Construction and Building Materials 359 (2022) 129505

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Hybrid timber-based structures: A state of the art review

Sofia Pastori a, *, Enrico Sergio Mazzucchelli a, Marita Wallhagen b
a
Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
b
Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, University of Gävle, 801 76 Gävle,
Sweden

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The construction of timber buildings has increased in recent years, thanks to the excellent properties of the
Timber material. To achieve improved behaviour in terms of mechanical properties, energy and acoustic performance,
Concrete fire resistance and durability, timber structures are sometimes integrated with other materials, such as concrete
Steel
and steel, resulting in hybrid timber-based structures. This paper presents a literature review on hybrid timber-
Timber-concrete composite
based structures, summarizing the state of the art of hybrid timber-based structures constructed to date and
Steel-timber composite
Hybrid systems examining the main research contributions. The aim is to establish a background for improving existing solutions
Structural behaviour or proposing new hybrid timber-based systems and components.
Thermal behaviour
Sustainability
Prefabrication

1. Introduction 1.1. Timber properties: An overview

In recent years, the building sector has been characterized by the From the structural point of view, timber has favourable strength-to-
rapid growth in the use of timber, thanks to the arise and spread of weight ratio, comparable with that of steel and five times higher than
Engineered Wood Products (EWPs) [1]. The reasons are related to their concrete [7]. In fact, timber shows similar properties for both
great performances: the good seismic behaviour due to the high ratio compression and traction to concrete, but with 1/5 of the weight [3].
between the mechanical resistance and the material weight, the excel­ The tensile strength for the individual cellulose fibre is approximately
lent thermal insulation properties, the environmental sustainability, the 8000 N/mm2, for wood without defects is about 100 N/mm2, while for a
good behaviour under fire conditions (if designed in appropriate way) timber member in structural dimension it is one order of magnitude
[2], the strong attitude of timber towards prefabrication, the ease of inferior [8]. Hence, to ensure with a certain probability timber structural
systems integration in prefabricated timber components and the possi­ safety it is necessary to know the variability of the characteristics
bility of disassembly at the end of life [3]. But timber is also charac­ depending on the shape and size of the elements. Timber is also char­
terized by low durability, if not properly protected, and high acterized by good elasticity, which permits easy site assembly without
hygroscopicity [4,5]. Moreover, lightweight timber structures have low the need for complex worksite infrastructures. These properties make
thermal inertia and acoustic performance if compared to massive al­ the material suitable also for constructions in seismic areas, however its
ternatives. For the optimization of timber construction systems, hybrid stress–strain behaviour is not ductile. This often implies the necessity to
technologies might be used, combining different materials in order to couple timber with ductile materials, usually steel used for the joints or
maximize their performance. Hybrid systems focus on the economy, for other structural elements. However, in recent studies, the use of
performance and ecology of the final product [6]. The literature review timber joints made with compressed wood fasteners has demonstrated
presented aims at summarizing the state of the art on hybrid timber- significant moment capacity and rotational stiffness capacity without
based buildings and building components, useful for future research the use of metallic parts [9,10].
on the topic. Another disadvantage of timber for structural applications is linked
to its orthotropic behaviour, with a good resistance for both traction and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Pastori), [email protected] (E. Sergio Mazzucchelli), [email protected] (M. Wallhagen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129505
Received 7 January 2022; Received in revised form 12 September 2022; Accepted 16 October 2022
Available online 26 October 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Pastori et al. Construction and Building Materials 359 (2022) 129505

