M22TE0101- Advanced Concrete Technology, M.

Tech 1st sem

Construction Technology & Management

Dr. Sunil Kumar Tengli

Professor, School of Civil Engineering
 UNIT 1 & 2

Concrete constituents and Mix Design

Components of modern concrete and developments in the process, constituent materials: Role of
constituents, Alternate replacement materials, Manufacture of Concrete, Delivery of Concrete,
Concrete Placing, Curing methods, Mix proportioning of Concrete: Principles and methods.

Fresh and Hardened Properties of Concrete

Early-Age Properties of Concrete, Factors influencing concrete properties, Fresh and Hardened
concrete properties and Testing methods, Stress–Strain Relationship and Constitutive Equations,
Dimensional Stability—Shrinkage and Creep.

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 UNIT 3 & 4

Structure of Concrete
Introduction: Concrete as a Structural Material, Characteristics and Types of Concretes,
Structural Levels, Structure of Concrete in Nanometer Scale: C–S–H Structure, Transition Zone in
Concrete, Micro-structural Engineering.

Advanced Composite Concrete

Self-Compacting Concrete: Mix design by IS code and Nansu methods, Fresh and hardened
properties
Geo-polymer concrete: Mix Proportion, fresh and hardened properties

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 Components of modern concrete and developments in the process

It is useful to define concrete and the principal concrete-making components. The following definitions
are based on ASTM C 1253 (Standard Definition of Terms Relating to Concrete and Concrete
Aggregates), and ACI Committee 116 and Indian Standard Code IS 456

Concrete is a composite material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are
embedded particles or fragments of aggregates. In hydraulic cement concrete, the binder is formed
from a mixture of hydraulic cement and water.

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Aggregate is the granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, or iron blast-furnace slag, used
with a cementing medium to form hydraulic-cement concrete or mortar.

The term coarse aggregate refers to aggregate particles larger than 4.75 mm (No. 4 sieve), and the
term fine aggregate refers to aggregate particles smaller than 4.75 mm but larger than 75 micron

Gravel is the coarse aggregate resulting from natural disintegration and abrasion of rock or processing
of weakly bound conglomerate.

The term sand is commonly used for fine aggregate resulting from natural disintegration and abrasion
of rock or processing of friable sandstone.

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Crushed stone is the product resulting from industrial crushing of rocks, boulders, or large
cobblestones.
Iron blast-furnace slag, a by-product of the iron industry, is the material obtained by crushing blast-
furnace slag that solidified under atmospheric conditions.

Mortar is a mixture of sand, cement, and water. It is essentially concrete without a coarse aggregate.
Grout is a mixture of cementitious material and aggregate, usually fine aggregate, to which sufficient
water is added to produce a pouring consistency without segregation of the constituents.

Shotcrete refers to a mortar or concrete that is pneumatically transported through a hose and
projected onto a surface at a high velocity

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A cement is called hydraulic when the hydration products are stable in an aqueous environment. The
most commonly used hydraulic cement for making concrete is Portland cement, which consists
essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates. The calcium silicate hydrates formed on the hydration of
Portland cement are primarily responsible for its adhesive characteristic, and are stable in aqueous
environments.

Constituent Materials: for manufacturing Conventional Concrete

Cement
Fine aggregates
Coarse aggregates
Water

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Manufacture of Portland Cement

The raw materials required for manufacture of Portland cement are calcareous materials, such as
limestone or chalk, and argillaceous material such as shale or clay. Cement factories are established
where these raw materials are available in plenty. Cement factories have come up in many regions in
India, eliminating the inconvenience of long distance transportation of raw and finished materials.

The process of manufacture of cement consists of grinding the raw materials, mixing them intimately
in certain proportions depending upon their purity and composition and burning them in a kiln at a
temperature of about 1300 to 1500°C, at which temperature, the material sinters and partially fuses to
form nodular shaped clinker. The clinker is cooled and ground to fine powder with addition of about 3
to 5% of gypsum. The product formed by using this procedure is Portland cement.

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CEMENT

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Chemical Composition
The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina and
iron oxide. These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at high temperature to form more
complex compounds. The relative proportions of these oxide compositions are responsible for
influencing the various properties of cement; in addition to rate of cooling and fineness of grinding

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The Oxide Composition of a Typical Portland Cement and the Corresponding Calculated Compound
Composition

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 ROLE OF AGGREGATES IN CONCRETE AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete. They give body to the concrete, reduce
shrinkage and effect economy. Earlier, aggregates were considered as chemically inert materials but
now it has been recognized that some of the aggregates are chemically active and also that certain
aggregates exhibit chemical bond at the interface of aggregate and paste.
The mere fact that the aggregates occupy 70–80 per cent of the volume of concrete, their impact on
various characteristics and properties of concrete is undoubtedly considerable

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The study of aggregates can best be done under the following sub-headings:

(a) Classification
(b) Source
(c) Size
(d) Shape
(e ) Texture
(f ) Strength
(g) Specific gravity and bulk density
(h) Moisture content
(i ) Bulking factor
( j ) Cleanliness
(k ) Soundness
(l ) Chemical properties
(m) Thermal properties
(n) Durability
(o) Sieve analysis
(p) Grading
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Classification
Aggregates can be classified as (i ) Normal weight aggregates, (ii ) Light weight aggregates and (iii)
Heavy weight aggregates
Normal weight aggregates can be further classified as natural aggregates and artificial aggregates.
1. Natural : Sand, Gravel, Crushed rock such as Granite, Quartzite, Basalt and Sandstone
2. Artificial: Broken Brick,, Air-cooled Slag., Sintered fly ash, Bloated clay

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Source
Almost all natural aggregate materials originate from bed rocks. There are three kinds of
rocks, namely, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. These classifications are based on the
mode of formation of rocks. It may be recalled that igneous rocks are formed by the cooling
of molten magma or lava at the surface of the crest (trap and basalt) or deep beneath the
crest (granite). The sedimentary rocks are formed originally below the sea bed and
subsequently lifted up. Metamorphic rocks are originally either igneous or sedimentary rocks
which are subsequently metamorphosed due to extreme heat and pressure

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Size
The largest maximum size of aggregate practicable to handle under a given set of conditions
should be used. Perhaps, 80 mm size is the maximum size that could be conveniently used for
concrete making for Pavement application in sub courses. Using the largest possible maximum
size will result in
(i) reduction of the cement content (ii) reduction in water requirement (iii) reduction of drying
shrinkage. However, the maximum size of aggregate that can be used in any given condition
may be limited by the following conditions:
(i ) Thickness of section; (ii ) Spacing of reinforcement;
(iii ) Clear cover; (iv ) Mixing, handling and placing techniques

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Shape of Particle

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Strength
By and large naturally available mineral aggregates are strong enough for making normal strength
concrete. The test for strength of aggregate is required to be made in the following situations:
(i ) For production of high strength and ultra high strength concrete.
(ii ) When contemplating to use aggregates manufactured from weathered rocks.
(iii ) Aggregate manufactured by industrial process.

