
speak; say dic/dict
spine rachi(o)
star ast
state of being ity
state; condition ence/ance
step grad
stomach gastr(o)
straight ortho
study of ology
sweet glyc(o)
ten nov
testes orchi(o)
three tri
throat pharyng(o)
throw ject
time chrono
tissue hist(o)
to feel sens/sent
to; toward ad
tongue gloss(o)
tongue lingu(o)
tooth dent
treatment therap
tumor oma
tumor onc(o)
turn vert/vers
two bi
two di/du
under sub
urine uria
uterus hyster(o)
vein phleb(o)
vein ven(o)
vertebra spondyl(o)
vessel angi(o)
vessel vas(o)
vision opia
water hydr(o)
water aqu
water hydro/hydra
white leuk(o)
with; together co/con
with; together syn/sym
within intra
without less
woman gyn
word log
write graph
write script/scrib
write, record gram, graph
wrong mis
FALSE pseud(o)
 How to Identify Word Parts When Defining Medical
Terms
Following these steps can help you identify word parts when defining medical
terms:
1. Identify the root word:
The meaning of a medical phrase can be distilled down to its base word. When
looking up a medical term for a specific organ, tissue, or disease, focus on the
term's most important word.
By Tracing its Origin, You Can Determine a Medical Term's Meaning
Separate the noun from its prefixes and suffixes. The prefix is added to the
beginning of a word, unlike a suffix, which is added to the end. Pre- is a prefix in
"preoperative," for instance.
Find the word's primary component, its root. This is the essence of the word,
which defines it at its most fundamental level. The word "oper" is the origin of
many medical terms.
Check for vowels that can be used to form new words by combining the root
word with a suffix or another part of a word. A combining vowel is an additional
vowel added to a comment to facilitate its pronunciation or establish a
connection between the root word and another component of the phrase. The
term "cardiogram," for instance, is made up of two parts: the prefix "cardi-"
(meaning "heart") and the ending vowel "-o-."
The meaning of a medical term and its connections to other terms that share the
same root can be better understood if the root word is first determined. Medical
language is primarily used in healthcare industry studies and applications.
2. Identify the prefix:
The meaning of a word can be altered by attaching a prefix to the beginning of
the word. Common prefixes are essential for students to learn right away. They
contribute significantly to the lexicon and grammar of a language. Students
should keep expanding their vocabulary with new prefixes as they progress in
school. Learning the meanings of prefixes is an excellent approach to improving
your vocabulary and your ability to decipher new words.
As they don't alter the spelling of the root word when added, prefixes make
spelling words with them a bit less complicated than suffixes. Students that take
the time to learn some of the most popular prefixes will find that it dramatically
increases their vocabulary. Students can enhance their reading comprehension
and writing abilities by understanding the meaning of these prefixes, which will
allow them to comprehend better the meaning of new words they meet.
Learning words or word parts by rote is not the best strategy for expanding kids'
vocabularies, and this is true across all subject areas. We can't effectively retain
information through memorizing alone. Ways to ensure that students have this
vocabulary are outlined below.
Terms are presented to students in a tree diagram, which helps them see the
connections between words. Word trees are helpful diagrams for displaying the
relationships between phrases that share a root but have various prefixes. The
visual aspect makes it much simpler to memorize the many terms and their
definitions.
Let the pupils create their mental images to represent each prefix. Students could
illustrate the concept of cancellation by drawing an extensive line through an
idea for "un-." An illustration of the word "re-" being used to mean "again"
could be removed by the learner. The establishment of these connections aids
pupils in establishing a more permanent neurological basis for retaining this
information.
Give pupils numerous opportunities to use prefixes they have learned in their
work. Reward them when they use prefixes successfully or creatively, but don't
correct them if they get one wrong. If they can't see that they're wrong, you can
help them by pointing it out and asking them why the word is terrible. While
learning prefixes, many pupils come up with nonsense phrases like "un-drink"
and "re-dance." Explain why and how some prefixes can't be used with other
terms.
Some kids struggle to differentiate between prefixes and words that employ the
same letters. For instance, the prefixes un and re are most often used, but the
terms "understand" and "reality" are not related to them in any way. Make sure
your students know these words that can be confusing and help them learn the
difference.
Students learning to understand language might benefit significantly from
studying some of the most prevalent prefixes, such as those listed above. To
begin making sense of numerous unfamiliar words without resorting to
dictionaries, students should learn affixes (and not just by rote memorization, but
by fully grasping their meanings and applications).
Some kids struggle to differentiate between prefixes and words that employ the
same letters. Un and re are among the most often used prefixes, but they aren't
related to the terms "understand" and "reality." Make sure your students know
these words that can be confusing and help them learn the difference.
3. Identify the suffix:
Suffixes are added to the end of words to alter their original meaning. Depending
on the context, it may denote a specific bodily function, state, or quality.
Understanding the meaning of medical phrases can be aided by familiarity with
common suffixes. Some things to keep in mind while studying suffixes are as
follows.
Adjacent to the last syllable of a word, suffixes add meaning and nuance to its
purpose.
They add nuance to the original word's meaning or designate a specific medical
state or treatment method.
"-itis" (inflammation), "-ectomy" (removal), "-logy" (study of), "-oma" (tumor),
"-osis" (abnormal condition), "-pathy" (illness), and "-scopy" (observation) are
all common suffixes in the medical field (visual examination).
To know what a word's suffix means, you should first understand what the root
means.
Learning the meanings of common suffixes will significantly improve your
ability to recognize and comprehend medical terminology.
To better comprehend the meaning of unfamiliar medical terminology, it can be
helpful to learn the importance of commonly used suffixes.
Better patient care and more transparent communication between doctors and
patients can result from a shared understanding of medical language.
4. Break down the word parts:
You can dissect a word into its prefix, suffix, and root when you've found them.
Try to break down the medical phrase into parts and figure out what they signify.
5. Define the medical term:
Finally, please make use of your understanding of the medical term's constituent
elements to define it in its proper setting. Find the referenced anatomical
structure and explain the condition being described.
Complex medical phrases can be deconstructed into parts—the root word, prefix,
and suffix—so their whole meaning can be grasped. For doctors and nurses to
provide top-notch care to their patients and communicate effectively with one
another, they need to have this competence.
 Chapter 2:
Pronouncing Medical Words

Pronunciation presents a significant obstacle to students of medical terminology.

Mispronunciation of a medical phrase can bring unnecessary confusion and
perhaps dangerous consequences in healthcare. Stress patterns and syllable
emphasis for medical words are introduced in this section.
In addition to learning their meanings, the words and phrases used in medical
terminology might be challenging to pronounce. Some tactics and methods for
pronouncing medical terms correctly are provided in this chapter.
 The Importance of Pronunciation
An individual's ability to pronounce words correctly is crucial for successful
communication in the medical industry. Making a mistake in the pronunciation
of a medical phrase can lead to confusion, incorrect diagnoses, and subpar care.
If you want to be understood, you should try to learn how to pronounce medical
words correctly.
 Stress Patterns
Certain syllables in medical phrases are typically stressed more than others when
the term is spoken aloud. The prefix "peri-" indicates a stress pattern on the first
syllable, as in "pericardium." Noting this stress pattern is crucial because a
mispronunciation of the term might completely alter its meaning.
 Tips for Pronouncing Medical Words
Separate the word into its components. Roots, prefixes, and suffixes
can often be used to figure out how to pronounce medical terms.
You can get audio pronunciations and pronunciation guidelines in a
medical dictionary or textbook.
Repeated practice is essential. Pronunciation of medical terms will
improve with repetition.
Consult a medical terminology expert, such as a professor, mentor, or
trusted coworker.
 Syllable Emphasis
Syllable emphasis is another possible feature of medical terminology alongside
stress patterns. For instance, the "noo" in "pneumonia" is emphasized above the
first "p" in the word. Differentiating between terms with similar meanings is
made easier with this stress.
 Rules for Pronunciation
Medical terminology requires precise pronunciation for healthcare workers to
interact with one another. This chapter will go over some fundamental guidelines
for pronouncing medical phrases, making it easier for you to comprehend and
retain medical terminology.
1. Understand the word's components: It's crucial to comprehend a
medical term's structure before attempting to pronounce it. The
essential words, prefixes, and suffixes that make up medical phrases
all contribute to how the word is pronounced.
2. Say each syllable loud and clear: Many medical phrases have multiple
syllables. Therefore it's crucial to pronounce them all. By doing this,
misunderstandings and poor communication can be avoided.
3. The proper syllable should be stressed: In several medical phrases,
one syllable is stressed more than others. The accent mark (')
placement in the word usually indicates this. To pronounce a word
correctly, it is crucial to accurately emphasis the appropriate syllable.
4. Take note of the vowels: The vowels used can significantly impact
how a word is pronounced. For instance, depending on the speaker's
accent, the term "suture" may be pronounced "soo-true" or "shoo-
true."
5. Recognize context: Medical terminology is frequently used in
conjunction with other medical phrases, which can make their
pronunciation more straightforward. For instance, the pronunciation
of a term can be inferred if it is used in the same sentence as a
medical term that is more widely known.
6. It's true what they say: As with learning a new ability, practice is the
key to getting better at pronouncing medical jargon. As you practice,
you'll grow more confident when speaking with patients and other
healthcare professionals and more at ease while pronouncing medical
terms.
You may pronounce medical terminology correctly and efficiently by adhering to
these fundamental pronunciation standards. Remember that excellent
communication—including clear pronunciation—is essential to delivering high-
quality treatment.
 Common Pronunciation Challenges
Some medical terms may be difficult to pronounce for some people. Some
examples:
Silent letter words like bronchitis and rhinitis.
Spellings like "utricle" and "antrum" don't correspond to their actual
pronunciations.
Mispronunciations of words like "myocardium" and "epithelium" are
extremely common.
 Practice and Repetition
Repeated practice is the most excellent technique to perfect the pronunciation of
complex medical terminology. In addition to using native speakers, online tools
like audio dictionaries can help you perfect your pronunciation. Listen to
recordings of doctors and nurses to get the hang of how they pronounce medical
terminology, and work to work them into your everyday speech.
In conclusion, the proper pronunciation of medical words is critical for efficient
healthcare interaction. You can enhance your pronunciation and gain confidence
while using medical terminology by sticking to the basic pronunciation norms,
practicing and repeating the terms, and using tools like audio dictionaries.
 Chapter 3:
Basics Of Root Words, Prefixes, And Suffixes

