LES10A200 Engineering Mathematics I
Topics: trigonometric substitution
File:EMI-L2W7-19102023.tex,16:35
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Trigonometric substitutions
If f (x) in the integral Z
f (x) dx
√ √ √
contains one of the expressions a2 − x 2 , a2 + x 2 , or x 2 − a2 ,
where a > 0, then the radical sign can be eliminated by using the
trigonometric substitution as follow
p π π
a2 − x 2 x = a sin θ, − < θ <
2 2
p π π
a2 + x 2 x = a tan θ, − < θ <
2 2
p π
x 2 − a2 x = a sec θ, 0 < θ < .
2
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Example
Evaluate Z
1
√ dx.
x2 16 − x 2
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x
sin θ = 4
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Example
Evaluate Z
1
√ dx.
x2 16 − x 2
Solution
Let x = 4 sin θ, where −π/2 < θ < π/2. If follows that
p p q
16 − x 2 = 16 − 16 sin2 θ = 16(1 − sin2 θ)
p
= 4 1 − sin2 θ = 4 cos θ.
Since x = 4 sin θ, we have
dx/dθ = 4 cos θ ⇒ dx = 4 cos θdθ
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Example
Evaluate Z
1
√ dx.
x2 16 − x 2
Solution
Let x = 4 sin θ, where −π/2 < θ < π/2. If follows that
p p q
16 − x 2 = 16 − 16 sin2 θ = 16(1 − sin2 θ)
p
= 4 1 − sin2 θ = 4 cos θ.
Since x = 4 sin θ, we have
dx/dθ = 4 cos θ ⇒ dx = 4 cos θdθ
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Z Z
1 1
√ dx = 4 cos θdθ
x 16 − x 2
2 (4 sin θ)2 4 cos θ
Z Z
1 1 1
= dθ = cosec2 θdθ
16 sin2 θ 16
1 1
= − cot θ + C = − cot(arcsin(x/4)) + C .
16 16
The last step follows from the assumption that when
x = 4 sin θ ⇒ x/4 = sin θ ⇒ arcsin(x/4) = θ.
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Example
Evaluate Z
1
√ dx.
4 + x2
Solution. Let x = 2 tan θ, dx = 2 sec2 θdθ, where
−π/2 < θ < π/2. If follows that
p p q
4 + x 2 = 4 + 4 tan2 θ = 4(1 + tan2 θ)
p √
= 2 1 + tan2 θ = 2 sec2 θ = 2 sec θ.
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Example
Evaluate Z
1
√ dx.
4 + x2
Solution. Let x = 2 tan θ, dx = 2 sec2 θdθ, where
−π/2 < θ < π/2. If follows that
p p q
4 + x 2 = 4 + 4 tan2 θ = 4(1 + tan2 θ)
p √
= 2 1 + tan2 θ = 2 sec2 θ = 2 sec θ.
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By substituting we obtain
Z Z
1 1
√ dx = 2 sec2 θdθ
4+x 2 2 sec θ
Z
= sec θdθ = ln | sec θ + tan θ| + C .
Since tan θ = x/2 (see figure below), that means
√
4 + x2
sec θ = ,
2
hence √
4 + x2 x
Z
1
√ dx = ln + + C.
4 + x2 2 2
□
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x
tan θ = 2
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Example
Evaluate Z √
x2 − 9
dx.
x
Solution. Let us set
x = 3 sec θ, dx = 3 sec θ tan θdθ.
Consequently,
p p p √
x 2 − 9 = 9 sec2 θ − 9 = 3 sec2 θ − 1 = 3 tan2 θ = 3 tan θ.
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Example
Evaluate Z √
x2 − 9
dx.
x
Solution. Let us set
x = 3 sec θ, dx = 3 sec θ tan θdθ.
Consequently,
p p p √
x 2 − 9 = 9 sec2 θ − 9 = 3 sec2 θ − 1 = 3 tan2 θ = 3 tan θ.
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Therefore,
Z √
x2 − 9
Z
3 tan θ
dx = 3 sec θ tan θdθ
x 3 sec θ
Z Z
= 3 tan θdθ = 3 (sec2 θ − 1)dθ
2
= 3(tan θ − θ) + C .
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Since sec θ = x/3 (see figure below). This implies that
√
x2 − 9
tan θ = ,
3
and we may write
Z √ "√ #
x2 − 9 x2 − 9 x
dx = 3 − arcsec +C
x 3 3
p x
= x 2 − 9 − 3arcsec + C.
3
□
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x
sec θ = 3
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Example
Evaluate
x2
Z
√ dx.
9 − x2
Let us set
x = 3 sin θ, dx = 3 cos θdθ.
Consequently,
p q √
9 − x = 9(1 − sin2 θ) = 3 cos2 θ = 3 cos θ.
2
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Example
Evaluate
x2
Z
√ dx.
9 − x2
Let us set
x = 3 sin θ, dx = 3 cos θdθ.
Consequently,
p q √
9 − x = 9(1 − sin2 θ) = 3 cos2 θ = 3 cos θ.