compression in the directions of the fibres, and a lower resistance good surface mass, thus the joints between the panels are the critical
perpendicular to the fibres. The aspects related to the material in­ point, where is necessary to insert compressible sealing tapes. Instead,
homogeneity can be partially overcome thanks to EWPs, which being for multi-layers lightweight components, the soundproofing power is
manufactured products can be produced almost without defects and influenced by the mass-spring-mass functioning of the system. In this
with orthogonal isotropic behaviour. Another drawback is the viscosity case, fibrous insulating material inside the wall or floor solution can
connected to humidity and the sorption and desorption of water that can improve the acoustic performance, thanks to their good sound-
cause excessive permanent vertical displacements and stresses. Timber absorbing behaviour. By coupling two fibrous layers with different
strength strongly depends on the duration of the load application, in fact densities, it is possible to obtain a good acoustic behaviour at different
it is characterized by higher resistance for short term loads than for long frequencies. Instead, floating floors are used to reduce the impact sound
loads applications, on temperature and humidity [3]. transmission [22]. In order to offer a good insulation, the floating floor
Timber has good thermal insulation characteristics, with variable should have a low resonance frequency, a heavy mass (which is difficult
thermal conductivity and heat storing capacity depending on the to achieve with timber structures) and a reduced damping constant, so
moisture content and direction of the grains. The value of thermal that the vibratory phenomenon tends to dissipate quickly [8].
conductivity parallel to the grain can be even twice the one in the Since timber is a bad conductive material, it shows good resistance
perpendicular direction: it ranges from 0.08 to 0.58 W/mK in the par­ properties under fire conditions. The residual resistance of timber with
allel direction and from 0.08 to 0.22 W/mK in the transversal one, the increase of temperatures is higher than steel, since the external
depending on the wood species [3]. Timber is also a hygroscopic ma­ carbonized zone acts as fire protection, while the inner part can be
terial, meaning it can change dimensionally absorbing and releasing considered intact [2]. Moreover, the absence of thermal dilatation pre­
moisture. The hygro-thermal expansion of timber in the direction of the vents structural collapse for deformations. Anyways, the use of timber in
grain is negligible, while in the radial and tangential directions move­ tall buildings should be carefully evaluated and quantified: when
ments are much greater (~0.4 % of the initial dimension in the axial exposed to fire timber chars and separates from the structure increasing
direction, ~4% in the radial one and ~8 % in the tangential one) [11]. the amount of fuel burning material in the room [3]. A detailed design
The durability of timber buildings is strictly connected to moisture. The strategy is needed for fire compartments to prevent fire propagation
most critical building parts are external timber structures and internal through timber facades, vertical cores and building services. Finally, the
ones subject to high humidity levels. The good seasoning of timber and well-being benefits of wood in the living and working environments
the correct hygro-thermal design of the envelope and the architectural have been demonstrated in many research studies [1]. The timber
details are fundamental to prevent durability problems connected to properties described above are briefly resumed in Table 1.
fungi and insects attaches, while the use of impregnates to improve
timber durability is not sufficient and not very efficient [1]. 1.2. Timber-based hybrid systems and components
Timber is often considered as a sustainable material [12–14].
renewable and able to store carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide The combination of timber with other materials, such as reinforced
sequestration through photosynthesis in the forests results in stored
carbon in the wood and in the ground. The harvested trees can be
Table 1
replaced with new tree seedlings on site, which will continue to remove
Resume of timber properties.
carbon from the atmosphere, however it will take several years before
the uptake of carbon in the new planted tree is equal to that from the tree Timber Advantages Limits
properties
that was harvested. Assumptions regarding time horizon, timing of
forest sequestration before (growth) or after life scenario, setting of Structural Strength-to-weight ratio Fragile and viscous
comparable with steel and 5 behaviour [3]
forest sequestration before (growth) or after harvesting (regrowth) and
times higher than concrete [7]
end-of-life recycling are therefore of importance [15]. Forestry methods Good elasticity: Influence of shape, size
can also influence the release of carbon dioxide from the ground and Young modulus ~ 7–24 GPa and defects [8]
biodiversity [16]. Concerning the environmental sustainability, it is parallel to grain [23]
Hygro-thermal Low thermal conductivity: High hygroscopicity:
worth mentioning also the recyclability and reusability. Wood can be
~ 0.08–0.58 W/mK parallel to ~ 0.4 % in the axial
recycled into new products and the energy in the wood can be used for grain direction
heat and electricity production through incineration. The reusability of ~ 0.08–0.22 W/mK ~ 4 % in the radial direction
building materials at their end-of-life depends on the possibility of their perpendicular to grain [3] ~ 8 % in the tangential
separation during the dismantling phase. Hence strong attention to this direction [11]
Low thermal capacity:
issue should be given during the design phase. Another factor that has a
oven dry density 300–930
significant influence on the sustainability of timber buildings is the use kg/m3
of impregnating substances and adhesives during their production, specific heat 530–2300 J/
which release Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and formaldehyde kgK [8]
[17]. Recent advancements in timber engineering have led to the Durability Moisture degradation and
biological attacks [1]
development of adhesive free EWPs for structural applications [18,19]. Environmental Renewability, recyclability Use of impregnating
The acoustic insulation performance of timber is less good, since it is and CO2 storage [15] substances and adhesives
lightweight. The speed of sound in a structural material is directly [17]
related to the modulus of elasticity and density. It is roughly indepen­ Acoustic Accurate design necessary to
meet the Standards
dent of wood species, but varies with grain direction: the transverse
requirements [22]
Young’s modulus of wood is between 1/20 to 1/10 of the longitudinal Fire Protection of the inside part Combustible material [3]
value, consequently the speed of sound perpendicular to the grain is only by the external carbonized zone
20–30 % that of the longitudinal value [20,21]. For what concerns and
timber walls and floors, there is a huge variability in the results absence of thermal dilatation
[2]
depending on the timber structure, presence of windows, systems inte­ Constructability Lightweight, ease of Protection from
gration and joint type, which cause many possible vibrations propaga­ prefabrication meteorological events
tion paths (flanking transmissions). Hence, an accurate design is and systems integration [3]
fundamental to meet the Standards requirements. Considering the Well-being Nice aesthetics and link to
nature [1]
airborne sound insulation, Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) panels have a

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S. Pastori et al. Construction and Building Materials 359 (2022) 129505