The English language relies heavily on adding prefixes, suffixes, and other
affixes to root words to create new words. The word "root" refers to the basic
word from which a new word is made by adding affixes (prefixes and suffixes).
The etymological antecedent is a proper noun. Love and the suffix -ly combine
to become gorgeous.
On the other hand, a root is the building block of a new word but does not
usually function as a single word. For example, a phrase such as a reject is not
standalone; it consists of re- and project, Latin roots.
Almost all medical terms begin with these words:
Prefix: The prefix, which comes before the central part of a medical
phrase, is used to specify a location, direction, kind, quality, or
amount.
Root: Words take shape at their origin, where they begin to form their
meaning. The word or phrase starts with the root when there is no
prefix. At least one root is present in most medical terms.
Suffix: Added to the end of a word, the suffix can denote a particular
field of study or practice, diagnostic or therapeutic technique,
anatomical structure, physiological process, medical condition, or
social standing. If that's not the case, it might just tell you whether or
not the word is an adjectival, nounal, or gerundive.
Combining vowels: Vowel combinations make words more
phonetically pleasant to pronounce (often the letter "o").
When readers encounter a new term, breaking it down into its parts might help
them understand what it means. For instance, the word "hypothermia" is made
up of the prefix "hypo-," which means "below normal," the root "therm," which
means "heat," and the suffix "-ia" (condition).
 Word Roots
A root word is a simple word that has not been modified by adding a prefix or
suffix (a prefix is a string of letters that go at the start of a word; a suffix is a
string of letters that go at the end of a word). The meaning of a word can be
altered by attaching several prefixes and suffixes to its root.
Adjectives can also be formed into their comparative and superlative forms
using the suffixes -er and -est (for instance, "light" can be formed into "lighter"
and "lightest").
For instance:
If one were to add the suffix -nomy to the word Astro, the resulting noun would
be astronomy.
The word "astronomy" refers to the study of the night sky. Learning about and
studying the stars is astronomy.
Add the prefix bi- to the root word lingual to create a bilingual comment.
The term bilingual refers to the ability to speak two languages fluently. When
someone is bilingual, they can communicate effectively in both languages.
The addition of prefixes and suffixes can change the meaning of some root
words in two separate ways:
Words that share common etymologies:

Heart and Circulatory System

aorta aort
arteries arteri

blood hem, sangu

blood vessels angi

heart cardi

veins ven, phleb

Compound Words
A single medical term may convey several different roots. This often happens
while discussing various systems in the human body. For instance, cardio-
pulmo-nary refers to the study of the heart and lungs, while gastro-entero-logy
refers to the study of the digestive tract.

Combining Forms
Combined vowels join consonant-starting word parts when a root appears first.
To facilitate pronouncing the word, a combining vowel (often the letter "o") is
added to the end of the root (for example, near-o-logy). You get the combining
form when you combine the heart and the vowel (for instance, neuro). Word-part
tables don't show any possible combinations of vowels since doing so would
make them too complicated to use.
 Prefixes
Prefixes are commonly used to alter the original meaning of a word's root. It
could be used to denote a specific spot, class of thing, attribute of being, or
measurement of anything. Not all medical terminology has prefixes attached to
them.
Prefixes most commonly used:
Size

large macro-, mega(lo)-

small micro-
 Suffixes
In medicine, terms are always suffixed. The suffix typically designates a specific
field of study, diagnostic or therapeutic technique, clinical or diagnostic function,
medical or mental health issue, or professional or occupational designation. As
an illustration, "itis" refers to inflammation, and "ectomy" refers to a surgical
procedure to remove something.
Another possibility is that adding the suffix changes the word's gender, number,
or case. Examples of common singular noun endings include -a, -e, -um, and -us
(e.g., crani-um).
In many definitions, the suffix is placed first, even at the end of the noun.
Appendicitis, for instance, refers to an infection of the appendix. Therefore,
reading medical phrases from right to left can sometimes be helpful.
There are times when medical terminology consists solely of a prefix and a
suffix. The word "apnea" is made up of the a- (without) and -pnea (breathing)
prefixes and suffixes (breathing).
Commonly used suffixes (the letters in parentheses are not usually included):
Plural Forms
In English and many contemporary Romance languages, forming the plural
involves adding an "s" or "es" to the end of the word. However, things get more
convoluted when dealing with medical terminology. To produce the plural
version of any term, we add two letters to the end of the singular suffix.
A few notable exceptions exist, though. For instance, the Latin word "virus"
doesn't have a plural form. As a plural, "viruses" is commonly used. The "s" or
"es" ending is sometimes the most prevalent one used in a speech outside the
United States. Hematomas, not hematomata, are the correct plural of
"hematoma."
Typical singular and plural terminations:
 Chapter 4:
Medically Specific Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes

Meaning Prefix/suffix
(1) Refers to 'born in' or 'from' -gen

(2) Means 'of a particular kind'

An occurrence, condition, or increase -osis
abnormal, alongside para-
addition of oxygen oxo-
against contra
animal life, animal zo(o)-
anus an(o)
attraction for -phil(ia)
away from ab-
away from cessation de-
backward, again re-
bacteria bacteri(o)-
behind, after meta-
behind, backward retro-
below infra-
beneath sub-
between, among inter-
beyond, excessive ultra-
binding -desis
blood (AmE) hema-
blood condition -aemia (BrE)
blood condition (AmE) -emia
blood pressure -tension, -tensive
blood vessel angi-
blood vessel vasculo-
body, bodily somat(o)-, somatico-
bone ossi-
bone ost(e)-, oste(o)-
bony osseo-
break clast
bronchus bronch(i)-
bursa burs(o)-
burst forth -rrhage
cancer carcin(o)-
cell cyt(o)-
cell -cyte
chemistry, drug chem(o)-
childbirth toco-
circle, cycle cycl-
cold cry(o)-
colon col-, colo-, colono-
color chrom(ato)-
condition -ia(sis)
condition of -sis
condition or process of -y
condition, disease -ism
contraction, spasm -ismus
cornea (eye or skin) kerat(o)-
Cranium-related crani(o)-
creation of an opening -stomy
crushing -tripsy
cutting instrument -tome
cutting operation -tomy
death necr(o)-
deficiency -penia
A disease or disorder (in a negative sense) -pathy
Describes a 'plurality.' poly-
Denotes a blue color cyan(o)-
Denotes a drawn, written, or graphic interpretation -graph
Denotes a purple color porphyr(o)-
Denotes a red color erythr(o)-
Denotes an absence of a-, an-
Denotes an area of medicine related to a specific body part -iatry
Denotes an operation or removal of a body part -ectomy
A person who studies a particular field: _____-ology -logist
An object that appears 'after' or 'behind' another post-
Prior refers to something occurring before another (in pre-
[physical] position or time).
Denotes something as 'below normal.' hyp(o)-
It means 'outside of the norm' or 'extreme'. hyper-
Assumes something is the most important or first. prim-
Assumes something is the most important or first. prot(o)-
Denotes something as 'inside' or 'within.' endo-
Denotes something as 'outside' another exo-
A different or additional aspect of something (of two) hetero-
Associating something with another, being the same, or being homo-
the same as another

An uncommon prefix that indicates something cyph(o)-

bent
The digestive system or digestion is something related to it. -pepsia

Studies or practices a particular field -logy

academically or professionally
Denoting a black color melan(o)-
Denoting a green color chlor(o)-
Denoting a grey color polio-
Denoting a grey, bluish-grey color glauc(o)-
Denoting a rose-red color rhod(o)-
Denoting a white color leuc-, leuk(o)-
Denoting a white or pale color alb-
Having a yellow color or having a yellow color abnormally xanth(o)-

The attribute of being 'split' or 'double-sided.' schiz(o)-

A way of describing something about another as being 'around' circum-

it
An item containing 'everything' or being complete pan-, pant(o)-
The quality of having scales or being scaly squamos(o)-
Denoting something as 'having little, having few.' olig(o)-
Assigning narrowness to something or referring to the sten(o)-
narrowness
Denoting something as 'relating to a woman, feminine.' thely-
Denoting something as being 'equal.' iso-
Denoting something as crooked or bent ankyl(o)-, ancyl(o)-
Assigning a different or additional meaning to something allo-
Denoting something as fast, irregularly fast tachy-
A term describing something that is 'through' or 'across.' trans-
Referring to both sides of something; describing both sides of ambi-
something
Having to do with smallness or being small micro-
Assigning straightness or correctness to something orth(o)-
A position that surrounds or surrounds another peri-
Something that is 'opposed to' or 'against' another anti-
The position of something about another ante-
Describing something as unequal aniso-
diaphragm phren(i)-, phren(o)-, phrenico
difficult, bad dys-
discharge -rrhagia
disease path(o)-
dissolution lys(o)-, -lytic
double, twice bi-
down cata-
downward placement, falling, prolapse -ptosis
dripping, trickling -staxis
drug, medication pharmaco-
duct, blood vessel vas(o)-
duodenum - top of the stomach duodeno-
during, through, across dia-
eardrum myring(o)-
eardrum tympan(o)-
eating, devouring phago-
enzyme -ase
exaggerated fear, sensitivity phob(o)-
excessive, above supra-
expansion, dilation -ectasis
extremity/topmost acr(o)-
fat lip(o)-
fermentation, enzyme zym(o)-
fever pyro-
fiber fibr(o)
fixation -pexy
flowing, discharge -rrhea (AmE)
flowing, discharge -rrhoea (BrE)
food, grain sito-
force, energy dynamo-
form, shape morph(o)-
formation, development -plasia
Individuals who consume the first element or part of a word -phagist:
The first element or part of the word forms nouns that -phagy
highlight this element or part