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 Alternative Cement substitutes materials

Cement substitutes are materials that may be substituted, to some degree, for cement in
order to improve different properties, such as strength and longevity. The use of cement
substitutes is generally encouraged because of the environmental advantages gained from
their diversion from the waste stream, the reduction of the energy required in their re-
purposing (as compared to the manufacture of cement), and the conservation of raw
materials, such as silica, alumina and iron oxide. The production of Portland cement is not only
costly and energy intensive, but it also produces large amounts of carbon emissions. The
production of one ton of Portland cement produces approximately one ton of CO2 in the
atmosphere

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Advantage of Alternative cementitious materials

Alternative cementitious materials are finely divided materials that replace or supplement
the use of Portland cement. Their use reduces the cost and/or improves one or more
technical properties of concrete. These materials include fly ash, ground granulated blast
furnace slag, condensed silica fume, limestone dust, cement kiln dust, and natural or
manufactured Pozzolans.

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 The use of these cementitious materials in blended cements offers advantages such as
increased cement plant capacity, reduced fuel consumption, lower greenhouse gas
emissions, control of alkali-silica reactivity, or improved durability. These advantages vary
with the type of alternative cementitious material.

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Fly ash

Fly ash is a fine, light, glassy residue generated during ground-

or powdered-coal combustion. Contractors find that fly ash
enables cement to flow better in pump hoses and makes it
more workable under hand-finishing. It includes substantial
amounts of silicon dioxide and calcium oxide, both of which are
natural ingredients in coal-bearing rock. Mixed with cement
during the construction of the Hoover Dam during the 1930s, it
wasn’t until the 1980s when its use in construction became
commonplace. There are two types of fly ash:

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 Class C fly ash is produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub-bituminous coal, and it
contains considerably more lime and is stronger than its alternative, Class F fly ash. It is
preferable for green building projects and is the standard type of fly ash found in residential
applications. Inspectors can identify this type of cement substitute by its buff, tan, or
occasionally orange colouring.

 Class F fly ash results from the burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal.
Excessive carbon, which may be indicated by a dark coloured cement mix, means that the
coal was not burned thoroughly, which may reduce the concrete’s freeze-thaw resistance.

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Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS)

GGBS is a by-product of the iron and steel industry. In the blast

furnace, slag floats to the top of the iron and removed. GGBS is
produced through quenching the molten slag in water and then
grinding it into a fine powder. Chemically it is similar to, but less
reactive than, Portland cement (Pc).

When mixed with water it will hydrate in a similar way to

Portland cement. It is always used in combination with Portland
cement, typically in the range 60% Pc and 40% GGBS – 30% Pc
and 70% GGBS, according to the ultimate function of the
cement. Very occasionally, it can be found up to a ratio of 90%
GGBS and 10% Pc.

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Silica fume
Silica fume is a by-product from the manufacture of
silicon. It is an extremely fine powder (as fine as smoke)
and therefore it is used in concrete production in either a
densified or slurry form. Due to economic
considerations, the use of silica fume is generally limited
to high strength concretes or concretes in aggressive
environmental conditions. The most commonly used
proportion of silica fume in UK – produced combinations
is 10% by mass of the total cementitious content.

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Slag
Slag is a byproduct of the production of iron and steel in
blast furnaces. The benefits of the partial substitution of
slag for cement are improved durability, reduction of life-
cycle costs, lower maintenance costs, and greater
concrete sustainability. The molten slag is cooled in
water and then ground into a fine powder. Slag is used in
very high concentrations, often occupying more than half
of the total composition of cement. The energy required
to grind and ship slag makes it less energy-efficient than
fly ash but better than Portland cement. Slag concrete is
reflective and lighter in color than fly ash and silica fume,
and it may initially have a blue-green coloring that
typically disappears within a week. Known as “greening,”
this discoloration will not disappear if the slag is used in
swimming pools or other wet locations.

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Limestone fines
Limestone fines can be used as a constituent of cement
to produce Portland limestone cement. Limestone
functions as a supplementary cementing material when
it is finely ground with clinker into Portland cement.
Limestone quality should have at least 75% calcium
carbonate by mass, a clay content less than 1.2% by
mass, and an organic content less than 0.2% by mass.
There are several advantages to using limestone in
Portland cement such as reduced energy consumption
and reduced CO2 emissions. Additional cost savings are
realized if limestone is available in close proximity to the
site. In Portland cements with high C3A (tricalcium
aluminate) contents, the carbonate from the limestone
will react with the C3A during hydration and may
increase strength gain and resistance to sulfate attack.

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Gypsum plaster
Gypsum is a not an uncommon mineral, and needs only a
low temperature of around 150°C, to convert it into a
very useful binding material, known as hemi-hydrate or
plaster of Paris. On its own, plaster of Paris sets very
rapidly when mixed with water. To give time for it to be
applied, around 5% of lime and 0.8% of a retarding
material (such as the keratin glue-like extracts from
boiling fish bones or animal hoof and horn) are added to
the plaster. Retarded plaster of Paris can be used on its
own or mixed with up to three parts of clean, sharp sand.
Hydrated lime can be added to increase its strength and
water resistance.

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Cement Kiln Dust
Approximately 14 million tons of cement kiln dust are
generated yearly Cement kiln dust varies as the raw
material, clinker, and type of operation varies; however,
it consists of unreacted raw feed, partially calcined feed
and clinker dust, free lime, alkali sulfate salts, and other
volatile compounds. After the alkalis are removed, the
cement kiln dust can be blended with clinker to produce
acceptable cement, and cement kiln dust can be added
to Portland cement with other materials such as slag and
fly ash.