2
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x2 9 sin2 θ · 3 cos θ
Z Z
√ dx = dθ
9 − x2 3 cos θ
1 − cos(2θ)
Z Z
2
= 9 sin θdθ = dθ
2
9 sin(2θ) 9
= θ− + C = (θ − sin θ cos θ) + C
2 2 2
√ !
9 x x 9 − x2
= arcsin − +C
2 3 3 3
9 x xp
= arcsin − 9 − x2 + C.
2 3 2
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Task
Evaluate Z
1 2
√ dx for x > .
25x 2 − 4 5
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Answer
√
1 5x 25x 2 − 4
+ +C
5 2 2
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The substitution z = tan(x/2)
The substitution
x
z = tan
2
reduces the problem of integrating a rational expression in sin x
and cos x to a problem of integrating a rational function of z.
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It is clear that tan(x/2) express a rational function of sin x and
cos x. To see the effect of substitution. We need to find cos x and
sin x, when z = tan(x/2).
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By using the identity
cos(2θ) + 1 = 2 cos2 θ
and letting θ = x/2, we get
x 2
cos x = 2 cos2 −1= −1
2 sec2 (x/2)
2 1 − tan2 (x/2)
= − 1 =
1 + tan2 (x/2) 1 + tan2 (x/2)
1 − z2
= .
1 + z2
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Similarly,
x x sin(x/2) x
sin x = 2 sin cos = 2 cos2
2 2 cos(x/2) 2
x 1 2 tan(x/2)
= 2 tan 2
=
2 sec (x/2) 1 + tan2 (x/2)
2z
= .
1 + z2
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x sin x
It is easy to see from this figure that tan = .
2 1 + cos x
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Example
Evaluate Z
dx
.
2 + sin x
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Solution. Let z = tan x2 . Then sin x = 2z
1+z 2
1 + z2
Z Z Z
dx dx dz
= 2z
=
2 + sin x 2 + ( 1+z 2) 2 + 2z + 2z 1 + z 2
2
Z Z
dz dz
= 2
=
z +z +1 z + 2(1/2)z + (1/2)2 + (3/4)
2
Z
dz
= √
[z + (1/2)]2 + ( 3/2)2
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Applying the formula
Z
du 1 u
= arctan +C
u 2 + a2 a a
we get
Z
dz
= √
[z + (1/2)]2 + ( 3/2)2
2 2z + 1
= √ arctan √ +C
3 3
2 2 tan(x/2) + 1
= √ arctan √ +C
3 3
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Task
Evaluate Z
dx
.
1 + cos x
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Answer
x
tan +C
2
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Integration by partial fractions
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Every rational function, no matter how complicated, can be
expressed as a sum of simpler fractions. For example,
5x − 3 2 3
= + .
x2 − 2x − 3 x +1 x −3
The method for rewriting rational functions this way is called the
method of partial fractions. In particular case, it consists of
finding constants A and B such that
5x − 3 A B
= + .
x 2 − 2x − 3 x +1 x −3
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We call the fractions
A B
and
x +1 x −3
partial fractions because their denominators are only part of the
original denominator x 2 − 2x − 3, where A and B are called the
undetermined coefficients. Above equation can be written as
5x + 3 = A(x − 3) + B(x + 1).
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Or
5x + 3 = (A + B)x − 3A + B.
This will be an identity in x if and only if the coefficients of like
powers of x on the two sides are equal:
A + B = 5, −3A + B = 3.
Solving these equations simultaneously gives A = 2 and B = 3.
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Example (Distinct linear factors)
Find
5x − 3
Z
dx.
x2 − 2x − 3
Solution
From preceding discussion we obtain
Z
5x − 3
Z
2 3
dx = + dx
x 2 − 2x − 3 x +1 x −3
Z Z
2 3
= dx + dx
x +1 x −3
= 2 ln |x + 1| + 3 ln |x − 3| + C .
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Example (Distinct linear factors)
Find
5x − 3
Z
dx.
x2 − 2x − 3
Solution
From preceding discussion we obtain
Z
5x − 3
Z
2 3
dx = + dx
x 2 − 2x − 3 x +1 x −3
Z Z
2 3
= dx + dx
x +1 x −3
= 2 ln |x + 1| + 3 ln |x − 3| + C .
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Example (Repeated linear factor)
Express
6x + 7
(x + 2)2
as a sum of partial fractions.
Solution
We express the fraction in the form
6x + 7 A B
2
= + .
(x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 2)2
Clearing the fractions of the above equations, we obtain
6x + 7 = A(x + 2) + B = Ax + (2A + B).
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Example (Repeated linear factor)
Express
6x + 7
(x + 2)2
as a sum of partial fractions.
Solution
We express the fraction in the form
6x + 7 A B
2
= + .
(x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 2)2
Clearing the fractions of the above equations, we obtain
6x + 7 = A(x + 2) + B = Ax + (2A + B).
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Matching coefficients of like terms gives A = 6 and
7 = 2A + B = 12 + B, B = −5.
Hence
6x + 7 6 5
2
= − .
