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= =TUDIES THEOLD TESTAMENT.

RILEY-HICKINGBOTHAM LIBRARY
OUACHITA BAPTIST UNIVERSITY
 Encountering
the Old Testament
 To Susan and Yvonne
with love
Proverbs 31:10

Encountering Biblical Studies

Walter A. Elwell, General and New Testament Editor
Eugene H. Merrill, Old Testament Editor

Encountering the Old Testament: A Christian Survey

Bill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer

Readings from the Ancient Near East:

Primary Sources for Old Testament Study
Bill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer, editors

Encountering the New Testament:

A Historical and Theological Survey
Walter A. Elwell and Robert W. Yarbrough

Readings from the First-Century World:

Primary Sources for New Testament Study
Walter A. Elwell and Robert W. Yarbrough, editors
See eee es a ee
 Encountering
the Old Testament
A Christian Survey

Bill T. Arnold
and Bryan E. Beyer

= Baker Books
B A Division of Baker Book House Co
Grand Rapids, Michigan 49516

RILEY-HICKINGBOTHAM LIBRARY
QUACHITA BAPTIST (NIVERCITY
Book copyright © 1999 Bill T. Arnold Picture Acknowledgements
and Bryan E. Beyer
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Arnold, Bill T.
Encountering the Old Testament : a Christian survey / Bill T. Arnold and Bryan E. Beyer.
p. cm. — (Encountering biblical studies)
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN 0-8010-2176-6 (hardcover)
1. Bible. O.T.—Introductions. I. Beyer, Bryan. II. Title. III. Series.
BS1140.2.A75 1998
221.6'1—dc21 98-18612
 A TM A A TA TT

Contents i Briet
Editor's Preface 12 20. Job: One Man’s Search
Publisher's Preface 13 for Justice 289
To the Professor 16 21. Psalms: The Songbook
To the Student 17 of Ancient Israel 303
Abbreviations 18 2D Proverbs: Advice on Living
Acknowledgments 19 in God’s World 313
What Is the Old Testament
USS Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs:
and Why Study It? 21 Israelite Faith in Everyday Life 325

Where and When Did the PART 4

Events of the Old Testament Encountering the Prophets
Take Place? 35 24. Introduction to the Prophets:
Voices of God’s Servants 339
PART 1 Do. Isaiah 1-39: Prophet of Judah’s
Encountering the Pentateuch Royal Court 353
3 Introduction to the Pentateuch: 26. Isaiah 40-66: Great Days
The Birth of God’s People 63 Are Coming! 369
4. Genesis 1-11: 27: Jeremiah 1-20: Struggling
The Prelude to Israel 77 with God's Call 383
3h Genesis 12-50: The Patriarchs: 28. Jeremiah 21-52 and Lamentations:
Ancestors of Israel’s Faith 89 Dealing with Disaster 393
Exodus: A Miraculous Escape 103 20) Ezekiel 1-24: Rough Days
Leviticus: Instructions Are Coming! 407
for Holy Living 117 30. Ezekiel 25-48: God’s Planning an
Numbers: Failure in the Desert 127 Exciting Future! 417
Deuteronomy: Restoring SHE Daniel: The Kingdom of God—
the Covenant 141 Now and Forever 427
Oe Hosea, Joel, and Amos: A Call
PART 2
for Repentance and a Promise
Encountering the Historical Books
for Blessing 439
10. Introduction to the Historical
Oo: Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum,
Books: The History
Habakkuk, and Zephaniah:
of Israel’s Nationhood 157
God’s Plan for the Nations 451
i Joshua: Conquest and Division 167
34. Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi:
12 Judges and Ruth:
Rebuilding a People 463
Israel’s Moral Crisis 181
is: 1 Samuel: God Grants a King 195 Epilogue 475
14. 2 Samuel: David's Reign 209 Endnotes 477
15: 1 Kings: The Glory of Solomon Subject Index 488
and the Beginning of the End 221 Scripture Index 500
16. 2 Kings: The End Name Index 510
of National Israel 237
ii 1 & 2 Chronicles: A Look Back 251
18. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther:
A Time to Rebuild 263
PART 3
Encountering the Poetical Books
19% Introduction to the Poetical
Books: The Literature
of God’s People 281
 EE A a NAT
TTT TEE

Contents
Editor's Preface 12 ¢ Authorship and Traditional
2. Where and When Did
Consensus
Publisher's Preface 13 the Events of the Old ¢ Modern Critical Approaches
To the Professor 16 Testament Take Place? 35
Summary
To the Student 17 Outline
Key Terms
Abbreviations 18 Objectives
Key People/Places
Acknowledgments 19 Where Did the Events
Study Questions
. What Is the of the Old Testament
Further Reading
Old Testament Take Place?
and Why Study It? 21 Three Regions of the Ancient
Near East . Genesis 1-11:
Outline
¢ Four Subregions of Israel The Prelude to Israel 77
Objectives
Highways of the Ancient Near Outline
Canon:
What Is the Bible? East Objectives
e Definition of “Canon” What Events Does the Primeval History
e Test for Canonicity Old Testament Describe? and Its Nature
e The Formation of the Canon Israel’s Ancestry: Contents of Genesis 1-11
e Hebrew and English Book The Patriarchs e Outline
Order Israel's Beginnings: e Creation and Its Nature (1-2)
Inspiration: How Was Moses and Joshua Sin and Its Nature (3-11)
the Bible Written? Israel's Statehood: Summary
e Neo-Orthodox Theory David and His Dynasty Key Terms
e Dictation Theory Israel's Exile and Restoration: Key People/Places
e Limited Inspiration Theory Ezra and Nehemiah Study Questions
e Plenary Verbal Inspiration Summary Further Reading
Theory Key Terms
Textual Transmission: How Key People/Places . Genesis 12-50:
Did We Get the Bible? Study Questions
The Patriarchs:
¢ Scribal Care of the Old Further Reading
Ancestors of Israel’s
Testament Text Faith 89
e Transmission in the Original PART 1 Outline
Languages ENCOUNTERING Objectives
Transmission in Other THE PENTATEUCH Background of the
Languages
Patriarchal Narratives
Hermeneutics: How Do We 3. Introduction to the
The Story of the Patriarchs
Interpret the Bible? Pentateuch: The Birth
e Outline
Use the Grammatical- of God's People 63
e Abraham and Isaac (12-25)
Historical Method Outline
e Jacob and His Twelve Sons
Understand the Context Objectives
(25:19-36:43)
Determine the Type of What Is the Pentateuch?
¢ Joseph (37:1-50:26)
Literature What Is the Pentateuch
Interpret Figurative Language About? Theology of the Patriarchal
Let Scripture Interpret What Are the Overarching Narratives
Scripture Themes of the e Election
Discover the Application to Pentateuch? e Promise
Modern Life Sovereignty of God ¢ Covenant
Summary History Summary
Key Terms Fallen Condition of Humanity Key Terms
Key People/Places Salvation Key People/Places
Study Questions Holiness Study Questions
Further Reading Who Wrote the Pentateuch? Further Reading
 Contents

6. Exodus: Summary Nehemiah

A Miraculous Escape 103 Key Person/Places e Ruth and Esther
Outline Study Questions Summary
Objectives Further Reading Key Terms
Contents of the Book Key People
of Exodus 9. Deuteronomy: Restoring Study Questions
e Outline the Covenant 141 Further Reading
e The Events of the Exodus Outline
Historical Problems Objectives 11. Joshua: Conquest
of the Exodus Contents of the Book and Division 167
e Historicity of the Exodus of Deuteronomy Outline
e Date of the Exodus e Literary Structure Objectives
e Route of the Exodus ¢ Outline Outline
Theological Significance e Overview Background of the Book
of the Exodus Parallels from the of Joshua
e Deliverance Ancient World e Joshua the Man
¢ Covenant e The Hittite Parallels ¢ Date and Authorship
e Presence of God ¢ Treaty Structure in e Archaeology and the Book
Summary Deuteronomy of Joshua
Key Terms Significance of e Themes of Joshua
Key People/Places Deuteronomy Message of the Book
Study Questions in Biblical Thought of Joshua
Further Reading Role of Deuteronomy in the Israel Conquers the Land
Pentateuch (1-12)
Deuteronomy and the ¢ Israel Divides the Land (13-21)
. Leviticus: Instructions
Historical Books Israel Begins to Settle
for Holy Living 117
Summary into the Land (22-24)
Outline
Objectives Key Terms Summary
Background of the Book Ree Bee Key Term
Bilevitinds Study Questions Key Places

