INTERMEDIATE FIRST YEAR

BASIC LEARNING MATERIA

ZOOLOGY - I

ENGLISH MEDIUM

BIPC-I
 UNIT-I
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1 . What is biogenesis?
Ans: If the Life comes only from life is called biogenesis.
2.What is trinominal nomenclature? Give an example?
Ans: The naming of an animal with a three worded name is called trinominal nomenclature. The
first word refers to genus, second word refers to species and third word refers to
subspecies eg: Corvus splendenss plendens.
3. What is meant by tautonymy?Give two examples?
Ans: The practice of naming the animals, in which the generic name and species name are the
same,is called tautonymy. Eg: Axis axis, (spotted deer) Naja naja (the indian cobra).
4. Differentiate between Protostomia and Deuterostomia?
Ans: The eumetazoans in which mouth develops from blastopore are called as protostomians.
The Eumetazoans in which anus develops from or near blastopore are called as
Deuterostomians.
5. What does ICZN stands for?
Ans: International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.
6. Define species richness.
Ans: It is the number of species per unit area. The more the number of species in an area the
more is the species richness.
7. Write the full form of IUCN. In which book threatened species are enlisted?
Ans: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
In Red Data Books threatened species are enlisted.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Definespecies. Explain the various aspects of species?
Ans: Species is a group of similar organisms sharing a common gene pool and interbreeding
freely, producing fertile offspring.
John ray in his book Historia Generalis Plantarum used the term species.
Linnaeus considered species, in his bookSystema Naturae as the basic unit of classification.
Buffon,in his book Natural History proposed the idea of evolution of species, which is
the foundation for the biological concept of evolution, which became more popular with
the publication of the book The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin.
Species is considered a group of individuals which are:
1. Reproductively isolated from the individuals of other species—a breeding unit.
2. Sharing the same ecological niche—an ecological unit.
3. Showing similarity in the karyotype – a genetic unit.
4. Having similar structure and functional characteristics—an evolutionary unit.
2. What is the evil quarlet?
Ans: The four major causes for accelerated rates of species extinction in the world are called
evil quarlet.
1) Habitat loss and Fragmentation: i) Deforestation leads to species extinction in forests
ii)Conversion of forest land to agricultural landeg Amazon rain forest, iii)pollution enhances
degradation of habitats iv)fragmentation of habitat leads to population decline eg mammals
and birds.
 2) Over-Exploitation:When need turns to greed it leads to over exploitation. E.g. Stellers
sea cow, passenger pigeon.
3) Invasion of Alien Species: When alien species are introduced into a habitat they turn
invasive and establish themselves at the cost of the indigenous species. Eg. Nile perch
introduction into lake victoria,led to extinction of 200 species of cichlid fish.
4) Co-Extinctions:In an obligate association between a plant and an animal, if a plant becomes
extinct, the animal also becomes extinct as seen in a parasite and host association.
3. Explain in brief biodiversity hotspots?
Ans: The concept of biodiversity hot spot was proposed by Norman Myers, there are about 34
biodiversity hot spots in the world. As these regions are threatened by destruction, habitat
loss is accelerated e.g: 1)Westernghats and Srilanka 2)Indo Burma 3)Himalayas in india.
Ecologically unique and biodiversity rich regions are legally protected as in 1)Biosphere
Reserves 2)National parks 3)Sanctuaries.
Biosphere Reserves: An area which is set aside, minimally disturbed for the conservation
of the resources of the biosphere is Biosphere Reserve.Eg:Seshachalam hills.
National Parks: A national park is a natural habitat strictly reserved for protection of
natural life. Eg:Jim Corbett national park,MahavirHarinavanasthali national park etc
Sanctuaries: Specific endangered faunal species are well protected in wildlife sanctuaries
which permits eco-tourism. Eg:Koringa sanctuary, Eturnagaram sanctuary.
4. Explain Rivet popper hypothesis?
Ans: Paul Ehrlich’s experiments ‘the RIVET POPPER hypothesis, taking an aero plane as an
ecosystem, explains how removal of one by one ‘rivets’ (species of an ecosystem) of various
parts can slowly damage the plane(ecosystem)-shows how important a ‘species’ is in the
overall functioning of an ecosystem. Removing a rivet from a seat or some other relatively
minor important parts may not damage the plane, but removal of a rivet from a part
supporting the wing can result in a crash. Likewise, removal of a ‘critical species’ may
affect the entire community and thus the entire ecosystem.

UNIT-II
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is Cephalization? How is it useful to its possessors?
Ans: Cephalization: Concentration of nerve (Brain) and sensory cells at the anterior end of the
body is called as Cephalization. • Uses - searching of food, locating mates and in escaping
from predators.
2. Mention the animals that exhibited a ‘tube-within-a-tube’ organization for the first
time? Name their body cavity?
Ans: Phylum Nematoda
• Body cavity is pseudocoelom..
•
3. What are retroperitoneal organs?
Ans. The organs which are lined by peritoneom only on their ventral side are called retroperitoneal
organs.
Ex: Kidney
4. Distinguish between exocrine and endocrine glands with examples.
Ans: Exocrine glands are provided with ducts.
Ex: mucus, saliva, earwax, oil, milk,
Endocrine glands are ductless glands and their products are called hormones.
Ex: Pituitary Gland

5. Distinguish between holocrine and apocrine glands?

Ans: Apocrine glands: Apical part of the gland cell is pinched off along with the secretory
product. Ex: mammary glands.
• Holocrine glands, The entire cell disintegrates to discharge the contents.
Ex: Sebaceous glands
6. Mention any two substances secreted by mast cells and their functions?
Ans: Heparin——Anticoagulant,Histamine,Bradykinin——VasodilatorsSerotonin—
Vasoconstrictor.
7. Distinguish between a tendon and a ligament?
Ans: Tendons attach the skeletal muscle to bone.
Ligaments attach bones to other bones.
8. What is the strongest cartilage? In which regions of the human body, do you find it?
Ans: The fibrous cartilage is the strongest of all types of cartilages.
• It occurs in the intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis of the pelvis.
9. Define Osteon?
Ans: In compact bone structure a haversian canal and the surrounding lamellae and lacunae are
collectively called a Haversian system or Osteon.
10. What is the haematocrit value?
Ans: The percentage of total volume occupied by RBCs in blood is called haematocrit value.

11. Cardiac muscle is highly resistant to fatigue. Justify?

Ans: Cardiac muscle has numerous sarcosomes, many molecules of myoglobin (oxygen storing
pigment) and rich supply of blood which facilitate continuous aerobic respiration.
• Thus cardiac muscle is highly resistant to fatigue.
12. What are microglia and what is their origin and add a note on their function?
Ans: Microglial cells are the Neuroglia (supporting cells) cells of CNS.
They are phagocytic cells and mesodermal origin..
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (4 MARKS )
1. Give an account of glandular epithelium?
Ans: Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells that get specialized for the production of certain
secretions, form glandular epithelium.
Unicellular glands: Isolated glandular cells such as goblet cells of gut.
Multicellular glands: Clusters of cells such as salivary glands.
On the basis of mode of pouring of secretions
Exocrine: sent their secretions through duct to the target organs.
Endocrine: sent their secretions through blood to the target organs.