Describes conditions associated with eating or -phage, -phagia

ingesting
four quadr(i)-
fungus myc(o)-
gas, air aer(o)-
germ or bud blast(o)-
glans penis balan/o
glucose gluco-
good, well eu-
granular, cartilage, granule, gristle, chondr(i)o-
gullet -oesophageal, oesophago-
(BrE)
gullet (AmE) -esophageal, -esophago
hardness scler(o)-
Having to do with the uterus or its instruments metr(o)-
hearing condition -acusis
heat therm(o)-
hemoptysis, spitting, -ptysis
hip bone pelv(i)-, pelv(o)-
humped kyph(o)-
ileum ileo-
in excess, above, superior super-
increase, adherence, motion toward, very ad-
Papulosity, swelling, pimple, or a small elevation in the skin papul(o)-
Indicates similarity, likeness, or being together sy(l)-, sym-, syn-, sys-
The term 'short' or 'little' indicates something is short or small. brachy-
Indicating something as 'slow.' brady-
inflammation -itis
instrument for measuring -meter
instrument for viewing -scope
iris irid(o)-
joint articul(o)-
killing, destroying -cidal, -cide
large meg(a)-, megal(o)-, megaly
large, long macr(o)-
lateral latero-
left, left side sinistr(o)-
lens-shaped phaco-
life bio-
light, slender lepto-
Likened to or similar to horns in terms of processes or body cornu-
parts
lung, air pneumat(o)-
lymph lymph(o)-
meninges mening(o)-
middle mes(o)-
milk galact(o)-
milk lact(i)-, lact(o)
mouth stom(a)
movement kin(e)-, kin(o), kinesi(o)-
mucus myx(o)-
muscle muscul(o)-
muscular, fleshlike sarco-
net reticul(o)-
new neo-
normal normo-
not, without an-
nourishment, development -trophy
nucleus karyo-
Of or about a finger, toe dactyl(o)-
An uncommon prefix referring to a woman's teat or nipple thel(e)-, thel(o)-
Arteriole-related arteri(o)-
old age presby(o)-
on this side cis-
one uni-
one who specializes in -ist
one-half hemi-
one-half, partly semi-
organized knowledge, treatment -ics
out of, away from ex-
out, away ec-
outer, outside ect(o)-
outside extra-
outside of, upon, before, outside, on, epi-
pain alge(si)-
pain -algia
pain alg(i)o-
pain -dynia
pain odyn(o)-
paralysis -plegia
pelvis pyel(o)-
About the head (as a whole) capit-
About, producing, produced by -genic
place, topical top(o)-
poison, toxin tox(i)-, tox(o)-, toxico-
pore, porous por(o)-
pouching, hernia -cele
process -ation
process of measuring -metry
process of recording -graphy
production -poiesis
pus pyo-
radiation, radius radio-
recording -gram
rectum rect(o)-
rectum, anus proct(o)-
resemblance to -oid
right, on the right side dextr(o)-
rod-shaped, striated rhabd(o)-
rupture -rrhexis
saliva, salivary gland sial(o)-
Seed; semen. gon/o
seizure, attack -lepsis, -lepsy
self, one's own idio-
self, same aut(o)-
semen, spermatozoa sperma-, spermo-, spermato-
sensation aesthesio- (BrE)
sensation (AmE) esthesio-
separated from, derived from apo-
separation dif-
separation, taking apart dis-
separation, two di-
sharp, acid, acute, oxygen oxy-
sigmoid, sigmoid colon sigmoid(o)-
single mon(o)-
skin cutane-
slight paralysis -paresis
small -icle
small -ula, -ule
small or little ole
smooth lei(o)-
softening -malacia
sound phon(o)-
spasm spasmo-
speech log(o)-
spine rachi(o)-
spleen splen(o)-
split, cleft schisto-
stiff edopotra-
stone, calculus lith(o)-
stop, stand -stasis
strength, force, power stheno-
structure, tissue -ium
sugar glyco-
surgical puncture for aspiration -centesis
surgical suturing -rrhaphy

sweat hidr(o)-

blood vessel varic(o)-

tear dacrio-
tear lacrim(o)-
tension -tony
tension, tone, pressure tono-
testis orchi(o)-, orchido-
the nature of resembling -ite
the urinary system ur(o)-
thick pachy-
through per-
thyroid thyr(o)-
tissue hist(o)-, histio-
tissue, -trophy
To form adjectives that indicate 'having a particular form.' -form, -iform
to secrete -crine
together, with com-
together, with cor-
together, with, and in association co-
trachea trache(o)-
tumor -oma (singular), -omata
(plural)
twisted scoli(o)-
uric acid uri(c)-, urico-
use of the instrument for viewing -scopy
viscera splanchn(i)-, splanchn(o)-
volume, tumor, bulk onco-
vomiting condition -emesis
water hydr(o)-
weakness -asthenia
within intra-
woman gyn(o)-, gynae(co)- (BrE),
gyne(co)- (AmE)
 Chapter 5:
Pluralizing Medical Terms

Unlike most English words, many medical terminologies don't follow the usual
norms for pluralization. Especially when it comes to pluralization, medical
language can be challenging to grasp. This chapter will discuss the medical
pluralization of medical terms and the many approaches to doing so.
 Latin and Greek Nouns in the Plural
There are specific guidelines for pluralizing Latin and Greek medical words. In
many cases, the plural form of a Latin or Greek word is different from its
singular form. The plural form of the word "radius," which refers to a bone in the
arm, is "radii." To ensure proper and professional communication in a medical
setting, learning and memorizing the exact plural forms of medical terminology
is essential.
 Making Compound Nouns Plural
Compound words, formed by combining two or more words, also provide
difficulties when attempting to create a plural form. When determining the plural
form of a compound word, it may be necessary to look at the plurals of its
distinct parts. For instance, the plural of "tonsillectomy" is "tonsillectomies."
Knowing the plural forms of the constituent words that make up a compound
word is essential to establish its proper plural form.
 Pluralizing Definitions of Common Abbreviations
Medical terminology is notoriously rife with abbreviations and acronyms, which
can be especially tricky when pluralizing. Adding a lowercase "s" to the end of
an abbreviation or acronym can sometimes make it plural. For instance, "CT"
(for "computed tomography") is shortened to "CTs" (for "computed
tomography"). Parentheses can also show the number of occurrences, which is
the convention when using the plural form. As an illustration, "(2) CT scans"
would denote two CT scans.
 The Value of Repetition and Practice
Learn the suitable plural versions of medical terminology and use them in
appropriate contexts by remembering them. Learning the correct plural form of
medical terminology takes a lot of practice and repetition. If you want to learn
and
Spaced repetition is the practice of separating repetitions over some time to
maximize their effectiveness. Memorization experts recommend repeating key
points at increasingly spaced out times throughout the day. You could, for
instance, start by looking at a flashcard and mentally repeating the word several
times. Could you retake a look at it in a minute? Then, after five, ten, fifteen, etc.
minutes, repeat.
Although it may seem easy at first, repetition demands much persistence. Stimuli
learned through repetition are stored more securely and for extended periods in
long-term memory. Repeated practice of a skill leads to the development of new
neural pathways in the brain, which improves the individual's ability to execute
that skill. In response to the stresses of routine use, your nerves, muscles, and
bones may all expand and change.
 Medical Transcription and Pluralizing Words
Add an "s" to the end of a word like "patients" or "ideas" to make it plural. Add
"es" to a word that ends in s, x, ch, sh, or z to make it plural. Taxes and meals are
two good examples. If a comment ends in a vowel, add an s; if a consonant
comes before it, convert the y to an I and add es. (This one's a bit difficult, but
it's doable!)
I've provided some examples:
copy copies
key keys
For example, the plural of ratio is ratios since the word begins with a vowel and
ends in an "o." Check a dictionary for spelling guidance if you're unsure whether
to add an s or es before an "o" that follows a consonant. These are expressions
like:
echo echoes
ego egos
Adding an "s" is acceptable when a noun ends in f, ef, or ff; alternatively, the f or
ef might be changed to ve, and the word is reformed. (Things are heating up!)
The following nouns fall under this rule:
belief beliefs
half halves
You might require a thesaurus or dictionary if you're having trouble
understanding the plural of a specific term. As a result, words like "woman" and
"child" are never used in the plural form; instead, "women" and "children" are
the correct alternatives.
The singular and plural forms of some words, like "biceps" and "triceps" or
"series" and "scissors," are identical.
Single-word compounds are pluralized as though their last component were
separate words when used as nouns. The correct plural of the backpack is
backpacked (not backpack), and the correct plural of birthday is birthdays (not
birthday). Nouns separated by a space or a hyphen are pluralized into their parts.
Examples of this include the singular "passerby" becoming "passersby" and the
plural "father-in-law" becoming "fathers-in-law."
The last word of a compound term is pluralized when there is no noun in it. So,
hang-ups would be hang-ups, and know-it-alls would be know-it-alls.
A teaspoonful is a unit of measure used in cooking. It's as easy as adding an "s"
to the end of a word that ends in "ful" to make it plural. Neither "ful" nor "fulls"
is ever altered in our lexicon.
In general, the "s" suffix is used to pluralize proper nouns, but if the noun ends
in s, x, ch, sh, or z, the es suffix is used instead. Therefore, the Smiths will be
known as the Smiths and the Joneses as the Joneses. Proper nouns should be
spelled as initially written, with or without added s or es. Rolexes and
Christmases are two such examples.
Adding an "s" to an abbreviation in the upper case makes it plural (not
apostrophe and s). Electrocardiograms, intravenous fluids, and mechanical heart
valves fall under this category. Some standard abbreviations, like c.o.d. and
w.b.c., become plural when you add an apostrophe and an s.
General Rules for Numbers
Adding the apostrophe and s to the end of a single-digit number pluralizes it;
adding an "s" to a double-digit number pluralizes it. When numbers are written
as words, like "ones" or "sixes," the s or e is added to make the word plural.
A or B should be pluralized with an apostrophe and an s.
Summary Chart
Medical Transcription Exceptions
Below are some potential exceptions that may arise while working on medical
transcription projects. Keep in mind that the criteria for English pluralization
would not apply to many of the terminologies we use in medicine because they
are derived from Latin or Greek.

