Chapter 1: Wiring Materials and Accessories

1.1. Wire and Cable

What is the difference between the term wire and cable?
Strictly speaking, a single wire, may be bared or covered with insulation, is known as Wire, and
several conductors stranded together is known as Cable.
Practically, bare conductor whether it is single or stranded together is known as Wire and
conductor covered with insulation is known as Cable.
The necessary requirement that a cable should fulfill are it should conduct electricity efficiently,
cheaply and safely.
It should neither be too small to result larger voltage drop nor be too large to cost too much.
i. Parts of a Cable
A cable consists of three parts:
A. The conductor or (the core):-the metal wire or strand of wires caring current.
B. The insulation or the dielectric:-is an insulating material to avoid leakage current from
the conductor.
C. The protective covering:-is used for protection of insulation from mechanical damage.
A. Conductor materials used in cable
In power and lighting cables copper and aluminum are used as a core conductor.
Copper: - The electrical resistivity of pure copper at 20 0c is 1.72 x 10-8 ohm .m. It is
mechanically strong, hard, extremely tough, durable and ductile. It is highly resistive to
corrosion, oxidation, and pitting.
Aluminum: - The electrical resistivity of pure copper at 200c is 2.6 x 10-8 ohm .m. Due to this the
electrical conductivity of aluminum is about 60% of that of copper. Therefore, an aluminum
conductor must have a cross-sectional area about 1.6 times that of a copper conductor to have the
equivalent dc resistance.
One of the most important advantages of aluminum is its low density. A unit length of bare
aluminum wire weighs only 48% as much as the same length of copper wire having an
equivalent dc resistance. However, some of this weight advantage is lost when the conductor is
insulated, because more insulation volume is required over the equivalent aluminum wire to
cover the greater circumference. As a result, it is frequently used in place of copper for bare
electric cables used for long distance power distribution.
B. Insulating materials
The insulating material used in electrical cable must possess the following properties.
• High resistivity
• High flexibility
• Non-inflammability
• High resistivity to moisture, acid or alkali etc…..
The type of insulating material used depends on the service for which the cable is required.
The various types of insulating materials used in cables are:

Rubber: rubber may be natural or synthetic. Its dielectric strength is 30KV/mm. Though it
possess high insulating qualities, it absorbs moisture readily, softens when heated to a
temperature of 600c to 700c, swells under the action of mineral oils and ages when exposed to
light. Hence, pure rubber cannot be used as insulating material.
PVC: Poly Vinyl Chloride is a man-made thermo-plastic material, which is tough, incombustible
and chemically unreactive. Its chief drawback is that it softens at a temperature above 80 0c. It
does not deteriorate with age and does not need to be renewed. PVC insulated cables are usually
employed for low and medium voltage domestic and industrial lights and power installation.
Vulcanized Indian Rubber: It is prepared by mixing Indian rubber with minerals such as
sulphur, zinc, red lead, etc. The copper conductors used in this cable are tinned to protect them
from corrosive action of rubber or copper. It absorbs water, which reduces its insulation
properties and becomes brittle with age. The use of VIR cables is limited to low voltage
distribution and internal wiring as paper-insulated cables have largely superseded them.
Impregnated paper: It is quite cheap, has low capacitance, high dielectric strength (30KV/mm),
and high insulation resistivity (10Mohm-cm). The main advantage of paper insulated cable is
that a cable of given size can be worked out at a higher current density than a VIR cable.
Impregnated paper insulated cable on its own would be too fragile to be used unprotected, and a
lead sheath is applied over the insulation. Paper insulated cables are used for conveying large
power in transmission and distribution and particularly for distribution at low voltage in
congested areas.
C. Mechanical protection
All the insulating materials used in the manufacturing of cables are mechanically weak, so they
require some form of protection for mechanical injury. Mechanical protection is usually provided
to power cables laid direct in the ground by providing two layers of steel tape in such a way that
upper layer covers the lower joint in the lower layer.
ii. Types of Cables Used in Internal Wiring
The wires used for internal wiring of buildings may be divided according to:
- The type of conductor
- The number of cores
- The voltage grading
- The type of insulation used.
According to the number of cores, the cables may be divided in classes known as single core,
twin core, and twin core with ECC (earth continuity conductor).
According to voltage grading the cables may be divided in to two classes: 250/440 volt and
650/1100-volt cable.
According to the type of insulation cables can be classified in to:

1. Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) cables:

VIR cables are available in 250/440volt as well as 650/1100 volt grades and are used for general
conduit wiring.
2. Lead sheathed cables:
Lead sheathed cables are used for internal wiring where climatic condition has moisture. It is a
vulcanized rubber insulated conductor covered with a continuous sheath of lead .The sheath
provides very good protection against the absorption of moisture and sufficient protection against
mechanical injury and can be used without casing or conduit system. These cables are available
in 250/440 volt grade and as single core, flat twin core, flat three core and flat twin core with
ECC.
3. PVC cables:
PVC cables are available in 250/440 volt and 650/1100 volt grades and used in concealed type of
wiring system. Since PVC cables are harder than rubber, they do not require cotton taping and
braiding over it for mechanical and moisture protection.
4. Weather proof cables:
Weather proof cables are used for outdoor wiring and for power supply and are not affected by
heat or sun or rain. They are either PVC insulated or vulcanized rubber-insulated conductors
being suitably taped (only in case of vulcanized rubber insulated cable) braided and then
compounded with weather resisting material. They are available in 250/440 and 650/1100 volt
grades.
5. Flexible cords and cables:
It consists of wires either silk or cotton or plastic covered. Plastic cover is more popular as it is
available in various pleasing colors. Flexibility and strength is attained by using conductors
having large number of strands.
Most stranded conductors are built upon a single central conductor, surrounding this conductor
are layers of wires in a numerical progression of 6 in the first layer, 12 in the second layer, 18 in
the third layer and so on.
iii. General specification of cables:
The complete specification of a cable will give the following information:
i. The size of the cable
ii. The type of conductor used in the cable (copper or aluminum)
iii. Number of cores that the cable consists of (single core, twin core, twin
core with ECC etc.,)
iv. Voltage grade
v. Type of insulation

1.2. Conduits
In a conduit system the cables are drawn into tubing called conduit. The conduit can be steel or
plastic. Steel conduit is made both in light gauge and heavy gauge of which heavy gauge is much
more frequently used.