concrete or steel, for building construction is quite spread nowadays. review articles on the topic have been found in literature, however they
Materials hybridization can be applied at two levels: at the building focus only on some aspects of hybrid timber-based structures: mechan­
component scale, combining different materials within a single building ical performance of TCC structural components [30,45], fire resistance
element (e.g. a column, a beam, a floor panel, a wall panel, etc.), or at of TCC members [46], seismic behaviour of hybrid timber-based
the system level, using different materials for different building com­ buildings [47]. The aim of the present article is to give a comprehen­
ponents (i.e. the vertical structure, the horizontal structure, the enve­ sive overview of the state of the art of hybrid timber-based buildings and
lope, etc.). Building components formed by timber and concrete or building components, in order to establish a background for improving
timber and steel are often referred to, respectively, as Timber-Concrete existing solutions and proposing new timber-based hybrid systems and
Composite (TCC) and Steel-Timber Composite (STC) components. components.
For what concerns the hybridization at the building component level, The paper is formed by nine sections, including the introduction. The
TCC solutions are mainly used for beams, floors and walls. TCC beams main articles found in literature dealing with hybrid timber-based
are usually formed by a timber beam coupled with reinforced concrete in buildings and building components are listed in Table 2 and summa­
the transversal direction (cross-section) or longitudinal direction rized in the following paragraphs. The papers reviewed are listed ac­
[24,25]. TCC floors are composed of a slab-type EWP or several timber cording to the topic addressed and divided into six paragraphs:
beams in a joisted system, connected to a reinforced concrete slab structural properties, thermo-physical properties, environmental sus­
through shear connectors. In a similar way, TCC walls are formed by a tainability, acoustic properties, fire behaviour, production process and
timber massive or framed structure, connected to a reinforced concrete on-site installation. The final section contains a brief summary of the
slab. Different materials can be used: solid timber, Glued Laminated article, the discussion and the conclusions.
Timber (GLT), Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) [26], adhesive free
EWPs [18,19], normal concrete, lightweight concrete [27] or high- 2. Materials and methods
performance concrete [28]. TCC can be fabricated in either wet-dry or
dry-dry construction systems [29]. In the wet-dry system the wet con­ The search for literature has been mainly performed using online
crete is poured on the dry timber component to fabricate the composite bibliography databases linked to electronic sources of different pub­
structural element, in the dry-dry system precast concrete is connected lishers. The research has been carried out separately for each perfor­
to the timber part. mance considered (i.e. the performances reported in). Given the poor
The very first applications of TCC components concerned the refur­ number of studies available in literature concerning hybrid timber-
bishment of existing timber floors. In the last 50 years, interest in TCC based structures, also some references concerning timber structures
floors has increased, resulting in the construction of bridges, upgrading are discussed in the text, since they have some aspects in common with
of existing timber floors and construction of new buildings [30]. In these hybrid timber-based systems and components. This has been done with
components, the concrete slab is generally placed on top of the timber the aim of showing studies concerning comparable structures and un­
element to predominantly resist compression, while the timber part derstand possible improvements that could be achieved by coupling
mainly resists tension. The connectors transfer shear loads between the timber with concrete and/or steel.
two materials. When designed properly, TCC floors can benefit from the
high compressive strength of concrete and the high tensile strength of 3. Structural properties
timber [31]. TCC floors are of increasing interest as a potential
replacement solution of reinforced concrete members, due to their A huge number of papers dealing with the structural properties of
higher load-to-weight ratio [32], ease of installation and low carbon hybrid timber-based systems and components can be found in literature.
footprint [32–34]. They have also several advantages compared to For this reason, the articles presented in the following are divided into
timber floors, including better structural performance, enhanced three sub-sections: hybrid buildings, composite building components
acoustic isolation, fire resistance, durability [35,36]. and connection systems.
Regarding STC building components, steel plates or members can be
used for strengthening timber beams [37] and columns [38], but also 3.1. Hybrid buildings
floors and walls [39–43]. In flitch beams, the steel beam has signifi­
cantly higher strength than the timber members, but it is weak in lateral Over the last decade, several hybrid timber-based systems have been
torsional buckling and fire resistance. The timber members provide realized. The world’s tallest timber building, the 18-storey and 85.4 m
lateral restraint and fire protection. Bolts are used to transfer shear be­ high “Mjøstårnet” in Brumunddal, Norway, completed in 2019, includes
tween the metal plate and timber members. STC floors and walls have TCC floors on the top seven storeys, to comply with the acoustics re­
the advantage of being lightweight compared to conventional steel­ quirements for the building apartments (Fig. 1) [48]. In Sweden the
–concrete and TCC components, however this could imply a less per­ building “Saras Kulturhus” was completed in 2021 with 20 storeys
forming acoustic behaviour. Furthermore, STC components with reaching 80 m in height [49]. Its first four storeys are built with a hybrid
mechanical connectors such as screws and bolts can immensely facilitate timber-based system with concrete slabs, elevator cores are made of CLT
deconstruction and the future reuse and/or recycling of construction and the hotel rooms are composed of prefabricated timber modules.
materials, which is valuable from both an environmental and econom­ Another tall timber building is the student residence Brock Commons in
ical point of view. Vancouver, Canada, completed in 2017. The structure is 18-storey and
The hybridisation of timber, concrete and steel at the system level reaches a height of 54 m. The foundation, the ground floor and second
can be carried out in different ways, depending on the project needs. For floor slabs, and the cores are cast-in-place reinforced concrete, while the
example, timber or STC or TCC floors with steel or concrete frames, steel superstructure is composed of prefabricated CLT panels supported on
beams with timber columns, steel frame with timber wall and floor GLT columns with steel connections. The building envelope is comprised
panels [44], etc. of prefabricated steel-frame panels with a wood-fibre laminate cladding
The hybridization of timber, concrete and steel from the structural (Fig. 1) [50].
point of view has been investigated by several authors, while very little The mechanical properties of timber, especially the elasticity mod­
has been studied concerning the other performances (thermal proper­ ule, strongly influence the height and the floor shape of timber build­
ties, environmental sustainability, acoustics, etc.), as shown in. The re­ ings. The limitations rapidly increase with the building height and
view presented in the following deals with the research studies available consequently with the higher wind load impact on the structure [51]. In
in literature regarding hybrid timber-based buildings and building general timber structures subject to transversal loads show unacceptable
components, where timber is combined with concrete and steel. Other deformations, hence, to increase stiffness and stability it is useful to

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S. Pastori et al. Construction and Building Materials 359 (2022) 129505

Table 2
Summary of the most recent research studies found in literature dealing with hybrid timber-based buildings and building components, classified based on their topic.
Type of Topic addressed Type of component
hybrid-structure

TCC component Structural properties beam [24–26,30–33,60–64,68,85,86]

floor [6,24,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,36,45,62,64–67,69–72,77–81,83,85,86,131,142–144]
wall [73,74,90]
Thermo-physical properties floor [104,105]
wall [73,90,91]
Environmental sustainability floor [67]
wall [73,119,120]
Acoustic properties floor [22,30,129,130,131]
Fire behaviour floor [30,46,132–140]
Production and on-site installation beam [60,84]
floor [32,142,144,147]
STC component Structural properties column [38]
beam [37,61]
floor [75]
wall [38,39,40,41,42,76]
Hybrid timber-based building Structural properties [44,47,52–57,75,87,88]
Environmental sustainability [116,118]
Production and on-site installation [44]