Adjectives and nouns in Latin must agree over gender, number, and case. A
medical dictionary will be your greatest friend while trying to comprehend the
numerous different forms of these plurals. As a healthcare provider, you may
encounter the following examples of Latin medical terms that have been
converted from the singular to the plural:
Latin Medical Terms (possessive case)
Some Latin medical phrases have been misunderstood as plural while they
indicate the possessive case in Latin. The following examples are just a few, but
they are not limited to:
cervix uteri (neck of the uterus, uterine cervix)
corpus uteri (body of the uterus, uterine corpus)
Placentas derived from uterine tissue are called pars uterina placentae.
pruritus vulvae (itching of the vulva)
Os calcis: the plural is ossa calcium (bones of the heels)
Accurate and professional communication in a medical setting relies heavily on
the right pluralization of medical words. Learn how to use medical terminology
with confidence and competence by familiarizing yourself with the many
approaches to pluralizing medical terms, practicing and repeating them, and
consulting resources like flashcards and reference books.
 Chapter 6:
Structure and Organization Of The Body

An awareness of the human body's anatomy and physiology is crucial to

grasping medical terminology. In this section, we'll learn about the body's many
interconnected systems and structures and how they're designed to work together
to keep us healthy and alive.
It's helpful to consider the human body's basic architecture—how its most minor
pieces are put together to form larger structures—before studying its various
designs and functions. Subatomic particles, organ systems, molecules,
organelles, tissues, organisms, atoms, organs, cells, and the biosphere are all
practical conceptual frameworks for thinking about the body's structures.

Subatomic particles, molecules, and atoms are the focus of scientific inquiry
when studying the chemical level of organization. All biological structures are
composed of molecules. Other elements than hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon,
calcium, oxygen and iron are also known. In these cases, the minor component is
an atom, the basic building block of all these components. Atoms comprise
subatomic particles such as protons, electrons, and neutrons. Two or more atoms
are joined together in molecules, such as those found in proteins, water, and
carbohydrates.
The smallest element of a biological entity capable of carrying out its functions
is called a cell. Cells can be found in every living part of the human body and
conduct or originate in nearly every physiological process. Bacteria are
composed of a single cell. Although they are pretty tiny, bacteria are
nevertheless multicellular beings.
All living things, including humans, depend entirely on their cellular
components. The cytoplasm of a human cell is a water-based cellular fluid
surrounded by several smaller functional pieces called organelles. Tissue
comprises various types of cells that all share some characteristics and work
together to carry out a specific task. An organ is a clear biological structure that
contains multiple cell types. In the body, each organ has a particular
physiological purpose. When various organs in a body work together to carry out
a particular function or supply a specific physiologic requirement, we speak of
that collection of organs as an organ system.
An organ belonging to one organ system may have essential functions within
another. This can make assigning organs to various organ systems challenging.
Most organs contribute to more than one system. Eleven of the body's major
organ systems are discussed in detail.
You will undoubtedly encounter references in this text and elsewhere in your
study of the biological sciences to comparisons and contrasts between the
physiology of the sexes. Gender identity and biological sex, as determined by
chromosomes, hormones, organs, and other physical features, are sometimes
referred to by the same terms, "female" and "male," but these are two distinct
ideas. Gender identification may not match the biological sex of an individual or
the gender he or she was assigned at birth in some cases. The terms "female" and
"male" in this book exclusively relate to sex, and the physiology and anatomy of
sex types XX and XY are described in detail.
The human body comprises several interconnected systems, all essential to the
individual's well-being and survival. These are the major bodily systems:
Skeletal system: Bones, joints, and cartilage comprise the skeleton, which
serves as the body's skeleton and primary support structure.
Muscular system: Muscles and tendons make possible motion and aid in
maintaining an upright posture; together, they make up the muscular system.
Nervous system: A system that coordinates motions and activities within the
body, made up of the spinal cord, brain, and nerves.
Cardiovascular system: The heart, the blood arteries, and the blood all work
together to provide oxygen and nutrients to the body's cells and organs as part of
the cardiovascular system.
Respiratory system: The respiratory system consists of the nasal cavity, oral
cavity, pharynx, esophagus, lungs, and the diaphragm; its function is to take in
oxygen and expel carbon dioxide.
Digestive system: In the digestive system, food is processed into energy through
the esophagus, mouth, intestines, stomach, and anus.
Urinary system: Waste products are removed from the blood by the bladder,
kidneys, ureters, and urethra.
Integumentary system: Skin, hair, and nails are all part of the integumentary
system, which functions to shield the body from harm and maintain a
comfortable internal temperature.
Endocrine system: Endocrine glands secrete hormones and control metabolism
and development.
Immune system: Lymph nodes and white blood cells protect the body against
external pathogens.
Complexity is most significant at the organismic level. Organisms are living
things with cellular structures capable of meeting their physiological
requirements. The body's cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems all play a vital
role in keeping multicellular animals like humans alive and healthy.
 Anatomical Terminology
It would help if you learned a few key phrases used to describe body structure
before moving on to the following modules, which will provide more in-depth
explanations of the different systems of the human body. The material presented
in the subsequent lessons will make much more sense if we are familiar with
these concepts. A new word is grouped into three categories here:
Directional Terms
The body's planes
Body Cavities

Directional Terms
Structures' locations in the body and the areas of other systems are described
using directional terminology.
The hand is an extremity considered superior since it is located at the upper
section of the body, above the trunk level.
An inferior extremity (the foot is away from the head).
A kneecap, for instance, is found on the anterior side of the leg (the anterior side
of the leg is the kneecap's location).
Regardless of whether the body is on the front or the back, the shoulder blades
are located on the posterior side.
The middle toe of the foot is located on the medial side, towards the body's
midline.
Located on the lateral side of the foot, far from the body's center, the little toe is
located on the side of the foot where it sits.
Toward or closest to the trunk or the point of origin of a portion (for instance, the
femur unites with the pelvic bone at its proximal end).
The hand, for instance, is at the distal end of the forearm, which means it is the
furthest away from the trunk.

Planes of the Body

Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane)
When describing the location and motion of the human body, one of the three
anatomical planes employed is the frontal plane, also called the coronal plane.
The anterior-posterior plane is a vertical division of the human body into the
front and back halves. The bone that makes up the forehead and a portion of the
upper eye sockets inspired the plane's moniker.
Frontal plane movements can be described as abductions or adductions of the
arms or legs. Abduction means moving away from the midline of the body,
whereas adduction means moving toward it.
Internal body structures can also be described in their location on the frontal
plane. The lungs, for instance, are found in the thoracic cavity, which is limited
by the ribcage and is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. The
diaphragm is a flat, dome-shaped muscle that lies in the frontal plane and dome-
side up to facilitate airflow to the lungs.
When describing the location or motion of a bodily part, anatomical planes are a
must-have tool for healthcare practitioners to communicate effectively with one
another. To properly diagnose and treat medical disorders, it is essential to have a
thorough understanding of the orientation and position of structures within the
body.
Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane)
One of the three anatomical planes used to describe the position and motion of
the human body is the lateral plane, often known as the sagittal plane. Each half
of the body is an exact reflection of the other along a vertical plane. The sagittal
suture, the line of union between the two parietal bones of the skull, inspired the
name of this plane.
A joint's bending, or flexion, is contrasted with straightening or extension.
Flexion and extension of the limbs are examples of lateral plane movements.
Because they entail the translation of anatomical structures along an imaginary
line traversing the body from front to back, these motions take place in the
lateral plane.
Structures inside the body can also be described using the lateral plane. The
liver, for instance, is situated in the abdominal cavity, predominantly on the right
side, and the heart, somewhat to the left of the midline.
When describing the location or motion of a bodily part, anatomical planes are a
must-have tool for healthcare practitioners to communicate effectively with one
another. To properly diagnose and treat medical disorders, it is essential to have a
thorough understanding of the orientation and position of structures within the
body.
Axial Plane (Transverse Plane)
There are three anatomical planes used to explain the position and motion of the
human body; one of these planes is the transverse plane, commonly known as
the horizontal plane. The anatomical superior-inferior plane is a horizontal line
that divides the human body into the upper and lower halves.
Head and trunk rotations are examples of movements in the transverse plane. In
contrast to linear motion, rotation involves the change in the orientation of a
bodily part relative to its axis.
The transverse plane can also describe the positions of anatomical structures
inside the body. By illustration, the spinal cord is housed within the vertebral
column in the transverse plane and is held together by intervertebral discs
between each pair of vertebrae.
When describing the position or motion of a specific body part, anatomical
planes are crucial for accurate communication between healthcare practitioners.
Medical professionals need to know the orientation and placement of structures
within the body to diagnose and treat patients appropriately.
Median plane
Median planes, or midsagittal planes, are vertical anatomical planes that run
through the center of the body and divide it in half. The sagittal suture, which
connects the two parietal bones of the skull, is the inspiration for the name.
Position and motion of anatomical structures within the body as they pertain to
the median plane. The ears, for instance, are laterally situated relative to the
median plane, while the nose is centrally positioned.
The bending and stretching of the head and neck are examples of movements in
the median plane. By bending the head and neck forward, one can bring one's
chin closer to one's chest, while stretching the head and neck backward can
cause one's head to be pushed farther from one's body.
When describing the position or motion of a specific body part, anatomical
planes are crucial for accurate communication between healthcare practitioners.
Medical professionals need to know the orientation and placement of structures
within the body to diagnose and treat patients appropriately.

Body Cavities
Within the cavity or gap of the body, the viscera are located. There is an essential
difference between the ventral cavity and the dorsal cavity. The diaphragm
divides the ventral cavity into smaller thoracic and abdominal spaces as a dome-
shaped respiratory muscle.

Thoracic cavity
The cardiovascular system, respiratory system, esophagus, major blood arteries,
and nervous system are all housed in the thoracic (chest) or upper ventral cavity.
Diaphragm and ribs form the caudal and lateral boundaries of the thoracic cavity,
respectively.

Pelvic And Abdominal Area

Two distinct regions, the abdominal and pelvic regions, make up the lower
ventral (abdominopelvic) cavity. The abdominal cavity houses most of the
digestive system, including kidneys and adrenal glands. The diaphragm at the
top, the body wall on the sides, and the pelvic cavity at the bottom form the
boundaries of the abdominal cavity. Within the pelvic cavity, many organs are
associated with the urogenital system, including the rectum. The abdominal
cavity forms the posterior wall of the pelvic cavity, the sacrum forms the dorsal
border, and the pelvis forms the lateral walls.

Dorsal space
We refer to the smallest of the two primary cavities as the dorsal cavity. It houses
the body's backward-most organs, as the name suggests. Again, the dorsal cavity
has a bifurcation point. The vertebral canal in the bottom half of the body
protects the spinal cord, while the cranial cavity in the top half protects the brain.

Anatomy, Regional
The study of the anatomy of different body parts, such as the head and neck,
chest, belly, and pelvis, is known as regional anatomy. Communicating precisely
about anatomical features and their activities requires a firm grasp of regional
anatomy.