Contents of Leviticus UCI INARE Study Questions

° Outline Further Reading
e Overview PART 2
Themes of Leviticus ENCOUNTERING THE 12. Judges and Ruth:
° Law HISTORICAL BOOKS Israel’s Moral Crisis 181
* Sacrifice Outline
¢ Holiness 10. Introduction to the Objectives
Summary Historical Books: The Book of Judges
Key Terms The History of Israel's Contents
Study Questions Nationhood 157 * Outline
Further Reading Outline ¢ Overview
Objectives Historical Problems
. Numbers: Contents of the Historical in Judges
Failure in the Desert 127 Books e Chronology
Outline The Role of History ¢ Political Structure
Objectives in the Bible The Book of Ruth
Contents of the Book e Herodotus, the Father of Contents
of Numbers History? e Literary Structure
¢ Literary Structure e The Jewish Canon and the ¢ Outline
¢ The Book’s Use of Numbers Christian Canon ¢ Overview
e Outline ¢ History and Theology The Sovereignty of God
¢ Overview Authorship of and Faithful Living
Use of the Book of Numbers the Historical Books Summary
in the New Testament e The Deuteronomistic Key Terms
e First Corinthians 10 History Study Questions
¢ Hebrews e Chronicles and Ezra- Further Reading
Contents

e Esther
13. 1 Samuel: 16. 2 Kings: The End
of National Israel 237 Further Reading
God Grants a King 195
Outline Outline
Objectives Objectives PART 3
Outline Contents of 2 Kings ENCOUNTERING THE
The Background of 1 Samuel ¢ Outline POETICAL BOOKS
e Setting ¢ Overview
e Authorship and Date Themes of the Books 19. Introduction
e Themes of 1 Samuel of Kings to the Poetical Books:
The Message of 1 Samuel Summary The Literature
e A Period of Transition (1-15) Key Terms of God's People 281
e David's Rise and Saul’s Key People/Place Outline
Decline (16-31) Study Questions Objectives
Summary Further Reading What Are the
Key Places Poetical Books?
Study Questions 17. 1 and 2 Chronicles: Common Characteristics
Further Reading of Hebrew Poetry
A Look Back 251
Outline e Meter
14. 2 Samuel: Objectives e Parallelism
David's Reign 209 The Author and His Purpose e Chiasm
Outline Chronicles and the Canon e Acrostics
Objectives ¢ Location in the Canon Ugaritic Parallels
Outline ¢ Relationship to Samuel The Poetical Books
Background of 2 Samuel and Kings Themselves
¢ Setting Contents of 1 and 2 Summary
e Authorship and Date Chronicles Key Terms
e Themes of 2 Samuel e Outline Key Place
Message of 2 Samuel °¢ Overview Study Questions
e David's Rise to Power in Themes of the Books Further Reading
Judah (1-4) of Chronicles
e David's Reign over All Israel ¢ David and His Dynasty 20. Job: One Man’s
(5-24) e The Temple and the Worship Search for Justice 289
Summary
of God Outline
Key Terms
Summary Objectives
Key People/Places
Key Term Introduction to
Study Questions
Study Questions Wisdom Literature
Further Reading
Further Reading e Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom
Literature
15. 1 Kings:
18. Ezra, Nehemiah, e Old Testament Wisdom
The Glory of Solomon
and Esther: Literature
and the Beginning
of the End 221 A Time to Rebuild 263 Contents of the Book of Job
Outline Outline e Outline

Objectives Objectives e Overview

The Author and His Method The Books of Ezra The Author and His Times
¢ Retribution Theology and Nehemiah Theological Themes
e Regnal Formula and Sources e¢ Contents Summary
¢ Historical Perspective ¢ Problems of Interpretation Key Terms
from the Exile The Book of Esther Key People/Places
Contents of 1 Kings ¢ Contents Study Questions
¢ Outline Theological Themes Further Reading
¢ Overview e Ezra and Nehemiah
Summary e Esther 21. Psalms: The Songbook
Key Terms Summary of Ancient Israel 303
Key Person/Place Key Terms Outline
Study Questions Study Questions Objectives
Further Reading e Ezra and Nehemiah Background to the Psalms
 Contents

e The Name “Psalms” Summary Background of the Book

¢ Authorship of the Psalms Key Terms of Isaiah
¢ The Unique Place of the Key Place e Isaiah the Man
Psalms in God’s Word Study Questions ¢ Isaiah’s Times
The Division of the Psalms ¢ Ecclesiastes ¢ Authorship and Date
¢ The Basic Arrangement ¢ Song of Songs ¢ Themes of the Book of Isaiah
e Theories on the Psalms’ Further Reading Message of the Book
Arrangement of Isaiah
Psalm Titles
PART 4 Opening Words to Judah
Classification of the Psalms (1:1-31)
e Hymns
ENCOUNTERING
God's Judgment Revealed
Penitential Psalms THE PROPHETS
(2:1-5:30)
e¢ Wisdom Psalms
24. Introduction to the Isaiah’s Call (6:1-13)
¢ Royal Psalms
Prophets: Voices of The Sign of Immanuel (7:1-17)
¢ Messianic Psalms
God's Servants 339 The Coming Assyrian
e Imprecatory Psalms
Outline Invasion (7:18-8:22)
e Lament Psalms
Objectives Description of the
The Psalms
Prophecy’s Biblical Heritage Messianic Era (9:1-7)
and the Christian
¢ How Do the Prophets Fit into Judgment Against Israel
Summary
God’s Unfolding Purpose? and Assyria (9:8-10:34)
Key Terms
e Who Were Prophecy’s Further Description of the
Key Person/Places
“Founding Fathers”? Messianic Era (11:1-12:6)
Study Questions
The Nature of Prophecy ¢ Oracles against the Nations
Further Reading
The Hebrew Terms for (13:1-23:18)
“Prophet” The “Little Apocalypse”
22. Proverbs:
What Are Some Common (24:1-27:13)
Advice on Living
Wrong Ideas about the Oracles of Woe (28:1-33:24)
in God’s World 313
Prophets? Eschatological Summation
Outline
¢ How Are All the (34:1-35:10)
Objectives
Prophets Alike? Historical Interlude:
What Is a “Proverb”?
Did Other Nations Highlights and Lowlights
Contents of the Book
Have Prophets? from Hezekiah’s Reign
of Proverbs
Did All Prophets (36:1-39:8)
¢ Outline
Write Down Their Messages? Summary
¢ Overview
How Was Prophecy Key Terms
Authorship
Passed Down to Us? Key People/Places
Theological Themes
What Are Some Common Review Questions
Summary
Themes of the Prophets’ Study Questions
Key Terms
Writings?” Further Reading
Key Person
Study Questions The Historical Setting
Further Reading of the Classical Prophets 26. Isaiah 40-66: Great Days
¢ The Assyrians Are Coming! 369
23. Ecclesiastes and Song e The Babylonians Outline
e The Persians Objectives
of Songs: Israelite Faith
in Everyday Life 325 Summary Outline
Outline Key Terms Who Wrote Isaiah 40-66?
Objectives Key Person/Places ¢ Multiple-Author View
The Book of Ecclesiastes Study Questions ¢ One-Author View
¢ Contents
Further Reading The Servant Passages
e Authorship in Isaiah 40-66
The Song of Songs 25. Isaiah 1-39: Isaiah’s Message Continues
e Contents Prophet of Judah’s ¢ Comfort, O Comfort
¢ Authorship Royal Court 353 My People (40:1-31)
Theological Themes Outline ¢ The Coming Deliverance
¢ Ecclesiastes Objectives (41:1-29)
¢ Song of Songs Outline ¢ The Role of the Lord’s Servant