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Pozzolona
Pozzolona are materials which, although not
cementitious in themselves, will combine chemically
with lime in the presence of water to form a strong
cementing material. They include:
 Volcanic ash
 Power station fly ash
 Burnt clays
 Ash from some burnt plant materials
 Siliceous earths (such as diatomite)
Materials not already in a fine powdered form must be ground, and some require calcining at around
600–750°C to optimize their pozzolanic properties. Pozzolans can be mixed with lime and/or Portland
cement and can improve quality and reduce costs of concretes made from both materials

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Alkali activated binders (AAB)
These differ from defined CEM products because the pozzolanic materials and latent hydraulic
materials present in them are not activated by cement clinker. They can be split into two
groups, i) those that are high in CaO and are activated by small quantities of activators and ii)
those formed by strong alkali activation of CaO-free aluminosilicates. In the second case they
form complex 3D poly-aluminosilicate structures upon activation, termed ‘geopolymers.’
Both types of AAB are multi-component systems, in which the activator may be powdered and
activated upon addition of water or may be dissolved or suspended in the mixing water.
Other advantages of alkali-activated binders include rapid initial hardening, high resistance to
chemical attack, good resistance to a range of temperatures and low CO2 emissions. These can
be lower than OPC by up to 80% in some cases. An additional property is that they have the
ability to absorb harmful organic and inorganic materials for long-term storage.

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Reactive Powder Concrete
Reactive powder concrete (RPC) is the ultra-high strength concrete prepared by replacing the
ordinary aggregate of normal concrete with quartz powder, silica fume, steel fibers etc. RPC
not only has high strength but also has high ductility. Its compressive strength ranges from
200 Mpa to 800 Mpa.

Composition of Reactive Powder Concrete

Reactive powder concrete contains Very fine powders like cement, fine sand, quartz powder
of size less than 300 micron, silica fume, 1 cm length steel fibers of size 180 microns and
super plasticizer. Typical Composition of ingredients in Reactive powder concrete of 200 Mpa
and 800 Mpa are tabulated below.

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The manufacturing of concrete is broadly carried in six steps, which when sequentially followed,
will produce a properly proportioned and complete mixed concrete. Each step has its own
significance on the contribution of different properties, in the finished product.

Different types of the quality control mechanism and testing are involved in each phase, to make
sure that the concrete produced is of the appropriate quality and which will satisfy all the
requirements of being used for a structure.

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Batching

It is the first and foremost method of preparation of concrete, which involves the
measurements of the materials for making concrete. Before starting any concrete operation,
the volume of the concrete required, to do that work, will always be mentioned or should be
worked out from the drawings provided for that structure.

Depending upon the volume of the work, and grade of concrete mentioned in the design
documents, the volume of the Cement, sand and Course aggregates are determined
respectively, through adopting Mix Design methodology. After the volume has been accurately
determined, then the process involves accurately measuring the volume of each material on-
site, to be used for making concrete. The batching method usually deals with this accurate
measurement of materials.

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There are two types of Batching methods widely adopted throughout the construction
industry:

•Volume Batching: This batching method involves measuring the materials depending
upon their volume. This is nowadays very less used in different construction projects,
due to Superior advantages of Weigh Batching over it, which includes the aspect of
time.

•Weigh Batching: This is the most common and accurate method of Batching which
involves measuring the materials depending upon their weight.

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Mixing
After Batching, the mixing phase takes place which is the actual production of the material
Concrete. In this phase, the necessity of different construction equipment is immense, which
will as well determine the quality of concrete produced.
The mixing phase can be defined as the phase involving, actual physical mixing of different
raw material in the provided proportion along with the controlled operation, which produces
the material concrete. In various modern construction, the mixing procedures greatly differ,
depending upon the type of concrete to be produced, but in simple, it Is as following:

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At first, take a small amount of water and put it into a mixture machine to prevent the sticking
of any materials in the body of the machine. Then half the amount of course aggregate is placed
in it, over which half the amount of sand is placed. Then the full quantity of cement is placed,
and over which the previous sequence is adopted. This is done to prevent any wastage of
cement, which is ofcourse very costly material. The amount of water are equally distributed
throughout the mixing phase.
There are widely two types of mixing procedure adopted, which are:

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•Hand Mixing: Though the name indicates hand Mixing, it is not actually Mixed through the
hand. It is generally done using a mixer that is manually operated. It is not very popular because
of the great amount of effort to be used for the mixing and the mixing speed varies greatly if it is
done using human operation. It is generally adopted for petty concreting works.
•Machine Mixing: It is the preparation of Concrete, using a Mechanically or electrically operated
mixture machine. It is the most widely used method, used for large to medium construction
projects all over the world. The popularity of these methods may be due to the fact that less
amount of effort is to be applied in the mixing process and it will yield higher results, resulting in
the production of good Concrete.

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There are two types of Mixture machines generally used which are, Drum Type and Pan Type.
The Drum Type mixture machine can further be classified as:
1.Tilting
2.Non Tilting
3.Reversing, and
4.Force action type.

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Transporting
Just as the name indicates, it is the transportation of the Concrete from the mixing site to the
placing site. Most of the time, the place of mixing and the place, where the concrete is to be
poured, are not the same. So the concrete is needed to be conveyed for some distance, is
ordered to pour it in the actual place. There are a number of methods and types of
equipment used for the purpose of conveying concrete, within which, some are less famous and
some are very popular and used in almost all construction projects.

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Vertical Transportation: This is the transportation of concrete to be used in the upper storey
of the building or of underground construction and needed to be transported in a vertical
direction. For this transportation, some of the equipment used are—
1.Skip and Hoist
2.Chute
3.Crane, Bucket, Ropeway
4.Helicopters

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•Horizontal Transportation: This is the transportation of concrete to be conveyed horizontally,
that is, from one place to another. Some of the equipment used for this purpose includes-
1.Mortar Pan
2.Truck Mixer
3.Conveyors belt
4.Transit Mixer
There is another common type of equipment, which is nowadays used for every large
construction project and can be operated in both vertical and horizontal directions. The
Equipment used is Pump.

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•Concrete Pump: it is a very common Equipment nowadays. The size of the pump depends
upon the maximum size of the aggregates used and the distance to which the concrete is to be
transported. Though there are several Disadvantages of pumps such as blockages, the amount
of advantage with respect to quality.

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Placing
It is the process of placing of produced concrete, on the required place, according to the position of
the structural member in the Drawing. The placing can be of different types, depending upon the
methods used, such as placing of concrete for foundation and walls, placing of concrete for
Underwater works, etc.
The placing operation largely involves the Formwork fixing operation. Before placing concrete to
the required place, the Formworks, planks that can be manufactured of different materials, such as
Timber and steel and whose depth and thickness depending upon the depth of the structural
member and a number of other factors, are fixed on the four sides. This Formwork act as a medium
in order to obtain the desired shape of the concrete, by suitably designing the forms, one can attain
any Architectural or geometrical shape of the concrete. The removal of the Formworks also
depends upon the type of components and various site conditions.