Body Sections and Planes

Body planes and sections are standard tools medical practitioners use to describe
and study the body's anatomy and physiology. The three most prominent
anatomical horizontals are sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes. The sagittal
plane separates the left and right sides of the body, the frontal plane separates the
front and back, and the transverse plane separates the top and bottom of the
human body.
 Chapter 7:
Anatomy Terms

Skeletal System
The human body's skeletal system is responsible for the following essential
tasks: the skeleton serves as the body's scaffolding. Bones, cartilage, and
ligaments make up this bodily structure. All the bones in your body are unique in
size, shape, and strength, each performing a specific role. Because bones are
weight-bearing structures, their thickness can alter in response to changes in
overall body mass.
promotes ease of motion by supporting the body
functions to generate red blood cells and shield internal organs
mineral and fat storage and release

Anatomy (Structures) of the Skeletal System

The skeleton's bones, cartilage, and ligaments work together to support and
shape the rest of the body. You have a skeleton which is made up of all of the
bones in your body. Adult humans have 206 bones in their skeleton. Since some
bones fuse in childhood and adolescence to form adult bones, a person has a
more significant number of bones when they are young. The skeleton's principal
roles are to offer a complex, internal structure capable of bearing the body's
weight against the force of gravity and of providing a framework upon which the
body's muscles can act to generate movement.
The skeleton serves as the body's framework and allows for movement, but it
also serves as a protective barrier and a repository for vital organs. It shields the
critical organs from injury, including the lungs, spinal cord, brain, heart, and
reproductive system. Bones store minerals like calcium and phosphate, which
are crucial for human health. Fat is stored in, and blood cells are produced in the
bone marrow that can be found inside the bones.
 Muscular System
A wide variety of names can refer to muscles. To name a few examples:
shape – trapezius (trapezoid), deltoid (triangular),
divisions – triceps, biceps, quadriceps
size – maximum (most significant), minimus (most minor)
action –adductor (towards the midline of the body), flexor (to flex),

Muscle diseases and disorders

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
When the body stops producing dystrophin, it causes Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy (DMD) (a muscle protein). As a result, muscle weakness develops
with aging. Delay in reaching motor milestones and growing weakness in the
lower extremities and pelvis are some of the symptoms that may first appear in
children under the age of six. Most people with this illness are male. Since the
disease affects the entire body, the patient will need a wheelchair and ventilator
support soon.
Damage to the brain that causes paralysis or cerebral palsy
A disruption in brain development can cause muscle weakness in people with
cerebral palsy (CP). The type and degree of symptoms will differ amongst
people with dementia since they are tied to the damaged brain region. Due to
poor muscular control, maintaining balance and coordination might be difficult.
Disorder of the Carpal Tunnel
By compressing the median nerve at the wrist, carpal tunnel syndrome causes
pain, tingling, and weakness in the hand(s). Repetitive motions, accidents or
injuries to the wrist, and fluid accumulation during pregnancy or menopause are
all potential sources of this strain.
Paralysis
Loss of muscle tone and coordination characterizes paralysis. Some forms of
paralysis are more localized than others, affecting only certain body parts (such
as the face, feet, vocal cords, etc.), while others are more widespread. Forms of
comprehensive paralysis range from:
Paresis – mild muscular weakness associated with partial paralysis
Paraplegia – a condition in which the legs, trunk, or feet are
paralyzed
 Quadriplegia – affects all four limbs
Hemiplegia – occurs when one side of the body is incapacitated. As
an example, a side-by-side arm and leg

Sprain and Strain

To stretch or tear a ligament in a joint is to suffer a sprain. Sprained tendons and
ligaments surrounding a joint can be strained or torn. Although other joints
outside the ankle can be sprained, the ankle is the most common injury site.
Pain, swelling, bruises, and inability to use the affected joint are all indications
of a sprain.
Strains result from overstretching or tearing of muscle or tendon tissue. Muscle
or tendon strains can appear abruptly or gradually and result from injury,
improperly lifting hefty objects or overuse. Pain, spasms, swelling, cramping,
and trouble moving a muscle are all strain indicators.
 Skin

In general, the skin is composed of three layers. A skin's epidermis is its

outermost layer, it's dermis is its middle layer, and it's subcutaneous tissue that
forms the deeper layers.
Skin color is determined by the epidermis, which provides a protective barrier.
The dermis is just below the outermost layer of skin (the epidermis), home to
various structures, including sweat glands, connective tissue, lymphatic vessels,
blood vessels, and hair follicles.
Fat and connective tissue make up the deeper subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis).
The epidermis comprises five layers of thick skin: palms and soles ( stratum
lucidum, stratum basale, granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum corneum).
In contrast, it contains four layers elsewhere (without stratum lucidum).
Both the papillary dermis and reticular dermis are layers of the dermis.
There are several functions that the skin performs:
The skin is the first line of defense against the harmful effects of the
environment, including pathogens, dehydration, sun damage, and
mechanical injury.
The skin is the primary organ for perceiving painful stimuli, as well
as those of temperature, touch, and deep pressure.
The suppleness of the skin allows free movement.
Bone health and calcium absorption depend on vitamin D, which is
synthesized through endocrine activity.
Water, urea, and ammonia are secreted as part of the exocrine
system's activities. The skin secretes bioactive chemicals, including
cytokines and hormone-like peptides, with significant immunologic
roles. The skin also secretes other materials like oil, sweat, and
pheromones.
Defense against disease-causing organisms.
Controlling Temperature.
As well as maintaining the body's homeostasis and hydration balance,
the skin helps regulate the body's temperature by retaining or losing
heat.
 Sensory Terms
When asked to name the senses, most people choose taste, smell, touch, hearing,
and sight. These senses, however, are not exhaustive. The lack of equilibrium is
the most glaring omission. In addition to vibration, pressure, stretch, and the
position of hair follicles, touch can be further classified based on the type of
mechanoreceptors involved. Thermoreceptors and nociceptors are two other
senses that often get left out of the conversation.
Two types of senses are recognized in physiology: primary and secondary.
Widespread reasons are those whose receptor cells are found in the tissues of
different organs. In addition to skin and muscle, blood vessel walls also have
mechanoreceptors. A technical reason requires a specialized sensory organ, such
as the eye, the cochlea, the tongue, or the nose. In addition to touch,
proprioception, kinesthesia, and a visceral sense—crucial to autonomic functions
—all rely heavily on information from general purposes.

Gustation (Taste)
The tongue's specialized sense is gustation. Squamous epithelium forms a
stratified layer in the language and other oral cavities. Gustatory transduction
takes place in papillae, which are protrusions in the body. From a visual
standpoint, there are four distinct categories of papillae:
Circumvallate
Sfoliate
Sfiliform
sfungiform
A taste bud is a structure within the papillae that contains gustatory receptor cells
responsible for transducing taste impulses. These receptor cells are activated in
response to the chemicals found in our food, and their neurotransmitter secretion
is proportional to the amount of these compounds. Sensory neurons in the face,
glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves can be stimulated by neurotransmitters
released by gustatory cells.
There are just a small number of acknowledged taste or gustatory submodalities.
For a long time, people could only distinguish between four flavors: sweet, salty,
sour, and bitter. The mid-1980s officially recognized umami as the fifth taste
after research dating back to the turn of the 20th century. New studies have
hinted at a sixth taste for lipids, or fats.
Olfaction (Smell)
Olfaction, like the taste, can be stimulated by chemicals. Airborne hazardous
substances can damage the nasal epithelium, which houses the olfactory cells. It
is in the upper part of the nose that olfactory receptor neurons are concentrated.
As soon as a smell is detected in the brain, the hypothalamus and the primary
olfactory cortex receive a message. These regions are responsible for associating
odors with long-term memory and emotional response.

Audition (Hearing)
The ear structures allow for hearing, also known as an audition, which
transforms sound waves into a brain signal.

Equilibrium (Balance)
The inner ear encodes not only auditory information but also is related to
balance. The vestibule of the inner ear contains cells that detect head
movements, head position changes, and overall body movements. The otolith
organs detect changes in head position, while the semicircular canals detect
changes in head motion. The vestibulocochlear nerve connects the vestibular
ganglia to the basal ganglia and cerebellum, where the signals are processed.

Somatosensation (Touch)
Somatosensation is more broadly classified than the specialized senses we've
already covered. Among the sensory modalities that comprise somatosensation
are proprioception, touch, and interoception. Some examples of sensory
modalities are pain, proprioception, light touch, vibration, tickle, pressure, itch,
temperature, and kinesthesia. As a result, its receptors are dispersed throughout
the body rather than restricted to a single organ. Although the skin contains the
majority of somatosensory receptors, other tissues, including muscles, tendons,
joint capsules, ligaments, and the walls of visceral organs, also contain receptors.
Pain and temperature are the two somatosensory signals transduced by free
nerve terminals. Temperature receptors in the body respond to higher or lower
ambient temperatures. While certain thermoreceptors can detect cold and heat,
others can see only one. Nociception is the awareness of stimuli that could cause
harm. Chemicals released by damaged or stressed tissues activate receptor
proteins in nociceptors. If a mechanical, chemical or thermal stimulation is
applied beyond a certain threshold, it will be experienced as painful.
Capsaicin, the active component in hot peppers, is responsible for the burning
sensation often associated with such dishes. In nociceptors, capsaicin molecules
bind to ion channels across the membrane when temperatures exceed 37 degrees
Celsius. An uncommon feature of capsaicin's binding to this transmembrane ion
channel is that it remains attached for an extended period. As a result, the
engaged nociceptor will be less responsive to subsequent stimuli that aim to
generate pain. This is why you'll find capsaicin in topical analgesics.
 Chapter 8:
Physiology terms

Cardiovascular
In prior sections, we explored the fundamentals of medical terminology and the
process of converting singular to plural forms of phrases.
Here we explore how vowels, suffixes, and prefixes come together to form the
roots of words. It exemplifies how a variation on a word's ending can render it
either singular or plural.
Before delving into the medical terminology of the circulatory system, you may
wish to refresh your memory by reading the prior two articles.
Becoming fluent in medical terminology takes a lot of practice. However,
developing a robust medical vocabulary will facilitate studying disease processes
and mastering fundamentals.
Incorporating the study of medical terminology for a system like the
cardiovascular system into your studies of the disease process will help
everything make more sense.
You'll pick up the jargon more quickly, and you'll have a better grasp of the
illness mechanisms and related terminology.
A large number of medical terminology do not have etymological roots. Some
medical phrases are indeed constructed in part from existing words. Roots,
suffixes, and prefixes are not present in several medical terminologies.
Lists of word roots, including variations on vowels, suffixes, prefixes, and
related medical terminology, are provided below concerning the cardiovascular
system.
Studying the cardiovascular system's medical terminology is an excellent first
step in developing a robust medical vocabulary.