In general, conduits can be classified as:

i. Light gauge steel-plain (unscrewed) conduit.
ii. Heavy gauge steel-screwed conduit.
iii. Flexible conduit
iv. PVC conduit.
 i. Light gauge steel conduit:
This type of conduit is used with special grip fittings. It is available with an external diameter of
12mm, 16mm, 19mm, 25mm, 31mm, 38mm, and 50mm. In general, light gauge is the cheapest
and quickest of conduit installations but should be used where the location is dry and there is
little likelihood of mechanical damage.

ii. Heavy gauge screwed steel conduit:

Though it is very expensive, this type of conduit provides a permanent installation with a
maximum of protection for the cables. The joints into fittings are by means of screw threads
which provide mechanical strength and good electrical conduit. These conduits are available in
approximately 3meter lengths and are threaded at the two ends.

iii. Flexible steel conduit:

This usually consists of light galvanized steel strip spirally wound, and to some extent,
interlocked, so as to form a tube. It is made in size from 19mm to 50mm internal diameter and in
two grades: non water tight and water tight. They are available in lengths up to 250 meters. So no
coupling is required and hence no threading. Since the conduits are flexible and are easily bent
no elbow is required.

One of the most common uses of flexible conduit is for protecting the final connections to
motors. It has the additional advantage of reducing the transmission of vibration. However, the
flexible conduit is costlier than the rigid conduit.

iv. PVC conduit:

This type of conduit wiring is finding wide applications in internal wiring because it is light in
weight, shock proof, anti-termite, fire resistant, acid and alkaline resistant. It can be used for
surface, recessed or concealed type of wiring.

A conduit system must be completely installed before any cables are pulled into it. It is,
therefore, essential that it is set out so that an electrician can pull cables into it without difficulty.
Conduit systems are intended to be rewirable; that is to say the intention is that 20 or 30 years
after the building has been erected, it should still be possible to pull all the cables out of the
conduit and pull new ones into it. If this is possible, then quite regardless of what happens when
the building is first constructed, the layout of the conduit must be such that cables can be drawn
into it when it is complete and finished.
Conduit accessories and fittings

Conduit couplers:
 used to join two lengths of conduit
 Threaded on both ends.

Bends, elbows and tees: are generally called conduit fittings.

 Bends are usually used for change in direction of conduit. This should never
be sharp. The minimum allowable radius of curvature is 2.5 times the outside
diameter of the conduit.
 Solid elbows and tees should be used only at the end of the conduit run (e.g.
close behind a light fitting or accessory.)
Conduit boxes:
 Used in surface conduit wiring as well as concealed conduit wiring.
 are of different designs which serve the following purposes:
i. For providing connections to light, fan, and other points. The
conduit boxes serving this purpose are known as outlet boxes
because conduit terminates at the boxes.
ii. For pulling of cables in to the conduits. The boxes serving this
purpose are known as inspection boxes.
iii. For housing junction of cables. The conduit boxes serving this
purpose are known as junction boxes.

1.3. Lighting Accessories and Fittings

i. Switches:
A switch is used to make or interrupt a circuit. Normally when one talks of switches one has in
mind light switches which turn lights on and off. A complete switch consists of three parts. There
is the mechanism itself, a box containing it, and a front plate over it.

The box is fixed to the wall, and the cables going to the switch are drawn into the box. After this
the cables are connected to the mechanism. To carry out this operation the electrician must pull
the cables away from the wall sufficiently to give him room to work on the back of the
mechanism. He then pushes the mechanism back into the box and the length of cable that he had
to pull out from the wall becomes slack inside the box. It is therefore important that the box is
large enough to accommodate a certain amount of slack cable at the back of the mechanism.

There is a maximum current which the contacts of any particular switch can make or break, and a
maximum voltage that the contact gap can withstand. A switch must not be put in a circuit which
carries a current greater than that which the switch can break. Most manufacturers make switches
in standard capacities, the lower being rated at 5, 6, 15, or 20A and the higher rating of 45A for
control of instantaneous shower units.

Discharge lights are an inductive load, and the induced voltage surge which occurs when an
inductive load is broken must be taken into account in selecting a switch for, say, fluorescent
lighting. It was for this reason that some of the older switches had to be de-rated when they were
used for discharge lights, but switches in current production are suitable for inductive loads up to
their nominal rating.

A 5A rating is not as large as one might think at first sight. If ten tungsten lamps of 100W 230V
each are controlled from one point, the total current to be switched is 4.35A. However, discharge
lights require control gear, power losses occur within the control gear. This must be taken into
consideration when calculating the current taken by the discharge lights.

Switches are available in three types: single pole, two-way and four-way (intermediate) each for
control of a practical circuit arrangement. To allow true control of a number of different circuits
from one position, switches are contained within the same unit: two-gang, six-gang, etc.

Single cord ceiling switch is suitable for installation in the bathroom, where by one pull of the
cord puts the switch ON and the following pull puts the switch off.

In order that power equipment can be fully isolated it is often desirable to use a double pole
switch. This expression means a switch which opens both the phase and neutral circuits. The
mechanism is similar to that of an ordinary or single pole switch, but there are two contacts
working side by side; the only difference being that both the phase and neutral are switched.
Double pole switches are also made with a neon indicator and for putting in recessed boxes.
Double pole pull cord switches are used for local control of electric shower units in bathrooms
and shower rooms.

