STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS DUE TO

LOAD TRANSFER BY FASTENERS IN

STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLIES

PART I DOUBLE SYMMETRICAL SHEAR

IJ INTRODUCTION
DuuNofull-scalcfat@testsorduringserviceope&ons anumberofclassic.alfat@
friiurerinoircraftstrucnvesmPyoccurductowpplc_~~nsikstre~~bytbe
elongation of a secondary stru&ral element that was assumed not to contribute to the
st~ctural strength, but whose resistance to elongation overloads sigoiflcantlythe fasteners at
the ends of each fastener array and leads to doresecn damage in the principal st~cture. The
principal struWral element is the most highly stressed since it withstands the loading for which
ithas~~aadrdditioroly~~.lod~~~bythtjoint~~to~
seMdarysLretcbcd~ntcrcatssstressco-athole~andatthecommoa
mating surfaces. when the principal element is thicker thao the secondary clerwnt and if the
fastewraxial~providesaMtfecicnt~itrsPjrkexpecUdtbd~~
element will be overloaded only slightly. However, if the fastener shank tilts uwler load, the
supplementary bearing stresses due to the tilt of the fastener shank may have a ma&Me of
fourtimesthciraveragcvaluethroughthepartthi&n8ss.
Tbtcomputation~~mofthelooddistributjoD~~f~~hadbsenm&ntianodin
the years 1938 to 1950 by Vo#[l] and by Rose&ld[21. Vogt had attempted to obtain a
theoretical formula for the shearing stiffness in the elementary assembly of two strips with one
fastener, but then he has proposed an elnpirical formula a88umed represen* the FWultsof
Volkcrsen’s tests of aluminium alloy strips assembled by alumin@ alloy rivets.
Theoretical aspects of the stiflness in a loaded hole and in the assembly of two strips by one
fastener have been reviewed more recently by Harris d cll.[4].Though no delinitive data is
available and Computations of stresses in riveted asscmbliea dapcnd on too many parametexs,
the most of which arc unknown, to permit more than an evaluation of their order of magnkk,
an attempt is made hereafter to gather available data and to precise $e unknown points.
The problem of crikally loaded holes corresponds also to the technical problem of
attachments US~IQassemblies of clcvis and lugs by means of pins. Corresponding stress
concentrations should be known in order to evaluate design changes needed to eliminate local
difliculties. In Part II, several examples of actual cases are investigated.

L2THELOAlBDEOLE
In the hyperstatical junction of two strips by fasteners in shear, defining the problem in
bq~~thec~enEaryprobkmoftbcstninsina~platel~bymcomrof
a pin. This elementary problem is badly d&cd since no reference point exists from which to
measure the displacements. This may be avoided by consider& the symmetrical loading of a
plate by two loads of same amplitude but of oppo@ signs, each of them being applied to one
of the two holes (see Fii. 1). The symmetry axis pqWiicular to * load dire&n may be

tAil Iuikary chief lza&eer (retired).

115
EFNVd.lO.No.14l
116 W. BABROIS

Fii 1. m.2.

sckctcd as reference axis of dispiacomcnts. In tl~ case of a plate the size of which is large
enough with respect to the distance L between kk centrcs, stresses will be of n&gibk
ma#udc except in the hole region. In the in&&y extended plate, the displacement of each
halrwitbrwpccttot$Q~rstcrsaa~will~oalyonPf~itrrndoaP~r
ntioIttbe~OPaeeLofboleosasssib~~e~tomrbb~ktbestnsseson~
mfcIWlceline.Thedi@HwRtis

S=dVB (1)

A* 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

K - 6.55 S.25 4.% 5.06.

Withrespect to the net cross section m

=K&at
smu (2)

is obtained. Moreover, it may be useful to consider the ratio, &, of the maximum stress of the
average w pressure, p - pldt, as

smu = KG, (3)

Fmally, the maximum bearing pressure is

 Stresses and disphcements due to load transferby fasteners 117

Pax = &P. (4)

The relativestress gradientin the radialdirectionat the point of maximumstress is

g = (l/&&SJdFl.

From Theocaris’data and with

&=&l-A) and &=&A/(1-A)=KA, (5)

following values arc obtained:

A= 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

G= 5.24 3.675 2.976 2.53.

&= 1.31 1.575 1.984 2.53
K, * 1.042 1.10 1.11 1.155.

Previoasly[6,7J, a simple approxima&relationshiphas been propoWlfor Kr as

KT= A+ l/A,

and with the values

G= S.2$ $633 2.9 2.5.

This expressionof K* yields

X - K&l -A) - (1 + A?/(1- A)A, (7)

and

& = (1 + A?/(1-A). (8)

FromFro&t and HiU[S],the & limitingvalue is 1 when& reachesthe value zero. This shows
tbptthcmoximora~s,~,~&~thGa~butjlu~~,p,whenthenet
stress tends towardzero with an in5nitelyincreas& stripwidth.
An approximatenumericalderivationof the radialstress distriition gives the follow&
values of the relativestress gmdientat the hole edge:

0.2 0.3 0.4 05

(I/S,&& “, g = 4.4 4.1 3.7 3.6x (-2/d).

The proposedvalue is

-8 = 4.9(1- OSA). (9)

Tkcaris gave no informationon displacementvalues. They might be computed by

integrationof a seriesthatwas wed in calculationsof numcri~ valuesof..stress.Here,in order
to save time, numuical approximate linear integrationof stress dMbuWns has been carried
out from the stress values given in Thcoc&’ tables. Outside the region dellned by y =
*1.57(~/2), stresses are fairly uniformacross the width of the atrip.
Fii 2 shows the procedureused to evaluatethe relativedispl8cementbf the contactpoint
oftbepiawithtbeboleedee,with~~totheinitiollocationafthehdecen~,thatisto
say,bl+~,fromtbesummatkof straiain~sinthey-axisdirMionattkstxipedgesand
middleaxis. In the same way, the displacementof the hole ccntrewith respectto a reference
linel~at-ywillbe~by~strelainugral~thestrip~~~theaegrrtiveholf
II8 W. BARROIS

y-axis. In order to obtain convergent integrals. the diflerence from the mean eloagatioa of the
strip wit&out hole to the elongation of the bored strip is cakuhted. The overall relative
displacement of the pin-@ate contact point with respect to the reference line ia @en by

where, putt&

I
a,= cldy, bi= lcsdy and 4-ySW+c,b-l)dy/b

are coavergiqj toward 5&e values.

~taMesafs~sv~~twosillrrificetivt~bavebecnuredtocanrputc
the following displacement vahIes (V- 0.365):

A = cu2b= 0.2 . 0.3 0.4 0.5

:- = 0.748
1.437 0.956
1.259 1.197
1.17 1.065
1.598
ih- 1.57= -0.249 -0.06 0.22 0.58 ,x(bqm

i3,+&+8&57(bSYi$ = 1.176
= 1.936 0.891 2.534 3.183
21s5 0.71 7 _

Thesev~~hteaf[ectedofcourslsbytbslimitptionoftbewries~tbatoftberetaiped
didtnumberofnPlnericalvolocspaMishedbyTheocaris.1lthe~~elongrtioaofthestrip
without hole, */I$ is d6ducUd from the overall displacement, the supplementary dispkcoh8nt
due to the hole existence is given by

extrapola&
toward A =o,give6

8 = 0.8MWNl -A), and (11)

0 0.1 a2 0.3 a4 0.5

X=d/w
[email protected]#caacambfrtainbdsdhahs.
 Stresses and diiplaccmcntsdue to load transfer by fasteners 119

s, = (wSDQ(O.8
- 0.5851). (12)

Curves plotted in Fi. 4 show bow strains l = (S, - St)/E and displacements J a dy arc
evolving for A = 0.2 and 0.4. Integrals converge in practice for

A =0.2 and y/b L 1.5, and

Ae0.4 and ylba2.

Therefore, the values computed with y/b = 1.57 arc littk weak for A> 0.2. From this, the
rektionsbip (11) should be modifkd in the light of further theoretical or experimental results.
In the case of two forces of same magnitwk and of opposite signs, applied bctwcca two
holes as rcprcstnted in Fii. 1, the foregoing solution would be reiiabk under the following
conditions: (1) At the median reference line, the junction of *e two W solutions must
correspond either to a fairly uniform stress through the strip width, or the stress distribution
must be made uniform by superimposing a stress system having a zero resultant at the
reference line, this stress system giving a plane cross-section and modifying the displacement

=a2

Fw. 4. St&s and displacementsin the strip.

120 w. BARROIS
4. Fm 4 shows that the values of y/b for which this correction would be not needed are
Uw > 1 for A = 0.2, and Uw 3 2 for A= 0.4. (2) At the free end of the strip, it may be
considered that no stress exists there and the cross section remains plane if it/b 6 1.6 or
NWr 0.8 for A= 0.2, and h/b a 2 or Mw* 1 for A - 0.4.
In other cases, the strip of limited lengthis less stitTthan the in6nitelylong stripand SI+ 4
will increasewhile 8, will decrease, the shearing strain having a larger part in the displacement
of the pin-plate contact point with respect to the line drawn through new locations of the points
y = 0, x = kb at the stripedges.
For these reasons,three cases will be considered:
--Inthccascoftheholelocatedneatthef~stripendan8witb~w<lorhc4d,8-valucs
from the foregoing computations will be too small.
-For the other holes of a strip, the computed values will be right if L/d * 5, this condition
being often real&d in practice if dl w C 0.4.
-In the case of very smalldlw ratios,the limitsolutionfor A = 0, i.e. for an infmitelywide
plate is

8 = 0.8p(d/E) = 0.8PIEt (13)

would be reliable if L * 4d and Ud ZB5.

The empirical expression (6) for the stress concentration factor was proposed by the writer
in 1965to meet the Theocaris’ numerical vah~s and the kuown limit vahtes for A = 1 and A = 0,
i.e.

&=(l+A3/(1-A)

tendingtoward 1 when A tends toward, after Bickley491quoted by Frochtand HiU[81and

Kr = A+ l/A

tendii toward2 when A tendstoward1. This last vahrehas beengiven by Howhui~J[lO] for the
stretchedstripcontaininqan empty hole. Witha hole diametervalue close to that of the strip
width, the net stress concentrationfactor vahte is close to 2. Siuce local stress distributions
depend only slightly on load distributions in regions located far of the stress cohcentrationbut
dependmainlyon the curvatureradius,it may be concludedthat the conditionsare the sameat
the limit, A = 1, for the empty hole and the loadedbole.
pieure3 shows clearlythe extentof the reliabilitydomainof the approximateexpressionfor
KT. Points quoted T represent the four numerical values calculated by Theo&s in the case of
a xero ckarance between pin and strip. The three curves drawn in thin lines were proposed by
Frocbt and Hill from their tests, the results beii separated according to the hlw values. Black
points correspond to Frocht and Hill’s tests on large panels (d = 203mm) made of aluminium
alloy, and two separate points represent two photo-elasticity tests by Jessop et ol.[lll.
Heywood[lZ] has proposed the following empirical expressions of KT:

NW = 1: KT =0.6+0.95(w/d), (14)
and
hl w J 0.5: Kr = 0.85+ 0.95(w/d). (15)

They do not meetlimitingvaluesfor d/w = 0 and 1. The comparisonwith Theocaris’valuesand

with their approximation,A + l/A, yields:

NW dlw= 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Theocaris = 5.24 3.675 2.976 2.53

A + l/A 5.25 3.63 2.9 2.5
HCjWOd 1” 5.35 3.n 2.975 2.5
Hevvood 0.5 5.6 4.02 3.22 2.75
 Stresses md displacements due to load transfer by fasteners 121

No information being available for the pin displacements from tests, Theocaris’ values of
stresses, and our approximations of Kr-values and of displacements will be used in the
following investigation.

1.2.2 ZnjZuenceof pin-plate clearance or intetfwencr in pin-loaded strips on the assembly

stifiess
Figure 5 shows the model used by Harris et al. [S] in the computer solution of finite elements
q&ions with elasto-plastic properties of the material. The cases in which computed results
are given by plotted curves are defined by the common size data t = 0.125in., w = 1.875in.,

(a)

L=Zin. and h =0.625in., from which L/w = 1.067 and NW=0.333, and by 0.2Sin.- or
0.75&diameter corresponding to d/w ratios equal to 0.133 or 0.4, respectively. From load-
dit&cement curves of strips assumed made of aluminium (B = 10.5x ld psi = 72,450N/mm2)
and loaded by pins assumed to be fairly rigid, the two results in the elastic range are as follows:

-inark P.2.1., d = 0.25 in., lW - 69WOOlt& - Et/1.8!% and

-awk P.2.3., d - 0.75 in., plb = 4!XMOOlb/in
- Et12.679.
From the expression (11). putting tE/P = C&l- A)+ L/Zw, two values of C are obtained as
follows:
-mark P.Z.l., C-1.18 with d/w=O.133 and /r/w-0.33, and
-mark P.2.3., C = 1.29with d/w = 0.4 and hlw = 0.33.
These vahres may be compared with 0.8 which corresponds to Uw * 1 and d/w ~0.2~ the larger
values of C in these two cases were to be expected from the remark &at the kngths of the
compressed material between the pin and the free strip end were

(h - d/2) > Sd with h/w > 1 and dlw c 0.2 yielding C = 0.8,
(h -d/2)=2d in the P.2.1 case in which C= 1.18,and
(h - d/2) = 0.33d in the P.2.3 case in which C - 1.29.

Fii 6, from Harris et al., shows how the magnitude of the bearing pressure and the
contact area are changing with the load magnitude in three cases defined by the values of the
relative clearance or interference, Adld. With a noticeable clearance, A4d = -0.01x) for
example, the maximum pressure at the point A is increasing as the loading whii the factor K,,
from pmu = Kfidt is decreasing owing to the displacement of the point B that limits the area
in compression which extends when the loading magnitude is increasing. That is a non-linear
contact problem. With a small relative clearance (-0.004) the point B is approximately situated
on the diameter that is perpendicular to the load, as is exactly the case, after Theo&s, for the
zero clearance when pin and plate are made from the same material. In the case of a small
interference, Ad/d = 0.004 for example, giving a uniform initial pressure, the averaged bearing
pressure, P/dt = 16,OOtlpsi = 110N/mm*, is just sufficient to annul the bearing pressure at the
upper point, B. Under increasing loading, the point B tends toward the diameter perpendicular
to OA.Upon this diameter, the lateral shrinking of the strip in the hole region is significantly
higher than that due to the Poisson’s ratio v and increases with shorter b/w ratios owing to the
bending of the material located between the pin and the free end of the strip. This lateral
122 W. BARROIS

C C

/lP

&rink@ tends to annul the initial ckarance and, in the cases of initial interference, tends to
delay the onset of a gap between pin and plate in the region above the C-C diameter. This
phelXHWUoUistbecaWeofthecurwture of the load-d&&cement lines in the case of low
1oadsan8smsll~nts,asshowcdinthcPTg.7ubcretbccompPtotian~ofthe
previously quoted case marked P.2.1 are ph.&ted. In the case P.2.3 (Iw -0.4, h/w -0.3%
l~~ntn~n~ucrarkgow,bgttbeinapenccof~rslalvcclcMmxis
accentuated, though the infhence of the absolute clearance, Ad, is comparable in the two cases.
Fkure 8 plotted from the lines of Pig. 7 and those of the case P.2.3, shows the variation of the
co&Sent C that replace the O.&valuein the expression (11):

where (AL/2) is the half increment of the A-A kngtb between the initial contact points of the
piawithtbecylindricrlswfaceofthehok.