]
Contents

(42:1-25) Lamentations: e Characteristics of Apocalyptic

Israel’s Redemption A Cry of Agony Literature
from Babylon (43:1-45:25) ¢ Outline e “Biblical” Apocalyptic
Judgment Against Babylon ¢ The Background of Contents of the Book
(46:1-47:15) Lamentations of Daniel
e Israel’s Release and Exaltation e The Message of Lamentations ¢ Outline
(48:1-52:12) Summary e Overview
The Suffering Servant Study Questions The Theological Themes
(52:13-53:12) Further Reading of Daniel
Celebrating the Return ¢ The Sovereignty of God
(54:1-59:21) 29. Ezekiel 1-24: Rough Days e The Pride of Humankind
The Climax of Are Coming! 407 e The Ultimate Victory of
God’s Restoration (60:1-66:24) Outline God's Saints
Summary Objectives Problems of Interpretation
Key Terms Outline ¢ Bilingualism
Further Reading Background of Ezekiel e Identity of the Four Kingdoms
Message of Ezekiel e Vision of the “Seventy Weeks”
27. Jeremiah 1-20: * Oracles and Events Relating e Historical Questions
Struggling to Ezekiel’s Call (1:1-5:17 Summary
with God's Call 383 ¢ The Day of the Lord (6:1-7:27) Key Terms
Outline ¢ God’s Glory Departs Key People/Places
Objectives (8:1-11:25) Study Questions
Outline e Judgment against Jerusalem Further Reading
Jeremiah’s Background (12:1-24:27)
Jeremiah’s Message Summary 32. Hosea, Joel, and Amos: A
¢ God Calls Jeremiah to Service
Key Terms Call for Repentance and
(1:1-19)
Key Places a Promise
Study Questions for Blessing 439
e Jeremiah Describes Judah’s
Further Reading Outline
Sad Condition (2:1-10:25)
e Jeremiah Wrestles with People
Objectives
30. Ezekiel 25-48: Hosea:
and with God (11:1-20:18)
God's Planning an Sharing God’s Heartache
Summary
Exciting Future 417 Outline
Key People/Places
Outline The Man
Study Questions
Objectives His Times
Further Reading
Ezekiel’s Message Continues Major Themes of the Book
(25:1—-48:35) Content of the Book
28. Jeremiah 21-52 and
¢ Oracles against the Nations ¢ Hosea and the New Testament
Lamentations: Dealing
(25:1-32:32) Joel: The Day of the Lord
with Disaster 393
e Israel's Restoration (33:1-39:29) ¢ Outline
Outline
e Israel’s New Temple ¢ Joel’s Background
Objectives
(40:1-48:35) Joel’s Message
Outline Summary Amos: Shepherd
Jeremiah’s Message Key Terms for Social Justice
Continues (21:1-52:34) Key Places ¢ Outline
Jeremiah Challenges Rulers Study Questions ¢ Amos’s Background
and Prophets (21:1-29:32) Further Reading ¢ Amos’s Message
The Book of Comfort
Summary
(30:1-33:26) 31. Daniel: Key Terms
The Failure of Jerusalem’s The Kingdom of God— Key People/Places
Leadership (34:1-39:18) Now and Forever 427 Study Questions
Jerusalem after Its Fall Outline Further Reading
(40:1-45:5) Objectives
Oracles about the Nations Daniel as 33. Obadiah, Jonah, Micah,
(46:1-51:64) Apocalyptic Literature Nahum, Habakkuk, and
Jerusalem’s Fall Revisited e Uniqueness of Apocalyptic Zephaniah: God's Plan
(52:1-34) Literature for the Nations 451
10
 Contents

Outline ¢ Habakkuk’s Background ¢ Haggai’s Message

Objectives ¢ Habakkuk’s Message Zechariah: Get Ready
Obadiah: Edom Will Fall! Zephaniah: God Will Judge for God’s Kingdom!
¢ Outline All the Earth! ¢ Outline
¢ Obadiah’s Message ¢ Outline ¢ Zechariah’s Background
Jonah: Running away ¢ Zephaniah’s Background ¢ Zechariah’s Message
from God ¢ Zephaniah’s Message Malachi: Give God
¢ Outline Summary Your Best!
¢ Jonah’s Background Key Terms ¢ Outline
* Jonah’s Message Key Perspm/Places ¢ Malachi’s Message
Micah: Zealot for True Study Questions Summary
Covenant Living Further Reading Key People/Places
¢ Outline Study Questions
¢ Micah’s Background 34. Haggai, Zechariah, Further Reading
¢ Micah’s Message and Malachi:
Nahum: Nineveh Will Fall! Rebuilding a People 463 Epilogue 475
¢ Outline Outline Endnotes 477
¢ Nahum’s Background Objectives Subject Index 488
¢ Nahum’s Message Scripture Index 500
Haggai: Dealing withPeople
Habakkuk: Lord, Name Index 510
Who Just Don’t Care
What's Going On? ¢ Outline
¢ Outline ¢ Haggai’s Background

a
 TO OnE GC ISU eMSSELESUNIS SGLISS

Editor's Preface

The strength of the church and the vital- vey texts are upper-level college texts cov-
ity of the individual Christian’s life are di- ering the books of the Bible that are most
rectly related to the role Scripture plays in frequently offered in the curriculum of
them. Early believers knew the importance Christian colleges.
of this and spent their time in fellowship, A related series, entitled Engaging Bib-
prayer, and the study of God’s Word. The lical Studies, provides graduate-level treat-
passing of two thousand years has not ments for introduction and theology
changed the need, but it has changed the courses.
accessibility of many of the Bible’s ideas. Complementing both levels of textbooks
Time has distanced us from those days, is a set of standard reference books that
and we often need guidance back into the may be consulted for answers to specific
world of the Old and New Testaments. questions or more in-depth study of bib-
To that end Baker Book House is pro- lical ideas. These reference books include
ducing two separate but related series of The Evangelical Commentary on the Bible,
biblical textbooks. The design of these new Topical Analysis of the Bible, Baker Encyclo-
series is to put us back into the world of pedia of the Bible, Evangelical Dictionary of
the biblical text, so that we may under- Biblical Theology, and Evangelical Dictionary
stand it as those early believers did and at of Theology.
the same time see it from and for our own Encountering and Engaging Biblical
day, thus facilitating the application of its Studies series are written from an evan-
truths to our contemporary situation. gelical point of view, in the firm convic-
Encountering Biblical Studies consists tion that the Scripture is absolutely true
of undergraduate-level texts, and two and never misleads us. It is the sure foun-
surveys treating the Old and New Testa- dation on which our faith and life may be
ments provide the foundation for this se- built because it unerringly leads willing
ries. Accompanying these survey texts readers to Jesus Christ.
are two collateral volumes of readings, Walter A. Elwell
which illuminate the world surrounding General Editor
the biblical text. Built on these basic sur-

12
 eee Too
Eo EEE EE

Publisher's Preface

Bible courses must be considered the heart 1. It must reflect the finest evangelical
of the curriculum for Christian colleges scholarship of our day.
and evangelical seminaries. For Christians 2. It must be written at a level that most of
the Bible constitutes the basis for both our today’s college freshmen can under-
spiritual and our intellectual lives—in- stand. While this level should not be so
deed for all of life. If these courses are fun- low as to constitute a “dumbing down”
damental to Christian education, then the of the text, it must be within the reach
textbooks used for these courses could not of most students.
be more crucial. 3. It must be pedagogically sound. This
Baker Book House is launching two sep- extends not only to traditional concerns
arate but related series of volumes for col- like study questions for each chapter,
lege- and seminary-level Bible courses. En- but also to the order and manner in
countering Biblical Studies consists of which material is presented.
undergraduate texts, while Engaging Bib- 4. It must recognize that most students
lical Studies represents graduate-level today are oriented more to the visual
treatments. than to the verbal, and seek to take ad-
In these two series, Baker will publish vantage of that fact with photographs,
texts that are clearly college-level, and in- maps, charts, and graphs.
troductory and biblical theology texts that 5. It must be realistic about the level of bib-
are explicitly seminary-level. The text- lical literacy achieved by most incom-
books for the basic college survey courses ing freshmen.
and for the more advanced college courses 6. It must seek to draw in the student, in
on individual Bible books will be designed part by focusing on biblical teaching
expressly for this purpose. They will not concerning crucial doctrinal and ethical
be written for laypeople or pastors and matters.
seminarians, nor will they be primarily 7. It must be as flexible as possible, which
reference books. Rather, they will be ped- means that a paperback supplement
agogically oriented textbooks written with will be provided. This supplement con-
collegians in mind. tains primary source readings from the
Texts for the seminary courses in Old ancient world that some professors pre-
Testament and New Testament introduc- fer to skip and others would not do
tion and biblical theology will induct the without.
student into graduate-level study of the
Testaments, even while remembering that Goals
many seminarians are preparing for min- The goals for Encountering the Old Testa-
istry rather than for further graduate study ment fall into two categories: intellectual
and a career in academia. and attitudinal. The intellectual goals are
to (1) present the factual content of each
Guiding Principles book of the Old Testament, (2) introduce
Encountering the Old Testament: A Christian historical, geographical, and cultural back-
Survey is the second volume to be pub- grounds, (3) outline primary hermeneuti-
lished in the college-level Encountering cal principles, (4) touch on critical issues
Biblical Studies series. As part of the (e.g., why some people read the Bible dif-
process of developing this volume, the se- ferently), and (5) substantiate the Christ-
ries editors, authors, and publisher estab- ian faith.
lished the following principles for this The attitudinal goals are also fivefold:
basic-level college text: (1) to make the Bible a part of students’