There are certain very common applications of switches such as water heaters and fans. Some
manufacturers, therefore, make double pole switches with the words ‘Heater’, ‘Fan’, ‘Bath’ or
whatever other use is envisaged engraved on the front plate. The usual ratings of double pole
switches are 15, 20, 30, 45 and 60A.

Dimmer switches are used to allow control of the level of lighting from luminaries. Splash-proof
switches are found in situations where water is present, such as in shower rooms.

ii. Lamp Holders:

Lamp holders are designed for quick removal and replacement of the lamp and yet they must
hold the lamp in firm metallic contact to prevent overheating.

In public buildings the luminaires are fixed as part of the electrical installation. In housing, the
choice of the lampshade or luminaire is usually left to the owner and is made once the dwelling
is occupied. Plain lamp holders are, therefore, provided which will accept ordinary 100W and
150W tungsten bulbs, and which usually have a ring or skirt to which a normal lampshade or
similar luminaire can be attached. The top of the lamp holder screws down to grip the flexible
cable cord on which it is suspended from the ceiling.

The flexible cord on which the lamp holder is suspended performs two functions. It carries the
electric current to the lamp, and it supports the weight of the holders, lamp and shade. Its
physical strength is, therefore, just as important as its current carrying capacity and it has to be
selected with this in mind.

1.4. Socket Outlets

A socket outlet is a female socket connected to the power wiring in the building and will accept
the male plug attached at the end of the flexible cord of an appliance such as a vacuum cleaner,
electric fire or electronic equipment.
The general arrangement of socket outlets is similar to that of switches. There is a box to house
the outlet, the outlet itself and finally a front plate. In the case of socket outlets, the front plate is
usually integral with the outlet.

Plugs and sockets are available in both two and three-pin versions, two of the three pins are for
the line and neutral cables, and the third one is for a separate circuit protective conductor.

Like switches, socket outlets can be recessed into a wall with the front flush with the face of the
wall or they can be mounted completely on the surface.

1.5. Fuses
A fuse is the weak link in a circuit which will break when too much current flows, thus
protecting the circuit conductors from damage. The current heats the fuse element until it melts,
after which there is an arc between the ends of the broken element, and finally the arc
extinguishes and the circuit is completely interrupted.

The time taken for the fuse to melt depends on the magnitude of the current, and a fuse will have
a characteristic curve of time against current. The total operating time is the sum of the melting,
or pre-arcing, time and the time during which there is an arc, known as the arcing time. The
arcing time varies with the power factor and transient characteristics of the circuit, the voltage,
the point in the alternating cycle of supply at which the arcing commences and on some other
factors. It is not, however, of significant length except for very large over currents when the total
operating time is very short.

It must be remembered that the priority of the fuse is to protect the circuit conductors, not the
appliance or the user.

Three terms are used in connection with fuses.

Current Rating: It is the current stated by the manufacturer as the current which the fuse will
carry continuously without deterioration. It is also referred to as current carrying capacity and
other similar terms.
Minimum Fusing Current: It is the minimum current that will ‘blow’ the fuse.
Fusing Factor: It is the ratio of minimum fusing current to the current rating

Fusing Factor = Minimum fusing current ≥ 1

 Current rating

1.6. Circuit Breakers

A circuit breaker is a device designed to open and close a circuit by non-automatic means and to
open the circuit automatically on a predetermined over-current without injury to itself when
properly applied within its rating. So, a circuit breaker is a combination device composed of a
manual switch and an over-current device.
A circuit breaker has several advantages over any type of fuse
a) In the event of fault or overload all the poles are simultaneously disconnected from the
supply.

b) Overload and time-lags are capable of adjustment within limits.

c) The circuit can be closed again quickly after the fault is cleared.

Essentially a circuit breaker consists of a carefully calibrated bimetallic strip. As current flows
through the strip, heat is created and the strip bends. If enough current flows through the strip, it
bends enough to release a strip that opens the contacts, interrupting the circuit just as it is
interrupted when a fuse blows or a switch opened. In addition to the bimetallic strip that operates
by heat, most breakers have a magnetic arrangement that open the breaker instantly in case of
short circuit. A circuit breaker can be considered a switch that opens itself in case of overload.

Circuit breakers are rated in amperes just as fuses are rated. Like fuses, breakers are tested in
open air to carry 110% of their rated loads indefinitely without tripping. Most breakers will carry
150% of their rated load for perhaps a minute, 200% for about 20 sec. and 300% for about 5 sec,
long enough to carry the heavy current required to start most motors.

Standard ratings: both fuse and circuit breakers are available in standard ratings of 6, 10, 16,
20, 25, 35, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 160, 224, 250, 300A, and large sizes.
1.7. Distribution Boards
A distribution board is an assemblage of parts, including one or more fuses or circuit breakers,
arranged for the distribution of electrical energy to final circuits or to other sub-distribution
boards. It consists of a case inside which is a frame holding a number of fuse (CB) carriers
behind the frame or something alongside or above it, is a bus-bar to which the incoming sub-
main is connected. From the bus-bar there is connection provided to one side of each fuse way
(CB). The installer to the outgoing terminal of the fuse ways then connects each final sub-circuit
The standard distribution boards usually have 4, 6, 8, 12, 18 or 24 fuse ways both single phase
and three phases are available. It is not necessary to utilize all the available fuse ways on a board,
and in fact it is very desirable to leave several spare ways on each board for future extension.
Chapter 2: Light Sources and Their Applications
2.1. Introduction
Light is a form of radiant energy which is radiated or sent from a source in the form of wave. It
occurs in nature, and sunlight, moonlight, and starlight are the most important sources of light to
life. But because of their need for additional light, humans have learned to create light as well.
Understanding the fundamental difference between natural and man-made light is the beginning
of understanding light sources.
Natural light sources occur within nature and are beyond the control of people. These include
sunlight, moonlight, starlight, various plant and animal sources, radio luminescence, and, of
course, fire.
Man-made light sources can be controlled by people, more or less when and in the amount
wanted. These include wood flame, oil flame, gas flame, electric lamps, photochemical reactions,
and various reactions, such as explosives.
Due to their obvious advantages in terms of availability, safety, cleanliness, and remote energy
generation, electric lamps have displaced almost all other man-made sources for lighting of the
built environment. However, because man-made sources consume natural resources, natural light
sources should be used to the greatest extent possible. Exploiting natural light sources remains
one of the biggest challenges to architects and designers.
Electric lighting is superior to flame sources because the combustion of wood, gas, and oil
produces pollution within the space being illuminated. Moreover, electricity can be generated
from natural, non depletable sources of energy, including the energy generated by wind, hydro,
geothermal, and solar sources.