P
(Lb)
rm

0 10 u
y$ F (in.)
2 4 I

I%. 7. Looddispieccmentcurves at the pin-plate contact point, from Harris

etal.
 Stresses and displacements due to load transfer by fasteners I23

AL Is whuwlunt
d A-AnfL+d) dw

RELATIVE CLEll ,m~ OR INTE~FEREWQ

Adfi

FM. 8. Inlhwtce of the pin ckurnce or interference on the pin dkpkwneats (computed w&b r&d pi&

Except by us& particular means such as apertures in loading jigs to expose points A to
sighting telescope measurements during the loading, displacements may be inferred only by
summing relative displacements between assembled parts. Harris et crl.have used the assembly
described in Fii. 9 in investigations on aluminium bored strips, having the same sixes as those
assumed in the foregoing computations, except for the length of the loaded end. Length
measurements under loadwere carried out by means of an automatic apparatus, between points
C, on an initial length L=Zin.
The quantity called bkr e#ectk modulrw, k, is defined in the elastic range by

AL=Plk (17)

which wnds to

(b), LOAD-OISPL~MT CURVE OF

(AL

Fm. 9. Test wsembly with a sin& bolt under double slwwiog. Strips are mrde from rdumfniurn
cs,, - 170N/mmz). Hmris et a/. tests.
I24 W. BARROW
where t is the median strip thickness, here 0.2 in., E = 10.5 x ld psi, A = 0.25/1.875= 0.133,and
U w - 211.875= 1.067. Fv 9(b) shows the loaddispiacemeat curve of an elasto-plastic
assembly and the delInitionof parameters enabling the curve to be represented by the following
expression

AL = (ALk+ P/k + A(P/P,)*. (18)

The displacement (AL)bcorresponds to 8 &ding which annuls the initial clearance for a load
able to balance the f&ion resistance: its value is limited by that of the initial clearance but
may be lower and is not a clearance measurement therefore. The effective joint modulus quals
the slope of the rectilinear segment of the load-displacement cuIye.
W& three tests where (AL)0 corresponded to a zero clearance or to a low interference, k,
ranged from 744,000to 869,000lb/in., corresponding here to a C-coefficientranging from 0.85to
1.06.For the strip loaded by a rigid pin, C ranges from 0.86to 1.19when the interference ranges
from 0.02d to 0. It may be seen that the khaviour of a titanium bolt axially tightened (hi&k)
and with diametml interference (hi-tigue) is analogous to that of a rigid pin, at least in the case
of the double shearing in the elastic range.
In the cases of pins &ted with diametraI interference or zero clearance, the own pin strains
haveti~intluenceonk,orCifthepinisassumedtoberigidinbending.Thatisthecasein
computatks carried out by Harris ef al. with the above mentioned P.2.1 strip (d/w = 0.133,
Uw - 0.33), the rest&s of which being given in the authors’ TabIe 7. These restdts yiekl:

tilanimpia rlmipia rbidpin

1iP &# lO+S lo4 is
(lb/in.) c mii.) c min.) c

0.416 2.27 a.312 1.76 0.535 1.66

a?ocleuMce 0.610 1.45 0.635 1.34 0.670 I.24
lllt8ffUCpcc 0.778 I 0.816 0.93 0.876 0.84

In cases of clearance, even small, the pin bends and the higher C-values are influenced by
the friction coefiicient at the interfaces between external and middle strips. For example:
-without surface treatment, 7@75-T6 aluminium alloy strips with L = 4 in. and (AL)0 yield
following averaged results from three tests:

k, = 349,000lb/in. and C = 2.33,

-with an ‘alodind surfacetreatment and (AL)aCL0.02 in. = 0.004 d, three tests gave: average
k, = 461.OtM lb/in. and averaged C = 2.33,
-6naliy. with bare 7075-T6 aluminium alloy strips, three tests with L = 4 in. gave averaged
C=2.44,andwithonlyonetestbycase,C-l.77forL*2in.andL=6in.
Tahitig account of the possible lack of knowledge on the initial cleamnce and axial tightening of
bolts, it may be assumed that the testresults are in accordance with the theoretical investigation
with regard to the small.influence of the measurement length on C if L./wz 1.
From the infiuence of any clearance, even very small, it may be concluded that opposed to
clearance, any interference even xero, combined with the lateral shrinking, causes the initial
pressure to decrease over a half pin circumference artdto increase over the opposite side. With
any clearance, the higher pressure entails the C-coefficient to increase by 3040%. Morcouer, in
the tested assemblies whuc bolts were axially tightened by means of u controlled toque and in
the cases of diametral interf~nces, the strip matetial contrfbvrad with the hol&g e&ct of
clamped bolt he& and nuts to mtain the bolt shank stmight, whereas any clearance facilitated
the bending and increased the relative displacements, the C-value being increased twofold in
the presence of a small clearance with respect to that of the press fitting case.
In the foregoing case of strips made from hardened aluminium, that is to say, with a yield
point to ultimate strength ratio of average value, Harris et al., have measured elongations in the
plastic range and have represented their results by the parametricexpression
 Stresses and displacements due to load transfer by fasteners

AL

With the hardened ahuninium strips, averaged values of the parameters are as follows for
d/w = 0.133 and h/w = 0.33:

BUC
PTpEco8ted
I swf8ces
7700
7530
!eaI
%30
O.Ol7’
0.0106
7.6
6.74
aiodbhd 7800 1OfJOO 0.0117 7.6
Bare udrc, tweas-fittiu 7150 %Oo 0.01#1 4.59

Supplementary data for other values of d/w and hlw ratios and for other materials with a
ratio So.&&. near to 1, would be necessary for a practical use.

1.2.3 Experimmtal @itess data of assembly bolts undkr double symmetrical shearing load
In the Harris’ tests reviewed in the precedmg pcurrgrapb,results are in accordance with
those of finite elements computations and with displacements deduced from the stress values
published by Theo&s, at least in the case of bolts installed with a controlled axial tightening
and press fitting. That implies little influence of bolt bending since Harris’s computations
assumed the bolt to be rigid and Theocaris’ calculations in two dimensions supposed no
bending.
It will be shown that the bolt bending is preponderant in results from Tate and
Rosenfeld[l3], tests. Calculation hypotheses were as follows:
(1) The axial tightening and the clamping effect of lx& heads and nuts ensured a perfect
tlxing of the bolt shank at the outside surfaces of the assembly.
(2) The bearing pressure is constant through the thickness+ of central and outside strips.
(3) In the shear& deformation, the surface element of the cross section situamd upon the
central fiber remains pamllel to its initial plane and the slope of the central fiber equals 7,JG
where z, = 4QJ3A,Q being the shearing load and A = ud’l4.
(4) The bearing strains of the bolt and those of the bored strips are computed assuming the
depth of the material strained equals the bolt diameter.
From these hypotheses, the components of the local displacement due to the load R transferred
by the bolt are as follows:

h = R (St,’+ Mt,%,,+ 8t,t; + t,))/384&&), (21)

and
8, = R(2t, + t,,l/bGdlb, m
where the subscripts s, p and b are for side-plate, centre-plate and boIt respectively, and
Eb = 29,000ksi, Gb = 11,000ksi, E, = E,, - 10,600ksi. 1ksi = 6.9 N/mm’.
Tested assembly specimenshad the sizes illustratedin Fg 10andreported in the following table.
In the case of 2024-T3assembly strips, the bolt shearing caused the rupture for the shearing stress
~“h.= 81ksi - 560N/mm2,whereas strip ruptures occurred for a net tensile stress of 63-67 ksi in the
cross-section located at the centre of the most highly loaded bolt.
In the A- and B-specimens, the load distribution among the bolts situated on each side of the
side-plate is hyperstatic (2 or 3 bolts) and the load transferred by every bolt has been determined
by means of strain measurements carried out under loading along three lines of electrical
strain-gauges. From averaged strains measured at lines A-A and B-B (Fig. lo(a))
multipliedby the E-modulus and by the cross section areas of strips, the load RI transferred by the
first bolt and the residual load, P - R,, applied to the strip cross section before being transferred by
the following botts, may be deduced.
126 W. BARROIS

Fii IO.hmbly specimena.

cburoairtic simofTate and Rwnfeld’s specimens

Sizes in in&es
thicknesses

Marks s slices
t,
middkrtrip
‘P d
General sizes
w hL I

A-1 #w+T3 sAE2330 0.157 0.306 0.2s 1.25 I 2 1.125

A-2 s&d, 0.251 0.499
A-3 &,= 125ksi 0.061 0.162
0.186fl 0.374
;:: 0.250 0.500
B-3 0.092 0.188
(1) SAE6150 0.250 0.423
12) stael 0.208 0.400

Measurements of relatiw displacements between side-plates and ce~tre-plate v carried

out by usb two procedures. In every specimen, the widening of the central gaq has been
mea9urcd,andfromitthcstrsinofthectntralplate,assumedtobeaotboredaadrrndcrooing
the load p12, has been subs&acted. The result equals two times the reIative d&&cement
between the side-platesand centre-plate at the bolt next to the Epp. In the case of t4e two steel
specimens, (1) and (2). relative elongations have also been measured between the side=pIateend
andtheiineA-Aonthemiddlestrip.
Figure 12 shows test results plotted as R - ~3curves for the bolt next to the gap. For
comparison, relative displacements are computed by using the previously established theory
 Streracs and displacementsdue to load transfer by fWmcrs 127

- (a ) PIN (b) BENT BOLT

Fu. II. Diaphccment maureamt in the pp or from cuds.

rnTS 2 123456
P4 looi13’001 )+ P P4 & 0 aa 001 *P
SPECIMEN ‘A’ WECIMEN ‘B’

2024-13 PLATES
STEEL WLTS, PRESS FIT
7

2 911
1 ?I
0

RUTWE SLICE- BAR DI6Pt.MEMM N THE WLT

(b)
r;rt 12. Loaddisphcernantcwvesofaumbly bolts. fkom NACA TN 1051.
128 W. BARROIS

paragraph 1.2.1.This assumes that the residual load in the side-plate after the lirst boit from the
gap creates only a little local disturbance, the supplementary plastic strain being compensated
for by the wide shrink&. However, the compensation cannot exist in the case of bolts initial
clearance and, in general, when plastically strained areas extend. This point does not apply to
(l)- and (2)-specimenswhich have only one bolt on each gap side.
-The &ort&ng of the centre-plate between the contact point C and the gap centre, D,
equals

which is proportional to wSJ2E - R/2ErPand close to (1.44-3.8A)wSJ2E.

From the paragraph 1.2.1,computed data yield

m
Afz= (0.72- 1.9A)$. (24)
P

Ftiy, the relative looal di@acemeut due to the bolt load R equals

AppIyiql expressions (20)-(U) gives results that are reported in the follow@ table and
compared with values that w&e deduced from tbs lo@d&lacu~nt curves plotted in FM. 12.
For specimens of the groups A antI 8, dashes &rout& curves mark the load levels for which the
plastically strained areus extend enough to eqt&&e the loud dirtributibn among the fasteners of
eachgapsideo~tothebsuiPlk#dsrwltho~iods’~~~hfrsteaer,aswell
astotheplssticals~oftBbfarteaaaJ.up~bothesel#dkvels,tbamotsrialaroundthe
hok:isp~ystnincdonly~asnutlrcqpionclosetatbehdeedge.Fnw~,the
accentuated curvatures of A-3 and B-3 load-displacement curves do not apply to the useful
~~donotexp~thetoohrpcradtwdlydaboki’vahrcsoftbe~~attheorigins.The
reason for that may be the relatively accenttmted Muence of the friction due to the axial
tighteningoftheboltiuthecaseofthhlnerstrIps.

Cqn@)
A-l 0.410 0.828 0.140 0.192 1.16 ld
A-2 0.253 0.514 0.585 !Ki 1.41 131
A-3 0.780 1.589 OmJ 1.71 0.67?
B-l 0.338 0.690 0.243 isi 1.16 0.67
0.253 0.515 0.585 1.41 1.17
E 0.680 :I 0.030
0.459 0.114 1.04
153 0.57?
(1) 0.0% 0.75
(21 o.im 0.338 0.318 iii 091 093