2. Describe the three types of cartilage?

Ans: Cartilage is a solid, but semi – rigid (flexible) connective tissue.
 a) Hyaline Cartilage:
It is bluish – white, translucent cartilage.
Matrix is homogeneous and shows delicate collagen fibres.
It is the weakest and the most common type of all the cartilages.
It forms the embryonic endoskeleton of bony vertebrates, endoskeleton of cyclostomes.
It forms the nasal septal cartilage, Cartilaginous rings of trachea, bronchi and cartilages of
larynx.

b) Elastic Cartilage:
It is yellowish due to elastic fibres.
Matrix has abundance of yellow elastic fibres in addition to collagen fibres.
It provides strength and elasticity. Perichondrium is present.
It is found in the pinnae of the external ears, Eustachian tubes and epiglottis.

(b) Elastic Cartilage:

c) Fibrous Cartilage:
Matrix has bundles of collagen fibres. Perichondrium is absent.
It is the strongest of all types of cartilages.
It occurs in the intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis of the Pelvis.

3. Explain Haversian system?

Ans: The compact bone consists of several
structural units called Osteons or
 Haversian systems arranged between
the outer and inner circumferential
lamellae.
A haversian canal and the surrounding
lamellae and lacunae are collectively
called a haversian system or osteon.
The spaces between the haversian
systems are filled with interstitial
lamellae.
Haversian system consists of a Haversian canal that runs parallel to the marrow
cavity,anartery,a vein and a lymphatic vessel.
Haversian canal is surrounded by concentric lamellae, small fluid filled spaces called lacunae
provided with minute canaliculi lie in between the lamellae.
Canaliculi connect the lacunae with one another and with haversian canal.
Each lacunae encloses one osteocyte, the cytoplasmic processes of osteocytes extend through
canaliculi and get inter connected into a network of cells.
Haversian canals communicate with one another, with the periosteum and also with the
marrow cavity by transverse or oblique canals called volkmaknns canals.
Nutrients and gases diffuse from the vascular supply of haversian canals.
4. Describe the structure of a skeletal muscle?
Ans: Skeletal (Striped and Voluntary) Muscle:

• Skeletal muscle is usually attached to skeletal structures by

‘tendons’.
A skeletal muscle fiber is a long, cylindrical and unbranched
cell.It is a multinucleate cell with many oval nuclei
Muscle fibre is surrounded by sarcolemma.
Its cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm.
Sarcoplasm has many myofibrils whichshow alternate dark and
light bands.
So it is called striped or striated muscle.
It is a voluntary muscle. It contracts quickly and undergoes fatigue
quickly.
5. Describe the structure of a cardiac muscle?
Ans: Cardiac muscle is also called as striated and involuntary muscle.
Cardiac muscles are found in the‘myocardium’ of the heart of vertebrates.
The cardiac muscle cells are short, cylindrical, mononucleate or binucleate cells.
Whose ends are branch and form junctioinns with other cardiac muscle cells.
Each cell is joined to adjacent cell by electrical synapses or gap junctions,which permit
electrical impulses to be conducted along the long axis of the cardiac muscle fibre. The
dark lines across cardiac muscle are called intercalated discs(communication junctions).
The intercalated discs contain three different types of cell junctions and the gap junctions
which are responsible for rapid conductioin of action potentials.
 6. Describe the structure of a multipolar
neuron?
Ans: Neurons are the functional units of nervous
tissue. A neuron usually consists of a cell body
with one to many dendrites and a single axon.
Cell body: It is also called perikaryon,cyton
or soma. It contains abundant granular
cytoplasm and a large spherical nucleus. The
cytoplasm has nisslbodies,neurofibrils and
lipofuscin granules.
Dendrites: Several short branched processes
which arise from the cyton are called
dendrites. They also contain nissl bodies and
nerve fibrils. They conduct nerve impulses
towards the cell body.
Axon: An axo is a single,long ,cylindrical
process that originates from a region of the
cyton called axon hillock. Plasmalemma of
an axon is called axolemma, and the cytoplasm is called axoplasm. Which contains
neurofibrils, Nissl bodies are absent. An axon may give rise to collateral branches. Distally
it branches into many fine filaments called telodendria, which end in bulb like structures
called synaptic knobs or terminal boutons. Synaptic knobs possess synaptic vesicles
containing chemicals called neurotransmitters.

UNIT-III
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What are the functions of canal system of sponges?
Ans: Transport of water, gathering food (filter feeders), exchange of gases and removal of wastes.
2. What are the two chief morphological ‘body forms’ of cnidarians? What are their
chief functions?
Ans: i) The body forms of Cnidarians are polyp and medusa.
ii) Polyp produces medusa by asexual reproduction. Polyp for nutrition.
iii) Medusae produces polyp by sexual reproduction. Medusae for reproduction.
3. What are the excretory cells of flatworms called? What is the other importantfunction
 of these specialized cells?
Ans: The excretory cells of flatworms are flame cells. Other important function of these cells is
osmoregulation.
4. What is botryoidal tissue?
Ans: Coelom of leeches is filed with a characteristic tissue called botryoidal tissue, it is resembling

a bunch of grapes.They range from excretion to storage of iron, calcium, revascularization

in area of injury

5. Which arthropod, you have studied, is called a living fossil? Name its
respiratoryorgans?
Ans: i) Limulus(king crab) is considered as a living fossil among arthropods.
ii) Respiratory organs are book – gills belong to mesosoma of the body.
6. What is the function of radula? Give the name of the group of molluscs which do not
possess a radula?
Ans: The buccal cavity contains a file – like rasping organ called radula for feeding in molluscans,
except in bivalves or lamellibranchiates or pelecypodans.

7. What is Aristotle’s lantern? Give one example of an animal possessing it?

Ans: In the mouth of sea Urchin a complex five jawed masticatory apparatus called Aristotle’s
lantern.
Ex: Echinus
8. What are blood glands in Pheretima?
Ans: Blood glands are present in 4th, 5th and 6th segments in Pheretima.
Blood glands produce blood cells and haemoglobin which is dissolved in plasma.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (4 MARKS)
1. What are the salient features exhibited by Polychaetes?
Ans: 1) These are commonly known as bristle worms ,includes marine annelids.
2) Some are free movingand others burrowing or tubicolous
3) Head is distinct with sensory structures like eyes,tentacles and palps.
4) Clitellum is absent
5) Parapodia bear many setae which help in locomotion and respiration.
6) Unisexual,Gonoducts are absent
7) Gametes are shed into coelom and passed out through the nephridiopores.
8) Fertilization is external
9) Development includes a trochophore larva.
Ex: Nereis