The electrical requirements of a lighting system depend to a considerable extent on the kind of
lamps used. Generally, electric lamps are classified in to two as Incandescent Lamps and
Discharge Lamps.

Characteristics of light sources

Electric light sources have many characteristics, including;

 Efficiency

 Color temperature, and

 Color rendering index (CRI).

Efficiency

Some lamp types are more efficient in converting energy into visible light than others. The
efficacy of a lamp refers to the number of lumens leaving the lamp compared to the number of
watts required by the lamp (and ballast). It is expressed in lumens per watt. Sources with higher
efficacy require less electrical energy to light a space.

Color temperature

This is a measurement of “warmth” or “coolness” provided by the lamp. People usually prefer a
warmer source in lower illuminance areas, such as dining areas and living rooms, and a cooler
source in higher illuminance areas.

Color temperature refers to the color of a blackbody radiator at a given absolute temperature,
expressed in Kelvins. A blackbody radiator changes color as its temperature increases (first to
red, then to orange, yellow, white, and finally bluish white at the highest temperature).

A “warm” color light source actually has a lower color temperature. For example, a cool-white
fluorescent lamp appears bluish in color with a color temperature of around 4100 K. A warmer
fluorescent lamp appears more yellowish with a color temperature around 3000 K.

Color rendering index

The color rendering index (CRI) scale is used to compare the effect of a light source on the color
appearance of its surroundings. A scale of 0 to 100 defines the CRI. A higher CRI means better
color rendering, or less color shift or distortion.

CRIs in the range:

 75-100 are considered excellent

 65-75 are good.

 55-65 is fair,

 0-55 is poor.

2.2. Incandescent Lamps

These are also known as tungsten lamps and are in fact the ordinary bulbs still most commonly
used in homes. They consist of a thin filament of tungsten inside a glass bulb. When a current is
passed through the filament, heat is produced and the temperature of the filament rises. The
filament is designed so that it reaches a temperature at which it generates light energy as well as
heat, which means that the filament glows or is incandescent and hence the lamp is called an
incandescent one.

The higher the temperature of the filament, the more efficient is the conversion of electrical
energy into light energy, but if the temperature becomes too high the filament melts and breaks.
Tungsten has a melting point of 3382°C, and most modern lamps have filaments running at
about 2800°C, although some special lamps may run at 3220°C.

The color of the light produced depends on the temperature, becoming whiter as the temperature
rises. At 2800°C, it is rather yellow, but as no material is known which can be operated at a
higher temperature than tungsten, lamps of this type cannot be made to give a daylight color.

To prevent the filament from oxidizing, all the air must be evacuated from the bulb, and the early
lamps were of the vacuum type. It was found that in a vacuum tungsten evaporated and
blackened the inside of the bulb. This problem has been solved by filling the bulb with an inert
gas at a pressure such that when the bulb is hot the pressure rises to about atmospheric pressure.
The gas used is generally a mixture consisting of 93 per cent argon and 7 per cent nitrogen.
Unfortunately, the gas conducts heat from the filament to the bulb, thus lowering the temperature
of the filament and reducing the efficiency and the light output of the lamp. To overcome this
effect as much as possible, the filament must be wound to take up as little space as possible. It is
for this reason that gas filled lamps have filaments either single coiled or coiled coil.

The connections of the filament are brought out to the lamp cap. This is the end of the lamp
which fits into the lamp holder when the lamp is put into a luminaire.

The current taken by an incandescent lamp is purely resistive. Because of this, there is no
adverse effect on the circuit power factor and no special consideration has to be given to the
switches used. The situation is different for most of the other types of lamp.

The heat given off by incandescent lamps, especially the larger sizes, must be taken into account
in both the design of luminaires for incandescent lamps and in the selection of luminaires for a
lighting scheme. The luminaires must allow enough natural ventilation to keep the normal
working temperature of the luminaires and wiring reasonably low.
Tungsten halogen lamps

In a conventional incandescent lamp the filament loses material by evaporation. The inert gas
inside the bulb reduces the rate of evaporation but cannot prevent it completely. A further
improvement can be obtained by adding a halogen to the gas, which gives rise to a reversible
chemical reaction. Tungsten evaporates from the filament and diffuses towards the bulb wall.
Provided the temperature is favorable the tungsten combines with halogen at the walls and the
resulting tungsten halide diffuses back to the filament. At the temperature prevailing at the
filament the tungsten halide dissociates into tungsten and halogen and the tungsten is deposited
back on the filament.

Successful operation of such a lamp depends on the achievement of suitable temperatures at both
the filament and the bulb wall. This makes it necessary for the filament to be at a higher
temperature than in an ordinary tungsten lamp and for the bulb to be smaller. The bulb has to be
at a temperature of about 250°C, and in order to withstand this it has to be made of fused silica or
high melting-point glass.

For a given power a tungsten halogen lamp has a longer life and a higher light output than an
ordinary tungsten lamp. The high temperature makes it of limited use in domestic or commercial
lighting but it finds application in floodlighting and the lighting of film and television studios.