Combining vowels and word roots for cardiovascular terms

You might think of this as a catalog of word stems and the vowel that makes
them into roots. It's interesting to see how many word roots mean the same thing.
DEFINITION
aorta aort(o)
arteriole arteriol(o)
artery arter(o), arteri(o)
atrium atri (o)
chest thorac (o)
crown coron(o)
disease path (o)
electricity electr(o)
endocardium endocardi(o)
excessive ultra(o)
heart cardi(o)
mediastium mediastin(o)
muscle my(o)
myocardium myocardi(o)
 pericardium pericardi(o)
septum, partition sept(o)
sinus sin(o)
sound echo(o)
sound son(o)
to cut tom(o)
valve valv(o), valvl(o)
vein ven(o)
ventricle ventricul(o)
venule venul(o)
vessel angi(o)
vessel vas(o), vascul(o)

Prefixes
Adding a prefix to the beginning of a word changes its meaning. You can use
these prefixes for other body parts as well. Prefixes specific to heart and medical
terminology are listed below. The hyphen indicates that the prefixes have been
removed from the term (-).
DEFINITION PREFIXES
above epi-
across, through, beyond, over trans-
apart, through dia-
around peri-
back, again re-
before, from, for, in front of, on account of, in pro-
behalf of,
back, behind, backward retro-
between inter-
excess ultra-
hyper-
 excessive
fast tachy-
insufficient hypo-
many poly-
medium media-
middle intra-
middle medi-
without, no, not, away a-, an-
normal normo-
outside of, without exo-
related to nature or physiology physio-, physi-
self aut-
situated or about the middle medial-
slow brady-
through per-
beneath, under, in small quantity, below, less than sub-
normal
union or association syn-, sy-, syl-,
sym-
within medio-
within, inside end-, endo-

Suffixes
Suffixes medical to the terminology of cardiology medicine are listed below. To
change the original meaning of a word, a suffix is added to the end of the word's
root or another portion of the term. Indicative suffixes can be added to the names
of conditions, diseases, and medical processes. A hyphen indicates separated
suffixes (-).
 Respiratory
The study of respiratory disorders and illnesses will benefit from these
definitions. The following checklist can be used to learn about various
respiratory diseases.
The glossary includes definitions of terminology used in the field of respiratory
medicine. The many respiratory structures, tests, and treatments are also listed.
The list concludes with a section on respiratory diseases and disorders.

Prefixes
This section will find prefixes common to medical jargon across several systems.
Words are altered or changed by adding prefixes to their beginnings. The hyphen
indicates that the prefixes have been removed from the term (-).
DEFINITION PREFIXES

above epi-
across, through, beyond, over trans-

apart, through dia-

around peri-
back, again re-

behind, back, backward retro-

between inter-

excess ultra-

excessive hyper-
fast tachy-
insufficient hypo-

many poly-

medium media-

middle intra-

middle medi-

without, away, no, not, a-, an-

normal normo-

outside of, without exo-

related to nature or physiology physio-, physi-

 self aut-
situated or about the middle medial-

slow brady-

through per-
beneath, in small quantity, under, below, less than normal sub-
union or association syn-, sy-, syl-, sym-
within medio-
within, inside end-, endo-

Identifying the respiratory system's word roots and vowels

The following is a list of word roots and vowels used in combinations related to breathing.

DEFINITION WORD ROOT

bronchioles bronchi(o)
bronchus bronch(o)

chest thorac(o)
larynx laryng(o)

lobe, rounded prominence lob(o)

lung pneumon(o)
lung pulm(o)

lung, air pneum(o)

nose nas(o)

nose, nose like rhin(o)

pharynx pharyng(o)

pleura pleur(o)
Through, channel, cavity. Pertains to alveolus. alveol(o)

trachea, windpipe trache(o)

 Additional Respiratory Suffixes and Prefixes
DEFINITION TERM

breathing or breath -pnea

condition of oxygenation -oxia

epiglottis epiglott-

nose naso-

presence of oxygen oxi-, oxy

Respiratory Specialties
The general duties of a respiratory specialist are outlined below.
DEFINITION TERM

A person is skilled in pulmonology. Pulmonologist

We examine the lungs' anatomy, pathology, and physiology in this field. Pulmonology
 An overview of the respiratory system's structure and
function
To breathe is to take air from the atmosphere and bring it into the lungs.
Throughout the body, the circulatory system transports air from the lungs. After
consuming oxygen, our cells release carbon dioxide as a byproduct.
Inhaling or absorbing too much carbon dioxide is harmful. This byproduct is
carried away from the body and returned to the lungs via the circulatory system.
Among its other functions, the respiratory system produces sound and maintains
an acid-base equilibrium in the body.
 Gastrointestinal
Use this checklist as you learn about the various diseases that can affect the
digestive tract.
A glossary of gastroenterology terminology is provided. Structures, tests, and
procedures about the digestive tract are also included. We conclude with an
index of gastrointestinal disorders.

Vowel combination with root word for the digestive system

Here is a collection of gut-related word stems and the roots that form their
compounds.
DEFINITION WORD ROOT
bile Chol(e)
bile duct Cholangi(o)
blood Hemat(o)
common bile ducts Choledoch(o)
diverticulum Diverticul(o)
duodenum Duoden(o)
esophagus Esophag(o)
gallbladder Cholecyst(o)
ileum Ile(o)
intestine Enter(o)
jejunum Jejun(o)
liver Hepat(o)
pancreas Pancreat(o)
About the cecum Cec(o)
about the colon Colon(o)
rectum Rect(o)
rectum and anus Proct(o)
referring to the appendix Appendic(o)
sigmoid colon Sigmoid(o)
spleen Spleen(o)
stomach Gastro(o)
Prefixes and suffixes for digestive systems
DEFINITION TERM

bad or painful Dys-

bile Bili-

bladder or sac Cys-

cecum Cec-, ceco-

pancreas -pancreat

sigmoid colon Sigmoid-

stomach Gastro-, gastr-

to eat or swallow -phagia

yellow Cirrh-
 Endocrine
The endocrine system produces and secretes hormones and other chemical
signals throughout the body. Hormones are the chemical name for these
transmitters. The blood carries a hormone's final destination in the body.
Terms and definitions of the endocrine system's several subfields are included.
Additionally, the components and operations of the endocrine system are
outlined. Finally, certain endocrine-system-related diseases and disorders are
presented.

Endocrine System Word Roots and Combining Vowels

Endocrine system word roots with their combining vowel.

DEFINITION TERM
adrenal gland Adren/o
adrenal gland Adrenal/o
cortex Corti-
gland Aden/o
glucose, sugar Gluc/o
glucose, sugar Glyc/o
glucose, sugar Glycos/o
ovary Oophor/o
ovary Ovari/o
pancreas Pancreat/o
parathyroid gland Parathyroid/o
parathyroid gland Parathyro-
pituitary gland Hypophys/o
pituitary gland Pituitar/o
secrete Crin/o
testes Orch/o
testes Orchid/o
thymus gland Thym/o
thyroid gland Thyroid/o
 Nervous
The human nervous system is an intricate and necessary part of the body.
Brains and spinal cords are located in the central nervous system, while
peripheral nerve systems are located in the periphery. The spine has 31 pairs of
nerves in addition to the 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
The definitions and specialized vocabulary of the nervous system are covered.
The components and operations of the nervous system are also described.
Diseases and disorders of the neurological system are cataloged in the last
section.
 Musculoskeletal System Word Roots and Combining
Vowels
Here is a collection of integumentary-related word roots and the vowels they
typically combine.
DEFINITION TERM
brain Encephal/o
brain -cerebral
branches Dendr-
cerebellum Cerebell/o
cerebrum Cerebr/o
ganglion Gangli/o
head Cephal/o
head or skull -crania
horse Equin-
medulla oblongata Medul/o
nerve Neur/o
skull or cranium Crani/o
spinal cord Myel/o
spine Spin/o
tail bone Caud-

Diseases and Disorders of the Nervous System

DEFINITION TERM

Brain abscesses are areas of the brain containing infectious material. Brain abscess

An injury to the brain or skull that interferes with normal functioning is called Brain injury
a "brain injury."
An individual in a coma is unconscious for an extended period and cannot Coma
arouse themselves.
Concussions occur when the brain is damaged by blows, shaking, jarring, Concussion
blasts, or other non-penetrating injuries. The neurological function is
temporarily lost without apparent damage.
Contusions are bruising caused by bleeding under the skin of the brain surface Contusion
caused by a blow that does not disturb the skin's integrity but ruptures the
blood vessels.
Traumatic head injuries result in scalp, skull, or brain injuries. Head injury

A traumatic head injury occurs when the scalp, skull, or brain is injured, does Altered level
not respond to commands, or requires constant stimuli to maintain alertness. of
consciousness
(LOC)
Spinal cord injuries occur when the spinal cord, vertebral column, and Spinal cord
supporting soft tissues are injured. injury

The loss of recognition of objects is called agnosia. Sensory systems such as Agnosia
sight, hearing, or touch can be used to accomplish this.
Blood vessels that have aneurysms weaken or bulge. Aneurysm

In aphasia, words cannot be expressed or formed, and language cannot be Aphasia

understood.
Apraxia is an inability to perform purposeful acts, such as the manipulation of Apraxia
objects voluntarily.
Ataxia is impaired coordination of movement marked by gait or postural Ataxia
imbalance.
When a patient has spinal cord injury or lesions associated with hypertension, Autonomic
autonomic dysreflexia is a life-threatening emergency. dysreflexia