If the two results with a question-mark, for which the total measured displacement is lower
ths~~ticrl~~csmpotsdo~yfor~~6,~discatdedsgarrsolts
show that the bolt deformation must be taken into account Prediction from simplebyp&eses
of Tate and Rosenfeld are only poorly verilled and, since the axial bolt tightening was unknown,
the @Matice of this parameter cannot be evaluated.
In the Harris’ tests previously reported and in the cases of little diametral clearance or
~~~,mdnitb~s~nss~giveninp%.9,mersutementsyieldedk.~RlbL=
 Stresses and displacementsdue to h-awltransferby fasteners 129

744,000-869,000 lb/in., that is to say, l@AUR = 1.15to 1.34.On account of the elongation in the
absence of hole, the value 0.4 must be substracted from the precedent values which become
led/R = 0.75 to 0.94.With d/w = 0.133,h/w = 0.333,& I 0.125in. and t,, = 0.25in., the theoreti-
cal bearing displacement was

ld a-. -./R = 0.696,

whereas expressions (20)-@2)of Tate and Rosenfeld yield

lti dbeadiS
= 0.142R,

I$ aaar = 0.321R,

giving
a total value

ld a/R = 1.741,

that is to say, two times the measu& value. It is ckar that the expressions of Tate and
Rosenfeld ykld excessive values of the uniform strains due to bearing and shear loads.
However, practical cases may be considered where the initial ckarance when increa& by
fatigue loading may give higher values of local strain. It is therefore useful to inve&ate the
non uniform strain due to the bearing loads in connection with the bolt bending.

1.24 Ekmgationof astripcontaininga cfmdarho&umfera tmsikbadingand comspmdingstrcss

cmntmtion
As illustrated in F&*13,stress concentrations at hok edges in bolted assemb&ksrest& from the
superimpositionof two stresssystems.They are(I) the strcsscsdueto tbe loadR transferred from
the bolt to the bored strip and (2) the stresses due tothe residual tensile load not yet transferred,
P-R
Fm 14, from Elsner[l4] and drawn from the Hertel’s book[ls], shows in the case of a
plqIged hole the values of the stress concentration factor, Kn that de&es the maximum stress
atthehokedpe,tnwlrpgs~f~~fhc~sprcILofthcstripctoss~.n3cp1pBis
assumedtobGofthtraarelnaterialwthestripand~~-veluesdtpendonthc~or
intafermcebetwetDt&p~andthehote~andontbe~Mwinols~t,~
SdB=(~+S.)/~thenominalstrcss~Sg’PIW1.Itmaybesscnthattniaterferenceof
about Ad/d = l/l000 is sufscknt to annul the stress concentration if the applied nominal stress
is lower than 0.0005E, that is to say, 35 N/mm2for ahuninium alloys. It may be stated that the
interference obtained in practice by heavy crushit@of rivet heads is It&her than 1%.However,

(b)
LQLSED HOLE

s, = R&t

CrWOEO HOLE -
130 W. BARROH

-0.3 -a2 -0.1 0 +Q

QEARANCE INTERFERENCE
Ad/[email protected]

Fiil4.stressconccntntionatthcedgeofrphyledbde.

this interference will be easily annulled under nominal tensile stresses higher than the yield
strength. Under fa&ue loading, it may be observed with loaded holes that the improw effect
of the h&&remx is signi&W only for an interfereace ranging from 03 to 0.496,i.e. higher
thanthatforwhichthcyicldstrcrsisrcachcd.
Recall& that for an empty hole, the stress conccntratioa factor is, from the HeywoodL
apgroxktion[l6] of Howlud’s calculation[l0]

(26)

or, with d/w ~0.3:

where SDlt- S&l - Gwl.

Fiie 1S shows the sizes of the bored strips subjected by Harris et d. to computations
us* a iinite element model and carried out in the elastic and plastic ranges of stresses by using
the octahedral stress-strain relationship computed from the expcticntal tensile stress-strain
curve of the 2024-T3 ahunink alloy. In the first specimen group, AL-elongations were
computed on a base length of lin., from the spccimin cent& while in the second group with a
relative spacing of hole ccntrcs, Dlw - 1, the base length of elongatiok was 2.4in. from the
middle point between holes. In the absence of any hole, elongations of reference lengths would
have ken (E - 16.5x ldlblin?: .

1hkknss.s t = 0.125in., Es WI.5.l# lb/in?

 Strtsscsand displacementsdue to load tmnsfcrby fasteners 131

that is to say,

1.524x lob P for the 5rst group where L = D = 4 in., and

0.914 x ld P for the second group where L = 2.4 in. and D = 2 in.
The di5erence between the two groups would have been 0.61 x 106P.
Now, approximately the same diflerence is found between the values computed for the
bored specimens of the 5rst and the second groups, differing only by the spacing D between
holes and the reference length L. In the elastic range, the authors had defined k, by

hL = P/k,

and given the followiry results for k, and ld hWP = lti/k,:

The elongation differences between correspondingspecimens of the two groups are, 0.635,0.657
andO. x 1~P,approachingthevalucsO.61 x lti P of specimenswithoutahole.Itmaybcinferred
that, even with D/w = 1, the stress distniiutlon on the specimen width at the middle reference line is
prac&adly uniform, rt least so far as avctxge elon@ons are concerned. The two series of
computation results arc not &f&a&y distinct and may be pookd.
In order to interpolate, it may be considered that the eloqtation is the sum of a component
depeadingonthenetstnssinthtregionriatrtedbetween~~~nndtbtstrip~,thatbto~y:

P P k,A
AL= E(w - d)t kd=z ( >
l_~ .

and of a second component depending on the uniform stress far from the holes and equal to

=&L-k&.
hL2Ewf

The ammation
yields

which is exact in the two limit cases, d = 0 and Dlw = 00. It gives computed results &th
relative errors within 0.4% by assumhq k1 - 1.3 and k2 - 1, giving

Thou& bein only an approximation enabling results of Harris’ computations to be interpolated in

theelPstic~andwithintbelimi.tsl~D/wr2and0.125~~w~0.375,~expressionmaybe
used in pmctlcc with tight Btted bolts because the light bolt interference which lowers the net stress
duetothe~Plrolowus~n~v~eoftheterm(l.3/(1-A)-l),andbecuureas~error
on elongations c(u18ts a smaller error on the load distribution among assembly bolts. In the case of
~~,vatuesOtK~-SmlsOgiveninF~14mayba~tocomctthep~

EFM Vd l0. No. I-l

132 W. BARROIS

expressioo. With d/w - 0.167,the factor 1.3of the expression (28)might be multipliedby Kr13.08.
In the plastic range the validity of the computed results of Harris is not yet checked. In the
absence of other information, it is proposed to use the empirical expression

ao-1.3(&)d+(&)Wd), (29

where the coefficients1.3and 1 might be modifiedlater on, S is the net stress and E,. - S/r is the
secant modulus.

L3DiSlWBUTIONOFlWEBURINGPR8&WRE
TEROUGE-STBl?THIcKNEBgEs
IO the forewing paragaphs it has been assumed that the bearing load was evenly distributed
through the thicknesses of the assembled elements. This hyp@esis is somewhat simpti~ti~ in
the case of asymmetrical assemblies stressed by a singk .su load, aud in the case of
symmetrical assemblier loaded in double shear, its practical validity should be investigated. The
acturidistributionoftbe~lOILddcpdndSootbepia(rivet~bdt)ddormationaod,with
asymmetri4 assemblies aud pin-strip clearance, 00 the tilt of the pin as a body.

1.3.1 Genuul equation and solutions for the dcpccrions of well fit&d pins laying on elastic
f0wndcrtiOn

Fu. 16.

hitially plane cross section of &pin, the s-shaped surface of which remain& perp@&ular
to the lower and upper pin fibers. The aqprlar slope of the pin, 8, de&ds 00 the surface
element take0 as reference. If the reference is the ceotral element, @is r&ted to the maximum
shear stress which equals (4/3)Q1’;1.
where A is the cross section area. Since the variation of the
cross section warping is not free but is mod&d by axial stresses of zero resultant, fl will have
a lower vahre. For a circular cross section, Cowper[l71 has proposed

The bending moment, h4, creates a curvature of the pin axis with an angular differential,de,
such as

(31)

where 2”- w&/64 and 4 is the ela&ity modulus of the pin material. The slope of the lower
and the upper pin fibers rest&s from the summation of @and $:
 Strewa and diaplacemmtadue to load transferby faatenm 133

Fiiy, it is assumedthat the reactionof the strip materialunderthe pin pressureequals

that of an elastic foundation made of parallelsprings or of numerousthin sheets, and is
thereforenot dependingon the dy/dx slope:

q= b. (33)

The differentialequationof the pin deflectionsresultsfrom the equiliium conditionsof a

cross thin slice of the pin havinga dx-thicknessas illustrated in Fi. 16. These conditionsare:

dad%-q=O and dMdx+Q=O. (3& (35)

Wii the foregoingcqns (30X33), the Mere&al equationis

FWth# y-e”, the chamcteristic

equationis

k
Q'- -Q'+$c&
&4
the roots of which are, puttingm = RlsGIAjand n = WJV..,

The radicalsign dependson m’lh which, with P = 0.33, becomes

m2Mn= (9116r)klEj

Ill&tOCV8btC~itiS~ to have a referencefor the dbpbemcnti y. As pwhuly

strtedinSectiea2.1,thedlspharncnt~f~oftbe~~contactpoiatwinbrliac
tRnsversetothesbipmdsiaratedfpteno~hromthepintobewithina~ofurpiform
stress &rough the strip width. From the dispkcemcnt, one will substractthe uniform dis-
placement of the strip in the absence of any hole, this disphrccmentcorrespondingto a
translationasa~body~Qrmnotmodifythedistn~noftbe~~sure~~.
the bolt length.The expression(11) of the section I.21 yields

WS 0.8 P 0.8 q 0.8

“~*l-r’~‘l_r=jf’l-l

fromwhich,t&o#accuuntofq=kb,

k..=6(1- A)/O.8 (37)

I34 w. BARROIS
the pin length. With A = cllwranging from.0.1 to 0.35 and Ej within the two limit values, that is
tosay,~~Pforasamestripandpinmaterial,andef=3Bfors~lboltsin~uminiumalloy
strips, m*/4n ranqes from 0.05 to 0.29. Therefore, the root radical being ,+ginary, the square
rootquatbllwinbewrittenas

(I2 = ;A id(n - m2/4),

the modulus of which being Ia? -v/n and the argument 8 corresponding to tge-
J/(4&n’- 1). The four roots of the characteristic equation are

and

with cos 8 = m/2Vn.

Writing

&+(l-$-) and +$(l+~,, m\

the general sobltion is

From the qn (37),

MY, “u” bhinothe thkknessof the strip, the followtug expressions of cw and ~19are
obtriaed:

(00-(a/d)*2* (&)” [l-O.75 (-jJjT

~-(~~.2.(~)~[1+0.7~(~)ln]~. (41)

The parameters of these expressions are WE;, and e/d. In the &st parameter, k-
(1 - cUw)BIO.I(
pkys a secondary rok since, with d/w ranging from 0.1 to 0.3, (w ranges from
0.898a/d to’0.787a/d, while w ranges from 1.044a/d to l&36 dd. However, them
fortheratio~~~ronOiagm1/3tolwillbetobe~doutforcachof~v~with
IwP0.2.Theparomcteralddepcndsoo~~sesoftheassembkdpPrtsandwitlbe
considered in the range 0.3 to 0.6, corresponding to a total thickness of clamped strips ranging
from 1.2to2Atirasr~rivetorbeltdtrmster.Vdurwrctepedf~~~willbeO.3,
0.4, 0.5 and 0.6 for u/d, and 0.8 and 0.267for (1 - A)B/Ej.

1.3.2 CUMof the symmetrical assembly with a sing& pin sttwaed by two shearing lo&
Fii 17 shows the coordinate axes and sign conventions as well as sizes of the assembly
ottlrrsts~by~dasindepin,~thctrRocasesof(a)tbeneat-fitptn,and(b)thebolt
with~~dtsMaandacanect~~~~thatcnsurssadrm~~ofthe
bolt shank at the out&e assembly surfaces.
 Stressesand displacementsdue to load transfer by fasteners

P/2

I-I
w2

SIGN CGNVENTlo)ss ’ (a) PIN b)=l

Fu. 17.

In tbc central pin region aad o* to the symmetry, tbe y-displacement must comprise only
terms that are not mod&d wbea x is turned into -x. Only two constant remains to be
determined and tbe general solution becomes

y=Asbqx.sinwr+Dcb(px.costi. (42)

The equilibrium of tbe central region ‘1’of tbe pin implies

a 0

d qdx=m from which

I y dx = P/2k

BY integrating,
this condition becomes

Tbe tilt& quiliim is ensured by tbe symmetry. At the separation surface, x - u, tbe slope
of the deformedpin-axis is such as

=A((~4.cb(pa.sin(~~+~10sb(pa.coswa)
X-*
+D(~.sb9o.cosaM-~.cb~.sin4M). w-1)

In the outside strips “2”, an other ori& of axes and opposite signs will be used. Tbe deformed
pin-axis is defined by

y,..A,sh(px,.sin~x,+B,ch~x,.~inarjr~
+ C, sh (pxl * cos aal+ D, cb (pxl- cos aI. (45)

At the junction of pin segments “1” and T, tbe continuity of tbe slope implies:

(dyJdxhs = (dy/dxL.,

and, multiplying by d, tbe quation becomes:

136 w. S@ROIS

+A,(cpdchcpb*sin&+sldshcpb*cos&)
+B,(cpdsh~b.sincdb+adch~b.cos~b)
+C,(qdchcpb.cos&-adsh~b*sin&)
+4(9dshIPb.cosoub-~cbrpb*sinaJb)=O. (44)

Taking account of the opposite signs of the bending moments within each pin segment, the
hending continuity entails

(bL. + (ML,=* = 0, i.e. (d’y/dx’- myL. + (d2y/dx2- my&,, = 0,

or us& general solutions for y and yl:

A shqamsiniva -~ehpclcoeoca)
(

+ chwacosua+ 4W
mshqa&ncw
D( )

+A, shcpb.sin& -?chqb.cosub

( )
4W
+B, chqb*sina& -nshpb.coscub
( >

+C, sh(pb.cosob+ *-;;;chpbdnmb

( )

=O
>

The force equilibrium iu the second pin segment mny he u&ten as

p12= 6’q, dx, = PI) y, dx,,

0

i.e.,

A,(pb ch pb . sin tub - ob sb 4pb- cos wb)

+B,(rpbshqb.sin&-obchqb*cosob+ob)
+C,(&shcpb.sine&+pbchqb.cosrub-pb:

+ D,((pb sh tpb“cos ub + ub ch pb * sin ub) = g h. (47)

At the end, x1= 0, Q = (dMdxJ = E+r[(d3yl/dxl’)- m(dyl/dxl)] = 0, which hecomes by de-

veloping:

B,o-C,rp=O, (W

and also implies the moment equilibriumon the pin segment from xl = 0 to xl = b if (Q)x,lo= 0.
At the same end, xI = 0, other boundary conditions may he written. They are:
-Free pin case: (Ml),,,o = 0, i.e. (d2yl/dx12
- myl),,,o = 0, and after developing:

!~J!A,-D,40; (49)
 Strcsscsand displxccmentsdue to load transfer by fasteners 137

-Cuse of rigid heads and of perfectly tightened rivet or bolt:

(dy,lW,,-o = 0,

and after developing:

B,o + C,(p = 0, WV

or, from expression (48):

B,=C,=O.

Using matrix form, the set of preceding equations may be written as:

(43) 811 812 0 ldd

w tt21 Bn &a gu gn gas 0
WI gal 832 833 gw gss 8% 0

(47) = b/d x&-(p’+u’)d’

(48) 0 0 0 -Bu8sso 0
(49) 0
0 0 Sk4 sb 0 _ 0.

The detail of the equation’s coefficients is given in the following Table 1. Before carrying out
the nurn&al rmdution of this equation set concerning both cases of the free pin and of

I. Coedlcients
Table of the equationstlut de&c constantsin the expressionof deformed xxcs of
sbalduldkEtph

k E
m=z=# ISI-A) 75;

p=(q2-w2)12. dvn=(o’+vW.

CoetIicients
g1(=wr2-->r gl2=~,+‘h2. g13fg14=glJ=g16=o
g2, = -to dr, t Y dr& gn = _(o dr3 - o dr3. gn = Q d$ + 0 dsr
gN=qds,tuds,, g,,=vds,-avds,, ga=qds,-ad+.
hl = ri - or,, gu = r, + or,. g33 = II - vs4,
gy=J3-VJ1; g33=J)+oJ3. g~=J4+~J,.
8.3 - qbJ3 - ah,. g& = obr, - ub(s,- 1).
g,3=ob(J,-l)+ubJ,~ Bw=9bs3+~J3.
&, = 1. gJJ = -da
B‘,“1, &=-l/u.
g;c=
1, g&= tdv.
Secondmembersare:
(43) (uhf)
muitipkd by G’ (&n)
(47) WI
Simpfijd case (a = b) of heads pmfady clamped on the outer surfaces.
(51) g,, = r, - sr,. gt2 = r,+ or,. second member-0,

(52) g2, = (par, - uor,, gp = qar3 + ur,, Sm. = & (dn)r2.

138 W. BARIUXS
perfectly clamped heads, it is useful to deal with the more ekmcntary case of an assembly with
equal strength of the two end sides, i.e. a = 6.
-Case of perfectly damped he& W&/I a - 6. BI = Cl = 0 is obtained from the boundary
conditions

and the antisymmetry at the junction of pin segments “1” and “2” implies a zero bending
moment. This condition is written:

4qw
A1 shqa *sinm -~chpa.cosw +4 ch+*cosw+
) ( (51)

The force equilibrium condition,

(52)

is the second condition detem&ng the constants A, and D,.

Bccauscthetbcoreti&lcaseofapinrigidinshaarbut&uibkinbend&isgenerally
considered in practice, and entails kss complex computations, it is investigated here for
comparisoa.
At Qa limit, m -0, the d&rential equation &gClWWSiZWtbC~~uptionOftht
long beam lying on elastic foundations, i.e.

d’Y/dx’ + w?yz)y - 0, (53)

the general solution of which is

It is possibk to draw @is simpli6ed case from the general case writing m - 0, 0 = ar, etc.
Equation terms arc given within the folloh Tabk 2.

Table2. C~tsoftbe&thrtticonrtrntr inthfJeqmtionofthedefonwd

pinuis.CUCOf~~inrbar

!bcolId
cQa A D A, 81 Cl D, memba

r, + r3 8 0 0 0 Pdk
-(r3 - r3 sz+r3 s1+34 s4-h s3-b 0
r1 -84 $1 SI
0 81-33 s,+s,-I s*+s3
0 -1 0
0 I 0 0 0 0
(JO) 0 0 1 +1 0

Quaati~ r and s arc as fouows:

r, = sh ga +sin * s, = ahpb - sin (~6.
r,=cbqu*sin* s,=chqb.sinpb,
r,=shga~cos(po, s3*rhqb.cospb,
k_(we
r4==cbqa~casco, s4=chqb.cos& -
0.8
E is the elasticitv modulusof strips and E, is that of the Din.
 Stresses and displacements due to load transfer by fasteners

In all cuses, the condition of a zero shearing force at the end xl = 0 implies

(d3y,/dx,&, = 0 and B, = C,.

In the case of the free pin, (Ml&, = 0 entails (&yl/dxl),,O = 0, from which A, = 0. The
remaining equation set is

I!1
rz- f3 rz+ r3 0 0 A 1
-(rz+ r3) -(f3- r2) 2s. sj-52 D
= ; xPq/k WI
-r4 rl SZ-s3 St Bl,G

0 0 281 sZ+s3 Dl 1