(x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 2)2
□
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Example (An improper fraction)
Express
2x 3 − 4x 2 − x − 3
.
x 2 − 2x − 3
as a sum of partial fractions.
Solution
By long division we may write
2x 3 − 4x 2 − x − 3 5x − 3
= 2x +
x 2 − 2x − 3 x2
− 2x − 3
5x − 3
= 2x +
(x + 1)(x − 3)
2 3
= 2x + + .
x +1 x −3
□
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Example (An improper fraction)
Express
2x 3 − 4x 2 − x − 3
.
x 2 − 2x − 3
as a sum of partial fractions.
Solution
By long division we may write
2x 3 − 4x 2 − x − 3 5x − 3
= 2x +
x 2 − 2x − 3 x2
− 2x − 3
5x − 3
= 2x +
(x + 1)(x − 3)
2 3
= 2x + + .
x +1 x −3
□
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Example (An irreducible quadratic factor)
Express
−2x + 4
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1)2
as a sum of partial fractions.
Solution We write
−2x + 4 Ax + B C D
= 2 + + .
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x +1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
Clearing the equation of fractions gives
−2x + 4 = (Ax + B)(x − 1)2 + C (x − 1)(x 2 + 1) + D(x 2 + 1)
= (A + C )x 3 + (−2A + B − C + D)x 2 + (A − 2B + C )x
+(B − C + D).
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Example (An irreducible quadratic factor)
Express
−2x + 4
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1)2
as a sum of partial fractions.
Solution We write
−2x + 4 Ax + B C D
= 2 + + .
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x +1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
Clearing the equation of fractions gives
−2x + 4 = (Ax + B)(x − 1)2 + C (x − 1)(x 2 + 1) + D(x 2 + 1)
= (A + C )x 3 + (−2A + B − C + D)x 2 + (A − 2B + C )x
+(B − C + D).
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Equating coefficients of like terms gives
coefficient of x 3 : 0=A+C
2
coefficient of x : 0 = −2A + B − C + D
1
coefficient of x : −2 = A − 2B + C
0
coefficient of x : 4 = B − C + D.
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Now we solve these equations simultaneously to find the values of
A, B, C , and D.
subtract fourth equation from second: −4 = −2A, A=2
from first equation: C = −A, C = −2
from third equation: B=1
from fourth equation: D = 4 − B + C, D = 1.
We substitute these values and obtain
−2x + 4 2x + 1 2 1
= 2 − + .
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
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Example
Evaluate
−2x + 4
Z
dx.
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1)2
Solution Solution. We expand the integrand by partial fractions,
and integrate term by term,
Z
−2x + 4
Z
2x + 1 2 1
dx = − + dx
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x 2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
Z
2x 1 2 1
= + − +
x 2 + 1 x 2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
1
= ln(x 2 + 1) + arctan x − 2 ln |x − 1| − +
x −1
□
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Example
Evaluate
−2x + 4
Z
dx.
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1)2
Solution Solution. We expand the integrand by partial fractions,
and integrate term by term,
Z
−2x + 4
Z
2x + 1 2 1
dx = − + dx
(x 2 + 1)(x − 1)2 x 2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
Z
2x 1 2 1
= + − +
x 2 + 1 x 2 + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
1
= ln(x 2 + 1) + arctan x − 2 ln |x − 1| − +
x −1
□
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Summary. We summaries our discussion as follows:
numerator A B
= +
(x + p)(x + q) x +p x +q
numerator A B
= +
(x + p)2 (x + p) (x + p)2
numerator Ax + B C D
= + + .
(x + p)(x + q)2
2 (x + p) x + q (x + q)2
2
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See you in next lecture!
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References
[AS] M. Abramowitz and I. Stegun, eds.: Handbook of
mathematical functions with formulas, graphs and
mathematical tables. National Bureau of Standards, 1964
(Russian translation, Nauka 1979).
[AVV1] G. D. Anderson, M. K. Vamanamurthy, and M.
Vuorinen: Conformal invariants, inequalities and
quasiconformal maps. J. Wiley, 1997, 505 pp.
[CDH] A. Croft, R. Davison, M. Hargreaves, and J. Flint:
Engineering mathematics: A foundation for electronics,
Electrical, communication and system engineers, Pearson Ed.,
2013, 961 pp.
[AR] Robert A. Adams: Calculus: A complete course,
Pearson Education Canada, Inc. 2010.
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References
[L] Serge Lang: A first course in calculus, Viking Press,
Inc. 1971.
[St] George B. Stroud and D.J. Booth: Engineering
mathematics, 5th ed. Industrial Press, Inc. New York, 2001.
[Sw] Earl W. Swokowski: Calculus with analytic geometry,
PWS Publishers, Wadsworth, Inc. 1983.
[T] George B. Thomas, R. L. Finney, and M. D. Weir:
Calculus and analytic geometry, Addison -Wesley, Inc. 1996.
[Y] Xin-She Yang: Engineering mathematics with examples
and applications, 1st Ed., Academic Press, Elsevier Inc. 2017.
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