One side of the face is affected by Bell's Palsy when facial muscles are weak or Bell’s Palsy
paralyzed.
Death of the brain occurs when all brain function is irreversibly lost, despite Brain death
the heart continuing to beat.
Edema of the brain occurs when abnormal amounts of fluid accumulate in the Cerebral
intracellular space, extracellular space, or both. edema
A herniated brain stem usually causes pressure on the medulla, causing Cushing's triad of signs, Cushing’s
which includes bradycardia, hypertension, and bradypnea. triad
With the feet in plantar flexion, the arms are extended and internally rotated, Decerebrate
and the components are developed in the decerebrate posture. posture

In a comatose patient with a severe brain injury, decorticate posture results Decorticate
from abnormally flexed arms and extended legs. posture

Dyskinesia is the impaired ability to execute voluntary movements. Dyskinesia

Dysphagia is difficulty swallowing. Dysphagia

When your voice is impaired or altered, dysphonia can make it difficult to Dysphonia
speak.
Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by paroxysmal transient Epilepsy
disturbances of brain function, resulting in convulsions and loss of
consciousness.
Often associated with damage to the left frontal lobe, expressive aphasia is the Expressive
inability to express oneself. aphasia

An autoimmune disease called Guillain-Barre syndrome attacks the myelin Guillain-Barre

surrounding peripheral nerves. Syndrome

Depending on the severity of the injury, one side or part of the body may Hemiparesis
experience hemiparesis.
A hemiplegia occurs when the brain's motor area has been damaged, causing Hemiplegia
paralysis on one side of the body.
When the amount of intracranial contents causes pressure in the skull, that is Intracranial
considered intracranial pressure. pressure (ICP)

The brain and spinal cord are covered by and protected by the meninges, Meningitis
which inflame.
During multiple sclerosis, the myelin sheath is destroyed or demyelinated. Multiple
Sclerosis
The neuromuscular junction is affected in Myasthenia Gravis, resulting in Myasthenia
weak muscles. Gravis

Weakness or numbness can be caused by neuropathy, an inflammation of Neuropathy

peripheral nerves.
Paraplegia is paralysis of the lower extremities caused by spinal injury or Paraplegia
disease.
It is a feeling of numbness or tingling similar to pins and needles. Paresthesia

An injury to the spinal cord causes quadriplegia, also known as tetraplegia. Quadriplegia
(Tetraplegia)
There is an involuntary contraction of muscles that occurs as a result of Seizures
abnormal electrical activity in the brain during a seizure.
Multiple seizures result in status epilepticus, with no recovery time between Status
episodes. epilepticus

The spinal cord can be completely or partially severed in a transaction. Transaction