I I[

In the case of n’uetor bofr Ws perfectly clumped on rk otctsidcsurfaces, (dy,/dxl),,O = 0

entails BI + Cl = 0, from which BI = Cl = 0. The equation sei becomes:

r2- r3 r2+ 3 0 0

-(r2+r3) -(3-Q) s3+s2 sp-s2

-f4 h s2-s3 sl

0 0 2Sl sZ+s3
:

In the case of a = Z,,this equation set is reduced to:

Ah- r3)+ Dh+ r3)= Pp/k

Ar4 = Dr,.

I.33 Tat of synwwtricd awvnblies

P 0.4 0.4 2.5

a-g -- o +b+d. (57)
( >

Tbepnc48ingpvlrgapbrclttestothecrseofatotaltranrftroftheloodPfromtbecen~
strip to the two outside strips. VoIkersen’s tests used by Vogt to estabhsh the exIu~&on (57)
concerned the case of a stretched strip assembled by means of two rivets to two outside
reinforcing strips which were thus stretched and car@ng a load part transferred by the rivets.
For each rivet of a multi-rivet assembly, the distinction should be made between the stress
concentration due to the load transferred by each rivet and that resulting from the residual load
bypassing the same rivet.
Fw 18 shows the tensile specimen comprising two outside reinforcing strips assembled to
the central strip by means of two rivets. The load applied to the specimen ends and those which
were withstood by every strip at the middle cross section have been determined from strain
measurements using 20 mm-base ‘Huggenberger’mechanical strain-gauges,the locations of their

Fii 18. Reinforced specimen of Vokersen~

MO W. BABRoIs

points being represented by small circks in FQ. 18.The same means has been used to measure
relative displacements of the outside reinforcing strips with respect to the central strip between
points located on each side of the separation surface and sitting astride rivet axes.
German 3 116.5Al-Cu alloy strips was assembled by round head rivets made from German
3 115.4Al-Cu alloy (similarto 2014alloy). strip thicknesses and rivet diameters are reported in
the following Tabk 3 together with measured values of the relative slip modulus, &,,de&ted as

where R is the load part transferred by the rivet, and d the corresponding relative displacement.

tests[lSl fur a specimenreinforcedby two symmhcal stripsfixed by two

Tabk 3. Rcsuits of Volkcraen’rr
Ii V&3

Lmm 2.6 3 3 4 4 5 5
t: 0.5
1 05
I 21 3: 0:1 21 : 0.5
I : 3:

2400 3000 40al 4400 4300 5900 7400 6lal 8500 11200
3480 3700 5250 6750 4100 6100 8.5W J400 6750 m70

It may be seen that the empirical expression of Vogt yields the same S-values for the two
cases of (d-2o-b)_vahks, i.e. (3-3-3)-mmand (5-I-2)-mm,whereas measured values are 4OOfl and
8SMkg/mm. The expression proposed by Vogt does not meet the results of Volkersen’s tests,
nor even Vogt’s calculation results, and its origin is somewhat lost in mystery.
In the calculations of the preceding parqraph, a negligibk diametral clearance has been
assumed, that is to say, that a negative displacement “-y” corresponded to a bearing pressure
on the opposite half surface of the hole. The local tlattening of the pin near the separation
surfaceof~~hoseleo~aaeglected,~clorsssotionofth6pinbeiaoassumQdtoremain
circular.~n~ComputotionueiPOtbe~ti~~ia~~~
have been carrkd out for four cases of the Volkersen’s tests and values which are reported in
the Tabk 4 have been obtained.
In the first place, the diierences between test results and computed results from the
classical theory of long beams are always important. Even with small thicknesses, the pin
bending may not be negkcted, but the long beam theory is not sufficient.The complete theory
taking account of the shear defkction of the pin-axis agree well with the measured results for
the small clamped thickuesses, up to (2~ + 26)/d = 2.4 d and by negWiq the holding effect of
rivet heads. On the other hand, divergencies of computed results from measurements for the
free pin case and the ratio (2a+ 2b)ld ranging from 3 to 4 may be ascribed to less satisfactory
tightening of rivets which were too long for the rivet diametral expansion to fill the hok
adquately.
Therefore, in the absence of other test results, ‘it may be provisioualy concluded that the
present complete theory based on the following hypotheses is allowabk for ahuninium alloy
strips assembled by rivets of the same material. The hypotheses are: zero rivet diametral

Table 4. Comparison of computed values of the k,=R/a with Thea mewred by

Vokersenrl8l
Rivet diameter, d mm 3 4 5 5
Mddk striphalf thickness,o mm 3 3 3 I
Thkknoasof outside strip-s, b mm 3 3 3 2

Maasud k, Wmm 44M 7400 llzoo 8SOO

Computedk, kg/mm:free end pins 6130 8292 11174 8413
perfectly clampedheads 6530 10416 13464 9881
absolutely
r@id
pin 24!MO2so!n 24MO 10700
longb&l theory:
free end pins 7100 10900 13670 10300
perfectlyclampedheads 8600 12980 18160 lo600

Note: E = Ii?,= 7000kg/mm*, 1kg/mm* = 9.8 N/mm*.

 Stresses and displacements due to load transfer by fasteners 141

clearance, no flattening of the rivet cross section, and no holding effect of rivet heads. Perhaps
the obtained agreement results from fortuitous compensations, but other tests would be
necessary to resolve this.
In the case of bolted assemblies, the only availabletests are those of Tate and Rosenfeld [ 131
reported in Section 1.23. Table 5 summqhms results of calculations using the above theory.
In the tests of Tate and Rosenfeld, the displacement 8, has been measured by the half
widening of the gap between the two middle strips, the elementary elongation of the side-plates,
assuming no hole, on the half distance between the bolts next to the gap beinp substracted. As
explained in Section 1.2.3,this displacement differs from the relative displacement of the middle
strip with respect to the side plates, d, which corresponds to the disturbance from the
elementary theory due to the pin load. The ratio a/+, in the case of an absolutely rigid pin and
u = b, may be evaluate

a/a,=2
Ea,+&+q-z b,+h+b,-g+a-d,
“1/[ I
where the coe5cient 2 is for equal displacements in centreplate and side-plates. With
dlw = 0.2, 2h/w = 1.6> 1.57,data of Section 1.2.1yield:

s,+&+83-1.s7&36, &-&=0.689,

a/a, = 1.475.

TheMok foregoing results of the theory applied to the tests of Volkersen and those of Tate
and Rosenfeld suggest ” comments:,
(1) Hcu#sof alumuuum ~yrintsofVdLmcn’s~~~osstmtoc#ueo~aeo~e
holdingoftherivetshaukswithrespecttooutsidemufacesofaaaembiedrtrips.
(2) Heads of steel bolts of Tate and Rosenfeld’s assemblies the strips of which are made uf
ahrminilml aby seem to result in perfect holding of the bolt shanks with respect to the outside
assembly surfaces.
(3) In the case of steel bolts in steel strips, the computed values of k, are too hi&.
Two calculation hypotheses may explain the disparity of computed and mtlls\1l(9dresults.
They are as follows:
(a) The strips may be supposed to be laminated from thin sheets separately stressed, i.e.
without any shear stress applied to the sheet interfaces. In fact, the concentration of bearing
pressure at the interfaces of the assembled strips creates stress concentrations which fade away
much nearer to their origins than the mean stress conceatration, on the hole scale, which
corresponds to a bearing pressure evenly distributed through the strip thickness. This hypo-
thesis supposes a too ilexible assembly and yields too low k;-values.

Tabk 5. Compaho~~ of computed and musumd values of k, = R/d in tests of TotepndReaenfeld[l3]. d/w - A =
0.2

2024strips.stcclbolts steel bolts and strips

Specimen mark A-2 ., 2. .
Boltdim, d mm 61,: 6.35 &: 6.35
Half thickness of
the ccntre plate, 0 mm 3.91 6.37 6.35 s.28
Side-plate thickness, b mm i%6 6.34 6.35 5.68

s:: 0.628 0.998

1.003 1I 0.8
0.831
Computation cahd out
withdd-b/d= 0.625 1 1 0.8
R/a, measmwl (wmm). I 4 = 9.8 N. 143al I3620 IJZBO
k, mea~lped = I .475 Rla, 21090 2aeo 22450 LEl
~computcdwith I fwpin 18800 15500 18200 36Olm
Y = 0.33 chnpedbeads 21800 21806 22600 45000
142 W. BARROIS

(b) I?astener &auks may be assumed to remain of circular cross section near the strip
interfaces albeit they cert&ly &ten. This hypothesis overrates the aaaemb@ stiffness,
especially when fasteners and strips are made from the same material.
A theoretical assessmentof the outcomeof these hypothesesia not yet pussibleand their
directexperimentalc&k would hply precisionmeasuremonts on specimen without friction.
An empirical and provisional evaluation may be attempted to provide the best averaged
agncmcnt between corrected calculated results and the test results previously discussed.
As a qualitative answer to the precedmg remarks, the empirical relation will be set as

P P
a-ld=
k,-- (I-c,+s$ >
pk;_

where -cl represents the decreasing of the relative slide, owing to the compactness of the
material instead of the assumed laminated strip, and ct4& is the contribution of the fastener
flattening to the assembly flexibii. So as to obtain corrected results that are intermediary
between the theoretical results for the free pin and those corresponding to the perfectly
clamped heads of bolts or rivets, selected values of cl and q are cl = 0.2 and cs - 0.3, yielding.

’ m = (0.8+ 0.3 E/E&

Application of this correction to the forgoing computed results gives values reported into
Tab106.
Numerical results that had been computed using simplifying hypotheses are corrected
along rational limosand fairly adjusted to measured data. The last divergency concerns the
s~bdtinstacl~.buttbeo~urtion~tsstillnanscl~~=o.~fforaeelseips
instead of v - 0.365used by Theocaris for aluminium alloy strips.
~pmCictionqf1So~milhtbtnthsrusybyutiegourvecletr~hrstborcofFie.
19thatshowscoov~rPiihthenrtioddot~~~~~tothe
pindirePeterkthecasea=baud&-3E.
~ticllc~intbia~ha~bandsQKed~~oinkcompu~tbJtbswlue8
a/d = 0.325, 0.62S,0.75 and 1. Intermediate points are obtained from an adjustment with the
empirical expression (J/2) - [l +ai(dd - & which may be used only for interpolation.
“Pnctical”curvcstathiekliwsnsultofthec~on(58)appliedtothe~piricalreigtion
corresponding to 4E, - l/3, with a correction factor of 0.9. Corrected relations are as
follows:
free pin: a/2 = 0.9 [ 1 + 3.22(cJd - 0.247 fl2~, (59)
and
clamped heads: a/2 - 0.9 [1 + l&z/d - 0.24)1]P/2a w-v

These expressions differ from that proposedby Vogt (eqn (572)and used by SwiftPI and
Barrois[7] for lack of another. Because the relative displacement, a, and the distribution of
bearing pressure depend only on the parameters WEI, a/b and u/d, it might be possible to
compute a &Gent number of points to plot the curves aWP = f&/d) and Y&ZIP =
f&/d) for several levels of 4Ej and several values of the ratio ulb. Empirical relations

Table 6. Compuiwn of test ~uitr with empirically corrected theonticd results. k,-uuhw (IrJmm)

VoIkcrsen’s,E - 4 = 7ooOkg/mm*. Note that kg is for 9.81N.

k. meawred 4400 7400 11200 85&I
free pin 5570 7540 10160 7700
k, corrected
(
chmpcdheads 5940 9470 12440 8990

Tated Roaafdd’stests. E, = 3 B = 2lOOfJkg/mm2. 4=~=21ooo~f11d.

k, measured 21090 2w90 224SO 2mlm

frrxin 209oo l72w 20200 3oooo
k, corrected
clul&ledbuds 24200 24200 25100 37ooo
 Stressesanddisplacementsdue to load tmnsferby fasteners 143

- z

LA- -Y

‘P/2

b=a

adjusted with the calculated points might tllen be correctedusing all known sm tests.
Next, the present stateof knowledge will be applied to fat&w test resultsinthe Part II of
this paper.
In the use of elasticity data to interpretate fatigue test results, the stressstateatthe stress
concentration point on the part sudace is defined by the twoquantities, (1) the theoretical
l&best stress at the surface, S,, - KyS, and (2) the relative stressgradient in the width
directin,

g= & (aslanhb.

In the case of bent pins, it will be necessaryto know also the relativegradientof the bearing
load, q = ky, alongthe stripthicknessat the point x1= b of the maximumpressure. From
foregoingcalculations,the relativegradientof the bearingpressure is
144 W. BARROIS

For the case ilh~stmted in Fii. 19, numerical computation yields the empirical relation
corresponding to & = 3B. d/w = 0.2 and a = b, as

-8 * 2.05(1/d-0.24/a), for 0.3< a/d Q 1. (62)

Then, for wh 1.2.1,the maximum stress at the hok edge due to the pin load will be

Lx +l+n3Ml-*).

A coNcLu!3IoNs
The principal art&e used in the present investigation is the concept of reference lines on
strips at cros8 sections wti stress distriibutionsthrough the atrip widths are fairly uniform.
It is then possibk to compute approximately strip strains and relative displacements between
assembled strips. Using the theory of the bending and &earing de&tions of the fastener
shank ly& oa an elastic 3tn~~I&a, relative displacements of assembkd strips have been
computed and a rrtionol c&ectioa yields oniy small d&rences with avaikbk test results.
The subject treated will be useful in investi&ous comxr&q symme&kal assemblies of thin
strips by means of riveted or bdted side-pktes or comprking r&for&# strips, especially in
cakulatioa of the lord 6SMmtion among several fasteners. It might be used to study the
fatigre strenqth of a lpr ha&d by a pin provided that an account is talten of d.iBereaces
between actual fo&4ruis which are rather &x&k and apparatus used in lug testinq.
However, an importaut uuknown rem&us and lks in the “solid” strip behaviour opposed
tothehypotbqrtofa~~Qodeofabminortt.dtbkrsbeekr.Co~therclative
displacements, tests of Vo&arsen, then those of Tate and Rose&h& have enabkd a logical
correction to be propot& to gather the cases of akminiwn alloy rivets in ahuuinium ahoy
strips,stoelriv~instat~aad~boltsinalamiaiamaltoystrips.Iatbedomainof
stresses, the situ&a is uot so cleat. With respect to the average bearing pressure, the
corresponding average stress at tbc point of maximum stress concentration is

tsm8a),- *$(1+131(1-A).

The supplemeatary stress corresponds to the local supplementary v, Ap, such as

fromwhich
A& = Ap( 1+ A’)/(1+ A).

It may be expected that actual shear stresses between the fictitious thin sheets of which
“solid” strips are supposed be made will stiffen the strip, increasing the bearing load concen-
trations and lowering stress concentrations with reqard to their values computed from the
hypothesis that the thin sheets are separately loaded. This question will be discussed agaia in
thePartII.

111F. Vgt, ‘he load dhibut+o in bolted or riveted joints in Ii&t-alloy structuns. RAE Report No. SMEZ3300, Oct.
1944. Royal Aircdt Edbhmt, Paroboro~& or NACA TM 1135.
[2] S. J. Romfeld, Analytical and cqmimmtai investi&on of bolted joints. NACA TN 1458. Wasbin)ton D.C.. Oct.
1947.
 Stresses and displacementsdue to load transferby fasteners 145

131T. Swift, Development of the fail-safe de&n features of the DC-lo. ASTAf Symp.on LbmcycTolemnce in
Alumbtium Aircmfr SWWU~S, Toronto, 21-26 June, 1970.
[4] 0. H. Harris, 1. U. Ojalvo aad R. E. Hooson, Stress and de&lion analysis of mechanically fastened jomts.
AFRX-m-70-49, Wright-PlttersonAPB. Gkio, May 1970.
[5] Theo&s P. S., The stress distributionia a strip loaded in tension by atcans of a central pin. 1. AppL Mech. 85-90
(March 1940).
[6] Barrois W., R6sistancc en f&e des ocils et des &apes. The Coalerwe cycle on j&w, Chap. IX. AFFITA,
To&use. 1965.not published.
17] W. Barrois, Cakul en fatigue des 6clisses et des bandes de renfort. Note DJ3#TA/B No. 132, Mrospatiak. Paris,
Nov. 1973.not published.
[S1M.M.RochtudH.N.Hill,~sconcmtntionf~cton~theedpeote~~hokinapLtelordedbywurs
of 1 pin. J. AppL Me&. (March 1940).
[9l W. 0. Bickley, Distrii of stress round a ckuhr bok ia a plate. Roy. sot. London, S&u A, 2227.383-415
ww.
[lo] R. C. J. Howland. On the stresses in the neiglhurhood of a circularbole in a strip undertension. PhiL Tmns. Roy.
sot. Ladon, srrirs A, 229,4!u6 (1930).
[ll] H. T. Jessop, C. Snell and CLS. Holister. Photoelasticityinvestigationon plates with singk interfareace-fitpin with
loadapplied(a) tci pin aad(b) to pin md plate s-y. Aenmaur. i&art 9, 147-163(1958).
1121R. B. Heywood. IMgnin~ A&w Fotignc pp. 166-2@1. Chapman& Ha& London (1962).
I131M. B. Tate and S. J. Rosenfeld. PreBminaryiavestigahn of the loads carried out by Mvidual bolts in bolted
joints. NACA TN 1051, May 1946.
1141Bhsr, DiphaMt D 45. hstitut fOrhf&k@tw f&TUB). B&h, 1966,quoted ia Hartel H.. p. 269.
115) H. Hwtd, En&ug~~uti&it da ROM- Sprhgar-V&g, Be& (1969).
1161R. B. Heywood, hi@g by hwferticity. Chapmanand Hall, J.&on (1952).
[17lo.R.Cowper.TkalmarcuctBcwil?Tlaaorbeato SbaatkW.f.rtppl.
Ml 0. vokarsan. Dia Nii iaUmNittwrbmdpnpa
4Mlhl$olkhluI& ls.41~(1938): - -

PART II-SINGLE SHEAR OF RIVET AND BOLT SHANKS

IL1 INTRODUCTION
THECASPS
of rivet or bolt shanks stressed in single shear isxryimportantinthe~n