steel frames, timber-frame walls and steel frames in parallel or hybrid

systems using steel beams in combination with glulam columns, CLT
walls and floors [53–56]. The latter is seen as the best alternative
because steel is used only where inelasticity is anticipated, reducing its
amount compared to the other options. The hybrid structures in the
second category comprise light or massive timber members mixed with
reinforced concrete or with concrete-block masonry. A vulnerable part
of such systems is the connection between glulam and concrete, which
needs to be designed with extreme care to avoid detachments. Within
the third category, the systems incorporating steel braces appear to be
the most suitable for enhancing the stiffness of the structure and for
achieving energy dissipation capability and reparability. Attention must
be placed on the influence of potentially large residual deformations
taking place in these braces after an earthquake. Hybrid structures with
seismic protection devices include hysteretic, viscous and friction dis­
sipators, most of the time placed at the intersection between two timber
members or between timber and a member of another material. The last
category includes steel-reinforced glulam members, glulam braces,
dissipating steel connections and a combination of CLT and timber-
frame walls post-tensioned with steel strands at their top part.
Pan et al. [57] present a hybrid timber-concrete building composed
of two parts: a concrete core with concrete flat slabs at every third floor
as the main structure, and prefabricated light timber-frame modules as
Fig. 1. (a) Structural scheme of Mjøstårnet [48]; (b) Brock Commons under substructures (Fig. 2). Two out of three concrete slabs are replaced by
construction [50]. timber modules to create the liveable space. The concrete slabs provide a
fire separation at every third level. Bolted connections were designed to
connect the main structure and the substructures. The authors investi­
insert steel bracings or concrete shear walls [52]. When tall timber
gate the system feasibility by comparing the 30-storey hybrid building
buildings are designed in seismically active regions, there is an extra
with a traditional concrete alternative for a site in Vancouver, Canada.
challenge in addition to the action of gravity and wind loading. It is
The results show that the seismic mass of the proposed hybrid system is
related to the seismic energy dissipation within the structure, as timber
reduced when compared to the concrete building, resulting in a shorter
is a non-ductile material. In whole-timber construction, the seismic
fundamental period and lower seismic load demand.
energy is dissipated at the fixing elements between the timber elements
(nails, screws, bolts, hold-downs, etc.). To cope with the mentioned
disadvantages within a structural and seismic design in tall buildings, 3.2. Composite building components
structural timber members can be combined with other materials such as
steel and concrete. Timber-based composite components are yet not accounted in the
Quintana Gallo et al. [47] present a review of the seismic behaviour building codes (Eurocode 5 [58] and Eurocode 8 [59]) and no guidelines
of timber-based hybrid buildings, summarizing most of the hybrid tim­ are given for their seismic design. Several authors have combined timber
ber buildings constructed until 2017 and the research done on the topic with concrete or steel to form a composite beam [60–63]. The combi­
until 2019. According to the authors, hybrid systems can be grouped nation of materials enables an improvement in the load capacity and
into five categories, where timber is coupled with: traditional steel rigidity of the hybrid beam compared with the timber one.
framing, reinforced concrete and masonry walls, dissipating steel Many articles discuss the structural performance of TCC floors
braces, seismic protection devices and other less common hybrid sys­ [64–67]. An extensive review regarding the mechanical properties of
tems. The former category includes timber-frame walls inserted into TCC floors and their connection systems is provided by Yeoh et al. [30].
Dias et al. [31] present a literature review on the creep behaviour of TCC

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Fig. 2. High rise hybrid timber-concrete building proposed by Pan et al. [57].

members. Kong et al. [68] test TCC members using a creep test. They overall floor weight by 260% and the slab thickness by 20% with respect
conclude that under controlled environmental conditions, composite to TCC made using ordinary concrete.
timber-UHPFRC (ultra-high-performance fibre-reinforced concrete) The cross-section of the timber beams can also be internally rein­
beams undergo a reduced deflection compared with a reference timber forced by rebars of carbon fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP) or steel in
beam. Fragiacomo et al. [69] study the creep behaviour of prefabricated the tension zone. The combination of timber, concrete and rebars is an
TCC members with prefabricated concrete slabs connected to the glulam interesting solution to improve and strengthen timber structures, but the
beams. TCC structures have also been tested under cyclic loading, both connection system has to be performant otherwise the hybrid structure
for bridge applications [70] and buildings [71]. Naud et al. [72] intro­ does not behave in the optimal way.
duce the use of UHPFRC for hybrid timber concrete floors with long- Augeard et al. [24,71] study the short- and long-term performances
span (9 m). The use of a thin UHPFRC slab allows a reduction of the of GLT-concrete-rebar composite beams in experimental and analytical

Fig. 3. (a) TCC components studied by Boscato et al. 2018 [73] and (b) hybrid steel-timber system studied by Loss et al. 2016 [88].

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S. Pastori et al. Construction and Building Materials 359 (2022) 129505

way. The materials used for the fabrication of the TCC members are dowel-type connections [78], and connections with non-metallic con­
wood, UHPFRC and/or ordinary concrete, carbon fibre-reinforced nectors [79]. Continuous connections are realized by using metal plates
polymers or steel rebars, and epoxy adhesive. The objective is to [33], increasing strength and stiffness and ensuring a ductile behaviour
combine each material in the way they performed best, to enhance the [80]. Glued connections are characterised by high strength and stiffness,
mechanical behaviour of the global structure. They use two types of and ease of application [6,68,81], but the performance of bonded joints
connection: a bonding connection and a specific wood treatment. The is sensitive to environmental conditions [82]. The combination of me­
experimental study shows that the GLT–UHPFRC beams increased the chanical fasteners and adhesive bonding results in hybrid joints [83].
stiffness by approximately 70–85% more than that of glulam beams with Fu et al. [84] examine the shear resistance of several types of TCC
the same section. Additionally, the ultimate capacity of compositebeams elements bonded with epoxy resin. They found that the sandblasting
increases between 36% and 64% compared to that of a timber beam of treatment on the concrete surface increases the shear bond strength of
similar size. TCC joints. They also conclude that using high-strength concrete in­
Only two articles have been found regarding TCC walls, which can be creases the shear bond strength compared with joints using normal
designed as load-bearing or not. Boscato [73] summarise the results of a concrete, however the joints with UHPC fail in the adhesive interface
3-years research at IUAV University of Venice, concerning the experi­ due to the low porosity of concrete that impedes the penetration of
mental evaluation of the strength, displacement capacity and energy epoxy resin into the substrate. Augeard et al. [24] introduce a specific
dissipation capacity of prefabricated walls made of a thin reinforced timber treatment for the bonding with concrete that consists of applying
concrete slab connected to a timber-frame panel (Fig. 3). The interaction a layer of adhesive and sprinkling sand on it before the polymerization of
between the timber-frame and the concrete slab has been experimentally the adhesive. After 24 hours, the concrete is cast directly onto the
identified in order to update the finite element model and simulate the treated timber. Alternatively, prefabricated concrete slab can be glued
structural performance of the composite wall. The strength, the on timber.
displacement capacity and the energy dissipation capacity have been The application of permanent connectors in the construction of TCC
experimentally evaluated on full-scale panels through load–displace­ elements can represent challenges for the sustainability and disposal of
ment method. The failure mechanism that best approximates the such structures and result in waste management problems at the end of
strength of panel is the racking mode. The deformation involves the building life. This is because most of the timber materials used cannot be
elastic and inelastic behaviour assuring a global dissipative capacity easily recycled or reused due to the permanent connections between the
through the progressive strengthening response of the external con­ timber elements and the concrete slab. The application of deconstruct­
nectors and the plastic deformation capacity of internal connections. able connectors enables the possibility of disassembly and reuse of
Another wide investigation is presented by Pozza [74], who studied timber materials at the end of life. To address this issue, few recent
the seismic behaviour of a prefabricated TCC wall, constituted by a studies attempt to develop deconstructable connectors for TCC floors
timber-frame and a thin external reinforced concrete board. The timber- [62,85]. To prefabricate the concrete slab in the dry-dry system, usually
frame structure transfers to the foundation the vertical load, while the some connectors in the form of steel/plastic tubes are placed in a
bracing system reacting to horizontal actions consists of Oriented Strand formwork and then fresh concrete is cast [29,63,66,69,85]. After it has
Board (OSB) panels and three square reinforced concrete boards con­ cured, the concrete slab and the timber components are assembled by
nected to the wood frame. They perform a series of experimental tests, driving some screws or bolts into the timber components through the
confirming the high level of ductility of the construction system and, steel/plastic tubes. Derikvand and Fink [86] develop a deconstructable
therefore, its adequacy for the use in seismic zones. The design values screw connector that can be used in both wet-dry and dry-dry con­
obtained referring to Eurocode 8 [59] agree with the outcomes from the struction systems. It consists of a self-tapping screw covered at the upper
experimental tests, confirming the adequacy of the code provisions to section using a thin protective layer and a reusable rubber lid.
define the strength and stiffness of the mechanical fasteners used for the Some studies have been carried out also regarding the connection
TCC wall. systems of STC components [87]. Loss et al. [88] examine different
Two studies dealing with the structural behaviour of prefabricated connections for a hybrid construction system with steel frame bearing
STC floors under vertical and horizontal loads have been found [43,75]. elements, floor slabs and bracing systems produced by fastening CLT
They are composed of CLT panels and a grid of steel beams. Instead, panels to the steel beams or columns (Fig. 3). They perform experi­
several studies focus on the lateral load capacities and hysteretic char­ mental tests on different joining solutions suitable to develop a com­
acteristics of STC shear wall systems. The walls studied are composed of posite action between steel and timber elements, but also to allow quick
an external steel frame connected to an infill timber-frame [38,41,42] or assembly of the elements on-site by using mechanical fasteners or epoxy-
CLT [40,76] shear wall. based resin.