13
Publisher’s Preface

lives, (2) to instill in students a love for the ¢ Ancillary items: teacher’s manual, test
Scriptures, (3) to make them better peo- bank, transparencies, and other items.
ple, (4) to enhance their piety, and (5) to
stimulate their love for God. In short, if
Supplementary Materials
this text builds a foundation for a lifetime Three items supplement Encountering the
Old Testament. The first item, the instruc-
of Bible study, the authors and publisher
will be amply rewarded.
tor’s manual, is available ona floppy disc,
the second is a compact disc attached to
Overarching Themes the back of the book, and the third is a pa-
Controlling the writing of Encountering the perback volume.
Old Testament have been three essential
theological themes: God, people, and the 1. Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test
gospel as it relates to individuals. The no- Items. In addition to including only ob-
tion that God is a person—one and three— jective-type test items, this resource
and a transcendent and immanent Being includes suggestions in using the text-
has been woven throughout the text. book, chapter outlines, chapter objec-
Moreover, this God has created people in tives, chapter summaries, key terms,
his image who are fallen but still the ob- master transparencies, lecture outlines,
jects of his redemptive love. The gospel is and media resources.
the means, the active personal power that
God uses to rescue people from darkness 2. Student’s Multimedia Interactive CD-
and death. But the gospel does more than ROM. Developed by biblical scholar
rescue—it restores. It confers on otherwise Chris Miller and educational specialist
hopeless sinners the resolve and strength Phil Bassett, this product provides
to live lives that please God, because they
walk in the love that comes from God. ¢ video clips of interviews with the
authors
Features video clips of biblical lands
The publisher’s aim has been to provide still photos of biblical lands
an exceptionally unique resource on the maps
one hand but not merely trendy on the interactive review questions
other. Whether or not we have been suc- visual organizers
cessful remains for others to judge. Nev-
ertheless some of the distinguishing fea- 3. Readings from the Ancient Near East:
tures we hope will prove helpful to the Primary Sources for Old Testament Study.
professor and inspiring to the student in- This is a collection of primary source
clude the following: readings related to the Old Testament.
These readings are arranged in canoni-
e Multimedia interactive compact disc cal order. This volume provides transla-
to enhance the student’s learning ex- tions of ancient Near Eastern documents
perience. that are useful to read hand-in-hand with
¢ Numerous illustrations, photographs, the Old Testament.
figures, tables, charts—all in full color.
e Sidebars providing two types of mate- The publisher is also convinced that this
rial. Yellow-colored boxes succinctly ex- textbook should be as pedagogically
plore ethical and theological issues of sound as possible and that it should re-
interest and concern to modern-day col- flect the best insights from educational
legians. Blue-colored boxes provide pri- psychology. Educational consultant Janet
mary source material, including bibli- Merrill, Ed.D., brought her expertise to
cal and extrabiblical texts. bear and improved this project signifi-
¢ Chapter outline and objectives pre- cantly. The publisher extends heartfelt
sented at the opening of each chapter. thanks to Dr. Merrill for so capably prepar-
¢ Study questions, annotated bibliogra- ing the instructor’s manual, test items,
phy, and chapter summaries at the end transparencies, chapter objectives, and
of each chapter. chapter summaries.
.

14
 Publisher's Preface

Chris Miller and Phil Bassett of Cedarville

The publisher believes it is essential to obtain extensive College in Ohio developed the multimedia
input from professors who teach Old Testament survey interactive CD-ROM with skill and alacrity.
courses in colleges throughout the nation. So it has Dr. Miller is not only a trained biblical
surveyed teachers from approximately fifty colleges. The scholar with a Ph.D. degree from Dallas
results of these surveys have been compiled and have Theological Seminary but also an out-
been referred to continually throughout the process of standing teacher with unusual computer
conceiving, writing, and producing this textbook. savvy. Dr. Bassett provided extensive edu-
cational consulting.
Some of the professors who participated in the surveys
agreed to serve as advisory board members. The
publisher wishes to thank the following members for
their exceptionally helpful advice in shaping
Encountering the Old Testament.

R. Jerome Boone Glenn Schaefer

Lee University Simpson College

Stephen Bramer Carl Schultz

Briercrest Bible College Houghton College

Raymond W. Clark Andrew L. Smith

Covenant College Cornerstone College

Daniel Doriani Robert D. Spender

Covenant Theological The King’s College
Seminary
Gerald H. Wilson
Hobert Farrell George Fox College
LeTourneau University
Marvin Wilson
Michael Holmes Gordon College
Bethel College
Alan Neal Winkler
David K. Johnson Bryan College
Northwestern College
William J. Woodruff
George L. Klein Olivet Nazarene University
Criswell College

Mark D. McLean
Evangel College

RILEY-HICKINGBOTHAM LIBRARY 15
OUACHITA BAPTIST UNIVERSTIY
 OETALL A A TL TN

To the Professor

This book targets an undergraduate au- make it easy for one to follow either a
dience, especially freshmen. We realize canonical or chronological approach.
that many who use it will be taking their Outlines for each Old Testament book
first course on this topic, while others have are taken (with some modification) from
come from Christian high schools where the Evangelical Commentary on the Bible, ed.
Bible was part of the curriculum. This sur- Walter Elwell (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1989).
vey has material that will satisfy both au- Readers seeking verse-by-verse commen-
diences. We have also provided a glossary tary not provided by this survey may be
that clarifies difficult terms with which the referred to this volume for further study.
reader may be unfamiliar. Study questions Baker Books has worked with us to pro-
at the end of each chapter guide the reader duce a well-illustrated survey. Illustrative
and bring key points of the chapter into material such as charts, maps, and graphs
focus. Finally, a “Further Reading” list at comprise approximately 20 percent of the
the end of each chapter provides sugges- volume. The color format makes the book
tions for the student who wants more in- more “user-friendly” to a generation that
formation on any given topic. We hope to
has experienced much in the way of tech-
stretch students’ thinking, whatever their
nological improvement. We want to give
background.
students the feeling that “they are there”
The underlying slant of this book is
as much as possible, to help them see the
broadly evangelical. We believe the Scrip-
tures not only spoke to their original au- images the Bible so carefully paints.
dience, but that they continue to speak to We have also highlighted the relevance
us today. At the same time, we recognize of the Old Testament by placing strategic
that people from many Christian denom- “sidebars” within the text. These sidebars
inations will use this book. Consequently, apply the text directly to pertinent issues
when we discuss issues on which evan- of today. They help the reader understand
gelicals have agreed to disagree, we have that the Bible spoke not only then, but still
often chosen to survey the basic interpre- speaks today. To this end, we have also in-
tations and let the particular emphasis lie terwoven application material as appro-
with the professor. priate in the body of the text.
The survey follows the canonical order It is our hope and prayer that this book
of the English Bible. We have found will help you gain a deeper love and ap-
through our research that most teachers preciation for the message that impacts
prefer this. However, the chapter divisions every one of us—the message of the Bible.