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Compacting
It is a method of eliminating air voids on the surface of the concrete. Whenever concrete is
placed, many times, different sizes of air voids already exist in the concrete. If the concrete is not
subjected to the Compacting efforts, this air voids remain, which on a later stage results in the
reduction of the strength of concrete as well as other different faults. So in order to attain full
strength so that it can perform safely as per it’s predecided lifespan, Compacting is necessary.
Compacting may be broadly classified into two types,

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•Hand Compaction: Hand Compaction is done by a steel tamping rod. By equally distributing the
strokes as per the number specified in the design documents(generally 25 times for a layer of 10
cm), the concrete is Compacted. This method is used for petty and small concreting works
•Vibration: It is the most popular method which involves Compaction of the concrete using
electrically or mechanically operated tools, commonly known as vibrators. It is used in every
large construction projects, as it provides complete precision. There are various types of vibrators
depending upon the type of concrete it is to be constructed and the concrete components. Some
of these are
1.Internal Vibrator
2.External Vibrator
3.Table vibrator
4.Surface vibrator
5.Platform Vibrator, etc.

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Curing
As we all know, the reaction between cement and water is exothermic, which evolves a
considerable amount of heat. Due to the hydration of Cement, a large amount of heat develops
on the concrete surface as well the water quantity gets reduced. Both occurrences pose a great
danger to the structural member from the stability point of view. So in order to maintain
sufficient temperature, as well as providing adequate moisture to the concrete, Curing is
necessary. So, in other words, curing is the process of making the concrete warm and moist
enough so that hydration of cement can continue.
There are different types of curing, but the most common of them all is Water Curing.

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•Water Curing: it is the application of water on the surface of the concrete. Again, these may
be of several types such as immersion, ponding, spraying, and fogging. The types of water
curing may be different based on the types of elements, as well method of construction (i.e
precast or cast in place). Other types of Curing includes-
1. Membrane Curing
2. Stream Curing, etc.

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Concept of Mix Design

It will be worthwhile to recall at this stage the relationships between aggregate and paste which
are the two essential ingredients of concrete. Workability of the mass is provided by the
lubricating effect of the paste and is influenced by the amount and dilution of paste. The strength
of concrete is limited by the strength of paste, since mineral aggregates with rare exceptions, are
far stronger than the paste compound. Essentially the permeability of concrete is governed by
the quality and continuity of the paste, since little water flows through aggregate either under
pressure or by capillarity. Further, the predominant contribution to drying shrinkage of concretes
is that of paste.

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Since the properties of concrete are governed to a considerable extent by the quality of paste, it
is helpful to consider more closely the structure of the paste. The fresh paste is a suspension, not
a solution of cement in water.

The more dilute the paste, the greater the spacing between cement particles, and thus the
weaker will be the ultimate paste structure. The other conditions being equal, for workable
mixes, the strength of concrete varies as an inverse function of the water/cement ratio. Since the
quantity of water required also depends upon the amount of paste, it is important that as little
paste as possible should be used and hence the importance of grading.

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Variables in Proportioning

With the given materials, the four variable factors to be considered in connection with
specifying a concrete mix are:

(a ) Water-Cement ratio
(b ) Cement content or cement-aggregate ratio
(c ) Gradation of the aggregates
(d ) Consistency.

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In general all four of these inter-related variables cannot be chosen or manipulated arbitrarily.
Usually two or three factors are specified, and the others are adjusted to give minimum
workability and economy. Water/cement ratio expresses the dilution of the paste cement
content varies directly with the amount of paste. Gradation of aggregate is controlled by
varying the amount of given fine and coarse aggregate. Consistency is established by practical
requirements of placing. In brief, the effort in proportioning is to use a minimum amount of
paste (cement) that will lubricate the mass while fresh and after hardening will bind the
aggregate particles together and fill the space between them

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Statistical Quality Control of Concrete
Concrete like most other construction processes, have certain amount of variability both
in materials as well as in constructional methods. This results in variation of strength from
batch to batch and also within the batch. It becomes very difficult to assess the strength
of the final product. It is not possible to have a large number of destructive tests for
evaluating the strength of the end products and as such we have to resort to sample tests

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The aim of quality control is to limit the variability as much as practicable. Statistical quality
control method provides a scientific approach to the concrete designer to understand the
realistic variability of the materials so as to lay down design specifications with proper
tolerance to cater for unavoidable variations. The acceptance criteria are based on
statistical evaluation of the test result of samples taken at random during execution

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 American Concrete Institute Method of Mix Design

The ACI Committee mix design method assume certain basic facts which have been substantiated by
field experiments or large works. They are:

The method makes use of the established fact, that over a considerable range of practical proportions,
fresh concrete of given slump and containing a reasonably well graded aggregate of given maximum
size will have practically a constant total water content regardless of variations in water/cement ratio
and cement content, which are necessarily interrelated.

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(b ) It makes use of the relation that the optimum dry rodded volume of coarse aggregate per unit
volume of concrete depends on its maximum size and the fineness modulus of the fine aggregate as
indicated in Table 11.4 regardless of shape of particles. The effect of angularity is reflected in the void
content, thus angular coarse aggregates require more mortar than rounded coarse aggregate.
(c ) Irrespective of the methods of compaction, even after complete compaction is done, a definite
percentage of air remains which is inversely proportional to the maximum size of the aggregate

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The following is the procedure of mix design in this method:

(a) Data to be collected :

(i ) Fineness modulus of selected F.A.

(ii ) Unit weight of dry rodded coarse aggregate.

(iii ) Sp. gravity of coarse and fine aggregates in SSD condition

(iv ) Absorption characteristics of both coarse and fine aggregates.

(v ) Specific gravity of cement.

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(f ) The total water in kg/m3 of concrete is read from table 11.8 entering the table with the selected
slump and selected maximum size of aggregate. Table 11.8 also gives the approximate amount of
accidentally entrapped air in non-air-entrained concrete.

(g ) Cement content is computed by dividing the total water content by the water/cement ratio.

(h) From table 11.4 the bulk volume of dry rodded coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete is
selected, for the particular maximum size of coarse aggregate and fineness modulus of fine
aggregate.

( j ) The weight of C.A. per cubic meter of concrete is calculated by multiplying the bulk volume with
bulk density.

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(k ) The solid volume of coarse aggregate in one cubic meter of concrete is calculated by
knowing the specific gravity of C.A.