3.3. Connection systems 4. Thermo-physical properties

During the bending of a real TCC beam, horizontal relative Only few studies dealing with the thermo-physical properties of
displacement occurs at the interface between the two materials. Slip timber-based composite components have been found in literature.
reduces the efficiency of the composite component with regard to both Boscato et al. [73] carry out experimental tests in order to evaluate the
stiffness and strength. Hence, strong shear connectivity between energy performance of a prefabricated TCC wall using a hot-box, ac­
different layers is an essential requirement for maximising the flexural cording to ISO 8990 [89]. The prototype, insulated with polystyrene
capacity in composite systems. Eurocode 5 Part 1–1 [58] gives some foam, has been characterized in two different configurations, with
indications for the design of timber-concrete and timber-steel ventilated and unventilated air gap between the concrete slab and the
connections. insulation layer (Fig. 4). Also, Destro et al. [90] study a prefabricated
The structural capacity of various types of connection between tim­ TCC wall system, similar to the previous one, with unventilated air gap.
ber and concrete for TCC floors have been investigated in numerous The experimental tests are used to calibrate FEM models, in order to
studies. These can be subdivided into three main categories: discrete, compare the results with the Standard directives. Pastori et al. [91]
continuous and glued connections. Depending on the type of connection, develop a Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) methodology for the
a medium to high level of composite action can usually be achieved by energy performance assessment of a prefabricated TCC ventilated façade
implementing the right design approaches. Examples of discrete shear module in different operating conditions. The results concerning the
connection systems investigated are glued-in steel plate connections façade behaviour are compared with International Standards, showing a
[34], notch connections with or without steel fasteners [26,77,78], good level of agreement with the model.

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S. Pastori et al. Construction and Building Materials 359 (2022) 129505

Fig. 4. Ventilated TCC wall studied by Boscato et al. [73].

No studies regarding the advantages of coupling timber and concrete connections to be used in the industry of prefabricated constructions.
for envelope systems, in terms of energy performance, have been con­
ducted. Scientific literature demonstrates the effective thermal effi­ 5. Environmental sustainability
ciency of timber envelopes [92–95], however light-weight timber-based
systems have limited heat capacity, leading to problems with tempera­ Many studies demonstrate the good environmental performances of
ture swing and thermal load during the summer period, and with the timber construction [106–109]. Furthermore, the possibility to reach an
energy use during very cold periods in cold climates. In fact, the lack of advanced degree of prefabrication using EWPs contributes to the sus­
thermal mass along with the low thermal transmittance value can be a tainability of the construction phase, by optimizing the energy con­
risk factor in increasing overheating [96,97]. Hence, the improvement sumption linked to the production of components and the amount of
of the thermal inertia of these systems by the coupling with a massive waste on-site [110,111]. Although timber is commonly classified as a
structure, for example a concrete slab, could lead to better energy sustainable material, its real sustainability depends on different issues:
performance. appropriate forest management, manufacturing methods and site as­
Wood is a hygroscopic material, susceptible to natural environ­ sembly, distance required for transportation and use of adhesives
mental conditions and moisture fluctuations that are site dependent. [3,106].
Swelling and shrinkage are a natural part of wood structural behaviour, Several Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies of timber buildings give
but either can cause damage if not properly addressed in design and scattered results in different environmental impact categories and
construction. These movements can potentially cause large tension sometimes they contradict each other, so it is important to explain the
stresses and damages in correspondence of the connection system [11]. boundaries of the analysis in a very clear way and consider the life
Knowing how and where wood shrinks and swells helps designers detail expectation of the building. Other aspects worth considering for the
their buildings to minimize related effects. Several experimental and design of a sustainable building are its characteristics, such as the
analytical studies on the hygrothermal behaviour of EWPs have been height, fire requirements [13], thermal capacity [112], acoustic insu­
carried out, regarding both massive panels [98,99] and framed tech­ lation, durability, etc. In case of tall timber buildings, it is also important
nologies [100–103]. Since timber, concrete and steel have different to consider the negative environmental impact produced by large
hygrothermal properties, it is important to consider the environmental amounts of gypsum boards or added sprinkler systems, required to
conditions influence on hybrid structures. Concrete and timber have comply with fire-resistant construction codes, which are not necessary in
different shrinking values, while steel does not shrink due to moisture case of concrete structures, as evidenced by Liang et al. [13].
change but may move with thermal changes. Moreover, concrete and The hybridization of different materials might be a good alternative
steel themselves may be a source of moisture, since the former contains to whole timber systems also from the environmental sustainability
water and the latter may be subject to condensation on its surface. Thus, point of view, especially when specific performances, such as high fire
moisture is an important consideration at all the connections between resistance, thermal inertia and durability, are required. Concrete pro­
materials. duction is generally localized in the developed countries near the con­
Bajzecerová et al. [104] investigate the influence of changing rela­ struction site and it also guarantees a longer building life expectancy
tive humidity and temperature conditions of the environment on [106]. Moreover, several recent studies deal with the development of
adhesively bonded TCC panels. In the cross-section, due to uneven green concrete [113]. The possibility of reuse for new buildings is not
thermal and humidity deformation of both materials, additional stresses very common for timber and concrete structures, while it can be a sig­
occur, which can lead to the failure of partial cross-sections or connec­ nificant environmentally friendly operation for steel buildings [110].
tions. Eisenhut et al. [105] analyse the long-term behaviour of glued The articles presented in the following deal with LCA studies of hybrid
TCC constructions under the environmental conditions during a three- buildings or building components.
years research project. Timber, concrete and the adhesive have
different hygrothermal properties, thus in the case of a rigid bond, re­
5.1. Hybrid buildings
sidual stresses and deflections when temperature and humidity change
occur. Moreover, the autogenous and drying shrinkage of concrete in­
There are several comparative LCA studies regarding timber, con­
fluence the long-term behaviour, as well as creep effects. The authors
crete and steel alternative building designs [108,109,114,115], while
present and validate through experimental investigations a model to
only two studies concerning hybrid buildings have been found and
predict the long-term behaviour of glued TCC elements over the whole
described in the following.
lifetime.
Ryklová et al. [116] present a LCA study of a prefabricated timber-
Further studies are required to assess the hygrothermal behaviour of
concrete (TiCo) 5-storey building in Czech Republic and compare it to
timber-based composite envelopes and its influence on the connection
four alternatives, considering equal load bearing capacity and envelope
type, also in order to facilitate the standardisation of components and
thermal transmittance. Among the variants analysed by the authors, the