2.3. Discharge Lamps

In contrast to incandescent lamps, light from discharge lamps is not produced by heating a
filament, but by exciting gases or metal vapors. This is effected by applying voltage between two
electrodes located in a discharge tube filled with inert gases or metal vapors. Through the voltage
current is produced between the two electrodes. On their way through the discharge tube the
electrons collide with gas atoms, which are in turn excited to radiate light, when the electrons are
travelling at a sufficiently high speed. For every type of gas there is a certain wavelength
combination; radiation, i.e. light, is produced from one or several narrow frequency ranges.

Fluorescent lamps

The action of a fluorescent lamp depends on the discharge of a current through a gas or a vapor
at a low pressure. If a tube containing a vapor has an electrode at each end, a current will flow
through the vapor provided electrons are emitted by one electrode (the cathode) and collected by
the other (the anode). Electrons will be emitted if the potential gradient from anode to cathode is
great enough; the potential difference required to cause emission decreases as the temperature of
the cathode increases, and therefore lamps designed to operate at normal mains voltage have
cathodes which are heated to a dull red heat. They are known as ‘hot cathode’ lamps.

Even when the cathode is heated, a voltage has to be applied between the electrodes to start the
discharge, and the minimum voltage needed is known as the striking voltage.

After the discharge has started a voltage is still needed between the electrodes to maintain the
discharge, but the maintaining voltage is less than the striking voltage.

A current flowing through a gas or vapor at low pressure causes the gas or vapor to emit
radiation at wavelengths which depend both on the nature of the vapor and on its pressure. An
incandescent lamp gives out light energy at all wavelengths in the spectral range, whereas a
fluorescent lamp gives it out at certain discrete wavelengths only. The wavelength of the
radiation emitted may be in the visible spectrum or above it or below it, and one of the functions
of the lamp is to convert all the primary radiation into useful visible radiation.

A fluorescent lamp consists of a long glass tube containing a mixture of mercury vapor and
argon gas at a pressure of 2 to 5mm mercury. When the lamp is cold, the mercury is in the form
of small globules on the tube surface, and the argon is needed to start the discharge. As soon as
the discharge starts the temperature rises sufficiently to vaporize the mercury which then takes
over the conduction of practically the whole current. At either end of the tube, there is an
electrode made of a tungsten filament coated with an alkaline earth metal having suitable
electron emission properties. Each electrode acts as cathode and anode on alternate half cycles of
the ac supply. Anode plates in the form of metal fins are provided round each electrode to assist
it in collecting electrons during the half cycle in which it acts as anode. The inside of the tube is
coated with a fluorescent powder. A fluorescent material is one which has the property of
absorbing radiation at one wavelength and emitting radiation over a band of wavelengths in
another region of the spectrum. It emits radiation only while receiving it; a material which
continues to emit after the incident radiation has ceased is called phosphorescent and it is an
unfortunate confusion that the fluorescent materials used in commercial lamp manufacture are
commonly called phosphors.
Thus in the fluorescent lamp the radiation emitted by the current discharge through the mercury
vapor is absorbed by the fluorescent coating which then emits a different radiation. The
fluorescent coating is most susceptible to excitation by ultraviolet radiation, and it is the need to
have the radiation from the mercury in this region that determines the operating pressure. The
secondary radiation emitted by the coating is in the visible spectrum and its color depends on the
material used for the coating. So many fluorescent materials are now known that it is possible to
obtain almost any color, including an almost exact reproduction of daylight.

The circuit needed to operate such a lamp is shown in Figure 2.1. As we have explained, the
voltage required to maintain the discharge is less than that required to start it, and therefore once
the discharge has started the voltage across the lamp must be reduced. If it were not reduced the
current through the lamp would go on increasing until the lamp was destroyed. The necessary
reduction is achieved by a series ballast which takes the form of an inductance or choke. Initially,
when there is no discharge through the lamp, the entire voltage of the mains is applied across the
electrodes. As soon as the discharge is established, current flows through the lamp and the choke
in series, a potential difference is developed across the choke, and the voltage across the
electrodes is reduced by the voltage across the choke.

Figure 2.1 Fluorescent lamp circuit

The circuit also includes a starter switch which consists of a small neon glow lamp and a bi-
metal strip. When the lamp is cold, the bi-metal switch is open so that the whole of the mains
voltage appears across the neon glow lamp which discharges. The heat of the discharge heats the
bi-metal until the contacts on the end of the bi-metal close. There is now a circuit formed by both
electrodes of the main lamp, the bi-metal and the choke. A small current flows through this
circuit and heats the electrodes. However, the bi-metal short circuits the neon, which ceases to
glow and, therefore, to heat the bi-metal. In consequence, the bi-metal cools and after a time it
opens again. This interrupts the circuit which, being highly inductive, responds with a sharp
voltage rise across the switch. Since the switch is in parallel with the lamp the voltage rise is also
applied across the lamp and is sufficient to start the discharge. The choke now takes the normal
current and reduces the voltage across both lamp and switch. This reduced voltage is not enough
to start another glow at the switch, but if for any reason the main discharge fails to start, then
mains voltage again appears at the glow lamp and the sequence starts again. This happens if the
choke is faulty and reduces the voltage across the lamp below that required to maintain the
discharge. When the lamp has started the electrodes are kept hot by the current through the lamp
which also flows through the electrodes.

Compact fluorescent lamps

Compact fluorescent lamps do not function any differently from conventional fluorescent lamps,
but they do have a more compact shape and consist of either one curved discharge tube or the
combination of several short ones. Some models have an outer glass envelope around the
discharge tube, which changes the appearance and the photometric properties of the lamp.

There are two major types of compact fluorescent lamps: those with screw bases, designed to
directly replace incandescent lamps in incandescent lamp sockets, and those with plug-in bases
designed to fit into sockets in luminaires designed specifically for compact fluorescent lamps.