(l ) Similarly the solid volume of cement, water and volume of air is calculated in one cubic
meter of concrete.

(m) The solid volume of sand is computed by subtracting from the total volume of concrete the
solid volume of cement, coarse aggregate, water and entrapped air.

(n) Wight of fine aggregate is calculated by multiplying the solid volume of fine aggregate by
specific gravity of F.A.

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Indian Standard Recommended Method of Concrete Mix Design
(IS 10262 – 1982)

The Bureau of Indian Standards, recommended a set of procedure for design of concrete mix
mainly based on the work done in national laboratories. The mix design procedures are
covered in IS 10262–82. The methods given can be applied for both medium strength and high
strength concrete.

Before we proceed with describing this method step by step, the following short comings in
this method are pointed out. Some of them have arisen in view of the revision of IS 456– 2000.
The procedures of concrete mix design needs revision and at this point of time (2000 AD) a
committee has been formed to look into the matter of Mix Design.

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(i ) The strength of cement as available in the country today has greatly improved since 1982.
The 28-day strength of A, B, C, D, E, F, category of cement is to be reviewed.

(ii ) The graph connecting, different strength of cements and W/C is to be reestablished.

(iii ) The graph connecting 28-day compressive strength of concrete and W/C ratio is to be
extended up to 80 MPa, if this graph is to cater for high strength concrete.

(iv ) As per the revision of IS 456–2000, the degree of workability is expressed in terms of slump
instead of compacting factor. This results in change of values in estimating approximate sand
and water contents for normal concrete up to 35 MPa and high strength concrete above 35 MPa.
The Table giving adjustment of values in water content and sand percentage for other than
standard conditions, requires appropriate changes and modifications.

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(v ) In view of the above and other changes made in the revision of IS 456–2000, the mix design
procedure as recommended in IS 10262–82 is required to be modified to the extent considered
necessary and examples of mix design is worked out However, in the absence of revision of
Indian Standard on method of Mix Design, the existing method i.e., IS 10262 of 1982 is
described below step by step. Wherever it is possible, the new information given in IS 456 of
2000 have been incorporated and the procedure is modified to that extent.

(a) Target mean strength for mix design: The target mean compressive ( fck ) strength at
28 days is given by
fck = fck + tS
where fck = characteristic compressive strength at 28 days.

S is the standard deviation. The value of the standard deviation has to be worked out from the
trials conducted in the laboratory or field. An example has been worked out in Table 11.1. In the
absence of such trials, the value of standard deviation can be adopted from Table 11.22, to
facilitate initial mix design

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(b) Selection of Water/Cement ratio

Various parameters like types of cement, aggregate, maximum size of aggregate, surface texture
of aggregate etc. are influencing the strength of concrete, when water/cement ratio remain
constant, hence it is desirable to establish a relation between concrete strength and free water
cement ratio with materials and condition to be used actually at site. In absence of such
relationship, the free water/cement ratio corresponding to the target strength may be
determined from the relationship shown in Fig. 11.9.

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1.

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One of the good features of IS 10262 of 1982 method of mix design is that it
incorporates the strength of cement in the mix design procedure. By incorporating the
strength of cement, it is possible to effect economy in concrete mix. If the 28 days
strength of cement is known, use of Fig. 11.10 may be made for more accurate
estimation of water cement ratio. However, this will need at least 28 days for testing the
strength of cement, thereby delaying the whole process by 28 days. Accelerated
strength test may be adopted to cut down the delay. In view of the improvements in the
quality and strength of Indian cement since 1982 the graph given in Fig. 11.11 will give a
more realistic picture of water-cement ratio.

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The graph given in Fig. 11.11 is not a part of IS recommended method of mix design. But the
author recommends the use of Fig. 11.11 for better results. This graph is taken from practice in
Germany.
The free water-cement ratio thus selected as mentioned above, should be checked against the
limiting water-cement ratio for the durability requirement (Table 9.18 and the lower of the two
values should be adopted.
(c ) Estimation of Entrapped Air. The air content is estimated from Table 11.23 for the normal
maximum size of aggregate used.

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 Selection of Water Content and Fine to Total Aggregate ratio
The water content and percentage of sand in total aggregate by absolute volume are determined from
Table 11.24 and 11.25 for medium (below grade M 35) and high strength

(above grade M 35) concrete respectively. Both Table 11.24 and Table 11.25 are based on the
following conditions.
(a) Crushed (Angular) coarse aggregate, conforming to IS: 383—’70.
(b) Fine aggregate consisting of natural sand conforming to grading zone II of Table of
IS: 383—’70.
(c) Workability corresponds to compacting factor of 0.80 (Slump 30 mm approximately)
Water cement ratio in case of Table 11.24 is 0.6 0 (by mass) whereas the same for Table 11.25 is 0.35
(by mass). For any departure from above mentioned conditions, corrections have to be applied as per
Table 11.26, for water content and percent sand in total aggregate by absolute volume, determined
from table 11.24 or table 11.25.

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 UNIT 2

Fresh and Hardened Properties of Concrete

Early-Age Properties of Concrete, Factors influencing concrete properties, Fresh and Hardened
concrete properties and Testing methods, Stress–Strain Relationship and Constitutive Equations,
Dimensional Stability—Shrinkage and Creep.

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 FRESH CONCRETE

Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material which can be moulded into any shape.
The relative quantities of cement, aggregates and water mixed together, control the properties of
concrete in the wet state as well as in the hardened state.

The role of water and the quantity of water required for chemical combination with cement and to
occupy the gel pores. We have seen that the theoretical water/cement ratio required for these two
purposes is about 0.38. Use of water/cement ratio more than this, will result in capillary cavities; and
less than this, will result in incomplete hydration and also lack of space in the system for the
development of gel.

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 IS 456-2000 Specifications for
Workability

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7.1.1
In the 'very low' category of workability where strict control is necessary, for example pavement
quality concrete, measurement of workability by determination of compacting factor will be more
appropriate than slump (see IS 1199) and a value of compacting factor of 0.75 to 0.80 is suggested.
7.1.2
In the 'very high' category of workability, measurement of workability by determination of flow will be
appropriate (see IS 9103).

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 Factors Affecting Workability
Workable concrete is the one which exhibits very little internal friction between particle and particle or
which overcomes the frictional resistance offered by the formwork surface or reinforcement contained
in the concrete with just the amount of compacting efforts forthcoming. The factors helping concrete
to have more lubricating effect to reduce internal friction for helping easy compaction are given below:

a) Water Content (b) Mix Proportions

(c) Size of Aggregates (d) Shape of Aggregates
(e) Surface Texture of Aggregate (f) Grading of Aggregate (g) Use of Admixtures

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 Measurement of Workability
The following tests are commonly be employed to measure workability.