2. What are the chief characters of the crustaceans?

Ans: 1. These are aquatic organisms.
2. Head and thorax fuse forming the cephalothorax.
3. Exoskeleton is hardened by calcium carbonate.
4. Cephalic region bears two pairs of antennae,one pair of mandibles and two pairs of
maxillae.
5. Thoracic and abdominal appendages are biramous.
6. Respiratory organs are gills,exceretory organs are green glands or antennary glands
 7. Sense organs includeantennae,compoundeyes,statocysts ,etc
8. Development is indirect, includes different larval forms.
Ex: Palaemon (prawn), Cancer (crab)
3. Mention the general characters of Arachnida?
Ans: 1. These are terrestrial organisms.
2. Body is divided into prosoma and opisthosoma( mesosoma and metasoma )
3. Prosoma bears a pair of chelicerae, apair of pedipalpi and four pairs of walking legs.
4. Mesosomal appendages are modified into book-lungs.
5. Four pairs of posterior abdominal appendages are modified into spinnerets in spiders.
6. Respiratory organs are book-lungs, tracheae or both.
7. Respiratory pigment is ‘copper’ containing haemocyanin.
8. Excretory organs are Malpighian tubules and coxal glands.
9. Development is direct.
10. Scorpions are viviparous

6. What are the salient features of the echinoids?

Ans: 1) It includes sea urchins, heart urchins, sand dollars, etc. The body is ovoid or discoidal
and covered by movable spines .
2) Arms are absent,tube feet bear suckers .
3) Calcareousossicles of the body unite to form a rigid test or corona or case
4) Pedicellariaeare “three jawed”
5) Anus and madreporite are aboral in position
6) Ambulacral grooves are closed
7) A complex five jawed masticatory apparatus called Aristotle’s lantern is present (abset
in the heart urchins).
8) development includes echinnopluteus larva.
Eg: echinus (sea urchin), echiocardium(heart urchin)
7. Mention the salient features of Holothuroidea?
Ans: Holothuroidea:
1. This class includes sea cucumbers.
2. Body elongated in the oral – aboral axis.
3. Skin is soft and leathery (Coriaceous).
4. Dermis contains loose spicules
5. Arms, spines and pedicellariae are absent.
6. Mouth is surrounded by retractile tentacles, ( modified tube feet useful for feeding).
7. Ambulacral grooves are closed, tub feet bear suckers.
8. Madreporite is internal.
9. Respiratory organs are a pair of cloacal respiratory trees.
10. Development indirect and includesauricularia larvae.
Ex: Holothuria,synapta,
UNIT-IV
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1.How do you justify the statement- “heart in fishes is a branchial heart”.
Ans: 1. Heart in fishes is two chambered
 2. It pumps blood directly to gills so it is called branchial heart.
2.Distinguish between milt and spawn.
Ans: 1. Spawn is mass of eggs released by female frog (lower aquatic vertebrates).
3. Milt is mass of sperms released by male frog (lower aquatic vertebrates).
4. Name two poisonous and non poisonous snakes found in South India.
Ans: 1. Poisonous snakes: Naja naja (cobra), Viper russelli (chain viper)
2. Non-poisonous snakes: Ptyas (rat snake), Tropidonotus (pond snake)
5. Name the four extra embryonic membranes.
Ans: The four extra embryonic membranes are (a) Amnion (b) Allantois (c) Chorion (d) Yolk
sac
6. What are Jacobson’s organs? What is their function?
Ans: 1. Jacobson’s organs are highly specialised olfactory structures in snakes and some lizards.
2. They help in smelling. The animals may have bifid tongue to collect scent particles.
7. What are pneumatic bones? How do they help birds?
Ans: 1. Pneumatic bones are bones with air cavities.
2. They reduce the weight of the bird (flight adaptation) and helps in easy flight of the
bird.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Name the four ‘hallmarks’ of chordates and explain the principal function of each of
them.
A. ‘Hallmark’ characters of chordates:
1. Notochord: It is present in all chordates at some stage of life. It is rod like structure
located above the alimentary canal and below the nerve cord. It is supportive in function.
It is mesodermal in origin.
2. Nerve cord: There is a dorsal tubular fluid, filled nerve cord present above the notochord.
In vertebrates the anterior end becomes the brain and the rest of the cord becomes spinal
chord. It coordinates various functions of the body. It is ectodermal in origin.
3. Pharyngeal gill slits: The pharynx is perforated on either side which become gill slits.
They are well developed in aquatic lower vertebrates and lower chordates. They are reduced
and non functional in higher vertebrates. They help in exchange of gases (respiration).
They are ecto-endodermal in origin.
4. Postanal tail: Part of the body that projects beyond the anus is tail. Generally it has vertebral
colum, blood vessel and muscles. It helps in locomotion, balancing, prehensile (5th leg)
and defence organ.

2.Compare and contrast cartilaginous and bony fishes.A:

Comparison between cartilaginous and bony fishes:
Cartilaginous fishes Bony fishes
1. Cartilaginous fishes are mostly 1. Bony fishes are found in all aqautic habitats.
marine.
2. Mouth is ventral. 2. Mouth is terminal,
3. Scales are placoid 3. Scales are cycloid, ctenoid, ganoid or
cosmoid.
4. Air bladder is absent 4. Air bladder is present.
5. Excretion is ureotelic. 5. Excretion is ammonotelic.
6. Caudal fin is heterocercal. 6. Caudal fin is homocercal or diphycercal.
 7. Mostly Viviparous. 7. Mostly Oviparous
8. Claspers are present in males. 8. Claspers are absent in males
9. Ex: Scolidon(dog fish), Torpedo 9. Ex: Exocoetus (flying fish), Catla
3.Describe the structure of the heart of frog.
A. The heart is a muscular organ situated in the upper
part of the body cavity. It has two separate atria and
a single undivided ventricle. It is covered by a
double layered membrane called pericardium. A
triangular chamber called sinus venosus joins the
right atrium on the dorsal side. It receives blood
through three vena cavae (caval veins). The
ventricle opens into the conus arteriosus on the
ventral side. The conus arteriosus bifurcates into

two branches and each of it divides into three aortic arches namely carotid, systemic and
pulmocutaneous. Blood from the heart is distributed to all parts of the body by the branches
of aortic arches. Three major veins collect blood from the different parts of the body and
carry it to the sinus venosus.