16
Vv, To the Student
Ethical and
theological issues

OO
Primary source
material
Encountering the Old Testament in a sys-
tematic way for the first time is an excit-
Summary
A list of statements summarizing the con-
ing experience. It can also be overwhelm- tent of each chapter can be found at the
ing because there is so much to learn. You end of each chapter. Study Suggestion: Use
need to learn not only the content of the this summary list to conduct an immedi-
Old Testament but also a good deal about ate review of what you have just read.
the Near Eastern world.
Key terms, people, Key Terms and Glossary
and places The purpose of this textbook is to make
that encounter a little less daunting. To ac- Key terms have been identified through-
complish this a number of learning aids out the text by the use of boldface type.
have been incorporated into the text. We This will alert you to important words or
suggest you familiarize yourself with this phrases you may not be familiar with. A
textbook by reading the following intro- definition of these words will be found on
ductory material, which explains what the interactive CD-ROM. Study Suggestion:
Study questions
learning aids have been provided. When you encounter a key term in the text,
stop and read the definition before con-
Sidebars tinuing through the chapter.
Material in yellow-colored boxes isolates
Key People and Places
contemporary issues of concern and
While studying the Old Testament you
shows how the Old Testament speaks to
Further Reading will be introduced to many names and
these pressing ethical and theological is-
places. Those that are particularly sig-
sues. Some of these boxes contain quotes
nificant have been set in SMALL CaPs. Study
from various authors, whether ancient or
Suggestion: Pay careful attention to the
modern, whose thoughts shed light on the
people and places as you read the text.
Old Testament material under discussion.
When studying for a test, skim the text
Chapter Outlines and stop at each SMALL CAPPED term to see
At the beginning of each chapter is a brief if you know its importance to the Old
outline of the chapter’s contents. Study Testament.
Suggestion: Before reading the chapter, take Study Questions
a few minutes to read the outline. Think A few discussion questions have been pro-
of it as a road map, and remember that it vided at the end of each chapter, and these
is easier to reach your destination if you can be used to review for examinations.
know where you are going. Study Suggestion: Write suitable answers to
Chapter Objectives the study questions in preparation for tests.
A brief list of objectives is placed at the Further Reading
outset of each chapter. These present the A short bibliography for supplementary
tasks you should be able to perform after reading is presented at each chapter’s con-
reading the chapter. Study Suggestions: clusion. Study Suggestion: Use the sug-
Read the objectives carefully before be- gested reading list to explore areas of spe-
ginning to read the text. As you read the cial interest.
text, keep these objectives in mind and
take notes to help you remember what you Visual Aids
have read. After reading the chapter, re- A host of illustrations in the form of pho-
turn to the objectives and see if you can tographs, maps, and charts have been in-
perform the tasks. cluded in this textbook. Each illustration

17
To the Student

LEA NAT

j ati ons
Abbreviati ==2"“
Daniel Bi Ne
New Testament -
| Old Testament Joel JI Mark Mk
- Amos Am Luke Lk
Genesis Gn :
Ob John Jn
| Exodus EX Obadiah
rentals iy vonen ver acts of the Apostles acs

Nm —- ~ oe Rom
| Numbers
Dt Na a - Ne !a = i=
| Deuteronomy Z or
] Joshua ie pon a : _ ort ians

| Judges Jgs Zephania ep alatians a

Haggai Hg Ephesians Eph
"Ruth Ru
qaSarnuial 1Sm Zechariah Zec Philippians on
2 Samuel Doin Malachi Mal Colossians : Co
| 1 Kings 1 Kgs 1 Thessalonians 1 Thes )
i
2 Kings 2 Kgs Old Testament Apocrypha 2 Thessalonians 2 Thes ;
1 Chr Tobit Tb 1 Timothy 1Tm
1 Chronicles
PICHVOnicias > Chr Judith Jot 2 Timothy 2m
Ezra er Wisdom Wis Titus Ti
Nehemiah Neh earch Bar Philemon om
Est Sirac Sir Hebrews He
_ Esther
Job Jb 1 Maccabees 1 Mc James Jas
Psalms Ps(s) 2 Maccabees 2 Mc 1 Peter 1 Pt
2 Peter 2 Pt i
_ Proverbs Prv

Celislasteso7ema cea ou 15
Song ofSongs IsSong” cll 2 Jn
3 John 3 Jn
Isaiah
Jude Jude
Jeremiah Jer
Lam Revelation Rv
Lamentations
Ezekiel Ez

ee .”7Z

has been carefully selected, and each is in- May your encounter of the Old Testa-
tended not only to make the text more aes- ment be an exciting adventure!
thetically pleasing but also more easily
mastered.

18
 Cee e rN TAN TTT

Acknowledgments

It may be of interest to know how the writ- been most helpful and encouraging
ing assignments were distributed and throughout the production of this book,
which author wrote individual chapters. and we are grateful for their profession-
Most chapters were assigned according to alism and encouragement. We would es-
previous publications and interests of the pecially like to thank Jim Weaver and
authors. Dr. Arnold wrote the introduc- Maria denBoer. We also would like to
tory chapter on history and geography thank our editor, Dr. Eugene Merrill. We
(chapter 2), all the chapters on the Penta- have appreciated his scholarly assistance.
teuch (chapters 3-9) and the Historical We also owe a great debt of gratitude to
Books except Joshua and the Books of many who have helped with the prepa-
Samuel (chapters 10, 12, and 15-18). He ration of this manuscript. In particular, we
also is responsible for the chapters on Job, have both benefited from student assis-
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, tants or secretaries who have helped with
Daniel, and the Epilogue (chapters 20, the manuscript of this book ina variety of
~ 22-23, and 31). Dr. Beyer wrote the intro- ways. Dr. Arnold’s assistants were Joel R.
ductory chapter on the origin and inspi- Soza, Michael K. West, and Robert W.
ration of the Old Testament (chapter 1) Wilcher; Dr. Beyer’s were Cheryl Brannan,
and the chapters on Joshua and the Books Chandra Briggman, and Judy Peinado.
of Samuel (chapters 11 and 13-14). In ad- Finally, we especially want to thank our
dition to the Poetical Books introduction wives, Susan Arnold and Yvonne Beyer,
(chapter 19), he wrote on the Psalms (chap- who have faithfully loved and supported
ter 21), and all the chapters on the Prophets us with each step. As the words of
except Daniel (chapters 24-30 and 32-34). Proverbs 31:10-31 ring in our ears, we
The people at Baker Book House have gratefully dedicate this book to them.

19
 What Is the Old Testament
ES and Why Study It?
GE OE ae. LE FEES 2 ES eee ees

Outline
* Canon: What Is the Bible?
Definition of “Canon”
Tests for Canonicity
The Formation of the Canon
Hebrew and English Book Order Objectives
* Inspiration: After reading this chapter,
How Was the Bible Written? you should be able to
Neo-Orthodox Theory * Compare the tests for canonicity
Dictation Theory * Evaluate the most common theories
Limited Inspiration Theory of inspiration
Plenary Verbal Inspiration Theory * Give illustrations of textual transmission
* Textual Transmission: * Explain the importance of the scribe
How Did We Get the Bible? in textual transmission
Scribal Care of the Old Testament Text * List the considerations that are important
Transmission in the Original Languages in interpreting the Old Testament
Transmission in Other Languages
* Hermeneutics:
How Do We Interpret the Bible
Use the Grammatical-Historical Method
Understand the Context
Determine the Type of Literature
Interpret Figurative Language
Let Scripture Interpret Scripture
Discover the Application to Modern Life