of the fatiguebehaviour of structural Wings since, owin# to asymmetries, stress concen-
trations due to loads transferred by the fasteners are much higher than those previously
investi@ed in the 6rst part (double shear&&
Fatigue cracks occurring during a full-scale test of an ahcraft structure, in a region of
very low nominal stresses drew the attention to supplementary stresses due to loads that are
transferred by fasteners from an assembly part to another. A “non-working” sheet metal
fair& was fixed by means of long and rigid rivets, which were difficultto tighten axially, to a
main member generously sized with regard to nominal stresses. The fatigue crack initiation
observed in this member might be explained only by using value of 9 for the damage
“cQrduuht*’ fuctor, Kap, applied to the nominal stresses of the main suucuuearoundthe
rivet holes.
Fatigue cracks explained by lower values of Km, had been observed in other circum-
stances. Reinforcements, even of short leqphs and fixed by means of a small number of
fasteners, seem to be a frequent cause of premature fatigue cracking, so turning a rqtion of
life assumed to be un-limited into a severely notched region. This and pitting corrosion are the
most frequent causes which reduce the crack in&i&ionperiod, and therefore the fatigue life,
when the initiation period would be preponderant in other circumstances.

II.2 ABSOLUYELYRIGID FASYENERSHANKS

In the case of the double symmetrical shearing investigated in ‘Part I, the symmetry
alTorded a perfect clamping of the fastener shank at the middle cross sect& The shank
might bend but could not tilt, even in the case of a diametral clearance. With short rivets, the
values of the relative sliding between assembled parts were close to those corresponding to an
absolutely &id pin and to a uniform distriiution of the bear& load per length unit of the pin,
4.
In this limiting case of very short pin with a uniform distribution of q, the thwreticd
relative sliding has been deduced by integration from stress values that were tabulated by
146 W. BAiiBOlS

Theocatio[5]
(acesection
1.24, itsvahlcq?prox,ima~to:

(70)

where w is the width of assembled strips, d is the pin diameter, q is the bearing load per
le~unit,andA=dlw.
The foundation modulus k was defined by

(71)

In the case of the single asymmetrical sheu, the pin bending de&&ions are addintj to
thoseresultingofthepinOeneral~asabody.~tiltinOisimptdtdbytbc~
reactions of the assembled strips and by the partial clampingeffect of rivet or bolt heads. It may be
notadhtrethotr~~clampisldustoriOidand~herdsaadbastroaOaxirrltiOhteninpwouM
reduce to one case both single and double shear cases, as this has been assumed implicitly by
Swift01 and Barrois[7] (see Section 1.3.3and references of Part I.
In single shear, the simplifkd case of reference corresponds to the tilti as a body of the
pin assumed to be absoIutely rigid. It is still assumed that each strip is composed of
independent thin leaves or, that being equivalent, that the foundation modulus k is constant
through the strip thickness and that the distribution of the bearing load per length unit of the
pin is linear as illustrated in Fu. 20.

rJig.20.Tiltiogofrfigidpin.

tit q& qn qlb and q10 be bearingunit b&d8 don# the pinat stripsurtwes.
The constant
Slope Of the qdistdbUti0Il gives place to the relation

h - t?Oh= hb - qlO)b. tm

while the continuity of the bending moment at the strip interface yields

t&b + 2q10b2 + (4. + 2qO)b2= 0. (74)

Let a/b - e, the solution of these equations is as follows

q. = (P/o) * l +;y3, qlb = (Hb) ’ 4 ;y,i c3,

l-3c2-2c3 r3-3r-2
40- (plo) * ao=(Plb)- l+r3 . (75)
1+r’ ’
 -80s anddirpkccsncntrduo to load bansfor by fasteners 147

Wbcn c varies from 0 to 1, numerical values of the coc5cients C. = q.(a/P), Co= q&/P),
Clb = qlb@/P) and CIO’ qdb/P) are given in the Table 7.

c=- ; 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

I 1.033 1.143 1.342 1.632 2 2.421 2.861 3.2% 3.67 4

I 0.%7 0.857 0.658 0.3% 0 -0.421 -O.%l -1.2% -167 -2
-: -iI -2.571
4.571 -2.797
4.797 -2927
4.947 -35 -2.947
4.947 -2797
4.797 -2571
4.571 a4g -24

The bending moment has a &n opposite to that of the pin tilting and wrresponds to
bearing pressures which, far from the bole, aeedc secondary bending stresses in t&e strips. At
the hole edge, bearing pressure conc.entmtions create stress co~ntrations at the ends of tlte
~perpsndiculrrrtotbebrd~.AhilBalimitofthcrestresclesmaybee~
by us& the stress concentration factor Kb of the expression (8) (Part I) apj&d to the mean
pressure assumed to be uniform tbfollgll the thickness:

AS-=-*
bmu
d (l+rVtl-A).

The corresponding aecomhy bending moments are

It may be checked t&at the sum of bearing moments applied to the fastener shank equals the
moment of external loads, P(a + 6)/2
Tbc maximum seadory stms at hole edges and at the ends of the diameter per-
pe~tothelord~squalsottBe~sttbev~obtainsdfromthee~~n
(761 where Aq, is wlaced by (e-go)/2 or by (41, - qla)/2. actzordhg to the strip con-
sidered,thatistosay:

Aq = (pldu)f~~(l+ a)/(1 + c3) or (Mb)60 + Ml + c?. 09

Bpu Vd. IO.No. I-J

 W. BABBOIS

-strip a: S,=P 1+6L+‘](l+P)/(l-A),

da E

-strip& S_=$ 1+6k+l+r3/(1-*).

[ (79)

These secondary stresses due to the bearing concentration are not dependant on the hinge
or clamping conditions of the strip ends at the points where external load is applied, as is the
case, on the contrary, with secondary bending stresses generally considered as being con-
tributory causes of fatigue damage in single shear assemblies.
In the case where the fastener is a bolt tightening the strips through two widely sized
washers which ensure good clamping of bolt head and nut with respect to outside strip
surfaces, secondary stresses due to bearing arc very low and the bending moment due to the
bolt shank tilting is w&Mood by bend& bearing pressures under head and nut of tlw bolt.
Howevcr,opaxttromthekprine~acd~wrfocer,tbeloadocceatridty~rbsndiag
mouknta[l9,29] de+aud& ou the qcentricity and on the load mquibuk, the bending under
tenriongiv~dGflectlonsthotortaotpr~totBcloodaadsecondaryr~swbosoreteof
~islowdttbPnthatoftbslood.Moreover,thesestresseswillnotbeomeximunr~ths&de
edge if there is sufficientclamping effect due to bolt tightening
In the case of the assembly of two strips by means of strongly tightened rivets which
remain tight under fatigue loading, secondary bearing stresses are low when compared with
those of badly tightened or loosened rivets, but contrarily to the ideal case of the tight bolt,
secondary bending stresses exist at the hole edge and at the interface of the two strips. Owing
totheload~atricay*thtruwPDblytuGas~itstrolrclvmeaetrt-lipetbusproduciag
beadiaoctn~ineochslaip~nsxtendlufromthc~ntgrctotbcioldsppliclrtionpoist
A.Intbecrucroftwori~.~si&lstratedisF~2l,tbcraqotionoft8aceatrel~is
impGdedbythcte~ioodondon~nbytbcdirscsioaalhddipoafseipondr,A.
Schijve and Jacobs[l9] have given values of the ratio 4 of the sea&try stress,due to tk
bsdsccsntriclty,totbemsoa~~es~u,iotbecsrcrsprc#cwtsdin~21.

WITH REWt TO THE PQTNt c

TnE La40 ECCEMTRICITY IS G/2.

Fii 21.
Consideringsecondary bending stresses at the cross section B assumed to be without a rivet
hok, the effective eccentricity equals k&/6 and the secondary bending stress is Sa = b - Plwt.
The authors’ expression for kb are as follows:

End conditions:
CknWd
a,T, l-o,(L+
4=3[l+~*l-.*(L+lNT, 1
l)T, -I
w
pinned t=3[1+$ (81)

where 012= 12P/E’wr*3, 022- 12pIEwr23, T, = th(a& and T2= a&l). With E=
712Skgt/mm2, ~~0.32, B’=Ef(l-vs), L=97mm, l=lOmm and t,=tJ2=2mm, the co-
tNote that kg/mm2is for kg-weightper mm’ wlticb equala 9.81 N/mm*.
 Stressesand diipl8ccmet1ts
dueto I& trpnsferby fasteners 149

efficient kJ3 ranges from 0.8 for S = 2 kg/mm* to 0.53 for S = 20kg/mm*, in both cases of
clamped or pinned ends. With very thin strips, &J3 tends toward 0.9 and the effective
eccentricity is 0.9 tJ2.
In the case of an assembly comprising scvcd rivet rows, the stress state around each
rivet hole may be divided into st.rcsscs resulting from a direct tensile load and from the
bearing load transferred by the rivet, as ihuatrated in Pig. 13 of Part I.
Some words may be said concerning the existence of diamctral and/or axial clearances at
rivets in assembhes. With si@c assemblies which are always correctly machined and which
are tested in laboratory at almost constant temperature implying the absence of any water
vapour condensation, it stems that these ckarances may be smaUand do not vary during fatigue.
Prom the hok pkggcd by a rivet inaMed with the minimum initial ckarancc then severely
crushed, rivet heads enclosing two bearing plates of the same material and thickness as the
stretched central strip, Schijve and Jacobs [ 191have obtained fatigue strengths fairly close to those
of the unnotched specimens. These results show that the diametral clearance and the axial
tightening were not dhcted by the fatigue loading,the quivaknt stress concentration factor of the
riveted specimen being close to 1. They substantiate the hypothesis that for rivets remaining
sufeckntly tightened, the secondary bending is the main cause of stress concentration, the stress
concentration of direct tensile stress h&g very low.
The fatigue behaviour may be more serious for actual structural assemblies with produc-
tion riveting operations involving lower diametral f&g and axial tightening in areas of
diacult access, and for asse.mbIicswithstanding !krvice loads which in the corrosive !mrvice
environment may loosen rivets, as has been observed in aircraft structmes during main-
tenance inspections.
Concerning stress distributions in the framework of the theoretical Elasticity, the usual
bending stress distribution around a hole, illustrated by Pii. 22(a),may be compared with that
represcntedinFie.22(b)andcorrcs~~toabGadiasmwaentinboduoedbytbe~

COWSUN BENDING WOMEN? BENDING IUWCED BY THE

f ILTIW OF A SEARED PIN

pressure exerted by the pin on to the hok cyhndrial surface. With same values of the
be~momtdaadbysu~~tbdsrinyprerslmislintarly~~tbro\lghstrip
thicknesses, maximum stre!xcJesat hole edges would be higher in the case @) silla the
external load is couccntrated at the hok surface. Therefore, the maximum stress vahre
comprdedintbccue(a)withthebeadis(CmomsatofbePrinOpnrroreswillbealormlimit
of the maximum stress in the case (b). Relative stress gradients along the dire&u per-
peadicul~torhtlodandrttheoutcr~~oftbe~willhowtbcsrunc~of
m~incirculerbeadingandin~bs8dinl.FEOIw23sboarsvrhmrofthestnso
concentration factor is bending of a strip containing a circuiar hole, plotted from numerical
vahtcs drawn from curves pubIished in ESDU Data Sheets 69026@lg. 2.2).
In the iatcrpretotion of fatigue behaviours of assemblies, the specimen caslpiaiao a
circulWholeawls~scdincirculpr~migbtbc~asmf~rpecima!of
thecasc(b~ifthefrMingcotttactdamagcwasneg@bkiandusingasacompahapacameter
the maximum surfaoe strtss at the hole edge, the reference spcchenbaiDgseltctcdtobavc
 a
K,

Pi. 23. Bexliag stressconcentration

faotor
of a beatStTipco* a cltwhr bole.

s~OradientslrlonOthsholc~~throuOhthethicLmssthatarsclosetothoseoftbe
investigated part. ZBurimplies Mu of similar sizes machined by using the same procedures
so as to give comparable surface 6nishes. Test results on bending fatigue specimens would be
needed within the range of stress gradient through the thickness which would cover the
practicaldoJ&n.
~lhnitsof~maximumstnssandoftbe~l~valwofthestrtssgredient
~taestriptbidracss~ybcbbtriacdfortbt~hok~(b)byassaminga~
distriition through the thickness of the maximum stress at hole edge and that this stress has
the value corresponding to the hypothesis of a strip laminated from thin independent sheets.
The maximum stress is &en by the nrpnssion (79)where k, - 1. The relative stress gradient
in the strip “43”is through the thickness:

‘8x
I’

and,witha=bore=l.

(-gz),_r - a [$$-I IE0.857xi. (81)

As prevksly mentioned (I.4 Conclusions), the maiu unknown is the Au&on co&icient
k, of the stress concentration due to bearlug pressures from the valw computed #h the
hypothesis of thin independent sheets constitutiag the strip thickness and the case of actual
“rolid”ra$a.&~anreofan~~tsly~~~orofa~rti~onaw~rapact,toshlp
W-m~atprrfarntal inoesti@on might soppry pRfctkf oolus of tk is, co&dent.
Tbe~dosuinofthichmJv~wolrldbs0.2coldIclJ.
Ev~rrithraabroentsly~pia,tbsf~ipgcomputrtiolwuwevthe~olany
~c~.Itrrykco~~tiutaayc~~,e~comisl~tbrpredlrc-
~nanc~fromthcplutlcyletd~~scrvioeloods,will~s~a~~~of
holes. However, in assemblies u&h several rivets installed in line, the plastic dektion under
themostloadedrivetsbenkwilllessitsownloadand krease those of other rivets.

IL3BLslsIblBPiN0RRAslzNBRs&ANp
The~~~~noftbetronsverse~nsistbe~easinthecaseofthe
single symmet&l &earing treated in Part I. Pii 24 shows sign conventioos and assembly
sizes. As prwiow&, notations are: q = dQ/dx is the load per unit length of the pin, Q =
-dAf/dx is the &earing force applied to the pin cross section, A4 = &I” (d&ix) is the bending
 Stresses and displacements due to load transfer by fasteners IS1

q = ky

(0) SIGN CONVENTDNS (b) SIZES

moment, I& is the elasticity modulus of the bolt or pin material and 1, = (lrd’/64), dlJl is the
angular displacement between two ncighbouring cross sections distant dx from one another,
dy/dx = $ + @ is the slope of the lower and higher fibres of the deformed pin, @= QJG,A, is
the angular slip in shearing with AI = lrd2/4, p = a(1+ v)/(7+ 6~) where v is ihe Poisson’s
Patio, Gf = E#(l + v) is the shear modulus of the pin, m * k/pcGfAl,n - k/l!& and k is the
foundation modulus in the elasticity range representing the bearing elasticity of the strip with
raspect to a reference line located far of the hole centre at a cross section where the stress
distribution is practically uniform through the strip width.
As me&ned in the Fit Part and plotted in Fi. 24, the relative displacementofeach
strip reference line with respect to the pin-strip contact point at the strip interface is
composed of two terms, i.e. the usual elongation S l/E of the strip (assumed not bored), and
the displacement y due to baaring stresses applied to the hole contour, having substracted the
usual elongation.
From the relation M = Eir, (d&lx), M = E&f(d2y/dx’- my) and the dif&ential equation

d’yldx*- m d2yldx2+ ny = 0
is obtained.
The general solution is

y=Ashcpx~sin~+Bchqx~sin~x+Cshcpx~cosux+Dchcpx cos@x

where

(p2= V(n/4) - (1 + m/2Vn), m2= t/01/4) - (1 - m/2Vn),

with

64 k 4(7+6v) k
II=::*- and m=
7rd E, 3wd2 ‘i$

With strips of finite width, w, it has been established in Section 1.2.1 that the foundation
modulus was

k = E(l - M0.8,

where A = d/w and d is the diameter of the pin or fastener shank.

The Poisson’s ratio v varies from 0.28 for steels to 0.37 for light aluminium alloys. So as
to simplify, present computations use the value v = 0.33 for aluminium alloy or steel fasteners
while strip displacements use stress values computed by Thcocaris[S] using v = 0.365.
152 W. BARROIS
As previously values of n and m are:

n--$-r); and m =-$(I-*)5

Ef

Other intermediary notations are:

rI=sh(pa.sincua, sI=sh(pb.sin&
rs=ch+x3.sinem, sz=ch(pb.sin&,
r3=sh(pa*cosw, s3=shAb*cos&
r4= ch (pa*cos @a, s4 = ch ob . cos ob.

The equilibrium of forces applied to the left segment “1” of the pin implies
a 0

I 0
qdx=P or ydx=Plk

and, from the general solution:

In the same way, the equilibriumof forces applied to the right segment “2” of the pin implies:

~(~‘+~~=A1[~bs3-~~3J+B,[06sl-~(s4-1)]
.
+ Cdpbh- 1) + dwrl+ D,[(pbs,+ t&2]. (83)

The continuity of the pin deformed fibres at the junction between segments “1” and “2”
gives the condition

(dy/d-k, = (dy,/dx,),+. (84)

and, introducing the general solution:

A[cpdr2+ a, dr3]+ B[(pdr, + o dr4J+ C[q dr4- Y dr,] + D[P dr3- o dr21
- A& ds2+ o ds3]- II& ds, + u as,]- C&J ds4- Q)ds,l - DI[(Pds - @d%l = 0

The continuity of the bending moment implies

(d*y/dx’- myk. + (d2y3/dx12-my,)x,lb= 0 (85)

or, with v =wm:

A(r, - 014)+ B(r2 - ~13)+ C(r, + vr3 + D(r4+ vr,)

+A&, - vs4)+&(s2- vs3)+ c,(s3+ vs2)+D,(s4+ vs,)=o.

The boundary conditions are as follows:

Shearing force equal to zero at x = 0 and x1= 0. With Q = Eflf (d3y/dx3- m dy/dx), the two
boundary conditions become:

-atx=O: Q=Oinvolves Bo-Cp=O, (86)

 !iXresscsanddiiplacements due to load transfer by fasteners lS3

and
-at x1= 0: Q, = 0 involves B,o, - C,cp= 0. (87)