4.What are the modifications that are observed in birds that

help them in flight?
B. Birds are masters of air. Almost every part of their body is suited for flight.
Flight adaptations of Birds:
1. Body of birds is boat shaped with reduced tail.
2. Exoskeleton consists of epidermal feathers,
3. Feathers are light in weight and provide support in air.
4. Eyes are large with sclerotic plates and comb like pecten.
5. Skin is dry without glands, except preen gland in the tail.
6. Forelimbs are modified into wings.
7. Bones are pneumatic (weight reduction) with extensions of air sacs.
8. All modem flying birds are provided with powerful breast muscles.
5.What are the features peculiar to ratite birds? Give two examples of ratite birds.
A. Fightless birds (Ratite)
1) They are modern flightless running binds
2) They are characterized by the presence of reduced wings raft like sternum without keel
3) Feathers are without interlocking mechanism
4) Preen gland is absent
5) Clavicles are absent
6) Pygostyle is rudimentary or absent
7) Males with penis
8) Young ones are precocial
Ex: Rhea (American ostrich), Kiwi in New Zealand.
 UNIT-V
1.List any two differences between a flagellum and cilium. Flagellum
Cilium
1) Flagellum is long whip like locomotor organelle. 1) Cilium is small hair likestructure.
2) Flagellum performs undular movement. 2) Cilium performs pendular
movement
2.What is a kinety?
A: A longitudinal row of kinetosomes and their inter connecting kinetodesmataare
collectively called kinety.
3.Distinguish between synchronous and metachronous movements.
1) Synchronous movement: The cilia in a transverse row beat once at a time inone
direction.
2) Metachronous movement: The cilia in a longitudinal row beat one afteranother.
4.Distinguish between proter and opisthe.
A: 1) The proter is the anterior daughter individual. It receives anterior contractile
vacuole, cytopharynx and cytostome of parent.
2) The opisthe is the posterior daughter individual. It receives posteriorcontractile
vacuoles and develops other organelle.
5.Distinguish between lobopodium and filopodium. Give an example toeach of
them.
A: 1) Blunt finger like pseudopodia are called Lobopodia. Ex: Amoeba
2) Fibre like pseudopodia are called Filopodia. Ex: Euglypha
6.Define conjugation with reference to ciliates, Give two examples.
A: 1) Conjugation is a temporary union between two senile ciliates, that belong to
different mating types, for the exchange of nuclear material and reorganization,
2) Ex: Paramecium and Vorticella.
7.What are dynein arms? What is their significance?
The ‘A’ tubule of each peripheral doublet bears paired arms along its length calleddynein
arms. they help in bending movement of flagellum or cilium

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

UNIT-V. LOCOMOTION AND REPRODUCTION IN

PROTOZOANS
1. What are lateral appendages? Based on their presence and absence, writethe
various types of flagella giving at least one example for each type.
A: Some flagella bear one or two or many rows of short, lateral hair like fibrilscalled
lateral appendages or mastigonemes.
Based on the presence or absence and/or the number of rows of lateralappendages,
five types of flagella are recognised.
1) Stichonematic: This flagellum bears one row of lateral appendages. Ex:Euglena
2) Pantonematic: The flagellum has two or more rows of lateral appendages. Ex:Peranema.
Monas
3) Acronematic: There are no lateral appendages on this flagellum. The tip ofaxoneme
is naked without any sheath. Ex: Chlamydomonas and polytoma
4) Pantacronematic: The flagellum has two or more rows of lateral appendagesand a
naked terminal filament. Ex: Urceolus
5) Anematic (simple): lateral appendages and terminal filaments are absent. Ex:
Chilomonas and cryptomonas

2. Give an account of pseudopodia.

A). Pseudopodia means false feet. They are the temporary extensions ofcytoplasm
in the direction of movement. Types of Pseudopodia:
(1) Lobopodia- Blunt, finger like pseudopodia. Ex: Amoeba and Entamoeba
(2) Filopodia- fibre like pseudopodia. Ex: Euglypha
(3) Reticulopodia- Net- like pseudopodia. Ex: Elphidium
(4) Axopodia or Heliopodia - sun ray like pseudopodia Ex: Actinophrys Process of
formation: Pseudopodium is formed by conversion of gel cytoplasmto sol cytoplasm and
vice versa (Sol to gel)

3. Describe the process of transverse binary fission in Paramecium.

A:1) Paramecium undergoes transverse binary
fission during favourableconditions.
2) Before binary fission, it stops feeding after attaining its maximum growth.
3) The micro nucleus divides into two by mitosis.
4) The macro nucleus divides into two by amitosis. And the oral groovedisappears.
5) A transverse constriction appears in the middle.
6) It deepens and divides the parent into two daughter individuals.
7) The anterior is called proter and posterior is opisthe
8) porter receives the anterior contractile vacuole, cytostome and cytopharynxfrom its
parent
9) Opisthe receives the posterior contractile vacuoles and develops new anterior
contractile vacuole, cytostome, cytopharynx and new oral groove
10) Binary fission is completed in two hours.
11) The transverse binary fission is called homothetogenic fission

4. Describe the process of longitudinal binary fission in Euglena.

 1) Euglena undergoes longitudinal binary fission during favourable conditions.
2) During this process the stigma, paraflagellar body and contractile vacuoles
disappear.
3) Nucleus, basal granules, chromatophores and cytoplasm undergo division.
4) A longitudinal groove appears in the central part of the anterior end.
5) It gradually extends to the posterior and divides the organism into two.
6) One daughter Euglena retains parental flagella, the other daughter developsnew
flagella.
7) As daughter forms look like mirror images, this fission is
called'symmetrogenic division'.

UNIT - VI

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between mechanical vector and biological vector.
Ans: Mechanical vector: It is the vector, ehich merely transfers the infective stages of a parasite
but no part of the parasitic development takes place in it.
Eg: House flies & Cockroaches for Entamoeba
Biological vector: It is he vector in which the parasite undergoes a part of thedevelopment
before it gets transferred to another host.
Eg: Female anopheles for Plasmodium

2.What is a hyper-parasite? Mention the name of one hyper-parasite.

Ans: 1. A parasite which lives on the body of the another parasite is called hyper-parasite
2. Ex: Nosema notabilis is parasite on sphaerospora polymorpha which is a parasite in
the urinary bladder of toad fish.
3.What do you mean by parasitic castration? Give one example.
Ans: 1. Degeneration of gonads (testis) of the host due to presence of a parasite is called
parasitic castration.
3. Ex: Sacculina (a crustacean parasite) causes degeneration of ovaries in the crabs.
4.Define neoplasia. Give one example.
Ans: 1. Abnormal increase in size of the cell of the host due to presence of parasite is called
neoplasia Some times it leads to cancer.
4. Ex:Carcinoma caused by virus.
5.A person is suffering from bowel irregularity, abdominal pain, blood and mucus in
stool, etc., Based on these symptoms, name the disease and its causative organism.
Ans: 1. The disease showing the given symptoms is amoebic dysentery.
5. The causative organism is Entamoeba histolytica

6.Define prepatent period. What is its duration in the life cycle of plasmodium vivax?
Ans: 1. Prepatent period: The duration between first entry of sporozoites into blood and second
entry in the form of cryptozoites is called prepatent period.
6. The duration of life cycle of plasmodium vivax is nearly 8 days.
7.What is exflagellation and what are the resultant products called?
Ans: 1. Exflagellation: The process of liberation of male gametes from the cytoplasm of