21
Encountering the Old Testament

UO
“Get your facts straight,” I remember my Tests for Canonicity
apocryphal
high school English teacher telling us. As God revealed his word through ordi-
ACO “The most important questions you can nary people, it became important to know
canon
ask are who, what, when, where, why, and which books came from him and which
how.” books only reflected human opinion. A
That was good advice for writing a re- consensus emerged as to what constituted
search paper. It’s also good advice for proper tests for canonicity. The tests fo-
studying the Bible. Most students would cused on three factors: author, audience,
not try to write a research paper without and teaching.
knowing the basic facts. Neither should
we begin to study the Old Testament be- Test #1: Written by a prophet
fore learning some basic facts about it. or prophetically gifted person
This chapter deals with four founda- A book that was part of the canon had to
tional questions every student of the Old be written by a prophet or prophetically
Testament should be able to answer. What gifted person. Human authors could never
is the Bible? How was the Bible written? know God’s will apart from God’s Spirit
How did we get the Bible? How do we in- assisting their understanding. The Spirit
terpret the Bible? We will focus especially of God had to have his hand on the writ-
on the answers to those questions for the ing process. His presence insured the fin-
Old Testament. ished product was God’s truth and accu-
rately communicated God’s message.
CTE EE
Test #2: Written to all generations
Canon: A book that was part of the canon had to
‘hla?
What Is the Bible? impact all generations. God’s message
could not be confined to one audience. If
At first, this question sounds simple. We a book was God’s word, it must be rele-
know what the Bible is. It’s a collection of vant to all people of all times. The author
sixty-six books—thirty-nine in the Old Tes- might have written the work for a partic-
tament, twenty-seven in the New Testa- ular audience, but if it was God’s Word,
ment. It’s Genesis all the way to the Book all who read it could profitably apply its
of Revelation. teachings to their lives.
But people have not always agreed ex-
actly which books comprise the Bible. For Test #3: Written in accord
example, do the apocryphal books—the with previous revelation
extra books found in Roman Catholic A book that was part of the canon could
Bibles—belong in the Bible? What if an ar- not contradict the messages of earlier writ-
chaeologist should discover another letter ings God had revealed. For example, if a
the apostle Paul wrote? Should that letter new writing claimed to be from God but
go in the Bible? How did Jews and Chris- contradicted the teachings of Genesis, it
tians first decide which books belonged in could not be God’s Word. God’s truth re-
the Bible? When we raise questions such mained the same and would not contra-
as these, we raise the issue of canon. dict itself. New revelation could reveal fur-
ther information about God’s plan and
Definition of “Canon” purposes, but it would never run counter
The word “canon” comes from the He- to the old.
brew word gineh and the Greek word
kanon. Both words originally signified a The Formation of the Canon
reed or measuring stick. Just as a reed By applying the above principles, the He-
could serve as a measuring standard, so brew people more or less determined
the biblical canon was a measuring stan- which books belonged in the Old Testa-
dard for faith and practice. People could ment and which books did not. Never-
compare their lives to what the Bible re- theless, some confusion existed among the
quired.' Furthermore, the word “canon” general population. On certain occasions,
could denote a standard to which the bib- Jewish leaders met to address this and
lical writings themselves must conform. other issues. One such meeting apparently
22
 What Is the Old Testament and Why Study It?

Chart of Old Testament Book Order

Hebrew English
Hebrew names arrangement arrangement Approximate dates
for the books and classification and classification concerned

In the beginning Genesis Genesis

These are the names Exodus Exodus The Beginning
And he called Torah Leviticus Leviticus Law to
In the wilderness Numbers Numbers (Pentateuch) ca. 1400 .c.
These are the words Deuteronomy | Deuteronomy

Joshua Joshua Joshua 1400-1380 B.c.

Judges Judges Judges 1380-1050 B.c.
1 Samuel Former 1 Samuel Ruth 1200-1150 B.c.
2 Samuel Prophets 2 Samuel 1 Samuel 1100-1010 B.c.
1 Kings 1 Kings 2 Samuel 1010-971 8.c.
2 Kings 2 Kings 1 Kings History | 971-853 B.c.
ee oF = = = 2 Kings 853-560 B.¢.
Isaiah Isaiah 1 Chronicles 1010-971 B.c.
Jeremiah Jeremiah 2 Chronicles 971-539 B.c.
Ezekiel Ezekiel Ezra 539-450 B.c.
Hosea Hosea Nehemiah 445-410 B.c.
Joel Joel Esther 483-474 8.¢.
Amos Amos
Obadiah Obadiah Job |
Jonah Jonah Psalms
Micah Latter Micah Proverbs Poetry No specific historical
Nahum Prophets Nahum Ecclesiastes and period covered
Habakkuk Habakkuk Song of Solomon Wisdom
Zephaniah Zephaniah - ——-
Haggai Haggai Isaiah 739-530 B.c.
|) Zechariah Zechariah Jeremiah Major 627-580 B.c.
| Malachi Malachi Lamentations prophets 586 B.c.
( Ezekiel 593-570 b.c.
Praises Psalms Daniel | 605-530 B.c.
| Job Job
i Proverbs Proverbs Hosea 760-730 8.c.
i) =Ruth Ruth Joel 500 s.c.
i Song of Songs Song of Solomon | Amos 760 B.c.
i The Preacher Ecclesiastes Obadiah 586 B.C.
) How! The Lamentations | Jonah Minor 770 B.c.
) Esther writings Esther Micah prophets 740-700 B.c.
j Daniel (Hagiographa) Danie! Nahum 650 B.c.
) Ezra Ezra Habakkuk 605 B.c.
| Nehemiah Nehemiah Zephaniah 627 B.c.
| 1 The words of the days 1 Chronicles Haggai 520 B.c.
2 The words of the days 2 Chronicles Zechariah 520-518 B.c.
Malachi 470-460 B.c.

OaaZZZZ Er RNASE

occurred in JAMNIA toward the close of the officially confirmed books most had rec-
first century A.D. ognized for generations. In other words,
The Council of Jamnia
the council officially endorsed certain
books, but only confirmed what they be-
Jamnia (modern Yavneh) is located on the
lieved had been true all along.’
southwestern coast of Israel. The city be-
came an important center of influence in Hebrew and English Book Order
the Jewish community after Jerusalem fell
to the Romans in A.D. 70. Hebrew and English Old Testaments con-
Scholars debate exactly what took place tain the same material. However, the
at Jamnia, but agree the council did not books appear in a different order. We do
determine which books belonged in the not know why. The chart above provides
Old Testament. Rather, it appears to have a comparison.

23
Encountering the Old Testament

CAHN The Hebrew version divides the books they recorded their encounters as best they
neo-orthodoxy
into three groups: the Law, the Prophets, could. But because they were finite crea-
AAA AON and the Writings. The English divides the tures, sometimes their reports contained
transcendent
books into five groups: Law, historical paradoxes or errors. Nevertheless, their
KATA ATEN books, poetical books, Major Prophets, and descriptions help others understand God
evangelicalism better. And as others experience God
Minor Prophets.
AANA afresh through these accounts, the ac-
dictation theory counts become God's word all over again.

Inspiration: Evaluation
We commend neo-orthodoxy for its high
How Was the Bible view of God. However, the Bible is more
Written? than a witness to God’s word. It is God’s
word, as it testifies (2 Tm 3:16-17). The
How exactly did God’s Spirit work with Bible claims that as God revealed himself,
the human authors to inspire the sacred people inspired by the Holy Spirit
writings? When we raise this question, we recorded his message (2 Pt 1:20-21). They
raise the issue of inspiration. could do so because God accommodated
The Bible affirms its inspiration in many himself to their limited understanding.
places. Note, for example, Paul’s words in Neo-orthodoxy thus fails to provide an
2 Timothy 3:16 (Nrv): “All Scripture is God- adequate explanation for all the biblical
breathed and is useful for teaching, re- evidence.
buking, correcting and training in right-
eousness.” Clearly, this verse affirms God Dictation Theory
as the Author of all Scripture.
Unfortunately, the Bible does not de- Summary
scribe exactly how God inspired the The dictation theory, as the term implies,
human writers. What role did the human suggests God simply dictated the Bible to
authors play in the writing of Scripture? human scribes. God chose certain indi-
To what extent did God's Spirit give them viduals to record his word and gave them
freedom to write in their own ways? Those the exact words he wanted. The writers
who have examined the Scriptures to solve wrote only what God dictated to them.
this problem have proposed many theo- This view generally has not appeared in
ries. Four of the most common appear print, but is popular in certain segments
below. . of conservative Christianity.
Neo-Orthodox Theory Evaluation
Scripture does suggest that sometimes
Summary God may have communicated a precise,
Neo-orthodoxy was born in the early word-for-word message to human authors
twentieth century, partly as a reaction to (Jer 26:2; Rv 2:1, 8). At other times, he al-
liberalism’s disregard for divine author- lowed writers to express their own per-
ity. Karl Barth and Emil Brunner are two sonalities as they wrote (Gal 1:6; 3:1; Phil
of its leading proponents.° 1:3, 4, 8). Still, the Holy Spirit insured the
Neo-orthodoxy holds that God is utterly finished work accurately communicated
transcendent; that is, he is absolutely dif- God’s intention. Thus, the dictation the-
ferent from us and far beyond our com- ory accounts for some of the biblical evi-
prehension. We can only know something dence, but not all.
about him if he reveals himself to us, as
he did in Jesus Christ. Limited Inspiration Theory
One important difference between neo-
orthodoxy and evangelicalism is that Summary
whereas evangelicalism holds that the The limited inspiration view holds that
Bible is the word of God, neo-orthodoxy God inspired the thoughts of the biblical
asserts that the Bible is a witness to the word writers, but not necessarily the words they
of God or contains the word of God. As chose.* God guided the writers as they
people of biblical times experienced God, wrote, but gave them the freedom to ex-

24
 What Is the Old Testament and Why Study It?

Lion and lioness

relief, Nineveh,
ca. 645 s.c. Jesus’
words in
Matthew 12:41
imply the Book
of Jonah is more
than simply a
parable.