In the case of the pin without head and of rivets or bolts installed without axial tightening
or loosened after some service operation time, the bending moment is zero at x = 0 and x, = 0.
These conditions may be developed as
-M=Oatx=O involves A-Dlo=O, (88)
and
44, = 0 at xl = 0 involves A, - D,/u = 0. (8%

In the other extmnc case of a strong axial tightening and of lage rigid heads ensuring a
perfect clamping of the fastener shank with respect to the. outside surfaces of assembled
strips,
dy/dx is zero at x = 0 and dy,/dx, is zero at x1= 0.

These two conditions become as follows:

-dy/dx=O at x=0 or Bd~+Cp=0, andwith (86):B=C=O, (90)

-dy,/dx, -0 at XI-0 or B,o+C,(p =O, andwith (87):R,= C, -0. (91)

Eight linear I’ClatiOttS are thus Obtained between the eight constant coetiicients A, B, C, D,
A,, B,, C, and D,. In terms of matrix cakuius, these rdations may be written as:

Pin case
eons _ 7

VW 811 0 0 814 0 0 0 0 A 0
(W 0 822 823 0 0 0 0 0 B
(82) 831 g32 833 834 0 0 0 0 C al:
WI &I 842 843 844 845 g.46 847 848 D = 0

@4 831 832 gs3 8% bs 8% 837 8% Al 0

(83) 0 0 0 0 865 866 g67 ih BI bid
m 0 0 0 0 gn 0 0 876 Cl 0
m 0 0 0 0 0 g.6 887 0 D, 0

In the case of the assembly antisymmetry (a = b), the number of unknown coefficients is
reductdto4,sinceA=A,,B=B,,C13CIBndD=D,.Thebendingmomentiszen,atx=a
and the equation set becomes:

Case of perfect holding of fastener shank ends owing to the head clamping.
The unknowns E, C, -B, and’ C, are zero and the equation set is reduced to the two
equations:
Pa
A(wQ- MIS) + D((par,+ ears) = 2 (qp2+~3 d2,

A(r, - ur,) + D(r, + VI,)= 0. (95)

00 5

030 Q

00 0
 Stresses and dispkccmenta due to lord transfer by fasteners IS5

The set of the two eqns (9s) is identically the set (51)-(52)previously established in the case of
the double symmetrical shear with 9 = b, in which P is replaced by P/2 (see Table 1 in Part I).
From that, it may be expected that important differences will exist between the two limiting
cases, namely the case of free pin ends and that of perfectly held shank ends. In the case of a
perfect clamping of rivet or bolt heads, it may be admissible that the model of the single
shearing may be obtained by cutting the double shearing model by its symmetry plane (compare
Fiis. 17 and 24). It may be seen that the empirical expression of Vogt for the double shearing,
i.e.

P 0.4 0.4 2.5

d”E a+b+d)
E I

being erroneous, since badly supported by Volkersen’s test results would, on transformation to
the case of the single shear by cutting the symmetrical model,‘be equally erroneous for the case
of free pin ends and for the partial clamping of fastener heads existing in practice, even if the
preceding expression was correct.
With a ratio d/w = 0.2, the value Epck- 1 corresponds well to the same material for fastener
and strips. In the case of the single antisymmetrical shearing (a = b), the Tabk 9 and the Fii. 25
show results of the digital computations.

T&k 9. Beuiq unit lowis end dispkcements in mtisymmcthcal sir&e sbar (a = b, qk = I)

u/d 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I 1.2 1.4

Y,WP 4.005 4.086 4.203 4.3w 4.652 5.006 5.451

Free end pin YNP -: -1.99 -1.976 -1.938 -1.871 -1.764 -1.615 -1.424
1.509 1.819 3.226
Perfectly Y-ZP t 1.013 1.259 1.695 2.389 E 4.126 4.951
cktwcd MS YIddP l.W3 0.871 0.659 0.348 Oh2 -0.245 -0.401

The f&t conclusion arising from this tabk is that the axial tightening of bolts or rivets may
have an important inthrence on stresses and disphtcements in the case of the single shearing.
With the technologically usual values of a/d rangingfrom 0.4 to 0.6, displacements and bearing
load concentrations are very much increased if owing to a manufacturing defect or to a
loosening in service, the axial tightening is low or even zero so making negligible the holding
effect of fastener heads. Moreover, very long rivets (old * 0.6) having an enclosed total strip
thickness higher than 1.2x diameter tend to have the same behaviour as free end pins.
With a ratio d/w = 0.2, the value JZ,jR= 3 corresponds well to the case of steel pins or
fasteners through ahtminium alloy strips. With Q= b and free end pins, Table 10 gives some
results of digital computations.

T&k 10. Rektiw m and bar& loui concenQ8tionr in sin&

antkymmethl sbmr (u = b. E,fk - 3). Case of free end pins

aId 0 06 :;3 1.8

YMP :IL? 4’069 :.22% 5.0614
YWP -: -1.993 -1:9?9 -1.914 -1.762 -1.4%1
-a-p, I.5 1.511 1.5% 1.837 2.2043 2.71’12

In Tables 9 and 10, the relative gradknt of the bearing unit load in the strip thickness
direction and at the point of highest bearing concentration, g,, = (l/q,) (dq/dx),,., is given in
the form -a.g,=c.
Fiis 26 and 27 show interpolated curves plotted from digital computations catrkd out in
both cases, u = b and a = 26, with several values of the relative thickness a/d, rangingfrom0 to 1.8,
and the values 1-1.5-2 and 3 of the ratio E/k. Exponential curves of the form

9-19 = (9au/9).+0+ c,(OId)%

156 W. BARBOfS

RELATIVE SRADIENT

0 02 04 00 0.8 1 12 14
a/d
RELATIVE STRIP THICKNESS

pic25. Bcuir~~~inrisdc‘rbarolrfulcwr~tm,r~,Bw-o.z

a=b

I-

1 1.5 1
RLUTIVE SlRtP lm- r/d

W x Beuinp ~WUIconcentrationin tingk shear of a pin, o = b.

 Stresses and displacements due to load transfer by fasteners

q=ky
= p/a

(53 k = q/y = canstwit

lIW MODULUSOF EUSnClW

have been plotted to meet at the best computed points which were a&&xl by rounded
numbers. By interpolating values of constants cl and cz for intermediate vahres of J!&lk,curves
plotted on Figs. 26 and 27 have been obtained. These results might be checked with systemati-
cal computer calculations, but taking account of. the hypotheses, namely (a) strips were
assumed to be constituted of a pile of thin independent sheets, and (b) pin cross sections are
assumed to remain circular under loading, as well as that results will be used in fatigue
interpretation, the precision of present computations is probably sufhcient.
Figures 28(a) and (b) show’how bearing concentrations in the two assembled strips vary
with the ratio b/a of the strip thicknesses and the ratio u/dof the highest thickness “u” to the
pin diameter cl, in the limit case of the free end pin (rivet or bolt in the absence of axial
tightening).
The actual stressing by shear stresses at the interfaces of laminated strips which are
assumed to constitute the actual “solid” strips, must stiRen the strips at bearing concentration
points and increase bearing concentration factors, while the local flattening of the pin cross
section must have the opposite effect. For lack of other information, it is proposed to apply
again the correction suggested by the results of displacement tests in symmetrical assemblies
under double shear reviewed in the Part I, Section 1.3.3,qn (58). namely

a-4-( 0.8+0.3e
> (W
J%’
but to compute the stresses from the &-values without any correction.
It may be still noted in the case of the pin under single shear that the preponderant part of
(9-/9-_) corresponds to the case of the absohrtely rigid pin. This remark entails the
possibilityof solving the problem of the tmnsformationof the beating load concentrationinto
stress concentration ot hole edges by investigatingthe limitingcase of the absolutelytigidpin in
158 W. BARROIS

-1,
---

3 Y
-7 2
Et/k=2

Fig. 28.

"solid"strips,thus eliminating the restrictive hypothesis (a) of independent thin sheets. This
might be obtained from tridimensional finite elements calculation in the case II = 6. A
photo-elasticity investigation with a steel pin might supply stress concentration factors at hole
edges and the corresponding relative stress gradients through the strip thicknesses.
It may be still underlined that foregoing computations assumed a clearance zero or of
negligibleconsequences between pin and hole.
The mean dotted line in Fii. 29 gives a good approximate value of the relative bearing
gradient, go 3: -c/a, for the thickest strip “u” at the strip interface. In usual cases, 0.5 G u/d d 1,
 !3trcssesand diiphcements due to load transfer by fasteners 159

and from Fis. 26 and 28 0.1 G Aq Q 0.6, relative bearing gradients ranges from -1.7/a to -23/a
and,therefore, they we comparabk witb the stress gradient of the circukr bend& -2/a That
supports well the idea of using, as a 6rst approximation of the reference specimen in fatigue,
(assuming frett& effect is ncgligibk), the circular bending specimen contain& a hole of same
diameter and macbhd in the same way as the investigated part. ?he tiferencc specimen
s~dbel~~witbtbessmeproportionsofaxialloadaadbending~tandhovetbe
~~surtbewn~putsy~~fatiguetests~becrvriedoutinorder
to~~~htaucnccsoftbcstnss~~alo~tbtbok~rad~the
strip thkkness. TIM cotreuponds to a new investigation domain on the comb- of smss
~ktikchuom)‘rrcs~aslCIlrp~swbJcctsdtoaf~eloading~onitsinitueMx
oathefati@lelLJ&Bviour.
The hypothesis of dvet or bolt keads rigid enoqh to ensure an actual holding of slunk ends
with~tothtrtripou~surlaceislikelynottoberealizcdinpractice.Itcorrespondsto
a limit& theoretial case useful in the discussion and the interpretation of fatigue teat results.
F&urcs 30 and 31 shows interpolated &es plotted from the digital solution of the set of linear
.

I I I I I
as 1
r/d
KLLATIVK PLATE THICKWKSS
160 W. BABBOIS

2 0.5 1 1.5
r/d

eqns (94) for three cases of very tight rivets with the thickness ratios b/a = 0, 1 and 1.5. By
comparing with Fm. 26 and 27, it may be noted that bearing concentration factors are low for
short rivets flow a/d values). That shows the importance of a good tighte& of short rivets,
the main stress concentration dus to the load transfer being dGi&d by 4 in the thickest strip
with respect to the case of the free end pin (loose rivets). HoWver, this advan- tend to be
c.ancelIedfor long rivets, more especially as the initial tigh&&g ia lower and the real state is
different from the theoretical case pf a perfect holding of sha& due to the axial tightening and
the head stiikess.
Nevertheless, the behaviour oft short rivets, which are yll ti@ened since easy to install,
explains the reason why fatigue damage is rarely observed at the end of wing skin near
attachment of the fuselage. On the contrary, long riocts in anac of di#iculz OCCCJS an oftm the
origins of pnmatum damage.
Concerning supplementary stresses due to the local bending of the riveted strip, stresses
induced by the pin tilting in the close 4@ouWod of the hole, it may be noted that the
corresponb bending moment equals that which is generally considered and called “secondary
bending moment” but that the local stress concentratjon is higher than the conventional one
discussed io Refs. [I81 and [19]. In point of fact, ypifb,e wide strips assembled by a pin, the
kud transferred by the pin will create important stresses~af the close neighbourhood of the hole
although the direct tensile stress, the “secondary bendi& stress and the corresponding stress
concentration are neglibible.
In the limiting of fasteners with a very strong axial tightening that would ensure a perfect
clamping of the fastener shanks on the outer assembly surfaces, Figs. 30-32 give the deflection
Strews and displacements
due to load tramforby fasteocrs 161
162 W. BARROIS

Fii 32.(c).

ooefticientslodthe~loadconcentrationfacton.Tbtkoversd~~lCbjQ3,
0 C u/d Z 2.4 and 0.05 l b/a c 1. la practice most of fastems correspond to (u/d)mtios lower
than 1. However, fatigue reveals often c&al fastewn where, owing to desigR wnstlaints Or’
mamlfact&g nwessities, the (al&ratios exceed wand reach 2.

In order to avoid outskb protnlsion or roughness, local reinforcements of aircraft wing

~~furslPleddarrsaoitsniartslledOUinside~~~thdirfaste~preStressedin
singIe shear. l&e safiq is Ores for the fasteners bitig v equipments, or their attach-
ments, on to intemal mbmbersd the structure such as fuwiage fiames or thin webs of wing or
tail spars. These accessory jmrts are stretched owing to the elongation of the darent members,
and their reactions overload such members at edges of the fastener holes. Beyond the higher
bearing concentration factor in the case of the single shearing, the foregoing technological
 Stresses and di~pl~eats dueto lovl transfer
by fasteners 163

discussion underlines the practical importance of the general problem of the accessory surface
elements stretched by the elongation umkr loading of the underlying principal structural
members in which prematrwefatigue damage may occur at overstrcsscd holes.

11.4.1Se&g up cquurio~s
In the case of the double shear, the investigated assembly ant its model are respectively
represented in Fig. 33 (a) and (bl, after Vogtlll. With same notations, Fig. 33 (c) corresponds to
thesingkshearingcase.LetP,,q ,..( P,,_rand Pmbe the loads transferred by every fastener.
element. rivet or bolt. Tensile loads in the centralstrip of the Fw. 33(b)or in the top strip of the Fw.
33(c) are

Inthesetoftoprodbo#omstripofthe~.33(b)orintbclowersbipofthcF~3yc),~
lo&are

RI-P-Q I,....., R,=P-Q,. tm

ai = ptfh

wheref,isth6cae5ckntofrektive~hetweatthestrips,tahinttaccaamtoflocal
streinsofrivetoadrtriprwitbnrpecttothe~of~8thrtirrssumtdia~c~ns.i.e.
uniformdirtn’butioaoftbes~rstbrouehtbestrip~Mdalongthestriplenetbsbetween
twos~efrstencrswhiesrre~softruuv~liwsotwbicbthetensilestressinthe
stripvariesby~.With&=(l-A)13/0.~~~~dlw,distheholediuwter,wisthestrip
width and J3the eksticity moduhts of the strip, and with the values of y&a/P and y&b/P &en
by Fm. 26-32 as functions of &/A and u/d (4 being tbc elasticity modulus of the fastener),
partial~&&USMl& y,andyy,betweeueveryreferencelinuandthefastenercentre
may be colqmted. Then the ‘Llative di@kement is

4=Yd+Yw (1W

inthecaseoftbedanbleshear,it~ybenotedthatthetbicknessaotationsaaadbare
inverted with respect to those of Sections 1.3.1,1.3.2and 1.3.3.
Thetheor&&olon@onsoftheoutsideandcentralstripsare

where I, is the distance of successive fasteners, “i” and “i + 1”. A., and & are respectively the
cross section areas of aI- and b&ick dps in the span **li*’between fasteners or rows “i” and
“i + l”, E,, and & are the elasticity modulus of strips, ai and #3,are coe5cients taking account
of the influence of holes on the strip elongations.
From the discussion in Section 1.2.4, an approximate value of a- or &coe5cients would be

a-1+4[(+$)-11; (102)

SFU Vd. 10.No. LX

 W. BARBOIS

(I i

Fi 33. Models of spliceassembly and of reioforcedassembly.

with A=d/w=9.2 and d/1=0.2, a=1.125 is obtained; in the same way with d/w=O.4 and
d/l = 0.33, a = 1.385. It is obvious this point should not be negkcted and that a better
loPowkdOcofaweuldkIrsdai.~~~~~vemhtbe~byiftabsntiaO
the stress distributions calculated by Howland[lO] in the case of the inhitely 1~ &ip
contain& a circukr bole and stressed in tension, as that has been made herein with the
theoretical calculation of Theo@8 concemiq the strip loaded by a circular pin (see Section
1.2.1).Howknd has given values of longitudinal stress in the strip only for the ratio d/w = 0.5,
valuesfordlwP0.50.3~0.4~t~~bbyusiaO~s~~~dw~~ue
known. Tabk 11 gives Howland’s results for d/w = 0.5 aud the correspond& results of
approximate integrations.

Atthecrossrection2;Jw~209,thcinflwnccofttwbokispnctically~,~the
corresponding relative elongation is Ax/x= 1.416P/Bw&The approximate expression fzs) which
meet Harris’ results[4] would have yielded

AL/L= (P/Ewr)b.5 (8 - 1) + 2.O!+B = 1.383P/Ewr.

The mment is excellent if account is taken of the stress extrapolation beyond the last value
given by Howland for x = 1.57w/2. Howeuer, other inses&uiorw would be useful by con-
sideringrhe hole pluggedby a pin made of the same mat&al or of another.
Aft& this digression the side-plate or reinforcement probkm may be considered again.
Within a span between two fastener rows, the compatibility of displacements implies

a,-a,+;=n,-A, (103)

and with

ar=Pfr and Pi=Qr-Q_1:

-Qr-JI+Q,[fi+L,+&+&--Q,+&+,=g.
 Stmses and diiplPcemeatr
due to losd transferby fasteners 165

In the case of a &ice assembly, the boundary conditions are

Qo=o and Q.=P. (105)

If, instead of a fastener file, m paralkl 81~8~s exist, the load transferred by each fastener
becoINS

PI - (Qi - Q&/m (W

and f, must be replaced by fdm in the expression (106).

In the case of the niclforcins strip f7] sketched in Fi. 34, boundary conditions are

G-0 atbothends,and
a#8+1-o or f”+l=P”+r -0 at the symmetry middle plane. (107)

Before computing the co&cients of eqn (KU), it may be useful to discuss the practical
importance of the thickness ratio b/a with regard to the bearing displacements y,gand yb of the