microgametocyte by exhibitting lashing movements like flagella is called

exflagellation.
7. The resultant products are called male gametes
8.Why is the syngamy found in Plasmodium called anisogamy?
Ans: 1. In plasmodium, the male and female gametes are dissimilar in size.
8. Hence, the process of fusion is called Anisogamy
9.Describe the methods of biological control of mosquitoes.
Ans: Biological control of mosquitoes is done by introducing larvivorous fishes like gambusia
in insectivorous plants like utricularia into the places where mosquitoes breed.
10.The eggs of Ascaris are called ‘mammillated eggs’. Justify,
Ans: The eggs of Ascaris have a protein outer coat which has papillae hence looks rippled. So it
is called mamillated egg.
11.What is meant by nocturnal periodicity with reference to the life history of a nematode
parasite you have studied?
Ans: Migration of sheathed microfilaria larva from deeper vessels to peripheral blood vessels
during night sleeping time between 10.00 PM and 4 AM is referred to as nocturnal periodicity
12.Distinguish between lymphadenitis and lymphangitis?
Ans: 1. Inflammation of lymph vessels is known as Lymphangitis.
9. Inflammation of lymph glands is Lymphadenitis.
13.Define drug abuse.
Ans: 1. Drug abuse is taking of a drug in excess for a purpose other than its medicinal use.
10. It leads to physical, psychological disturbances. Sometimes irrepairable damage to
the body.
14.From which substances ‘Smack’ and ‘Coke’ are obtained?
Ans: 1. Smack (Heroin) is obtained by the acetylation of morphine.
11. Coke (Crack) is obtained from Cocaine.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What is the need for parasites to develop special adaptations Mention some special
adaptations developed by the parasites.
Ans: Parasites have evolved special adaptations to meet the requirements and lead successful
life in the hosts.
1. In order to live in the host, some parasites have developed structures like hooks, suckers,
rostellum, etc., for anchoring. e.g. Taenia solium.
 2. Some intestinal parasites have developed protective cuticle to withstand the action of the
digestive enzymes of the host. e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides.
3. Some intestinal parasites produce anti enzymes to neutralize the effect of host’s digestive
enzymes. e.g. Taenia solium.
4. Some parasites live as obligatory anaerobes as the availability of oxygen is very rare for
them. e.g. Entamoeba histolytica, Taenia solium, etc.
5. Some intestinal parasites live as facultative anaerobes i.e., if oxygen is not available, they
live anaerobically and if oxygen is available, they respire aerobically. e.g. Ascaris
lumbricoides.
6. The morphological and anatomical features are greatly simplified while emphasizing their
reproductive potential. For example, an Ascaris lays nearly two lakh eggs per day. In Taenia
solium the body is divided into 700 to 900 proglottids of which each proglottid acts as a
unit of reproductive system and releases approximately 35,000 eggs.
7. The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex because of their extreme specialization.
For example, life cycle of certain parasites like Fasciola hepatica (sheep liver fluke) is
very complex involving many developmental stages and two intermediate hosts to increase
the chances of reaching a new definitive host.
8. Certain parasites like Entamoeba develop cysts to tide over the unfavourable conditions
like desiccation while reaching the new host.
9. Some parasites elude production of vaccines against them (smart parasites!) as they keep
changing their surface antigens form time to time. e.g. Plasmodium, HIV, etc.

2. Explain the pathogenicity of Wuchereria bancrofti in man.

Ans: Pathogenicity of Wuchereria bancrofti in man:
Light infection causes filarial fever which is characterised by headache, mental depression
and increase in the body temperature. In general, the infection of filarial worm causes
inflammatory effect in lymph vessels and lymph glands. Inflammation in the lymph vessels
is called lymphangitis and that of lymph glands is called lymphadenitis.
In the case of heavy infection, the accumulation of dead worms blocks the lymph vessels
and lymph glands resulting in immense swelling. This condition is called lymphoedema
which is noticed in the extremities of limbs, scrotum of males and mammary glands in
females. Fibroblasts accumulate in these tissues and form the fibrous tissue. In severe
cases, the sweat glands of the skin in the affected regions disintegrate and the skin becomes
rough. This terminal condition is referred to as elephantiasis.

3. What are the adverse effects of tobacco?

Ans: Adverse effects of Tobacco:
Tobacco has been used by human beings for more than 400 years. It contains a large number
of chemical substances including nicotine, an alkaloid. While buying cigarettes one cannot
miss the statutory warning present on the packet Smoking is injurious to health.
Mode of abuse: It is smoked or chewed as gutkha or used in the form of snuff.
Effect: Smoking increases the carbon monixide (CO) level and reduces the oxygen level
in the blood. Nicotine stimulates the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline
into blood: These hormones raise the blood pressure and increase the heart rate, Smoking
 is associated with bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer and increases
the incidence of cancers of throat, lungs, urinary bladder etcy Smoking also paves the way
to hard drugs. Yet, smoking is very prevalent in society, both among young and old. Tobacco
chewing is associated with increased risk of cancer of the oral cavity.
4. Why in adolescence is considered vulnerable phase ?
Ans: Adolescence: It is the time period between the beginning of puberty and the beginning of
adulthood. In other words, it is the bridge linking childhood and adulthood. The age between
12-18 years is considered adolescence period. It is both ‘a period and a process’ during
which a child becomes mature. It is accompanied by several biological and behavioural
changes. Thus, adolescence is a very vulnerable phase of mental and psychological
development of an individual.
5. Prevention is better than cure’. Justify with regard to TDA abuse.
Ans: TDA for Tobacco, Drugs, Alcohol. It stands for Teen Drug Abuse. The proverb, Prevention
is better than cure’ holds true in case of TDA abuse.
Measures useful for prevention:
1. Avoid undue parental pressure: All children have their own choices, capacities and
personalities. The parents should not force their children to perform beyond their capacity.
They should not compare them with others in studies, games etc.
2. Responsibility of parents and teachers:They have to advise, counsel and help the children
who are likely to get into the trap of TDA.
3. Seeking help from peers: If classmates find some one getting into trap of TDA, it should
be brought to the notice of their parents or teachers.
4. Education and counselling: There must be a continuous process of educating the children
regarding TDA, at every level in the form of lessons.
Seeking professional and medical help: A lot of help is available in the form of highly
qualified psychologists, psychiatrists and de-addiction and rehabilitation programmers.

6.Write short notes on Cannabinoids.

Ans: Cannabinoids: These are a group of chemicals obtained from Indian hemp plant Cannabis
sativa (Ganjai mokka). They interact with cannabinoid receptors present in the brain. The
flower tops, leaves and the resin of this plant are used in various combinations to produce
marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja These days, cannabinoids are being abused by even
some sports-persons (doping).
Mode of abuse: These are generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion.
Effect: Show their effects on cardiovascular system of the body.
LONG ANSWERS TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the structure and life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica with the help of neat
labelled
Ans: Entamoeba histolytica: It is a monogenetic histozoic
parasite. It inhabits in the large intestine of man. It
causes amoebic dysentery
A) Structure of E. histolytica:
1. Trophozoite stage:
1. In this stage, it lives in mucous and submucous
layers of large intestine of man.
2. Its body is surrounded by plasmalemma.
 3. Its Cytoplasm is differentiated into an outer clear viscous, non-granular ectoplasm
and the inner fluid with granular endoplasm.
4. Endoplasm contains ribosomes, food vacuoles with RBC, a cart wheel shaped
nucleus.
5. It respires anaerobically.
6. It has holozoic nutrition.
7. It produces the proteolytic enzyme called histolysin(tissue digesting enzyme).
8. This is the most active, motile, feeding and pathogenic stage. .
2. Precystic stage:
1. It founds in the lumen of large intestine. It
becomes small and oval at this stage.
2. Its cytoplasm consists of glycogen granules and
chromatoid bars. They act as reserve food.
3. It is the non-feeding, non-motile and non-
pathogenic stage.
3. Cystic stage:
1. It is round in shape
2. It founds in the lumen of large intestine.
3. A thin, delicate highly resistant cyst wall is formed
around the parasite. This process is encystation.
4. The nucleus undergoes two mitotic divisions and
four nuclei are formed. Hence it is called tetra
nucleate cyst. This is the infective stage to man.
5. These cysts pass through the facces and wait until
they reach a healthy person.
B) Life Cycle of E histolytica:
1. E. histolitica in trophozoite stage undergo binary fission and produce a number of
daughter entamoeba.
2. They feed upon the bacteria and host’s tissues. They grow in size and multiply by
binary fissions.
3. Some of these, enter the lumen of the large intestine and transform into ‘precystic
stage.
4. Here, the precystic stage transforms into ‘cystic stage.
5. There they inturn develop into tetranucleate cysts. This entire process is completed in
a few hours.
6. These tetranucleate cysts come out along with the faccal matter. They can remain
alive for about 10 days.
7. These cysts then reach new host through contaminated food and water.