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most interesting for the present paper purpose are: The available literature demonstrates the considerable effects that
the choice of structural system and materials may have on the embodied
- TiCo building, with prefabricated timber-frame panels for roof and energy of the buildings. All the LCA studies are affected by data quality,
walls, precast reinforced concrete for floor slabs and shear core; environmental modelling techniques and system boundary selection.
- Hybrid building, which is the same as TiCo, but cast-in-place rein­ Additionally, they are limited by their geographic and temporal scales.
forced concrete is used instead of precast reinforced concrete; This is especially important for timber constructions as the biogenic
- Timber building, with wooden hollow rib elements for roof and floor carbon that is sequestered during biomass growth can be modelled in the
slabs, CLT panels for walls, cast-in-place reinforced concrete for LCA calculation in different ways and give different results [15,121].
shear core. Here the rotation periods related to the biomass growth can vary.
Furthermore, can the carbon–storage and land-use-change be included,
The authors develop a simple LCA, considering the building life-cycle but they seldom are. The dynamic biogenic carbon accounting is the
phases A1-A3 (the production of all the building elements) and partially most robust and transparent method according to Hoxha et al. [122]. For
stage B4 (the replacement of the building elements during the building all these reasons, the transparent description of the LCA study is of
service life), according to BS EN 15804 [117]. Since the variants have paramount importance in order to allow a critical analysis of the results.
similar envelope thermal transmittance, operational impacts are When performing a comparative LCA between alternative construction
assumed to be identical. The results obtained for nPEI (non-renewable systems, it is necessary to consider two equivalent buildings, with
primary energy input) and GWP (global warming potential in 50 years) equivalent performances. In many of the studies analysed, the only
show the same trend: the most environmentally friendly solution is the performance considered is the envelope thermal transmittance, however
timber construction, followed by TiCo. Compared to the timber build­ also the other requirements (thermal inertia, fire resistance, structural
ing, TiCo requires + 18% nPEI and produces + 47% GWP, while the properties, acoustics, etc.) should be included in order to perform a fair
hybrid building shows + 22% in nPEI and + 54% in GWP. Thus, in this comparison.
study, the combination of the concrete load-bearing structure and
lightweight timber-frame panels does not seem to be the best way of 6. Acoustic properties
minimizing the building environmental impact. However, as the authors
underline, the timber building studied does not comply with the Czech In the last decade, many researchers have tried to handle sound
fire safety regulations. Moreover, the influence of the envelope thermal insulation topics for timber constructions, finding a huge variability in
inertia on the operational energy is not taken into account in the study. It the results depending on the timber structure and joint type [123–125].
would have been interesting to analyse the difference of impacts be­ This fact highlights the difficulty to standardize or predict the acoustic
tween precast and cast-in-place reinforced concrete frame, which is not behaviour for timber construction. The different fixing element prop­
deepened in the authors’ paper, where more favourable results for the erties like length, number of possible screws, shape etc. determine many
precast variant are caused mainly because it is lighter than the cast-in- possible vibrations propagation paths and flanking transmissions
place one. [126–128]. In general, airborne sound insulation is less investigated
Chiniforush et al. [118] investigate the life-cycle energy of four than the impact sound pressure level reduction since it is of easier so­
alternative building structures by using a cradle to grave approach, lutions and software simulations are possible and reliable [123].
where the energy consumption in material extraction and processing, Acoustic insulation is a major issue with timber buildings, especially for
component manufacturing, transportation, construction, operation and building owners who want to rent out apartments and to have good
end-of-life phases of the building life cycle are estimated. They consid­ sound insulation between apartments.
ered two steel structures with concrete shear walls and STC or steel­ For what concerns hybrid structures, only few research studies
–concrete composite (SCC) floors and another one with STC floors and focusing on the airborne sound insulation and impact sound reduction
CLT shear walls. A reinforced concrete building alternative was also for TCC floors have been found in literature. Schmid [129] carried out a
considered as basis for the comparison. The results indicate that when series of field measurements to determine the air-borne sound insulation
designing the building with a steel structure, the adoption of STC floor and the impact sound level in timber-concrete floors. Schluessel et al.
and CLT shear wall systems resulted in 108% decrease in the embodied [130] perform laboratory tests regarding the impact and airborne sound
energy compared to the alternative with SCC floors and concrete shear insulation of TCC floors with LVL beams and a concrete slab. The results
walls. Adopting a steel structure with STC floors was found to result in showed that the TCC component presents a better performance when
considerable life cycle energy savings when compared with the same compared to the timber floor without concrete top, achieving + 20% in
building designed with a concrete structure. Only a slight increase in the Rw (weighted apparent sound reduction index). Martins et al. [131]
′