rivet in each strip with respect to each referenceline, the existence of which is qucstionabk
onlyatthcstripendsifh~0.785w.

C-C aacnord

ITO.34.

Ia the fra end pin C(ISC,data used to plot the curves in Fi. 28(a)and (b) have been used to
establish the following Tabk 12in which computed (y&WWtlues have been multipIied by a/b
50 a they - be t&d&d to (,&,P)-vehrcs. It my be wted that tht sm (y. + y&,P varies
only little with the thickness ratio bia. owin# to the low p&sioa of further fatigue life
calculations, it may be assumed that displacements y, and yb as well as their sum (y. + yb) are
constant for old c 1.4 within the rangeof the thicknessratios0.3 c b/a c 0.7.

a/d b/a0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 09 I

0 4 4.6 4.8 4.9 5 4.8 4.6 4.3 4
Lo 1 4.2 4.8 5 5.2 5.2 ;::o 4.9 4.8 4.5 43
1.-P 1.4 4.5 :: 57 -5.7 5.4 5.2 5. 4.a 4.5
1.8 5 i2 6- 5.8 5.5 5.3 5.2 5.1
0 5.7 4.4s 4.1 4 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.1 4
ka I 6 4.7 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.2
yb-
P :: El ::i+ :.9 :.9 :., L ::: 47 4.5
5I3 5.1
lO.3 9.2s 9 a
t6 ii5 ix iii ii
10.8
11.4 9.7
10.7 9.6
10.7 lo:7 10.4 10.2 9.8 9.5 it:
12.6 12.1 12.1 11.9 11.6 II lo.a 10.6 lOi
166 W. BARROIS

On the other hand, values of displacements computed in Section If.2 for the case of an
absolutely rigid pin, might be used with relative errors lower than 10% for the purpose of
computing load distributions among assembly fasteners, at least for a/d G 1.2.
With high values of a/d and moderately high values of b/d, the behwiour of very right riocts
or b&r tends toward that of free end pins, as illustrated in Fig. 25. In the range of the size
ratios used in practice, computations have been carried out enabling Fir. 30-32 to be plotted
and to obtain the displacement coefficients related to E;dk= 3 which are reported in the Table
13.As in the case of free end pins, the d&placementsum (y. + y*) varies only little for u/d G 1.4
withintherangeO.Ucb/ac1.4.

Tabkl3. Bdngdisphmmtaiatba~areofvsty~rivetsor
bolts, E,/k=3

aId k/a 0 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.65 0.8 1

1 1.13 1.66 1.71 1.8 1.9 1.95 2.04

Lo 1.4 1.4 2.45 2.6 2.8 3 3.1 3.3
Ya-
P 1.8 1.8 3.4s 3.7 4.1 4.4 4.5 4.35

1 4 3 2.4 2 2.04
ka
Jlr- it 3 3.3
P ::84 t62 3:; f:88 4:1 4,s 4.5s
1 5.7 4 4.2 4.1 4.1 4.1
(&Y&Y.’ ;.: 6.7 6 5.8 5.9 6.1 6.6
8.1 7.6 7.9 8.5 9 9.1
1 1 1.01 1.05 1.19 1.4 1.6 2.04
1.4 1 1.05 1.2 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.3
Y.$
1.8 1 1.1s 1.4 1.9 2.7 3.6 4.55

It is now possible to treat a practical problem concerning the reinforcing strip represented in
Fi. 34. This strip was assembled onto the inside surface of an aircraft wing lower skin between
two adjacent stringers. The problem data are as follows:
-Skin made from 2924-T3 aluminium alloy sheet. Thickness = D = 4.8mm, E, =
70,00tlN/mm2.2tWT3 e. Cross section area of the skin and of the stringer associated to
onCS@ip,A,=1OOOmt?
-Reinforcing strip made from 2024-T3aluminium alloy. Thickness varying from 1.59 at
ends to 3mm at the middk cross section; width==65mm, Emr,=E,.
4mmdiameter steel rivets in two flies 45 mm apart. The strip part associated with one
rivet 6le is 32.5mm-wide. & = Ej = 210,OOll N/mm’.
-Ratios:
Theefl~vewidthoftheskinandtheassocirrtedstrioOermrybQ~tobe~t
~a=#10mm,dlw~0.02Mdk~l~IZ,Tbeaorrcspo~ratio%#/k-~kequdr~45.
In~~~s~,dlw~4/325-0.1~laadk=l.l&,~rotioBJkequJs~13.‘Ws
cross section areas of the strip * given in pi. 34.
Bjfk is near to 3 and b/o varies from l.S9/4.8= 0.33 to 3/4.8= 0.625.Table 12,relative to the
limit case of free end pins, shows that within this range of thickness ratios the overall
displacement a = y. + yb corresponding to the mean value b/a - 0.5 may be used in practical
computations. In the other Wting case of very tight rivets, the variation displacement is under
5%forold-1.2andwithintherange0.33~~Mcrc0.625,asitmaybever&ledbyinterpolating
between u/d = 1 and dd - 1.4 from values given in Table 13 for E,&& - 3. It will be further
shown that the influence of this variation on the shear load distribution among the rivets of an
array will remain very low. In each limit case the values of rivet stilfnesses taken for
computation purposes will be those corresponding to u/d * 1.2 and b/a 0.5 for which curves of
pigs. 28 and 32 will facilitate an interpolation on the E&k values.
Since the differential equation of the pin deformation on an elastic foundation has been
solved only in the case of a same vahte of the foundation modulus k in the two assembled
strips, the mean value E&k - 2.6 will be considered instead of the values 2.45for the skin and
2.73 for the reinforcing strip.
Then, for the fnc end pin ccue, Fie 28 Yields:(y,,+ y&a/P) - 53 + 2.35x 2 = 10, and with
 !bsses and dkphcementa due to load transfer by fasteners 167

LM = E,(1.22+ 1.1)/2= 1.16E., the displacement a becomes

1OP
= 1.8PIE..
’ = 4.8 x 1.16&

In the case of uery tight n’utis, Frg. 32 yields by interpolation:

from which
5.4P
a
= 4.8 x 1.16& = o-w pIEa-

It may be recalled that the empirical relation of Vogt mod&d by Swift was

1
P 0.8 0.8 5E
a’E [ a+T+zL

and gave values of al?jP raaghg from 0.85 to 1.035depending on the strip thicknesses at each
middle cross section between rivets.
Taking account of the correction proposed in Section 1.3.3 (eqn 58) to meet measured
displatxmcuts in doubk shear, tha corraction factor is 0.8+0.3 EJ& -0.9 for &.,- 3 I&
Forvay~rivetr,~contctodvJue~~P~O.87is~mdmaybecompuedtothe
aqirical expression which may supply correct values for well instalkd rivet%
For~tworivtt~yrofthemodtl~pre~atsdinF~.U,~rivstftlebeia(toadtdby
p12,the~ntswillbe:
Arae end pin: a = (1.8x 0.9)PD.B- 0.81PIE, from which f,lrr= 0.81,
-very tight rivets: b -. (0.97x 0.9)P!2F - 0.44 P/2.& and f,E - 0.44.
Each term being multiplied by E, - E eqn (104)becomes:

With the sizes indicated in Fig. 34 and assuming a constant value of fJ3 for each case, the
foIlowing matrix equntions are obtained after each of their terms has been multiplkd by a
common fac@r so as to obtain alI subdiagonal ekments equal to -1.

I 1
caseof freeend pins (loose bets).

I[
.
1
2
Qi = 1 x 0.0506P
1
i -12.637 -1
-12.409 -1
-12.372 --12.335
1 -11.365 :. 1.195

the solution of which is:

Q, =O.O54P, @=0.091 P, Q=O.l15 P, Q,=O.131 P and Q,-O.l4op;

p, = 0.027 p, p2 = 0.019P. Pa - 0.012P, P4 = 0.008 P and S - 0.005P.

I
caseof very tight riucts.

I[I
1
-13.173 -12.752 -12.684 -1 = 1 x 0.0932P.
1
1.195
 168 w. BARROIS
The solution is:
Q,=O.O62P, Q2=0.102P, Ql=O.lUP, Q4’0.141 P, Qs=0.151 P,
P, = 0.031P, P3 = 0.02P, P3 = 0.012 P, P,= 0.008 P and P3 = 0.005 P.

It is to be reded the Pi-values in for .tbe two rivets of each HOW. Tbcse values ore VW close
to those of the hrst limit case of free end pins. Previously[Tl, by using Swift’sexpression of the
displacements a, the solution was:

P, =0.058 P, Pz=0.040 P, P3=0.025 P, P,=O.O17 P and P, -0.009P

for steel rivets, and

P, =0.057P, P,=O.OM P, P,=O.O23 P, P,=O.O16P and P,=O.O09P

for alufninium alloy rivets.

With the end rivets made of aluminium alloy, the other being of steel, the load distribution
W&X

P,=O.WP, P2-O.O45P, P3=0.028P, P4=0.019PandP3=0.011 P.

These results sbow that the load distribution among assembly fasteners depends only
slighly on the mean vahe of the rivet stiffness and depends moderately on the stihess
distfii among the rivets of m array. Therefore, comput&nts of loid distribuths niay be
carried out by using rou& approxhatione of the problem parameters. It must be underhd
thottBertsfeof~~wallk~~t~~ands~scanccntrationathole
edges are concerned.

11.4.2Assessment of stress concentmtions factom and compa&n with damage adjastment

factors from fatigae tests
With both causes of stress concentration at a fastener hole edge, namely the external
loading of the bored sheet and the bear&load transferred by the fastener, the highest stresses
are applied at the ends of the. hole diameter perpendicular to the loading direction. The fatigue
crack origin to be considered in each case being at the same point of assembled sheets, both
super@osed stresses may be added.
However, a di&mnce exists between the two causes of stmss concentmtion, in this that the
bearing stress concentrations are always in tension, since the bemihg pressure applies to the
opposite half hole surface when the load sign changes. Fii 35 illusttaaw this beheviour in the
most frequent case of fatigue critical fasteners where no compressive stress occurs though the
external loading ranges from tension to compression.
Suppose a strip, of width w and thickness t, subjected to a direct tensile load and to a
transferred load, PI, applied to a hole surface by a fastener, the highest stress, S-, is the sum
of three terms defined as follows.
The direct concentration stress, &.., ,, due to the direct stress (S,,- PJwt) bypassing the
hole, is

As UT I - &(s. - p*/w,
where & is the usual stress concentration factor corresponding to the hole when plugged by
the fastener shank (see Fig. 35).
The applied nominal tensile stress in the gross area of the cross section at the tirst rivet
being noted S., the corresponding load P equals A& i.e. in the considered problem defined in
Fig. 34, P = 1000S, or P/2 = 500 S. by rivet array. The nominal stress bypassing the first rivet
row is (1 - P,/P)S,, and equals about 0.94S. here.
Taking account of the neighbourhood of the two rivet arrays at the middle distance between
adjacent stringers, it will be supposed that the stress concentration is intermediate between
 Stresses and displacements due to load transfer by fasteners 169

2 CYCLES FROM K2 TO !$,

Fii. 35.

those de&ted for a strip of width w containing a hole of diameter d with a w/d mio ranging
from 45/4 = 11.2 to 127/s= 31.8. For an empty hole, the stress concentration factor A& =
S,,,,,JS,,= Kr,,,,/[ 1-(d/w)] would be rangingfrom 3.003to 3.024in the present probkm, from the
Heywood’s approximate relation (26) given in Part I.
For the hole filled by the shank of an aluminium alloy short rivet, the diametral interference
is about 0.1% but it is reduced after some service use by the plastic strains induced by fatigue
under repeat& loads. In the case of a tight fit steel rivet, the mauimum interference is also
about 0.1% (for cxampk rivet diameter is SzW mm in a hole of diameter equal to K&t mm).
After plastic strain& and fretting wear, it may be admitted that a little clearance, 0 to 0.05%of
the diameter, will exist after some service use. Cons&ring again Fii. 14 in Part I (symmetrical
double shearing), it may bt, noted that the diametral interference reduces the strnss conccn-
tration because the shank diametral thickness opposes the transverse shrinhing perpendicular to
the ten& load. From a neat-fitto a ckarancc of about 0.05%d, the stress co- factor Kr
v~sfrom1~to25.~tBntK~=3forancmptyhdc.Hetein,thcsdectedvrrlptirKr,~2.
(2) UrriforrnQspriffsknit load tWq# rhr strip thkkness. From eqns (3) and (8) of Part I, a
load PI transferred to a strip of thickness “u” by a pin of diameter “d” creates at the hok edge,
and at the cuds of the diameter perpendicular to the load direction, a maximum stress

Here, d/w equals about 0.05, S- = 1.06Pi/ad and, with P = 1000S, for the two rivet arrays,
a=4.8mm, d=4mm and

0.027for the free end pin case, and

‘I” = { 0.031for the very tight rivet case,

which yields

1.49for the free end pin case, and

S-=sx
1.71for the very tight rivet case.

The results art not very &&rent.

(3) Secondary baatig due to the bending and the tilting of 6 fastam shak This term
shows greater va&tion with the axial tightening of rivets or bolts. By subs&actingthe mean
bearing unit load cons&red in the precedent subparagraph, the bending and tilting part of the
bearing unit load corresponds to the part (q-/h - l)q, of the bearing unit load q. where
q,,, = PJa and qAqm * q-alp, k y&/P, = K* is given in Fii. 26-32.
In the present problem defined in Fii 34, u/d = 4.#4- 1.2, Mu‘= 1.5914.8= 0.33 and
E,ik = 26. In the case of the free end pin, two interpolations from the curves in Fig. 28
corresponding to E,fk = 2 and 3, yield:

= 5.3 and (q,,,Jqm - 1)= 4.3.

Qlmxl4m
170 W. BARROIS

In the case of very tight riuets, linear interpolations using curves for E,Ik = 2 and 3 plotted in
Fii. 32 yield:

h&m = 2.2~5and (q&q,,, - 1) = 1.u

If the corresponding stress concentration might be computed by means of the process

previously used for the uniform part of the bearing load, the secondary bearing load will create
maximum stresses having the following values

1.49x 4.3 = 6.41for the free end pin case, and

AS-3 =
‘Xi 1.71x1.25=2.14 for the clamped head case.

(4) OoemUstnss concentrations for tension loads. By summing the foregoing results and in
the absence of any correction, which in the future might be based on tridimensional com-
putations or on tests, the idlowing resuh ate obtained:

9.9for free end pins, and

SlllU’ so’ I5.S forverytightrivets.

In comprerrlon, & GO and for high negative S,,-vahms,the load transferred by a fastener
tends to createWsile stresses at the hole edge. As long as the bearing load is transferred by the
whokholts~~to~prcs~~~tionovertheMIbdeslnfuxeadthepressure
~ovcrtk!othsrbnlts~~,thss~ss~~~duetothebGvine~
load is divided by 2 as long as the contact is kept, i.e. longer in the presence of a nominal
compreaaive lead than in the case of tension with an irtterfereuce-fitfastener. Moreover, the
s~~coacbaQIllbnfactoressoeirtcdtot&:~comprsssive~~~thcbole~be
l.~~~~~limitofth8Fstfo~S,will~cobtainsd~~AS,,,/S,ofthe
tensile case by -1, the other partial vulues being cons&red~ha upper limits for the bearing
.
strms B . In the present case, the values are:

AS-,lS,, = -1,
1.49for the free end pin case, and
&m&m Q.
i 1.71for the clamped heads case,

1.49x 4.3 = 6.41for the pin case, and

AS-d& c
1.71~ 1.2S=2.14fortheclampedheadcase.
By superimposition, the upper limits of the stress concentration factors in compression are

6.9 for the free end pin case, and

smul4 s 2.9for the clamped head case.

This entails that fatigue cracks due to compressive nominal stresses would occur in compressed
region only at badly designed fasteners.
(5) Comparison with' the full-scale futiguc test. The interpretation of a fatigue test supplies
an order of magnitude of the stress concentration at the fatigue crack origin with mspeet to the
known or cvahtated nominal stresses in the region around the fatigue crwk.
In principle, the present interpretation method involves a lot of cumulative damage com-
putations usiug the hfiner’s formula D = End& where nr is the number of cycles tke nominal
stress of level Sr has been applied to the tested structure, while N, is the number of cycles that
produces the failure in a reference specimen for the same level of stress. All stress levels are
multiplied by a common factor, called damage adjustment fector[22], determined in order that
fndN, = I will correspond to the number of cycles of test loads for which the damage
considered occurred during the test.
(6) Decomposition of test or flight loading into components for damage calcuhtiom.
Independently of the formula used to compute numerical values of the Miner’s fatigue
 Stresses and displacements due to load transfer by fagtcncrs 171

damages, the decomposition of the timecvolving loading into components is very important for
the practical interpretation of fatigue tests. Early, full-scale fatigue tests used for the fatigue life
substantiation of aircraft were performed by constantly applying to the aircraft wing the
equilibrium level ihght loads and by superimposing the repeated application of vertical gust
loads corresponding to a gust velocity of loft. per second and occurring ten to twenty times
during a mean flight.Damagecomputation using the Miner-Palmgrenrule were carried out with the
decomposition of flight-loads into a so4kd ground&ground variation, between the level
tlight load and the ground mean load, and a series of alternating loads around each of both mean
load values. This “grou&air-grourC component gave an almost negligii computed damage
though some tests on smaUnotched specimens and the service behaviour of aircraft.structures
suggested that the actual e&t of returning to the ground condition was important if not
preponderant.
In order to take account of the ground-air-group transition, it has been proposed[211 to
breakdown the diagram of loads applied during one liight into one fundamental component
defined by the variation between the highest and the lowest levels of the load programme, and