8. The cyst wall gets ruptured by enzyme trypsin in the small intestine of a new human
host.
9. There it releases the tetranucleate amoebae. These are called metacysts.
10. Here, four nuclei of the metacysts undergo mitotic divisions and produce eight daughter
nuclei. Each nucleus gets a bit of cytoplasm and thus eight daughter entamoebac are
produced.
 11. They reach the wall of large intestine and become mature trophozoites’ causing amoebic
dysentry or intestinal amoebiasis.
Carriers: Some people who donot exhibit any symptoms are called carriers.
Extra intestinal amoebiasis: Some times, the trophozoites reach the liver and cause

‘abscesses (secondary amoebiasis). From there they may go to lungs, heart, brain and
kidneys. There they cause abscesses in those parts leading to severe pathological
conditions.Describe the life cycle of Plasmodium vivax in man.
Ans: ‘Plasmodium vivax’ is the malarial parasite of man. It is digenetic intra cellular parasite
that lives in the liver cells and RBC of man.
Life cycle of Plasmodium in man (Human phase): In man, plasmodium reproduces by
asexual reproduction called schizogony. It is of two types: (a) Hepatic schizogony (occurs

in liver cells), (b) Erythrocytic schizogony (occurs in RBC)

Pre-erythrocytic cycle:
1. The sporozoites enter liver cells and transform into trophozoites.
2. They become round and grow in size and are called schizonts.
3. The nucleus divides several times. It is followed by the cytoplasm divisions, producing
12.000 cryptozoites (or first generation merozoites).
4. They enter the sinusoids of the liver by rupturing the cell membrane of the schizont
and the liver cells.
5. The duration of pre-erythrocytic cycle is 8 days.
ii) Exo-erythrocytic cycle:
1. The cryptozoites that enter liver cells undergo schizogony and produce two types of
metacryptozoites within two days.
2. Some are small called micro meta cryptozoites.
3. Others are large and called macro meta cryptozoites.The macro meta cryptozoites
continue hepatic schizogony.
(b) Erythrocytic schizogony:
(i) Golgi cycle:
1. It was described by Golgi.
2. The cryptozoites or micro meta cryptozoites enter into the fresh RBC. They transform
into trophozoites.
3. A small vacuole appears in trophozoite.
4. It enlarges by pushing the cytoplasm and nucleus to one side.
5. The parasite looks like a ring and hence it is called signet ring stage. Here, the vacuole
disappears, Pseudopodia develop and the parasite changes to amochoid stage.
 6. At this stage parasite exhibits hypertrophy condition (RBC grows almost double the
size).
7. It feeds on globin part of haemoglobin and grows in size. It converts the soluble haem
into insoluble haemozoin called malaria pigment.

8. Small red colour dots appear in the cytoplasm of RBC called Schuffner’s dots.
9. They are beleived to be the antigens produced by the parasite.
10. It becomes a round schizont. It undergoes schizogony and produces 12 to 24
erythrocytic merozoites. Finally the erythrocyte bursts and releases merozoites and
haemozoin into the blood.
11. The release of haemozoin causes chill, fever.
12. They attack RBC and continue the erythrocytic cycle. The duration of erythrocytic
cycle is 48 hours.

(ii) Formation of Gametocytes:

1. After several erythrocytic schigonies, some merozoites enter the RBC and transform
into gametocytes instead of continuing the erythrocytic cycle.
2. There are two types of gametocytes. (i) Macrogametocyte or female gametocyte (ii)
Micro gametocyte or male gametocyte.
3. The gametocytes do not develop further in man. They have to reach female Anopheles.
4. They die if they do not reach the mosquito within a week.

2. Describe the life cycle of Plasmodium vivax in mosquito.

Ans: Life cycle of Plasmodium in Mosquito(Mosquito Phase)- Ross Cycle:
Gametocytes of Plasmodium are formed in man and their further development takes place
in female Anopheles mosquitoGametogony
1. Fertilization
2. Formation of Ookinete & Oocysts
3. Sporogony
1. Gametogony : The formation of male and female gametes from the gametocytes is called
gametogony. It occurs in the lumen of the crop of mosquito.
Formation of male gametes:
During this process, the nucleus of microgametocyte divides into eight daughter nuclei.
The eight daughter nuclei pass into eight flagella like structures and form male gametes.
Then the flagella like structures begin lashing movements and get separated from the
flagellated body. This process is called exflagellation.
Formation of female gamete:
 The female gametocyte undergoes a few changes and transforms into a female gamete.
This process is called maturation.
The nucleus moves towards the periphery, and the cytoplasm forms a projection fertilization
cone.
2. Fertilization:
The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization.
One of the active male gamete comes in contact with the ‘fertilization cone of the female
gamete and enters into it.
The pronuclei and cytoplasm of these two gametes fuse with each other. As a result the
zygote is formed.
These gametes are dissimilar in size and hence the process is called anisogamy.
3. Formation of Ookinete & Oocysts:
The zygote elongates and becomes motile and is called ookinete within 18 to 24 hours. It
pierces the wall of the crop and settles beneath the basement membrane.
It becomes round and secretes a cyst around its body. This encysted ookinete is now called
oocyst
Sporogony:
The oocyst enlarges in size and begins sporogony.
According to Bano, the nucleus of the oocyst first undergoes reduction division. Then the
nucleus divides repeatedly by mitosis and produces a number of nuclei.
Each bit of nucleus is surrounded by a little bit of the cytoplasm and it transforms into a
sickle shaped sporozoite. Oocyst with such sporozoites (about 10,000) is called sporocyst.
Sporocysts are formed into spindle shaped sporozites. From there, they travel into the
salivary glands become ready for infection of a healthy person. The life cycle of plasmodium
in mosquito is completed in about 10 to 24 days.