(a ) Slump Test
(b) Compacting Factor Test
(c ) Flow Test
(d) Kelly Ball Test
(e ) Vee Bee Consistometer Test.

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Slump Test

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 K-Slump Tester

Very recently a new apparatus called “K-Slump Tester”

has been devised. It can be used to measure the slump
directly in one minute after the tester is inserted in the
fresh concrete to the level of the floater disc. This tester
can also be used to measure the relative workability.

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The following procedure is used:
(a) Wet the tester with water and shake off the excess.
(b) Raise the measuring rod, tilt slightly and let it rest on the pin located inside the tester.
(c) Insert the tester on the levelled surface of concrete vertically down until the disc floater
rests at the surface of the concrete. Do not rotate while inserting or removing the tester.
(d ) After 60 seconds, lower the measuring rod slowly until it rests on the surface of the
concrete that has entered the tube and read the K-Slump directly on the scale of the measuring
rod.
(e) Raise the measuring rod again and let it rest on its pin.
(f) Remove the tester from the concrete vertically up and again lower the measuring rod slowly
till it touches the surface of the concrete retained in the tube and read workability (W) directly
on the scale of the measuring rod.

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Compaction Factor Test

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Flow Test
This is a laboratory test, which gives an indication of the quality of concrete with respect to
consistency, cohesiveness and the proneness to segregation. In this test, a standard mass of concrete is
subjected to jolting. The spread or the flow of the concrete is measured and this flow is related to
workability. Fig. shows the details of apparatus used. It can be seen that the apparatus consists of flow
table, about 76 cm. in diameter over which concentric circles are marked. A mould made from smooth
metal casting in the form of a frustum of a cone is used with the following internal dimensions. The
base is 25 cm. in diameter, upper surface 17 cm. in diameter, and height of the cone is 12 cm.

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The table top is cleaned of all gritty material and is wetted. The mould is kept on the centre of the
table, firmly held and is filled in two layers. Each layer is rodded 25 times with a tamping rod 1.6
cm in diameter and 61 cm long rounded at the lower tamping end. After the top layer is rodded
evenly, the excess of concrete which has overflowed the mould is removed. The mould is lifted
vertically upward and the concrete stands on its own without support. The table is then raised and
dropped 12.5 mm 15 times in about 15 seconds. The diameter of the spread concrete is measured
in about 6 directions to the nearest 5 mm and the average spread is noted. The flow of concrete is
the percentage increase in the average diameter of the spread concrete over the base diameter of
the mould

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Flow Table Apparatus
The BIS has recently introduced another new equipment for measuring flow value of concrete. This
new flow table test is in the line with BS 1881 part 105 of 1984 and DIN 1048 part I. The apparatus and
method of testing is described below.
Accessory Apparatus
Mould: The mould is made of metal readily not attacked by cement paste or liable to rust and of
minimum thickness 1.5 mm. The interior of the mould is smooth and free from projections, such as
protruding rivets, and is free from dents. The mould shall be in the form of a hollow frustum of a cone
having the internal dimensions as shown in Fig. 6.7. The base and the top is open and parallel to each
other and at right angles to the axis of the cone. The mould is provided with two metal foot pieces at
the bottom and two handles above them.
Tamping Bar: The tamping bar is made of a suitable hardwood and having dimensions as shown.
Sampling: The sample of freshly mixed concrete is obtained.

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Procedure:

The table is made level and properly supported. Before commencing the test, the table-top and inner
surface of the mould is wiped with a damp cloth. The slump cone is placed centrally on the table. The
slump cone is filled with concrete in two equal layers, each layer tamped lightly 10 times with the
wooden tamping bar. After filling the mould, the concrete is struck off flush with the upper edge of the
slump cone and the free area of the tabletop cleaned off.

Half a minute after striking off the concrete, the cone is slowly raised vertically by the handles. After
this, the table-top raised by the handle and allowed to fall 15 times in 15 seconds. The concrete
spreads itself out. The diameter of the concrete spread shall then be measured in two directions,
parallel to the table edges. The arithmetic mean of the two diameters shall be the measurement of
flow in millimeters.

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Kelly Ball Test
This is a simple field test consisting of the measurement of the indentation made by 15 cm diameter
metal hemisphere weighing 13.6 kg. when freely placed on fresh concrete. The test has been devised
by Kelly and hence known as Kelly Ball Test

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The advantages of this test is that it can be performed on the concrete placed in site and it is claimed
that this test can be performed faster with a greater precision than slump test. The disadvantages are
that it requires a large sample of concrete and it cannot be used when the concrete is placed in thin
section depth of concrete must be at least 20 cm and the minimum distance from the centre of the
ball to nearest edge of the concrete 23 cm.

The surface of the concrete is struck off level, avoiding excess working, the ball is lowered gradually on
the surface of the concrete. The depth of penetration is read immediately on the stem to the nearest 6
mm. The test can be performed in about 15 seconds and it gives much more consistent results than
Slump Test.

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VEE BEE Consistometer test

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This is a good laboratory test to measure indirectly the workability of concrete. This test consists of
a vibrating table, a metal pot, a sheet metal cone, a standard iron rod. The apparatus is shown
Slump test as described earlier is performed, placing the slump cone inside the sheet metal
cylindrical pot of the Consistometer.

The glass disc attached to the swivel arm is turned and placed on the top of the concrete in the pot.
The electrical vibrator is then switched on and simultaneously a stop watch started. The vibration is
continued till such a time as the conical shape of the concrete disappears and the concrete
assumes a cylindrical shape. This can be judged by observing the glass disc from the top for
disappearance of transparency. Immediately when the concrete fully assumes a cylindrical shape,
the stop watch is switched off.

The time required for the shape of concrete to change from slump cone shape to cylindrical shape
in seconds is known as Vee Bee Degree. This method is very suitable for very dry concrete whose
slump value cannot be measured by Slump Test, but the vibration is too vigorous for concrete with
a slump greater than about 50 mm.

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 TESTING OF HARDENED CONCRETE
Compression Test
Compression test is the most common test conducted on hardened concrete, partly because it is an
easy test to perform, and partly because most of the desirable characteristic properties of concrete are
qualitatively related to its compressive strength.