Because compact fluorescent lamps, like all fluorescent lamps, require ballast, lamps with screw
bases are larger and costlier than those for dedicated compact fluorescent luminaires. As a result,
it is generally best to employ dedicated compact fluorescent luminaires in new designs. Screw-
based compact fluorescent lamps should be used to convert incandescent type luminaires.
High Pressure Mercury lamps
Mercury lamps are discharge lamps which operate on the same principle as fluorescent lamps. At
sufficiently high pressure the radiation emitted by the mercury is in the visible spectrum so that
such a lamp can be used without a fluorescent coating. The original mercury lamps had no
coating, but modern lamps are provided with one in order to improve the color rendering. It also
increases the lamp efficiency.

The basic mercury lamp consists of an arc tube with an electrode at each end and a starting
electrode near one of the main electrodes, the electrodes themselves being similar to those in the
fluorescent lamp. The starting electrode is connected to the opposite main electrode through a
high resistance. The arc tube is fitted inside an outer glass envelope. The construction of a typical
mercury lamp is shown in Figure 2.2. The two main electrodes are sealed inside the arc tube with
a starting electrode near the lower one connected to the upper one through a high resistance
outside the tube.

Figure 2.2 typical mercury lamp

When the lamp is switched on the voltage is sufficient only to start a small discharge between the
starting electrode and the nearby main electrode. The small discharge makes the argon in the
tube conductive and this enables a discharge to start between the main electrodes. This discharge
bypasses the starting electrode, warms the tube and evaporates the mercury. As it evaporates the
mercury takes over the conduction of the main discharge.

After two or three minutes, steady conditions are reached and the mercury emits its radiation.
The current through the discharge is limited by a choke.

Sodium discharge lamps

Sodium discharge lamps have a similar action to mercury lamps, but the filling used is sodium
instead of mercury. Lamps designated SOX and SLI work at low pressure and their luminance is
low. They therefore have to be very long to give a good light output; in order to reduce the
overall length the tube of an SOX lamp is bent into the shape of a U and the resulting
construction is shown in Figure 2.3. The SLI lamp has a straight tube and is therefore double
ended.

To withstand the sodium vapor the inner tube is made of ordinary glass with a thin coating of
special glass fused onto its inner surface. The inner tube is enclosed in a double-walled vacuum
flask. Each electrode consists of a coated spiral whose ends are twisted together; there is no flow
of heating current through the electrode as there is in a mercury lamp. Neon is contained within
the inner tube with the sodium and starts the discharge. When the lamp is cold the sodium
condenses and exists as small globules along the length of the tube. It is important that they
should be fairly evenly distributed along the tube, and, therefore, the lamp must be kept nearly
horizontal. At the same time, the sodium must not be allowed to condense on the electrodes. To
satisfy this requirement luminaires for sodium lamps are arranged to hold the lamp tilted slightly
above the horizontal.

The operating pressure is very low, being in the region of 1mm mercury, although the vapour
pressure of the sodium alone is of the order of 0.001mm mercury, the rest being due to the neon.
To start an arc through the neon when the lamp is cold requires a voltage higher than normal
mains voltage (about 450V). The necessary striking voltage is obtained from an autotransformer
which is specially designed to have poor regulation, that is to say the voltage when current flows
drops greatly below the no-load voltage.

Figure 2.3. Sodium discharge lamp

Consequently, as soon as the discharge starts the voltage drops to that required to keep the
discharge going. The transformer thus performs the functions of the ballast and no separate
choke is required. A capacitor for power factor correction is, however, needed.

The discharge which starts in the neon is of a red color. This warms the tube and gradually
vaporizes the sodium. After about twenty minutes, the sodium is fully vaporized and gives its
characteristic yellow color. The sodium discharge lamp is the most efficient means so far known
of converting electrical into light energy, but because of its peculiar color the low pressure
sodium lamp is limited to street lighting and similar applications. The control gear, consisting of
autotransformer and power factor capacitor, is usually accommodated within the column which
supports the luminaire.

Alternatively, it can be housed within the luminaire and this is done in floodlights and other
luminaires intended for mounting at low level.

High-pressure sodium lamps give a rather sunny yellow light. For this reason when first
introduced they were called solar color lamps, but they are now more generally referred to by the
designation SON. They are suitable for factories and warehouses and are now also widely used
for street lighting and floodlighting. The pressure within the arc tube when the lamp is fully
warmed up is between 30 and 60kPa. The lamp runs at a temperature of 1300°C and to withstand
the corrosive properties of sodium at this temperature alumina ceramic is used in the
manufacture of the tube.
As with the low-pressure sodium lamp, the SON lamp does not have heated cathodes or auxiliary
electrodes, but starts cold with a high voltage pulse. A typical circuit is shown in Figure 2.4. The
circuit comprises a thyristor starting circuit, which pulses a high voltage across the lamp, once
the lamp strikes the pulse generator is shut down and the current through the lamp is restricted by
the ballast.

Figure 2.4. Typical solar color lamp circuit

High pressure sodium lamps can work either vertically or horizontally. They may be mounted at
any angle below 20° above the horizontal. The tube does not have to be as long as the low-
pressure sodium tube and the construction and shape are similar to those of the mercury
discharge lamp.

High pressure sodium lamps have a very high efficiency and a long life. Most high pressure
sodium lamps have rated lives of more than 24,000 hours. Both light output and the power
consumed increase very rapidly with an increase in the supply voltage and the design of the
ballast has to be such as to limit variation in the applied voltage in order to preserve lamp life.

Metal halide lamps

The color rendering of a mercury lamp can be improved by the addition of another metal. It is,
however, necessary that the metal used should have a sufficiently low vapour pressure at the
operating temperature of the lamp, and that it should not react with the material of the arc tube.
This can be achieved by using the metal in the form of its halide salt.
The general design of metal halide lamps is similar to that of mercury lamps. When one of these
lamps is first ignited the output is due to the mercury. As the temperature rises the metal halide,
which is initially solid, melts and vaporizes. The high temperature causes it to dissociate into
metal and halogen, and emission of light commences. The tube walls are cooler than the interior
of the tube and the metal and halogen recombine on the surface of the walls; this has an
important effect in preventing chemical attack on the silica walls.