operating energy compared to the concrete structure was found, due to perform acoustic laboratory tests to determine the airborne and impact
the lower thermal mass. The benefits of STC components include also sound insulations of five floor specimens: timber floor, TCC floor and
recyclability and reusability at the end of life. TCC floor with lightweight concrete incorporating expanded cork ag­
gregates. The third solution may be interesting due to its low-weight and
5.2. Composite building components use of natural resources. The results show that TCC solutions clearly
present a better performance when compared to the timber floor,
Two studies dealing with the environmental performance of TCC notably at the higher frequencies. In terms of air-borne sound insulation,
wall systems have been found in literature [119,120], confirming that the timber floor exhibits low values of sound attenuation. The floor with
the environmental impact of these solutions is in line with that of timber lightweight concrete incorporating cork aggregates show similar
walls. However, the end-of-life stage is neglected in both papers. As acoustic performance to the TCC floor with normal concrete, thanks to
already mentioned, in order to recycle the materials after the use phase, the energy dissipation properties of cork.
it is important to develop timber-concrete connection systems that allow Zhang et al. [22] perform impact sound insulation tests on CLT and
their separation [86]. Martins et al. [67] present a hybrid timber- TCC floors in full frequency range. For bare floors, the sound insulation
concrete floor panel that incorporates Portuguese natural resources, i. performance of TCC floor is better than that of CLT floor in most fre­
e. cork granules and small diameter round wood Maritime pine logs quency bands. CLT floor exhibits poor sound insulation performance at
obtained from forest thinning. The cork granules are a sub product from low frequency, while TCC floor shows poor sound insulation perfor­
the national cork industry and, according to the authors, their use leads mance at medium and high frequency. Neither of them can meet the
to produce lightweight concrete with improved acoustic and thermal requirements of sound insulation codes in Europe. Anyways, adding
properties.

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S. Pastori et al. Construction and Building Materials 359 (2022) 129505

floating floors or suspended ceilings can significantly improve the adopted in replacement of conventional methods. However, the level of
acoustic performance of both floors in order to meet the Standards. automation in timber industry is significantly lower than other in­
dustries, thus more work is needed to develop automated technologies
7. Fire behaviour for the timber products industry. According to [141], there is a high
level of automation in the primary stages of manufacturing, i.e. cutting
In case of fire, the timber cross-section is reduced due to charring and and sawing, for structural timber elements. These involve the use of
the impact of high temperatures can lead to rapid loss of the connection computer-numerical controlled (CNC) manufacturing machines for
stiffness. Currently, Eurocode 5 does not include design procedures for rapid and precise production of complex parts [142]. Recently, tech­
the calculation of the fire resistance for TCC and STC components, nological automated solutions are available also for other labour-
however they are currently under development and will be included in intensive processes, such as gluing, nailing, stapling and installation of
the new generation of the Eurocode 5 [45]. insulation. Other production stages, such as installation of electrical/
Considering TCC elements, some analytical methods and advanced mechanical systems, windows and weather seals, do not currently have
numerical procedures have been developed to define the fire resistance automated solutions. This area may offer further research and devel­
of TCC floors. An extensive literature review of TCC beams and floors in opment interest.
fire conditions has been conducted by Hozjan et al. [46]. Several full- The prefabrication of timber-based buildings is advantageous, since
scale experiments of TCC floors have been performed at CTU in Pra­ it provides greater safety for workers, better construction quality, higher
gue considering fire and mechanical loading [132–135]. Other in­ speed and cost reduction compared to traditional systems. Moreover,
vestigations have been performed by Osborne [136] and Meena et al. fast-tracking the envelope installation can prevent the timber exposure
[137]. The latter presents a reversed prefabricated TCC floor with a to unfavourable weather during construction. To optimise handling
concrete layer at the bottom functioning as fire protection, while the time, the building components are preferably fabricated in large for­
timber structure acts both in tension and in compression (Fig. 5). The mats, often only limited by transportation constraints, crane lifting and
advantage of this solution compared to traditional TCC floors is the fire material handling capacity. TCC floor panels can be partially or entirely
protection of the timber elements by the concrete layer. However, a thin prefabricated. In the first case, the concrete is poured onto the timber
protective concrete layer is highly affected by spalling when exposed to part at the building site. Despite the introduction of a wet component,
fire, therefore the slab must be sufficiently thick and appropriately advantages of this solution include ease of transport and lifting of the
reinforced. Also, some analytical methods for the fire resistance calcu­ lightweight timber panels, construction of a monolithic concrete slab
lation of beam-type TCC floors are available [138–140]. It should be with good in-plane strength and stiffness and no need for additional
evaluated if and how these methods could be extended also to TCC wall connections between adjacent panels [30]. For the entirely pre­
systems. fabricated solution, in general the precast concrete slab is connected to
When considering STC assemblies under fire, the weakest parts are the timber part in the production plant and then the TCC panels are
the metallic ones: steel shows a strong reduction of its mechanical transported to the site [143]. Another option is to prefabricate the
properties at high temperature, moreover it is a conductive material and concrete slab with shear connectors already inserted and to connect it to
transports heat quickly into the interior parts of the wooden section the timber floor at the building site [144]. Prefabricated solutions avoid
causing the carbonization not only in the external surface. This effect the time for the concrete curing at the construction site, reduce the low
anticipates the collapse of the element. Hence, it is important to protect stiffness and high creep problems during the concrete curing, improve
steel parts with a timber or gypsum cover, or with fire protecting paints. the quality control. Anyway, to reduce the construction cost and make
these structures more competitive in the market, a high degree of pre­
8. Production process and on-site installation fabrication is preferred [30].
Timber is fabricated with exceptionally tight dimensional tolerances
Prefabricated timber-based panels are an increasingly popular and (+/-1.5 mm of the specified dimensions) [145]. While this is extremely
utilised system in the construction industry and the automated tech­ beneficial when connecting timber members to each other, it presents a
nologies which support them are currently being strongly developed and challenge when attaching timber elements to other materials with

Fig. 5. Reversed TCC floor system investigated by Meena et al. [137].