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Flexural Strength of Concrete

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 Elastic Properties of Concrete

In the theory of reinforced concrete, it is assumed that concrete is elastic, isotropic, homogenous and
That it conforms to Hooke’s law. Actually none of these assumptions are strictly true and concrete is
not a perfectly elastic material. Concrete deforms when load is applied but this deformation does not
follow any simple set rule. The deformation depends upon the magnitude of the load, the rate at
which the load is applied and the elapsed time after which the observation is made. In other words,
the rheological behaviour of concrete i.e., the response of concrete to applied load is quite complex.

The knowledge of rheological properties of concrete is necessary to calculate deflection of structures,

and design of concrete members with respect to their section, quantity of steel and stress analysis.
When reinforced concrete is designed by elastic theory it is assumed that a perfect bond exists
between concrete and steel.

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The stress in steel is “m” times the stress in concrete where “m” is the ratio between modulus of
elasticity of steel and concrete, known as modular ratio. The accuracy of design will naturally be
dependent upon the value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete, because the modulus of elasticity
of steel is more or less a definite quantity.

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Relation between Modulus of Elasticity and
Strength
Figure shows the strain in concrete of different strengths
plotted against the stress strain ratio. At the same stress-
strength ratio, stronger concrete has higher strain. On
the
contrary, stronger the concrete higher the modulus of
elasticity. This can be explained that stronger the
concrete the stronger is the gel and hence less is the
strain for a given load. Because of lower strain, higher is
the modulus of elasticity. The Table 8.1 gives the values
of modulus of elasticity for various strengths of concrete.
Modulus of elasticity of concrete increases
approximately with the square root of the strength. The
IS 456 of 2000 gives the Modulus of elasticity as EC =
5000 Square root of fck
where EC is the short term static modulus of elasticity in
N/square mm.
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Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity
As explained earlier, one of the important factors affecting the modulus of elasticity of concrete is the
strength of concrete. This can be represented in many ways such as the relationship between ratio of
mix or water/cement ratio.
The modulus of elasticity also depends upon the state of wetness of concrete when other conditions
being the same. Wet concrete will show higher modulus of elasticity than dry concrete. This is in
contrast to the strength property that dry concrete has higher strength than wet concrete.
The possible reason is that wet concrete being saturated with water, experiences less strain for a given
stress and, therefore, gives higher modulus of elasticity, whereas dry concrete shows higher strain for
given stress on account of less gel water and inter-crystal adsorbed water. Figure shows the influence
of moisture content on the modulus of elasticity.

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 The quality and quantity of aggregate will have a significant effect on the modulus of elasticity. It
is to be remembered that the strength of aggregate will not have significant effect on the
strength of concrete, whereas, the modulus of elasticity of aggregate influences the modulus of
elasticity of concrete. Figure shows the modulus of elasticity of concrete with gravel aggregates
and expanded clay aggregates. It has been seen that if the modulus of elasticity of aggregate is Ea
and that of the paste Ep then the modulus of elasticity of concrete E is found out to be

where Vp and Va are volume of paste and aggregate respectively in the concrete.
The modulus of elasticity of light weight concrete is usually between 40 to 80 per cent of the modulus
of elasticity of ordinary concrete of the same strength

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Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity

It has been explained earlier that the stress-strain relationship of concrete exhibits complexity
particularly due to the peculiar behaviour of gel structure and the manner in which the water is
held in hardened concrete.

The value of E is found out by actual loading of concrete i.e., the static modulus of elasticity
does not truly represent the elastic behaviour of concrete due to the phenomenon of creep.

The elastic modulus of elasticity will get affected more seriously at higher stresses when the
effect of creep is more pronounced

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The value of dynamic modulus of elasticity computed from ultrasonic pulse velocity method is
somewhat higher than those determined by static method. This is because the modulus of elasticity as
determined by dynamic modulus is unaffected by creep. The creep also does not significantly effect
the initial tangent modulus in the static method. Therefore, the value of dynamic modulus and the
value of initial tangent modulus are found to be more or less agree with each other. Approximate
relationship between the two moduli expressed in GN/m2 is given by

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Creep
Creep can be defined as “the time-dependent” part of the strain resulting from stress. As
discussed earlier that the stress-strain relationship of concrete is not a straight line relationship
but a curved one. The degree of curvature of the stress-strain relationship depends upon many
factors amongst which the intensity of stress and time for which the load is acting are of
significant interest. Therefore, it clearly shows that the relation between stress and strain for
concrete is a function of time. The gradual increase in strain, without increase in stress, with the
time is due to creep. From this explanation creep can also be defined as the increase in strain
under sustained stress.

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All materials undergo creep under some conditions of loading to a greater or smaller extent.
But concrete creeps significantly at all stresses and for a long time. Furthermore, creep of
concrete is approximately linear function of stress up to 30 to 40 per cent of its strength. The
order of magnitude of creep of concrete is much greater than that of other crystalline material
except for metals in the final stage of yielding prior to failure. Therefore, creep in concrete is
considered to be an isolated rheological phenomenon and this is associated with the gel
structure of cement paste. Cement paste plays a dominant role in the deformation of concrete.

The aggregates, depending upon the type and proportions modify the deformation
characteristics to a greater or lesser extent. Therefore, it is logical initially to examine the
structure of cement paste and how it influences creep behaviour and then to consider how the
presence of aggregate modifies the creep behaviour.

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Cement paste essentially consists of Unhydrated cement grains surrounded by the product of
hydration mostly in the form of gel. These gels are interpenetrated by gel pores and interspersed
by capillary cavities. The process of hydration generates more and more of gel and subsequently
there will be reduction of Unhydrated cement and capillary cavities. In young concrete, gel pores
are filled with gel water and capillary cavities may or may not be filled with water.

The movement of water held in gel and paste structure takes place under the influence of
internal and external water vapor pressure. The movement of water may also take place due to
the sustained load on concrete. The formation of gel and the state of existence of water are the
significant factors on the deformative characteristics of concrete. The gel provides the rigidity
both by the formation of chemical bonds and by the surface force of attraction while the water
can be existing in three categories namely combined water, gel water and capillary water.

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It is interesting to find how such a conglomeration of very fine colloidal particles with enclosed
water-filled voids behave under the action of external forces. One of the explanations given to
the mechanics of creeps is based on the theory that the colloidal particles slide against each
other to re-adjust their position displacing the water held in gel pores and capillary cavities. This
flow of gel and the consequent displacement of water is responsible for complex deformation
behaviour and creep of concrete.

Creep takes place only under stress. Under sustained stress, with time, the gel, the adsorbed
water layer, the water held in the gel pores and capillary pores yields, flows and readjust
themselves, which behaviour is termed as creep in concrete.