4. Describe the structure and life cycle of Ascaris lumbricoides with the help of a neat
labelled diagram.
Ans Male: It is short with posterior curved end. There is cloaca in the curved end bearing equalsized a pair
of copulatory spicules or pineal spicules.
Female: The body is long with a straight posterior end. Anus is subterminal. Female genital
pore is at about one third the length from anterior end.
Life cycle of Ascaris lumbricoides:
1. After copulation in the small intestine the female releases about two lakh eggs daily.
2. Each egg is surrounded by a rippled protein coat and hence it is called ‘mammillated
 egg.
3. These eggs are passed out along with faecal matter.
4. In the moist soil, development takes place inside the eggs and first stage rhabditiform
larva’ is produced
5. It undergoes first moulting and second stage rhabditiform larva’ is formed. This second
stage larva is the infective stage to man.
6. These eggs reach a new host through contaminated food and water.
7. In the small intestine, the shell gets dissolved and larva is released. Here larva
undertakes extra intestinal migration .
8. It reaches the liver through hepatic portal vein.
9. Then it goes to heart through post caval vein.
10. It reaches lungs through pulmonary arteries.
11. The second moulting take place in alveoli of lungs and third stage larvae’ are formed.
12. The third moulting take place in alveoli of lungs and ‘fourth stage larvae’ are formed.
13. It reaches the small intestine through bronchi, trachea, larynx, glottis, pharynx,
oesophagus and stomach.
14. Fourth moulting (final moulting) takes place in small intestine and then becomes
young round worm.
15. It attains sexual maturity in 8 to 10 weeks.
Pathogenicity:
Ascaris causes ascariasis. When the infection is heavy it can cause Nutritional deficiency,
severe abdominal pain and stunted growth in children.

Unit-VII
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
DIAGRAMS

1. Draw a neat labelled diagram of the mouth parts of cockroach.

Draw a neat labelled diagram of the salivary apparatus of cockroach

LONG ANSWERS TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Describe the digestive system of cockroach with the help of a neat labelled
diagram
Digestive system of cockroach consists of an alimentary canal and associated glands.
1. Alimentary canal: it is divided into 3 regions namely 1. Foregut 2. Midgut
3.Hindgut
Foregut: It includes pharynx, oesophagus, crop and gizzard.
• gizzard
is also commonly known as a grinding mill and sieve.
• stomodeal valve is present between foregut and midgut
Midgut: between the gizzard of foregut and midgut 6-8 hepatic caecae are present.
•A peritrophic membrane is formed around the food in midgut
Hindgut: at the junction of midgut and hindgut yellowish malpighian tubules arepresent.
• Atthe junction of midgut and hindgut sphincter muscle is present. Hindgut
consists of ileum, colon and rectum.
• Rectum bears 6 rectal papillae which helps in absorption of water from
undigested food
2. Associated glands: It includes a pair of salivary glands, hepatic caecae and
glandular cells of the midgut. Salivary glands consist of salivary lobules and
receptacles.
Physiology of digestion:
Most of the food is digested in the crop with the help of digestive enzymes and absorbed
into the blood in midgut.

2. Describe the blood circulatory system of periplaneta in detail and draw aneat and
labelled diagram of it.
A. Periplaneta has an open type of circulatory system. The three main parts of the
cockroach blood circulatory system are 1. The haemocoel, 2. Heart, 3. Blood. 1).
Hemocoel of cockroach is divided into three main sinuses by two diaphragms(dorsal
and ventral)
1. The dorsal sinus encloses the heart
2. The middle sinus encloses most of the visceral organs
3. The ventral sinus encloses the nerve cord.
4. The peri visceral sinus (middle sinus) is large and the others are small.
 5. The dorsal diaphragm is present between dorsal and middle sinus
6. The ventral diaphragm is present between middle sinus and venral sinus
2). Heart of a cockroach is a long, muscular and contractile tube and is dividedinto 13
chambers.
• Dorsal diaphragm is connected to the tergum by a series of alary muscles.
• Every chamber opens into its anterior chamber by a valvular opening.
• Each chamber has a pair of small apertures called Ostia (except last chamber)
• The posterior end of the heart is closed and the anterior end continues forwardas aorta.
3). Blood of cockroach is colourless and consists of plasma and blood cells called
haemocytes. It helps in circulation of nutrients, hormones etc., within the body.
Circulation of blood:
Blood moves forward by the contraction of heart chambers and blood circulatesin
haemocoel by the contraction and relaxation of alary muscles.