The metal halide lamp with a clear glass outer envelope is designated MBI. When the outer
envelope has a fluorescent coating the designation becomes MBIF. A linear version for use in
floodlighting and in television studios is designated MBIL.

These lamps have a better color rendering than MBF or incandescent lamps. They also have
better color rendering than SON lamps but are not so efficient and therefore SON lamps are still
preferred where color rendering is not so important. Metal halide lamps are finding use in
offices, supermarkets and large stores. They can also be used for high bay warehouse lighting
and floodlighting, but it is in these applications that the higher efficiency of the high-pressure
sodium lamp is generally thought to be more important than the color rendering.
Chapter 3: Illumination
3.1. Basic Definitions
Luminous intensity: symbol, I; unit, candela (cd)
This is a measure of the power of a light source and is sometimes referred to as brightness.
Luminous flux: symbol, F; unit, lumen (lm)
This is a measure of the flow or amount of light emitted from a source.
Illuminance: symbol, E; unit, lux (lx) or lumen/m2
This is a measure of the amount of light falling on a surface. It is also referred to as illumination.
Luminous efficacy: symbol, K; unit, lumen per watt (lm/W)
This is the ratio of luminous flux to electrical power input. It could be thought of as the
‘efficiency’ of the light source.
Maintenance factor (MF): no units
In order to allow for the collection of dirt on a lamp and also ageing, both of which cause loss of
light, a maintenance factor is used.
As an example, consider a new 80 W fluorescent lamp with a lumen output of 5700 lm. After
about 3 or 4 months this output would have fallen and settled at around 5200 lm. Hence the light
output has decreased by 5200 = 0.9
5700
This value, 0.9, is the maintenance factor and should not fall below 0.8. This is ensured by
regular cleaning of the lamps.
Coefficient of utilization (CU): no units
The amount of useful light reaching a working plane will depend on the lamp output, the
reflectors and/or diffusers used, position of lamp, color of walls and ceilings, etc. The lighting
designer will combine all of these considerations and determine a figure to use in his or her
lighting calculations.
Mounting Height
Distance from the bottom of the fixture to either the floor or work plane, depending on usage.
Spacing to Mounting Height Ratio
It is the ratio of fixture spacing (distance apart) to mounting height above the work plane.
Sometimes it is called spacing criterion. A normal range is 1-1.5.
3.2. Lighting Schemes
A good lighting scheme should fulfill the following:
1. Provide adequate illumination.
2. Provide uniform illumination all over the working plan.
3. Provide light of suitable color.
4. Avoid glare and hard shadows.
Direct Lighting
In this type of lighting the light from the source falls directly on the object or the surface to be
illuminated.
Semi-direct Lighting
Only 60-90 % of the light reaches the working plan directly while the rest is reflected to
illuminate the ceiling and walls.
Indirect Lighting:
In this form of lighting, light doesn't reach the surface directly from the source but indirectly as
the ceiling reflects the light. 90% of the light is directed upwards and only 10% reaches the
working plane.
Semi-Indirect Lighting
Like the pervious type except that 75% of the light is directed upwards and 25% of it reaches the
working plane.
Requirements needed to specify right choice of perfect luminaire:
First, the engineer must fully understand the demands of the application and conditions in the
space that will affect the operation of the lighting system:
 Tasks to be performed in the space
 Desired light levels based on the tasks performed in the space
 Room size and dimensions
 Layout of furniture and obstructions such as partitions
 Special concerns such as safety and security
 Room and object surface colors and reflectance’s
 Hours of operation
 Cleanliness of the area during operation
  availability of daylight
3.3. Methods of Lighting Calculations
Inverse-square law
If we were to illuminate a surface by means of a lamp positioned vertically above it, measure the
illumination at the surface, and then move the lamp twice as far away, the illumination now
measured would be four times less. If it were moved away three times the original distance the
illumination would be nine times less. Hence it will be seen that the illuminance on a surface is
governed by the square of the vertical distance of the source from the surface.

Cosine rule
From Fig. 3.1 it will be seen that point X is further from the source than is point Y. The
illuminance at this point is therefore less. In fact the illuminance at X depends on the cosine of
the angle θ. Hence,

Figure 3.1
Lighting loads calculations:
In order to estimate the number and type of light fittings required to suit a particular
environment, it is necessary to know what level of illuminance is required, the area to be
illuminated, the maintenance factor and the coefficient of utilization, and the efficacy of the
lamps to be used.
Installed wattage = illumenace*area
U.F*M.F*efficiency

Example 3.1
A light source of 900 candelas is situated 3 m above a working surface. (a) Calculate the
illuminance directly below the source. (b) What would be the illuminance if the lamp were
moved to a position 4 m from the surface?
Answer: (a) E = 900/9 = 100 lx; (b) E = 900/16 = 56.25 lx
Example 3.2
A 250 W sodium-vapour street lamp emits a light of 22 500 cd and is situated 5 m above the
road. Calculate the illuminance (a) directly below the lamp and (b) at a horizontal distance along
the road of 6 m. (Fig. 3.2).