complementary al&mating loads. Now, when stresses are not proportional to loads, this
decomposition must be applied to the stress programme. This peak-to-peak definition attributes
to the ground-air-ground transition an importance comparable to the actual importance. Pii
36 illustrates the procedure of loading partition in the investigated example.

The nominal bending stresses applied to the structure taken as example are partitionned into
constant amplitude components as follows:

SW s, s, %lmm npa-
n/mm2 ,
-for 1500 severe one-tli&bt progmmmcs:

pcalr-to-pul
altcmatiqt components 150 01 15
48 75
102 :.5
30 102 32.J
-for 3600 moderae one-night
pcrlr**p-k 138 p-mY 69 69 1
altwnating components 44 94 2.5
27 94 32.5

These nominal stresses would be too low to give any damage in the absence of stress
concentration. They must be multiplied by an appropriated factor so as the Mirrer’sdamage
may be computed using a suitable region of the S-N curves. Pii 37 shows a set of
(K& - N) - K& curves for 2024-T3aluminium alloy sheet material and notched specimens
having a notch radius r = 1.5mm. It is considered that these curves are representative for
3-5 mmdiieter holes. Applied to nominal sasses, this coefikient is called the damage-
equivalent stress concentration factor, Kti = KrkD,+In order to obtain comparabk vahres of
the damage adjustment factor km, the same set of S-N curves will be used for structures made of
2024-T3aluminium sheet material. That, would permit to clear the relation of km with certain
parametersof assemblies.
 W. BARROIS

By a short procedure of trial and error, the value Km = 5.15 has been obtained such as the
stresses Km S correspond to a value unity of the hfiner damage:

PutLlbrmp
0.1829
0.10&l
0.162S

:%ll
0:13

0.9939

This value of the Miner’s damage is close to 1 and the corresponding value KM = 5.15
approaches Kr = 5.85 that is the stress concentration factor of the clamped head case. The
damage adjustment factor is aD, = 5.15/5.85= 0.88.
In most cases, with correct ratios of the clamped thickness to the fastener diameter, that is
to say, e/d l 1, and with a good axial tightening, the actual state of very little clearance will be
close enough to the neat-fit case so that the tensile reference specimen may be used for damage
computations.

II.5 UISCUSSION
Previously, the computed values of stress concentration factors, KT, were compared with
the values of the “eq&almr” stress concentration factors, KRB deduced from the inter-
pretation of fatigue test results by means of cumulative damage computations. ‘Ibis comparison
is of practical interest only if the KT- and KM-values are sufIIciently linked such that a
structuA change or repair modifying KT has an effect of the same magnitude order on Km, or
in the case of a change in the expected service loading, if the fatigue life of the structure far the
new loadiqg may’be predicted by using the same value of km.
In ail cases, since fatigue cracks originate from the material surface, at a notch root or at a
hole edge, the relevant terms of comparison are the surface stress at the crack origin and its
stress gradient. This neglects the effect of the cyclical plastic modificationof the surface stresses
during the fatigue test but it is assumed that the theoretical values of the surface stress
and relative stress gradients at the surface define the stress and strain conditions for which the
referencespecimen and the considered structural area will have similar fatigue behaviour. If
S-d- is the hi&est surface stress of the tested structure at the crack origin and that of the
reference specimen at the notch root, and if SM is the nominal stress the definitions of
which should be similarfor the struchweand the reference specimen,the KT-factorsare defined by
 Stresses and displacements due to load transfer by fasteners 173

A reference specimen made of the same material with a relative stress gradient of the same
order of magnitude as the structure at the crack origin is selected among those for which
systematical fatigue test results are available to plot a standardixed set of (K#,, - N) - (K&,,)
fatigue curves. In this representation of fatigue properties of notched specimens, Sd =
(S, +:S,) is the nominal fatigue stress, K,S.-values of the al&mating surface stress at the
notch root being on the y-axis, the number of cycks at faihue being on the x-axis and the
values K& of the steady nominal stress being given as levels of the curves.
Km is the value of Kr such as the reference specimen, assumed be undergone to the same
sequence of nominal stress kvels as the tested structure, would have a computed cumulative
damage equal to 1 at the number of cycles at which the actual investigated damage occurred in
the structure.
In the case of the foregoing investigation of a reinforcing strip, especial steel rivets with
countersunk heads on the outside shin surface and stamped aluminium alloy bushes on the strip
side, were installed without any ckarance or with a little initial interference, their axial
tightening being controlled by the fracture of notched shanks occurring as linal stage of the
rivet installation, outside and close to the bush. The following scheme summarizes and
compares the signi6cant results and features of the computations and the test interpretation.

During fatigue, the highest stresses are reduced by plastic strainii the more as the material
volume subjected to high stresses is small as compared to the mean volume of a crystal ekment
such as a grain or a crystallite. Therefore, Km would be significantlyhigher than KT 8, the
reference specimen had also stress gradients along two rectangular dictions. This shift of the
Km-value should bring it more beyond the lower limit value 5.85, and it might be estimated if
the hypothesis of the perfect shank holding onto the outside tightened surfaces represents the
state of the rivets installed in fatigue critical areas of actual structures.
Concerning the relative slide between assembkd strips, two series of old tests have enabkd
the writer to propose a correction factor, c = I - 0.2+ 0.3 (EM&)applied to the displacements.
This factor has been used in the computation of load distributions among assembly fasteners.
The term (1 - 0.2) was accounted for the local increase of the bearing foundation modulus k
owing to the actual shear stresses between assumed independent thin sheets which were
supposed instead of the actually massive strips. The term 0.3 HE was explained by the local
flattening of the pin or the rivet shank sheared between the strips.
The O&correction factor might be applied in the reverse by multiplying the bearing load
concentration factor Kq by 1.25, except that the stress concentration factor assumed to be
proportional to Kq shoukl be reduced taking account of the stress concentration fading from
the point of bearing concentration to that of the highest tensile stress. Herein no factor has
been used in evaluating stress concentrations.
In another structure during a development fatigue test, a fatigue crack occurred in an
aluminium alloy forging at a rivet hok edge around which the highest nominal stress applied
during the fatigue test was approx. 60 N/mm*. A shin sheet assumed to be not “working” was
stretched by the frame bending by means of two arrays of Monel metal rivets relatively long
and hand installed in an area of diicult access, therefore being probably without a sign&ant
174 W. BARROIS

axial tightening.The application of the foregoing theory gave the theoretical stress concen-
tration factors and the “equivalent” stress concentration factor reported into the following
scheme.

Intespmtill of the teat Elorticitywmputationsusing

*w-s thefofegohgtlteory

Refercnc8rpsciaiearm -wm
rooad,honr~ss4xJd ~~~~ rivet
aod~W,lll,= 1.7,
notcbmdiusr=2mm. Kr = 9.2 K7 = J.8

Mowlmetdrivets,d=4mm, A tentativewrrection by the factor l/O.8= 1.2

low axial tightening. applied to the K, tilting put of K, would
ytqelp
Km=89 Kt - 6.8
0&8didStFCSSpdieat. are,’ &NS &St thmqtl the Strip
ulicbmSwra4ld~the
wi&h dimction.

However, the opposite correction mentioned above and taking account of the Kq - KT
transformation fw would be very important in this case. The larger (K, - 1) the larger this
correction would be. That is merely qualitative but the possible gathering of similar analyses of
test results might [email protected] more substance to this kind of correlations.
(a) Local sti#ness of the assembly aiwnd a fastauef. An attempt might be made to assess the
theory and to determine the e&t of a diametral clearance in the case of strips loaded in double
shear and thin enough to give constant load distribution and constant foundation modulus
through the strip thicknesaej and to have the value computed for the case of strips constituted
by thin independent sheets. The strip interfaces should be coated by thin fihns of PTFE so as to
eliminate any load transferby friction.
(b) Tkc infience of the d&tkbution of the k foundation modulus, the variation of which is
due to the actuaI shear stresses existing in the “solid” strips between the assumed thin
independent slices, might be investigated by the comparison of measurements carried out in
double shear and in single shear, or, again, by comparison of the strip behaviour with that of an
actual packet of thin sheet PTFE-coated. In a tit stage, a very rigid pin of large diameter
might be used with strips made from resin mat&al to simuhue an absolutely rigid pin. Clips
might be used to hold in contact the strips or the thin sheets one and another.
(c) The influence of the fastenerpOttening at the neighbow&& of the strip intrrfoce might
be investigated by tests carried out for several values of the ratio of the elasticity moduhrs of
the strips to that of the fastener. Measurements of the relative shift of strips might be
performed in the pin case for several values of the ratio u/d, b/d and EIB”,in sin& shear and
with assemblies containing I,2 or 3 fasteners. If the hypothesis of independent thin sheets and
of a constant value of the foundation modulus is found to give too large errors in practical
cases, this point might be treated to&her with that concerning the corresponding part of the
stress concentration at hole edges.
(d) StrcsJ concentration at hole edge. Some authors have proposed to divide stress concen-
trations at holes edges into two additive components: that due to the nominal tensile load part
bypassing the hole and that due to the bearing load part transferred by shearing the fastener.
Here. the overall stress concentration has been broken down into three terms. They are as
follows:
(1) Stress concentmtion due to the tensile load bypassing the hole. It would be easily known
for an empty hole. For a plugged hole, Fig. 14 shows the influence of the initial diametral
clearance or interference between the hole and the fastener on the stress concentration at the
hole. edge. A first reduction of the stress concentration corresponds to the bearing of the
fastener onto the hole side surfaces at the ends of the diametral plane perpendicular to the load
direction, this bearing being caused by the lateral shrinking due to the tensile load. In the case
of an initial interference, a more accentuated lessening of the stress concentration is provided
 Stressesand diihcements due to hw.i transfer
by fasteners 175

by the partial transfer of the load by lowering the initial bearing pressure over the hok inside
surface. Taking into account the effect of the shear bearing that tends to annul the pressure
over the half inside surface of the hole opposite to the load action, this effect of the
interference will be reduced for the low interference and the high loads.
(2) flcs uniform, meun &ring load gives place through the strip thickness to a uniform
stress concentration which may be easily assessed in the case of low clearance or interference
by using the empirical expression drawn from Theocaris’ calculations. In other cases, for
pr+ical assessments, St&gauge or photo-elasticity measurements can give reliable values of
the stress concentrations. In the case of very high interferences, as for example when a pin is
press4tted in order ,toimprove the fatigue strength of the bored m the shear bearing load in
the first stage lowers the pressure over the half inside hole surface opposite to the load action
and raises the pressure over the opposite half surface, and the stress concentration corresponds
only to a partial shear load up to the load value that suppresses the pin-strip contact over an
increasing part of the half surface.
(3) The sccondory bearing loud that corresponds to the bending moment transferred by the
fastener shank to the strip gives place to a stress concentration for which no information is now
availabk. In the framework of the hypothesis of a strip constituted of thin independent sheets,
it has been assumed that the ratio of the overall bearing stress concentration to the maximum
bearing unit load at the strip interface had the same value as the ratio of the corresponding
mean values of the bearing stress and bearing unit load concentrations. The doubt concerns
boththisratioandthemaximumbearingunitload.Themaximumbearingunitloadwouldbe
increased by the higher local sti!Iness of the highly stressed surface areas of the strips held by
the less stressed neighbouring elements. Then, if the maximum bearing unit load is known, no
qualitative argument is available even to predict the direction of variation of the stress
concentration at hole points located at ends of the diameter perpendicular to the load.
Tridimensional elasticity computations using a finite element method are not yet practically
possibk. This probkm might be approached by carrying out t&dimensional photo-elasticity
tests and by comparing the behaviour of an assembly made from solid strips with that of the
equally sixed assembly in which solid strips would be replaced by a kminatkn of thin
independent sheets.
(a) Refemncespdnens for cumulativedamage computations.IOfatigue, and for the case of
assemblies made by using short and rigid rivets, the two fust causes of stress concentration
uniform through the thickness, namely, (1) the direct bypassing load, and (2) the mean bearing
unit load, correspond to comparable values of the relative stress gradient at the strip surface
and at hole edges. From this fact, if the third stress concentration type due to the bearing
bending moment is negligibk, reference specimens may be flat thin tensile specimens, either
side notched as those of.NACA or better with a circular hole machined by using the procedures
used in production.
In the case of a sign&ant level of the stress concentration due to the bending and the tilting
of the fastener shank, the known influence of stress gradients on the fatigue strength implies
that the conventional 5t specimen is no longer representative. By the way, it may be noted that
the numerical intluence of the stress gradknts along two perpendicular directions might be
appraised by a comparison of test results from flat specimens containing a circular hole and
fatigue stressed in tension or in bending. However, the bending specimen may not be suitable as
reference specimen owing to the absence of axial load and because the stress distriiutions in
bending are very difIerent when the bending moment is introduced far of the hok and when it is
applied at the hole inside surface by the sloping and bending of a fastener shank.
It may be conceived that a means to precise this problem might consist to use specimens of
single shear consisting of two strips have two different widths along the& lengths and assembled
rigidly at the two loaded ends, the central junction being effected by means of one fastener,
Between the central fastener and the specimen ends, a wide strip is superposed to a narrow
strip. The design being anti-symmetrical, it is possible to app1y.a shearing load at the central
fastener with a proportion of the tensile load depending on the ratio of the two widths, from the
case of a complete load transferred by shearing of the fastener to the case of a no shear load.
By using several values of the ratios u/d, b/d and 4% it would be possible to cover all
practical cases and some case considered as exceptional. A specimen of this type has been
[19] J.~vcudF.A.J~,F~~on~md~~~ of2024T3&hd,2&?4=TSdcMand
717&T6extmkd werid. ibwv NL R TR 68017 U. Ametardm. Feb. 1968.