AL AAA ATA press his thoughts in their own ways. Be- scribe the particular meaning this view
plenary verbal
inspiration
cause the writers had this freedom, the gives to inspiration.
historical details they wrote may contain “Plenary” means “full” or “complete.”
errors. However, the Holy Spirit protected Plenary inspiration asserts that God’s in-
the doctrinal portions of Scripture from spiration extends to all of Scripture, from
any error to safeguard God’s message of Genesis to Revelation. God guided the
salvation. writers no less when they recorded his-
torical details than when they discussed
Evaluation doctrinal matters.
The limited inspiration view recognizes “Verbal” refers to the words of Scrip-
that Scripture contains certain statements ture. Verbal inspiration means God’s in-
that are hard to reconcile. But is the best spiration extends to the very words the
solution to admit error? The Bible places writers chose. But it is not the same as the
great emphasis on historical detail. For ex- dictation theory. The writers could have
ample, Paul’s argument in Romans 5:12-21 chosen other words, and God often al-
requires belief in a historical Adam. Jesus’ lowed them the freedom to express their
words in Matthew 12:41 imply the Book own personalities as they wrote. But the
of Jonah is not simply a parable; rather, a Holy Spirit so guided the process that the
real prophet named Jonah actually words they chose accurately conveyed the
preached to the Ninevites. And archaeo- meaning God intended.
Plenary verbal inspiration thus holds
logical finds have often resolved alleged
that God inspired the entire Bible. Inspi-
problems in the biblical record. It seems
ration extended to the very words the writ-
best, therefore, to affirm the trustworthi-
ers chose, but God gave the writers some
ness of the entire Bible as we await further
freedom to write according to their dis-
evidence to clarify the difficulties. tinct styles and personalities. At the same
time, he guided the process in such a way
Plenary Verbal Inspiration Theory that the finished product faithfully re-
Summary flected his message.
Like the other views, plenary verbal in- Evaluation
spiration asserts the Holy Spirit interacted The plenary verbal inspiration view seems
with human writers to produce the Bible. to deal best with all the biblical evidence.
The words “plenary” and “verbal” de- It recognizes the human element in Scrip-
25
Encountering the Old Testament

ATALANTA ture, and allows that different writers Second, plenary verbal inspiration
transmission
wrote in different ways. But it also affirms means the Bible is authoritative. Because
AAACN the Holy Spirit as the Bible’s ultimate Au- it is God’s word, it speaks with God's au-
masora
thor. The Spirit prompted human authors thority. It calls us to read it, to understand
to communicate God’s message of love its implications, and to submit to it. And
and salvation to a world that desperately it remains God's truth whether or not we
needed it. choose to submit. The Bible sets before us
two choices: to obey God's will or to op-
Implications of plenary
pose it. God’s servant Moses called God's
verbal inspiration
word life itself (Dt 32:47). What will you
The doctrine of plenary verbal inspiration choose to call it?
has important implications for Christians
today. First, it means the Bible is trust-
worthy. We can trust it to provide reliable
information. It provides many insights Textual Transmission:
into the history of God’s people and also
Early describes God’s plan for the world and for How Did We Get
manuscripts of
Bible texts were
our lives. It reveals life’s highest meaning,
and tells us how to become all God wants
the Bible?
written on
us to be. We may trust it in all it affirms. We can read the Bible today because of the
scrolls like this.
faithful work of many individuals over
several generations. These individuals,
called scribes, copied God’s word by hand,
taking great care to maintain its accuracy.

Scribal Care of the

Old Testament Text

The scribe in the ancient world

Scribes played a crucial role in the ancient
world.° Faithful transmission of accurate
information was an important aspect of
society. Kings counted on scribes to record
royal edicts. Administrative officials
needed scribes to record significant busi-
ness transactions. Mistakes could have se-
rious implications—political, economic,
or otherwise.
The ancient scribes who copied the bib-
lical texts believed they were copying the
very words of God. Consequently, they
took great care to preserve the copies they
had received. One of the most important
groups of scribes was the Masoretes.
The Masoretes
The Masoretes (A.D. 500-1000) worked to
preserve the Old Testament text they had
received.’ They wanted to ensure an ac-
curate understanding of the text and its
faithful transmission to subsequent gen-
erations. They received their name from
the masora, a complex system of markings
they developed to achieve their purpose.
The Masoretes took three steps to en-
sure textual accuracy. First, they devel-
oped a system for writing vowels. Until
 What Is the Old Testament and Why Study It?

A shepherd boy
accidentally
discovered the
first of the Dead
Sea Scrolls ina
cave in cliffs
above Qumran,
near the Dead
Sea, in 1947.
Archaeologists
subsequently
explored nearby
caves and found
more scrolls.

AIAN this time, written Hebrew contained only formation was vital to their careful preser-
Torah
consonants, though a few consonants were vation of God’s word. We should be grate-
AKANE sometimes used to indicate certain vow- ful for their diligent work.
Aramaic
els. The Masoretes developed this vowel
FRO Ny system to preserve in written form the oral Transmission
Akkadian in the Original Languages
tradition they had received from earlier
TUE generations. The vast majority of the Old Testament
Amorit
Second, the Masoretes developed a sys- text was originally written in Hebrew,
ARUN tem of accents for the Hebrew text. These though a few portions (Gn 31:47b; Ezr
Phoenician
accents assisted the reader in pronounc- 4:86:18; 7:12-26; Jer 10:11b; Dn 2:4b-7:28)
AANA ing the text, but also showed the relation- were written in Aramaic. Both Hebrew
Ugaritic ship of various words and phrases in a and Aramaic are Semitic languages, in the
sentence to each other. Thus, they helped same language family as Akkadian (the
Ammo clarify many difficult passages. language of the Assyrians and Babyloni-
ANNAAT ATTN Third, the Masoretes developed a sys- ans), Amorite, Phoenician, Ugaritic, Am-
Moabite tem of detailed notes on the text. These monite, Moabite, and Arabic.
ARNOT notes provided a means to check the ac- Many Hebrew copies of the Old Testa-
Arabic curacy of a copied text. Today, we can pro- ment text have come down to us.® Three
ANITA duce identical manuscripts on a computer are most important to our study—the Ma-
Masoretic Text or copier, but the Masoretes had to pro- soretic Text, the Samaritan Pentateuch,
duce them by hand! and the Dead Sea Scrolls.
AAA URNA
Samaritan The Hebrew word for “scribe” means The Masoretic text
Pentateuch “counter,” and the Masoretes counted
The Masoretic text comes from the Ma-
RAONNREONTRNERANOGNHUNEN everything in the text. They knew, for ex-
soretes. The oldest copies of this text date
Dead Sea ample, that the Torah—the first five books
Scrolls to somewhat earlier than A.D. 1000; how-
of the Old Testament—contained 400,945 ever, most scholars believe these copies re-
letters! They knew the Torah’s middle flect a text from about A.D. 100. The Ma-
word was the Hebrew word translated soretic text is the most reliable Hebrew text
“searched” in Leviticus 10:16. They knew we have.”
the Torah’s middle letter was in the He-
brew word translated “belly” in Leviticus The Samaritan Pentateuch
11:42. While such knowledge may seem The Samaritan Pentateuch, as the name
trivial to us, the Masoretes knew such in- implies, contains only Genesis—Deuteron-