Ecology & Environment

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. What is an ecological population?
A: Population is a group of organisms of the same species living in a specific area at a specific
time.
2. Define a community.
A: Community is an association of the interacting members of population of different
autotrophic and heterotrophic species in a particular area.
3. What is an eco-system?
A: An ecosystem is a functional unit of the bio sphere in which members of the community
interact among themselves and with the surrounding environment.
4. What is the effect of light on body pigmentation?
A:- Light influences the colour of the skin. The animals which live in the regions of low
intensity light have less pigmentation than that of the animals exposed to light.
5. Distinguish the terms phototaxis and photokinesis.
A: Phototaxis is oriented locomotion of an organism towards or away from the direction of
light. Ex:- Euglena
Photokinesis is the influence of light on non-directional movement of organisms.
Ex: Mussel crab.
6. What are circadian rhythms?
A: Biological rhythms that occurs in a time period of 24 hours are called circadian rhythms.
7. Mention the advantages of some UV. rays to us.
A: 1) UV radiation kills the microorganisms present on the body surface of animals.
2) UV radiation helps in the conversion of sterols present in the skin into vitamin D in
 mammals.
8. What is cyclomorphosis? Explain its importance in Daphnia.
A: The cyclic seasonal morphological variations among certain organisms is called
“Cyclomorphosis”. In the case of Daphnia it is an adaptation to “stabilize the movement”
in water and can “resist the water currents better” to stay in the water rich in food materials.
8. What are ‘regulators’?
A: Organims these are able to maintain homeostasis by physiological means which ensure
constant body temperature, constant osmotic concentration are called, “regulators”. Ex:
Mammals.
10.What is camouflage? Give its significance.
A: Some species of insects and frogs are cryptically coloured to avoid being detected easily by
the predator. This phenomenon is called “Camouflage”.
11.What is Gause’s principle? When does it applicable?
A: When the resources are limited, the competitively superior species will eventually eliminatethe
other species. It is relatively easy to demonstrate in laboratory experiments.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. What is summer stratification? Explain.
A: During summer in temperate lake, the density of
the surface water decreases because of increase
in its temperature (21-250C). This ‘upper most
warm layer’ of a lake is called epilimnion.
Below the epilimnion there is a zonein which the
temperature decreases at the rate of 10C per
meter in depth, and it is called
metalimnion. The bottom layer is the hypolimnion, where water is relatively cool, stagnant
and with low oxygen content.
During autumn, The epilimnion cools down, and the surface water becomes heavy when
the temperature is 40C and sinks to the bottom of the lake overturns bring about ‘uniform
temperature’ in lakes during that period. This circulation during the autumn is known as
the autumn overturn. The upper oxygen rich water reaches the hypoliminion and the
nutrient rich bottom water comes to the surface. Thus there is uniform distribution of
nutrients and oxygen in the lake.
2. Explain Vant’ Hoff rule.
A: Van’t Hoff, a Noble Laureate in thermo chemistry proposed that, with the increase of every
100C, the rate of metabolic activities double. This rule is reffered to as the Van’t Hoff’s
rule. Van’t Hoff’s rule can also be stated in reverse saying that the reaction rate is halved
with the decrease of every 100C. The effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction is
expressed in terms of temperature coefficient or Q10 value. Q10 values are estimated taking
the ratio between the rate of a reaction at X0C and rate of reaction at (X - 100C). In the
living systems the Q10 value is about 2.0. If the Q10 value is 2.0, it means, for every 100C
increase, the rate of metabolism doubles.
3. How do marine animals adapt to hypertonic sea water?
A: To overcome the problem of water loss, marine fishes have aglomerular kidneys with less
number of nephrons. Such kidneys minimize the loss of water through urine. To compensate
water loss the marine fish drink more water and along with this water, salts are added to
 the body fluids and disturb the internal equilibrium. To maintain salt balance in the body
they have salt secreting chloride cells in their gills. Marine birds like sea gulls and penguins
eliminate salts in the form of salty fluid that drips through their nostrils. In turtles the
ducts of chloride secreting glands open near the eyes. Some cartilaginous fishes retain
urea and trimethylamine oxide (TMO) in their blood to keep the body fluids isotonic to the
sea water and avoid dehydration of the body due to exosmosis.
4. Explain brood parasitism with a suitable example.
A: Certain birds are fascinating examples of a special type of parasitism, in which the parasitic
birds lays its eggs in the next of its host and lets / allows the host incubates them. during
the course of evolution, the eggs of the parasitic bird have evolved to resemble the host’s
egg in size and colour to reduce the chances of the host bird detecting the foreign eggs and
ejecting them from the nest.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. Write an essay on temperature as an ecological factor.
A: Temperature is a measure of the intensity of heat. The temperature on land or in water is not
uniform. On land the temperature variations are more pronounced, when compared to the
aquatic medium, because land absorbs or loses heat much quicker than water. The
temperature on land depends on seasons and the geographical area on this planet.
Temperature decreases progressively when we move form the equator to the poles.
Biological effects of Temperature:
Temperature Tolerance: A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of
temperatures they are called eurythermal, but, a vast majority of organisms are restricted
to a narrow range of temperatures such organisms are called stenothermal.
Temperature and Metabolism: Temperature affects the working of enzymes and through
it, the basal metabolism, and other physiological functions of organism. The temperature
at which the metabolic activities occur at the climax level is called the optimum temperature.
The lower temperature at which on organism can live indefinitely is called minimum
effective temperature. It an animal or plant is subjected to a temperature below the minimum
effective limit, enters into a condition if inactiveness called chill coma. The metabolic
rateincreases with the rise of temperature from the minimum effective temperature to
optimumtemperature.
Van’t Hoff’s rule: Van’t Hoff, a Nobel Laureate the thermochemistry proposed that, with
the increase of every 100C, the rate of metabolic activities doubles. This rule is referred toas
the Van’t Hoff’s rule. Van’t Hoff’s rule can also be stated in reverse saying that the
reaction rate is halved with the decrease of every 100C. The effect of temperature on the
rate of a reaction is expressed in terms of temperature coefficient or Q10 value. Q10 values
are estimated taking the ratio between the rate of a reaction at X0C and rate of reaction at
(X-100C). In the ‘living systems’ the Q10
value is about 2.0 If the Q10value is about 20, it
means, for every 100C increase, the rate of metabolism doubles.
Cyclomorphosis: The cyclic seasonal morphological variations among certain organisms
is called cyclomorphosis. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in the Cladoceran
Daphnia (water flea). in the winter season the head of Daphnia is ‘round’ in shape (typical
or non helmet morph). With the on set of the spring season, a small ‘helmet’/’hood’ starts
 developing on it. The helmet attains the maximum size in summer. In ‘autumn’ the helmet
starts receding. By the winter season, the head becomes round
Temperature adaptations: Temperature adaptations in animals can be dealt under three
heads: a) Behavioural adaptations, b) Morphological and Anatomical adaptations and c)
Physiological adaptations.
a) Behavioural adaptations: Some organisms show behavioural responses to cope
with variations in their environment. Desert lizards manage to keep their body
temperature fairly constant by behavioural means. They bask in the sun and absorb
heat when their body temperature drops below the comfort zone, but move into
shade when the temperature starts increasing.
b) Morphological and anatomical adaptations: In the polar seas, aquatic mammals
such as the seals have a thick layer of fat (blubber) that acts as an insulator and reduces the loss of
body heat, underneath their skin. The animals which inhabit thecolder regions have larger body size
with greater mass. The body mass is useful togenerate more heat. As per Bergmann’s rule mammals
and other warm blooded living in colder regions have less surface area to body volume ratio. Than
their counterparts living in the tropical regions.
c) Physiological adaptations: In most animals, all the physiological functions
proceed ‘optimally’ in a narrow temperature range (in humans. It is 370C). But there
are microbes (archaebacteria) that flourish in hot springs and in some parts of deep
seas, where temperatures far exceed 1000C. Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters
where the temperature is always below zero. Thermal migrate: The organism can move
away temporarily from the stressful habitat toa more hospitable (comfortable) area and return
when the stressful period is over. In humananalogy comparison, this strategy is comparable
a person moving from Delhi to Shimla for the duration of summer.
Diapause: Certain organisms show delay in development, during periods of unfavourable
environmental conditions and spend period in a state of inactiveness called diapause. This
dormant period in animals is a mechanism to survive extremes of temperature drought,
etc. It is seen mostly in insects and embryos of some fish. Under unfavourable conditions
many zooplankton species in Lakes and ponds are known to enter diapause.
2. Describe different types of food chain that exist in an ecosystem.
A: The food energy passes from one trophic level to another trophic level mostly from the lower
to higher trophic levels. When the path of food energy is ‘linear’ the components resemble
the ‘links’ of a chain and it is called ‘food chain’. Generally a food chain ends with
decomposers. The three major types of food chains in an ecosystem are Grazing Food
Chain, Parasitic Food Chain and Detritus Food Chain.

i) Grazing food chain: It is also known as predatory

food chain, it begins with the green plants and the
second third and fourth trophic levels are occupied
by the herbivores, primary carnivores and
secondary carnivores respectively. In some food
chains there is yet another trophic level - the
climax carnivores. The number of trophic levels
in food chains varies form 3 to 5 generally. Some
examples from grazing food chain are given below.
ii) Parasitic Food chain: Some authors included the Parasitic Food Chains as a part of the
GFC. As in the case of GFCs, it also begins with the producers, the plants. However, the
food energy passes from large organisms to small organisms in the parasitic chains. For
instance, a tree which occupies the 1st trophic level provides shelter and food for many
birds. These birds host many ectoparasites and endo parasites. Thus, unlike in the predator
food chain, the path of the flow of energy includes fewer, large sized organisms in the
lower trophic levels and numerous, small sized organisms in the successive higher trophic
levels.
iii) Detritus Food Chain: The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter
(such as leaf litter, bodies of dead organisms). It is made up of decomposers which are
heterotrophic organisms, mainly the ‘fungi’ and ‘bacteria’. They meet their energy and
nutrient requirements by degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known
as saprotrophs.
Decomposers: Secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into
simple absorbable substances. Some examples of detritus food chains are:
1. Detritus (formed from leaf litter) - Earthworms - Frogs - Snakes.
2. Dead animals - Flies and maggots - Frogs - Snakes.