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S. Pastori et al. Construction and Building Materials 359 (2022) 129505

allowable tolerances that may be much larger, such as concrete. To reinforced concrete walls, steel braces, seismic protection devices. Ma­
maximize constructability, the hybrid system should be designed to terials hybridization can increase the structure stiffness and stability, in
accommodate construction tolerances. order to overcome the limitations of timber buildings regarding wind
TCC walls are generally entirely prefabricated in the plant. Two loads, and also ductility for seismic design if required.
different production processes have been identified in literature: the In recent years, few authors have started considering prefabricated
concrete slab is produced separately from the timber part and then TCC and STC components for the building envelope. In this respect, the
connected to it through mechanical fasteners (dry-dry process) [74], or coupling with a massive structure, such as a concrete slab, could
the mechanical connections are inserted in the timber wall and the improve the thermal inertia and lead to better energy performance.
concrete poured directly on them, so that when it hardens it is already Future research in this respect should involve further numerical and
connected to the wood structure (wet-dry process) [146]. The two experimental investigations in order to understand the behaviour of
processes are shown, respectively, in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. composite envelope systems completely, especially for what concerns
Jelusic and Kravanja [147] discuss the production cost optimization the hygrothermal properties, which have not been fully investigated yet.
of a TCC floor system. The analysis involves a multi-parametric opti­ The hybridization of timber, concrete and steel should be assessed
mization over a range of design parameters: different vertical imposed also from the environmental perspective. Whole timber construction
loads, structure spans, cross-sections and timber and concrete strengths. might not be the most sustainable choice when high performances are
According to the authors, TCC floor systems are economically suitable required. In addition to the improvement of the structural performances,
for spans ranging up to 6 m for imposed loads heavier than 4 kN/m2, and the coupling with concrete may help achieving high fire resistance,
for spans up to 8 m for loads lower than 3 kN/m2. The results show also thermal inertia and durability, while steel gives ductility to the structure
that it is more economical to increase the strength of the concrete than to and can be reused or recycled at the end of life. In the case of hybrid
increase the thickness of the concrete slab. This choice is also favourable envelopes, the life expectancy and required maintenance should be
from the constructive point of view, since the panel weight does not taken into account when assessing the environmental impact, in order to
increase, and the handling is easier. The ultimate limit state appears as find and quantify the possible advantages compared to timber façades.
decisive for structure spans up to 9 m for all the considered imposed The good acoustic behaviour regarding air-borne sound insulation
loads, while the serviceability limit state is dominant for all spans longer and impact sound reduction, as well the great performance under fire of
than 10 m. The authors have not included in the analysis the fire TCC floors have been proved in some research studies. It should be
resistance requirements, which might influence the floor dimensions evaluated if these methods could be extended also to TCC wall systems.
and cost in some cases. STC components instead might be critical under fire if the steel parts are
There is a lack of papers regarding the design and optimization of not properly protected to prevent the floor collapse.
hybrid timber-based envelopes joints from the constructive point of Since prefabrication for timber-based buildings is for many aspects
view, in order to enable simple, fast and scaffold-free site installation. (safety, speed, quality, etc.) advantageous compared to traditional
Similar studies, instead, have been conducted on timber solutions construction systems, TCC and STC building components are generally
[148–151]. partially or entirely prefabricated. The production process of hybrid
structures should be optimized also from the environmental point of
9. Discussion and conclusions view, in order to permit disassembling and recycling at the end of life.
For what concerns prefabricated TCC and STC façades, the design of the
The literature review presented has summarized the state of the art of joints is one of the most challenging phases, due to the envelope
hybrid timber-based structures, taking into account hybrid buildings discontinuity at the interfaces of the various elements. As evidenced by
and building components, with the aim of establishing a background for Kalamees et al. 2017 [152] and Martin et al. 2018 [153], a poorly
the improvement of existing solutions or the design of new hybrid chosen strategy for water and air penetration prevention would
timber-based systems and components. The review has highlighted that compromise the success and durability of the system itself. Moreover, an
there is still limited knowledge concerning the performance of hybrid accurate design of the envelope should permit simple and fast installa­
timber-based solutions. tion on-site avoiding scaffolding, as the system proposed by Gasparri
The structural behaviour of TCC beams and floors with different et al. [148,149], as well as a nice building aesthetics.
types of connections, and of STC shear walls has been deeply investi­ The review final objective is to lead to a better knowledge of hybrid
gated in several research studies. The results show that composite timber-based structures, in order to understand the advantages and the
structures are characterized by enhanced structural static and dynamic limitations of the different possible solutions, exploit their potential and
properties compared to timber structures. Concerning hybrid buildings, identify the most appropriate building applications. This should result in
timber is often coupled with steel or reinforced concrete framing, the design of hybrid timber-based systems and components that have
been optimized from the technical and environmental point of view,
suitable for high-quality, energy efficient and sustainable buildings.

10. Definitions

In this paragraph, certain established terms are briefly described in

order to enable a better comprehension of the text. Wood is a fibrous
material from trees, timber is a wood that has been processed into beams
and planks. In the following, timber is generally preferred since in the
construction sector unprocessed wood is rarely used. Engineer Wood
Products are manufactured timber products with improved properties
than sawn timber, obtained by binding or fixing the strands, particles,
fibres, veneers or boards of wood, together with adhesives or other
methods of fixation to form a composite material. The expressions
building component and building element are used in the text to identify a
single building member, such as a column, a beam, a wall panel, a floor
panel, etc. The expression building system refers instead to the whole
Fig. 6. Example of wet-dry production process of TCC walls [146]. building.

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S. Pastori et al. Construction and Building Materials 359 (2022) 129505

Fig. 7. TCC wall system studied by Pozza et al.2012 [74], assembled through dry-dry process.

Funding [6] E. Ferrier, A. Agbossou, L. Michel, Mechanical behaviour of ultra-high-

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Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, produced using compressed wood connectors, Constr. Build. Mater. 331 (2022),
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