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Rheological Representation of Creep
Analysis of the mechanical behaviour of a material like hardened cement paste which exhibits
both elastic and inelastic components of deformation under load, can be expressed in rheological
terms. The rheological approach illustrates the mechanical behaviour of an ideal elastic, viscous
and plastic components.

Macroscopic Rheological Approach

At the macroscopic level, the structure of cement paste can be represented as a continuous solid
phase containing saturated voids having a wide ranges of sizes. Figure (a) shows macroscopic
representation of deformational behaviour of hardened cement paste. This model can show the
time-dependent volume changes, as long as the isotropic stresses are applied through the solid
phase and the drainage of the liquid can take place.
The corresponding rheological model consists of a spring device representing the elastic mass
around a central viscous dash-pot representing the confined liquid. Refer Figure (b). With the help
of this model it is possible to have an idea about the deformational behaviour of cement paste.

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Microscopic Rheological Approach
At the microscopic level, the structure of cement of gel can be represented as an anisotropic
crystal clusters randomly oriented in a solid matrix (Figure 8.8). The application of a macroscopic
shear stress to the anisotropic system results in an irrecoverable volumetric contraction of the
spaces in some of the clusters [Figure 8.8 (a)] and a separation in other clusters [Figure 8.8 (b)].
Only. a fraction of the elements is subjected to pure shear [Figure 8.8 (c)]. On removal of the
load there is a visco-elastic recovery, but due to some deviatory stress component, certain local
irrecoverable volume changes will remain. Figure 8.9 shows the further submicroscopic models.

They represented metastable crystalline gel consisting of two sheet like crystals separated by a
layer of water. Three basically different mechanisms of deformation are possible. They are
compressive stresses normal to contact layer [Figure 8.9 (a)] tensile stresses normal to the
contact layer [Figure 8.9 (b)] sheer stresses parallel to the constant layer [Figure 8.9 (c)]

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1.

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Factors Affecting Creep

Influence of Aggregate: Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is
responsible for the creep. However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a
restraining effect on the magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by
aggregate which do not creep. The stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining effect and
hence the less is the magnitude of creep. The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the
important factors influencing creep. It can be easily imagined that the higher the modulus of
elasticity the less is the creep. Light weight aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal
weight aggregate. Presumably this is because of lower modulus of elasticity

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Influence of Mix Proportions:

The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important factors influencing creep.
A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it can be said that creep increases
with increase in water/cement ratio. In other words, it can also be said that creep is inversely
proportional to the strength of concrete. Broadly speaking, all other factors which are affecting the
water/cement ratio is also affecting the creep. The following table shows the creep of concretes of
different strength

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Influence of Age:

Age at which a concrete members is loaded will have a predominant effect on the magnitude of
creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of gel improves with time.
Such gel creeps less, whereas a young gel under load being not so stronger creeps more. What is
said above is not a very accurate statement because of the fact that the moisture content of the
concrete being different at different age, also influences the magnitude of creep.

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Shrinkage

It has been indicated in the earlier chapter that concrete is subjected to changes in volume
either autogenous or induced. Volume change is one of the most detrimental properties of
concrete, which affects the long-term strength and durability. To the practical engineer, the
aspect of volume change in concrete is important from the point of view that it causes
unsightly cracks in concrete. We have discussed elsewhere the effect of volume change due
to thermal properties of aggregate and concrete, due to alkali/aggregate reaction, due to
sulphate action etc. Presently we shall discuss the volume change on account of inherent
properties of concrete “shrinkage”.

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The term shrinkage is loosely used to describe the various aspects of volume changes in
concrete due to loss of moisture at different stages due to different reasons. To understand
this aspect more closely, shrinkage can be classified in the following way:

(a ) Plastic Shrinkage ; (b) Drying Shrinkage;

(c ) Autogenous Shrinkage; (d ) Carbonation Shrinkage.

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Plastic Shrinkage

Shrinkage of this type manifests itself soon after the concrete is placed in the forms while the
concrete is still in the plastic state. Loss of water by evaporation from the surface of concrete
or by the absorption by aggregate or subgrade, is believed to be the reasons of plastic
shrinkage. The loss of water results in the reduction of volume. The aggregate particles or
the reinforcement comes in the way of subsidence due to which cracks may appear at the
surface or internally around the aggregate or reinforcement.

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1.
Plastic concrete is sometimes subjected to
unintended vibration or yielding of
formwork support which again causes
plastic shrinkage cracks as the concrete at
this stage has not developed enough
strength. From the above it can be inferred
that high water/cement ratio, badly
proportioned concrete, rapid drying,
greater bleeding, unintended vibration etc.,
are some of the reasons for plastic
shrinkage. It can also be further added that
richer concrete undergoes greater plastic
shrinkage. Figure 8.16 shows the influence
of cement content on plastic shrinkage

164
Plastic shrinkage can be reduced mainly by preventing the rapid loss of water from surface. This
can be done by covering the surface with polyethylene sheeting immediately on finishing
operation; by monomolecular coatings by fog spray that keeps the surface moist; or by working at
night. An effective method of removing plastic shrinkage cracks is to re vibrate the concrete in a
controlled manner. Use of small quantity of aluminium power is also suggested to offset the effect
of plastic shrinkage. Similarly, expansive cement or shrinkage compensating cement also can be
used for controlling the shrinkage during the setting of concrete

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Factors Affecting Shrinkage

One of the most important factors that affects shrinkage is the drying condition or in other
words, the relative humidity of the atmosphere at which the concrete specimen is kept. If the
concrete is placed in 100 per cent relative humidity for any length of time, there will not be any
shrinkage, in stead there will be a slight swelling. The typical relationship between shrinkage and
time for which concrete is stored at different relative humidity's is shown in Figure 8.19. The
graph shows that the magnitude of shrinkage increases with time and also with the reduction of
relative humidity. The rate of shrinkage decreases rapidly with time. It is observed that 14 to 34
per cent of the 20 year shrinkage occurs in 2 weeks, 40 to 80 per cent of the 20 year shrinkage
occurs in 3 months and 66 to 85 per cent of the 20 year shrinkage occurs in one year.

Another important factor which influences the magnitude of shrinkage is water/cement ratio of
the concrete. As mentioned earlier, the richness of the concrete also has a significant influence
on shrinkage. Table 8.3 shows the typical values of shrinkage of mortar and concrete specimens,
for different aggregate/cement ratio, and water/cement ratio.
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