 Tips for Helping Students Understand Medical
Terminology
Successfully learning, memorizing, and applying proper medical terms in
clinical and professional situations is crucial for medical coding, transcription,
clinical duties, or medical administration students. Students interested in
pursuing a profession in the medical industry would do well to take the time to
learn and master medical terminology. However, it can be a significant deterrent
for some pupils who don't feel up to the challenge.
Online courses are becoming increasingly popular for teaching medical
terminology due to their adaptability and versatility. Online course materials'
multimedia and interactive features provide a more comprehensive range of
teaching methods to accommodate students of varying learning styles. The
student may also learn at his or her own pace and convenience.
Medical terminology courses might be challenging for individuals who aren't
visual learners or who aren't good at memorizing large amounts of information.
The problem is that medical terminology classes, regardless of their delivery
method, tend to be overly technical, dull, and difficult to grasp. A lot of the time,
they have the students memorize everything. Students who are great at memory
can fail if they can't retain the material for more than the time necessary to pass
the test.
The primary objective of any medical terminology education should be to ensure
that students can learn and retain the terminology for the long term so that it can
be used in their future jobs.
Making minor adjustments to the course's strategy and structure can significantly
impact your ability to teach these pupils medical terminology.
The retention of information in online courses is just as good as that in
traditional ones. Information retention is the most crucial aspect of medical
terminology training, whether the goal is to prepare future doctors for their
clinics or to help medical coders advance in their jobs.
You can improve your student's ability to remember what they've learned by
designing a medical terminology course that breaks down complex terms into
their parts, uses multimedia tools to accommodate a variety of learning styles,
and organizes its lessons to emphasize the importance of making connections
between concepts.
 Help students understand medical terminology
by simplifying common root words
Students fresh to medical language study may feel intimidated upon first
encountering it. Latin and Greek have provided the foundation for most of the
vocabulary used in medicine today. These languages were the universal
academic lingua franca when the foundations of contemporary medical research
were laid. This has historically made it easy for doctors from different parts of
the world to interact effectively and efficiently with one another, regardless of
their shared language. However, in modern times, Latin has been reduced to the
"dead" language status, useful mainly in the realms of academia and science.
Several common etymologies can be discovered in several branches of medicine.
Students can deconstruct unfamiliar terminology by learning the most common
parts of speech and word roots. Many of these parts of speech and word stems
appear in the same places, in other words, and still convey the same meaning.
Word Stems, Suffixes, and Prefixes
A compound term typically consists of a root word, an appending suffix, and
maybe a prefix. The original meaning of the stem is usually preserved even
when the word is used in a different context. Many medical phrases, for instance,
begin with the prefixes "hyper-" (meaning "excess") or "hypo-" (meaning
"low"). In medicine, the prefix "hyper-" is used to describe states of "excess,"
such as in the cases of hypertension (high blood pressure), "hypercalcemia"
(high blood calcium levels), and "hypertrophy" (excessive growth of a body
part). Students who have studied common prefixes will recognize immediately
that these terms pertain to overindulgence without needing to look up the
definition.
A word's meaning can be more straightforward if pupils learn to distinguish its
constituent parts. Understanding common root words, prefixes, and suffixes,
students may better decipher even the most complex medical jargon.
Learning the origins and meanings of words borrowed from Greek and Latin can
also aid in the long-term retention of medical terminology. Many of the names
for physiological processes in these languages are derived from verbs. With a
solid grasp of Greek verbs like "genesis" and "logia," students can discuss terms
like pathogenesis and neurology.
Word parts, academic fields, and bodily organs are all viable pedagogical foci.
You can improve your student's ability to remember what you teach by helping
them organize their thoughts into meaningful groups. In addition to aiding study,
online flashcard sets that are contained in this way help reinforce the connections
between terms.
There are many different kinds of root words you can study, but some good ones
to concentrate on include those that have to do with the following:
Specific medical items
• Diseases
• Equipment
• Disorders
• Medical procedures
• Anatomy
Medical Terminology Fracturing and Dissecting
A fracture refers to the process of dissecting a complex medical word into its
constituent elements.
If students learn how to use it effectively, fracturing can help them grasp even
the most challenging medical words. Locating the optimal point at which to split
a comment is of paramount importance. If you try to break a word apart at the
wrong spot, you'll end up with two or more useless pieces, or you might even
end up with a different term altogether. Changing just one vowel can
dramatically affect the meaning of the sentence.
The letter "a" serves as an illustration. As in the word "atopic," the prefix "a-"
can indicate the absence of anything else. To grasp the meaning of this term, we
can separate it into its parts: a- (without) and topic (from the Greek topos,
meaning "place").
But if you break the "a-" in the stem "arthro-" (which means "joint"), you're left
with "-rthro," which has no meaning at all. The Greek noun for "joint" has been
shattered into two meaningless pieces. The most fundamental idea of fracturing
is knowing what can and cannot be broken.
In contrast, you can show your students how words can be broken down into
their component elements. Example: the -ectomy ending. This suffix divides into
three separate words on its own.
Breaking a word down to its constituent parts can reveal its meaning. The suffix
"-tom" is slang for "to make an incision in." The "-y" ending indicates the action
or procedure. Therefore, "-ectomy" describes surgically removing an organ or
other body part. Words can be dissected in this way to demonstrate the versatility
of their constituent components in many contexts.
Because medicine encompasses so many different specialties and subspecialties,
it would be difficult to learn every medical term by heart. Students can learn the
nuances of medical terminology without having to memorize hundreds of unique
keywords or constantly refer to a dictionary if they have a firm grasp on the
components of words and how to break down more extensive terms into those
components.
 The medical terms should be taught in a system-based
fashion.
Specific terminology can be taught after students have mastered the building
blocks of language. Medicine is a vast subject; thus, it's essential to drill down
on particular while instructing. Teaching materials can be easily organized by
body system. Strengthening the connections between concepts aids pupils' ability
to remember that material later on.
Students may benefit from this type of structure on a meta-level as well. When
students have a firm grasp on the goals and framework of their classes, they are
better able to learn. You may give your pupils the structure they need to better
interpret medical jargon by setting clear goals and organizing your courses
according to physiological systems. In addition, this practice aids in the
maintenance of terminology by keeping it linked to real-world concepts and
things, strengthening the mental connections between theoretical concepts and
medical conditions. Ultimately, if you take a systematic approach to teach
medical terminology, your pupils will be better able to put what they've learned
into practice.
Starting with the larger systems in the body and working your way down to the
smaller ones is a simple method to divide your course.
This will allow you to gradually introduce more complex concepts while
maintaining your pupils' interest.
 Translate medical jargon into everyday language.
The problem is that there is a limit to how much students can learn from
definitions taken out of context while learning the medical language. Terms are
more easily retained when linked to their respective body systems and practical
applications. Providing students with real-world examples of how medical
terminologies are used is an effective technique to aid in their learning. This
helps to carry the vocabulary forward from the realm of extinct languages.
In contrast to "high blood pressure," the term "hypertension" may not be readily
recognizable to a first-year student. Having students pair up medical terms with
words they already know is a terrific method to achieve this. By drawing
parallels between everyday language and medical observations, we can help
students better grasp complex concepts.
If hypertension denotes high blood pressure, you have a point of reference for
understanding other medical terms, such as hypercalcemia. Backward reasoning
from "hypercalcemia" to "hypertension" and "high blood pressure" should be
enough for students who don't have "hyper-" as a prefix memorized to grasp that
it probably denotes an excess of anything. The other information can then be
used to re-construct generic medical word roots. utcome is an enlarged set
Giving your pupils a solid foundation in everyday medical language is valuable
in and of itself. Any medical terminology education worth its salt will give its
students the vocabulary they need to explain medical conditions and procedures
to their non-medical peers and family members in plain English. It is critical that
medical professionals, including doctors, nurses, transcriptionists, and
administrators, communicate effectively and efficiently. It's crucial that doctors
can use everyday language to communicate medical concepts to their patients.
Students can better communicate with a wide range of audiences when they have
spent time reviewing essential medical and pharmacological vocabulary.
 Interactively Reinforce Meaning
Learned words are rarely understood in isolation in the real world. That's why it
can be challenging for students to pick up the jargon used in the medical field.
This is one of the rare opportunities for students to learn new vocabulary without
the benefit of the immediate context. To sum up, people tend to forget new
words if they aren't instantly relevant.
Medical terminology might be intimidating, but roleplaying with the terms can
help students feel more comfortable using the words and learning their
meanings. Students will be better able to retain medical vocabulary if exercises
incorporate real-life scenarios to connect terms with their senses. Teaching
medical words in context and allowing students to practice their pronunciation
can be accomplished through videos and recorded lectures.
Students can submit a one-minute conversation recording that includes terms
from a vocabulary list used in context (e.g., a discussion of the unit's readings).
In fully online courses, this is a great way to ensure that students are using the
correct medical terminology and can practice their pronunciation. You might
incorporate recording exercises into your curriculum to emphasize this point.
As a way to test students' understanding, provide them with sample quizzes.
Students can quickly discover which terms they understand and don't by taking a
practice quiz incorporating real-world case studies or descriptions.
 Tailor Your Study To Your Needs
Giving students a voice in their education has improved academic outcomes. In
particular, compared to pupils taught using a uniform method, those who engage
in active learning retain and comprehend far more of the material.
To learn many aspiring health professionals value extensive hands-on
experience. Modern pedagogy believes that students with varying learning styles
need individualized instruction. Yet, it can be tempting to revert to more
traditional learning methods when faced with a complex subject like medical
terminology. The best way to ensure your students retain medical terminology is
to give them multiple learning options that cater to their individual preferences.
One benefit of taking an online course is the ability to cater to a wide range of
students' preferences on how they prefer to learn.
Here are a few examples of how you can use multimedia resources in your
medical terminology classes:
 Fact Sheets On Medical Terminology
Flashcards are a great tool to help your pupils memorize vocabulary because
they are the simplest, most tried, and proper way. Students can check that they
make the correct associations between terms and definitions when they use
online flashcards. You may learn a lot about your students' study habits by
monitoring how often their online flashcard sets are accessed using your
university's learning management system.
 Video recorded Lessons
Listening to recorded lectures can be an excellent way for students who learn
best through aural stimulation to study. They are essential to the efficient running
of a course on medical terminology. Proper use of a phrase is inextricably linked
to using its accurate pronunciation. By providing recorded lectures, you can
ensure that all your students can hear and understand the material presented and
improve their pronunciation.
 Presentations On Slideshow Of Medical Terms
Slideshows are commonly used in lectures as visual assistance. By posting these
presentations independently, you can ensure that your course is accessible to a
broader audience. It's an excellent resource for creating study guides and other
review resources, allowing students to study independently. Having visuals on a
single slide to illustrate the relationship between terms and the corresponding
processes and systems improves students' retention of the material over that
presented solely in text form.
 Expandable, Labelled Schematic Representations
Those who learn best by doing should be able to engage with the content they're
studying. Fewer instructional modalities are as well-suited as online medical
terminology courses to facilitate this. Here at CIP, we provide state-of-the-art
interactive diagrams so that students, no matter when or where they want to
study, can learn more about human anatomy and related terminology by making
connections between terms and systems.
Either CIP's streamlined LMA or the learning portals currently in place at many
schools can be used to provide and provide access to these instructional assets
online. Either way, incorporating multimedia tools that cater to different learning
styles into your classroom can boost retention and comprehension.
 Retention Of Medical Terminology By Students
The human body is an intricate jigsaw of countless interconnected systems, each
supported by a network of thousands of individual chemical reactions. Like the
systems and processes, the language used to describe them can initially seem
complex and overwhelming to students, but it is composed of manageable
building blocks.
Students learn the most when they have plenty of opportunities to practice what
they've learned in class.
A complete understanding of medical terminology can be taught by having
students learn the meanings of root words and components, reviewing the
connections between terms, and practicing pronunciation in context.
Understanding medical terminology is important, but
how important is it?
The importance of medical language in the healthcare profession has never been
higher, given the current emphasis on quality healthcare and the rise in
malpractice litigation. Health information management (HIM), providers,
payers, and patients use this jargon daily. There are numerous reasons why it's
critical for everyone involved in healthcare to be "on the same page" using the
appropriate medical terminology.
 increases the quality of care for patients
It is common for individuals to be confused by their doctors' medical jargon
while describing their diagnosis and treatment options. The patient may inquire
with the nurse about the doctor's intended meaning, but if neither of them grasps
the concept, the situation can become muddled. When the healthcare team uses
the same language, everyone can better explain their actions and why. If you
provide accurate and helpful information to your patients, they will be more
likely to participate in their care and recovery.
 allows for uniform treatment
Medical terminology has been considered an integral aspect of the healthcare
sector for quite some time. Due to the widespread adoption of EHRs, healthcare
language must be compatible with humans and machines. Such jargon is
employed in a narrow range of medical vocabularies and classifications. These
coding systems are classified as administrative codes, clinical codes, reference
terminologies, and interface terminologies by the American Health Information
Management Association.
Professionals in the medical field are better able to interact with one another
since they all use the same standardized codes and terminology. When everyone
involved in a patient's care uses the same language, everyone may do their part
to ensure the greatest possible outcome from a surgical procedure, medical
problem diagnosis, or medication dispensing. Regarding HIPAA compliance
training, staff instructions, and reviewing a patient's chart, having everyone use
the same terminology is crucial for consistency.
 Maximized Patient Protection
Accidents, medical issues, and legal action can all be avoided if patients feel safe
while receiving care. Errors are less likely to occur when all healthcare team
members use high-quality, standardized communication. For instance, if the
doctor can read the patient's file without difficulty, it will aid in the development
of a correct diagnosis and course of treatment. Using incorrect medical language
can substantially alter the quality of care a patient receives. The consequences of
a false diagnosis or misguided treatment strategy can be severe, if not death.
 Improved Health Care Efficiency
Patient care is improved due to the usage of medical terminology and codes in
the billing and payment process. A healthcare provider may not always have
time to record detailed descriptions of each patient's condition in the charts due
to the high volume of patients they visit daily. However, even if they did, it's
possible that medical professionals like nurses and doctors wouldn't be able to
decipher what was written. If all healthcare providers use the same terms,
everyone can read the patient's chart and give the best care possible. A lot of
time is saved as well since the chart does not have to be double-checked or the
patient does not have to be contacted.
Every member of the healthcare team, from doctors to nurses, chose their
professions so that they could serve people. To be of any use in the healthcare
industry, one must understand and appreciate the significance of medical
language.
 Get some education first.
Without a doubt, the proficiency of a healthcare provider's staff is directly
related to its ability to provide quality care. Despite the complexity of the
patient's case, a team of doctors and nurses with extensive training will be able
to handle it. It is essential that your staff receives the necessary training in order
to increase the quality of services you provide to your clients. This includes
sending them to workshops and conferences hosted by domestic and
international organizations to learn new skills and ideas they can use in their
work.
 Emphasize the importance of patient safety
Doctors, hospital administrators, and nurses must restore patients' faith in
vaccinations while the world continues to battle widespread stigma against them.
To achieve this goal, healthcare providers must eliminate wasteful practices and
erroneous procedures and provide an atmosphere where patient safety is always
a top priority.
Indeed, if you want to guarantee healthcare quality, you'll need to design a
healthcare system that eliminates the possibility of infection during extensive
surgeries and safeguards against drug reactions. These measures can help keep
patients from incurring further medical expenses due to difficulties and save
money in the long run.
 The need for duplications should be eliminated.
To those who work in the medical field, time is of the essence when caring for
patients. Due to the potentially fatal consequences of even a brief wait, it is
crucial that medical facilities, such as clinics and hospitals, eliminate
unnecessary data to keep operations running smoothly and reduce the length of
patient wait times.
A more efficient system and software, such as care software for doctors and
nurses, might readily remedy this situation by implementing a database
management system that eliminates unnecessary data and processes. Medical
facilities shouldn't just rely on software to reduce wait times and accommodate
more patients; they should also mandate that specialists work closely with
doctors to ensure that each patient receives the appropriate diagnostic treatment.
By reducing discharge times and saving money, hospitals and clinics could
decrease costs. A more realistic strategy that pairs well with technological
adoption emphasizes ongoing education and skill development.
 Increasing Interdepartmental Cooperation
Unfortunately, patients aren't usually seen by the same physician throughout
their care. It takes a team of experts to monitor and treat a severe illness. Even if
there weren't arguments and contradictions among the specialists, this might be a
problem. These can, without a doubt, lead to mistakes that cause expensive
issues.
Therefore, it is essential for doctors caring for the same patient to develop
effective communication through the use of modern tools designed to improve
teamwork and lessen the possibility of mistakes. A culture of innovation and
development supported by existing policies and procedures is also essential.
Therefore, hospital administrators need the ability to make substantial
modifications to organizational structures to achieve efficiency.
 Construct a more reliable procedure for making
choices.
If we're talking about teamwork, you must install a program that guides you
toward enhancing your offerings most effectively. Given the dynamic nature of
the healthcare industry, it's beneficial to solicit input from all relevant parties
before making major policy decisions. To better improve your healthcare
services and identify what you need to get rid of, it is recommended that you
hold monthly meetings with the chiefs of each department.
Boosting the effectiveness of your healthcare service is possible with the right
approaches. By remembering these methods, your healthcare organization can
become more efficient.
 Conclusion
When it comes to healthcare and medical work, medical terminology is essential.
Communication between doctors and their patients relies on both parties being
fluent in medical jargon. This book has covered a wide range of topics related to
medical terminology, including pronunciation, the basics of root words, prefixes,
and suffixes, pluralizing medical terms, the human body's structure and
organization, anatomy terms, and physiology terms, to name a few.
We trust that the information presented in this book will serve as a firm
grounding for your future studies of medical terminology. The information in
this book will put you on the path to being an excellent communicator and
medical care provider.
We hope you'll keep digging deeper into the medical terminology field and
actively seek new ways to expand your knowledge and skills. We believe that
studying medical terminology is a fulfilling and intriguing field that will
improve your life and deepen your awareness of the human body, whether you
are a healthcare professional, a student, or just someone interested in medicine.