Figure 3.2
Solution:
(a) EA = I/d2 = 22500/25 = 900 lx
(b) tan θ = 6/5 = 1.2
θ = tan-11.2 = 50.20, cos θ = 0.64
EB = 22500*0.643/25 = 263 lx
Example 3.3
A work area at bench level is to be illuminated to a value of 300 lx, using 85 W single
fluorescent fittings having an efficacy of 80lumens/watt.
The work area is 10 m × 8 m, the MF is 0.8 and the CU is 0.6. Calculate the number of fittings
required.
Solution:
Total lumens (F) required = E(lx) × area
MF × CU
F = 300 × 10 × 8 = 50 000 lm
0.8 × 0.6
Since the efficacy is 80 lm/W,
Total power required = 50 000 = 625 W
80
As each lamp is 85 W,
Number of lamps = 625 =8
85
Rating of fluorescent circuits
Fluorescent tubes are rated in watts, but as we have seen, the circuit of which the lamp is part is
inductive, and even after improvement has a lagging PF.
We know from previous courses that plant is not rated in watts, but in volt amps (VA). It is
recommended that, if no other information is available, the lamp wattage may be multiplied by
1.8 in order to determine the VA rating. For example the VA rating of a fluorescent unit with an
80 W tube is 1.8 × 80 = 144 VA. Hence, when supplied at 240 V, the current taken would be:
I = VA/V = 144/240 = 0.6 A
When a fluorescent lamp is switched off, the choke is again open-circuited; this time the voltage
appears across the switch contacts. This can damage the switch and unless it is specially
designed to break an inductive circuit, it should have a rating of not less than twice the total
steady current it is required to carry. For example, if a fluorescent light unit draws a current of
1 A, then the switch controlling it should have a rating of at least 2 A.
Example 3.4
A consumer has a work area that he or she wishes to illuminate with single 65 W, 240 V
fluorescent fittings. The existing lighting points, which are to be removed, are controlled by a
single-gang 5 A switch. This switch is to remain. How many 60 W fittings may be installed?
Solution:
VA rating of fitting = 1.8 × 65 =117VA
Therefore, Current rating of fitting = 117/240 = 0.4875 A
The 5 A switch must only carry 5/2 = 2.5 A
Therefore, Number of fittings permitted = 2.5/0.4875 = 5.13 = 5 fittings

Lighting Systems or Illumination Methods

 General Lighting.
 Localized General Lighting
 Task/Supplementary Lighting
General Lighting:
General lighting is the arrangement of lighting equipment so that a uniform level of illumination
is produced. Factors affecting uniform distribution of light are:
 The Physical characteristics of the room
 The level of illumination desired
 The appearance of the finished installation
Uniform lighting can be obtained using the lumen method which gives the number of luminaires
needed to provide a certain quantity of light.
The exact distance between fixtures is determined by dividing the length of the room by the
number of luminaires in a row, allowing for about one-third of this distance between the wall and
the first unit. In a similar manner, the distance between the rows is the width of the room,
divided by the number of rows, with about one-third of the distance left between the side of the
wall and the first row. In high-ceiling industrial areas, these recommended distances may be up
to one-half of the luminaire spacing.
 Figure 3.3 General lighting
Localized General Lighting
Localized general lighting is the positioning of general lighting equipment with reference to
particular work areas where high intensities are necessary, with the spill light from the same
luminaires usually providing sufficient illumination for adjacent areas.
Luminaires of a direct or semi-direct type are usually employed for this purpose since a
substantial direct component is essential where it is desirable to concentrate most of the light on
the restricted area beneath the luminaire; that is the work plane.

Figure 3.4 localized general lighting

Task/Supplementary Lighting
Supplementary lighting is the provision of relatively high intensity at specific work points by
means of direct lighting equipment used in conjunction with general localized illumination. It is
frequently necessary where specialty-seeing critical tasks are involved and where it is not
feasible to provide the desired intensity by either general lighting or localized general lighting. It
is also used where light of directional quality is required for certain inspection tasks.
Equipment used for this purpose varies in distribution characteristics depending upon the area to
be covered, by the distance from the equipment location to the work point, and the foot-candles
required.
 Figure 3.5 Task/Supplementary Lighting
Chapter 4: Installation Design
Any design to the 16th Edition of the IEE Wiring Regulations BS 7671 (from which EBCS-10 is
adopted) must be primarily concerned with the safety of persons, property and livestock. All
other considerations such as operation, maintenance, aesthetics, etc., while forming an essential
part of the design, should never compromise the safety of the installation.
Assessment of general characteristics
Regardless of whether the installation is a whole one, an addition, or an alteration, there will
always be certain design criteria to be considered before calculations are carried out.
“Assessment of general characteristics” indicates four main headings under which these
considerations should be addressed. These are:
 Purpose, supplies and structure
 External influences
 Compatibility
 Maintainability
Let us look at these headings in a little more detail.
Purpose, supplies and structure
o For a new design, will the installation be suitable for its intended purpose?
o For a change of usage, is the installation being used for its intended purpose?
o If not, can it be used safely and effectively for any other purpose?
o Has the maximum demand been evaluated?
o Can diversity be taken into account?
o Are the supply and earthing characteristics suitable?
o Are the methods for protection for safety appropriate?
o If standby or safety supplies are used, are they reliable?
o Are the installation circuits arranged to avoid danger and facilitate safe operation?
External influences
o The
Compatibility
Maintainability
4.1. Design Procedure
Basically, all designs, whatever the type of installation, follow the same procedure:
Having ascertained all the necessary details, we can decide on an installation method, the type of
cable, and how we will protect against electric shock and over currents. We would now be ready
to begin the calculation part of the design procedure.
Basically there are eight stages in such a procedure. These are the same whatever the type of
installation, be it a cooker circuit or a sub main cable feeding a distribution board in a factory.
Here then, are the eight basic steps in a simplified form:
Determine the design current Ib.
Select the rating of the protection In.
Select the relevant correction factors (CFs).
Divide In by the relevant CFs to give tabulated cable current-carrying
capacity It .
5 Choose a cable size to suit It .
6 Check the voltage drop.
7 Check for shock risk constraints.
8 Check for thermal constraints.
4.2. Design Current
4.3. Nominal Setting of Protection
4.4. Correction Factors
4.5. Choice of Cable Size
4.6. Voltage Drop
4.7. Diversity Factor