27
Encountering the Old Testament

CATA NNAN omy and originated with the Samaritans. early differences appeared remains a
Septuagint
The Samaritans came from the intermar- mystery.
ARIANA NNN riage of Jews and foreigners in the terri- The Aramaic Targums
Pentateuch
tory of the northern kingdom after it fell
AAACN The Targums are collections of writings
to Assyria in 722 B.c. The Samaritan Pen- based on the Old Testament text. These
Targums
tateuch’s oldest manuscript dates to about Aramaic writings date from the early
AAA A.D. 1100, though many scholars believe it Christian era, though parts are earlier.'°
hermeneutics
is based on a text from 100-200 Bc." The Targums arose during a time when
CAT TANTNTNNTNNET The Jews saw the Samaritans as half-
grammatical- many Jewish people understood Aramaic
historical breed compromisers who had denied their better than Hebrew, and provided com-
method faith by intermarrying with foreigners. The mon interpretations to the Hebrew text.
Samaritans, on the other hand, felt they In places, the Targums reflect a fairly lit-
preserved a more ancient and pure form eral translation of the Hebrew. Elsewhere,
of the faith. Sharp theological differences they add commentary and stories as they
were thus inevitable. The Samaritan Pen- elaborate on the text’s meaning. Because
tateuch is slanted in such a way as to re- of this, the Targums generally do not pro-
flect these differences. Thus, the text pro- vide a reliable witness to the Old Testa-
vides an early witness to the way the ment text, though they help us understand
Samaritans interpreted the Pentateuch. For early Jewish interpretations.
this and other reasons, it is not as reliable
for determining the text’s original reading. TEE Sy

Hermeneutics
s

The Dead Sea Scrolls s

A shepherd boy accidentally discovered

the first of the Dead Sea Scrolls in a cave How Do We
in 1947."! Archaeologists subsequently ex-
plored nearby caves and found more
Interpret the Bible?
So far in this chapter, we have discussed
scrolls. These scrolls date to around
canon, inspiration, and textual transmis-
100-200 B.c. and contain at least parts of
sion. We have examined what books make
every Old Testament book except Esther. up the Old Testament, how the Spirit of
They also provide much information God worked with the human authors to
about the community at QUMRAN, the site produce the Old Testament, and how the
where the scrolls were discovered. Most books of the Old Testament were handed
important for us, they confirm the relia- down to us.
bility of the Masoretic text. But an important question remains: How
do we interpret the Old Testament? Will we
Transmission in Other Languages always understand the text if we simply
The Septuagint (LXX) start reading? Or must we follow certain
rules of hermeneutics, or interpretation?
The Septuagint, a translation of the Old Not all Bible interpreters agree on the
Testament into Greek, dates to about meaning of every Bible passage. However,
200-300 B.c. and comes from the Egyptian most acknowledge that certain guidelines
city of Alexandria.!* Its name and abbre- help us determine the meaning of each
viation (LXX) come from the fact that a passage. We will briefly survey some of
team of seventy-two scholars did the trans- the most important guidelines.'4
lation work.
The Septuagint provides an important Use the Grammatical-Historical
early testimony to the Old Testament text. Method
Sometimes scholars have been able to re- The grammatical-historical method
solve difficult readings in the Masoretic seeks to find the basic “plain sense”
text by comparing it to the Septuagint. meaning of a Bible passage by applying
But some parts of the Septuagint are more standard rules of grammar and syntax.
reliable than others. For example, the Pen- It seeks to determine what the text says
tateuch is more carefully translated than grammatically and what it meant histor-
the rest of the Old Testament. Why these ically. It tries to discover the author’s orig-
28
 What Is the Old Testament and Why Study It?

inal intention by careful use of the rules Immediate context

below. Immediate context refers to the words or
phrases in the verses closest to the word
Understand the Context or statement one is trying to understand.
The term “context” refers to the words and The immediate context usually influences
sentences surrounding a word or state- the meaning the most. For example, my
ment that help us understand the mean- ambiguous sentence becomes clear if I
ing of that word or statement. Suppose I add, “When I was looking at the zoo ele-
said to you, “Today, I saw the biggest trunk phants today, I saw the biggest trunk I
I have ever seen in my life.” What does have ever seen in my life.”
trunk mean in that statement? Was I watch- Remote context
ing an elephant at the zoo? Did Iseea giant Remote context describes the biblical ma-
redwood tree? Or was I inspecting the terial in the surrounding chapters and be-
back end of a large car? Without a context, yond. It also may influence the meaning
you cannot tell what I mean. of the passage in question, though usually
Context is also important for properly not as directly as the immediate context
interpreting a Bible passage. Bible students does. Sometimes readers will consult other
should study three kinds of context: im- biblical books or letters by the same au-
mediate context, remote context, and his- thor to see how he uses a particular word
torical context. or phrase elsewhere in his writings. They

Important Early Old Testament Texts

and Their Significance
Date of Oldest known copy
Text Significance composition of the text(s)

Masoretic Text Most reliable Hebrew text About a.p. 100 About a.p. 1000

Samaritan Pentateuch Early testimony to the 200-100 B.c. About a.p. 1100
Pentateuch, but with
decidedly Samaritan slant

Dead Sea (Qumran) Parts of every OT book 200-100 B.c. 200-100 B.c.
Scrolls except Esther; important
for confirming reliability of
other manuscripts such as
the Masoretic Text and
Septuagint

Septuagint (LXX) Early Greek translation of 300-200 B.c. A.D. 300-500

the OT; an important early
witness helpful in
confirming the original text

Targums An Aramaic Most a.p. 500-1000, Earliest parts about

translation/paraphrase and though parts may go back A.D. 150
commentary on the OT to the first few centuries
text; not as reliable for B.C.
determining the accuracy
of the OT text
Encountering the Old Testament

CN
"|! may even trace an idea through the Old
genres Se Bibl i b
Testament or the entire Bible. ‘ Hermeneutics: ‘

Historical
j j
context A y
iN
How Do We i
\\

Historical context refers to the setting in | Interpret /

history in which the writer wrote the Bible | the Bible? y
passage. For example, we understand the | e bible: j
Book of Lamentations better when we re- | y
alize the author was describing Jerusalem’s i Use the Grammatical- :
plight after its destruction in 587 B.c. We y Historical Method y
i
appreciate better the meaning of a psalm Y WinderstanditherGontext y
of David if we know the occasion on which
he wrote it. The historical context thus Immediate Context ae
P@€EBd
AZZ
forms the backdrop against which the bib- i Remote Context y
lical writer composed his text. | ; : ]
| Historical Context y
Determine the Type of Literature Determine the Type
ZEEE
The Bible contains many different types of Literature
GAA
(or genres) of literature, and the interpreter ea
Interpret Figurative
must apply somewhat different principles
in each case. For example, historical nar-
2ZZZZ Language _

rative tells a story; it is quite different from Let Scripture Interpret

prophecy, which calls the people to trust Scripture

EE
Discover the Application W?ZZ7

to Modern Life 22
hyi

Key Terms |—
\

apocryphal
P ryp
|
i
Tcssieieieiienieetinieentdiensieidiietaasneaeaiaeanaelal
|
canon
neo-orthodoxy
Key Places transcendent in God or describes God's future plans for
evangelicalism the world. Poetry and parables also re-
Jamnia dictation theory quire special consideration. Failure to take
Assyria plenary verbal inspiration the type of literature into account may lead
Qumran transmission to a skewed interpretation of the biblical
masora passage.
Torah
Aramaic Interpret Figurative Language
Akkadian In our daily speech, we often use figura-
Amorite tive language. We speak of the sun rising,
Phoenician of being so hungry we could eat a horse,
Ugaritic or of going the extra mile for someone. We
Ammonite do not mean any of these things literally;
Moabite rather, these “figures of speech” commu-
Arabic nicate truth in a symbolic way.
Masoretic Text The Bible also contains figurative lan-
Samaritan Pentateuch guage. The prophet Isaiah used it when he
Dead Sea Scrolls wrote, “The trees of the field will clap their
Septuagint hands” (55:12). He really meant God would
Pentateuch cause nature to flourish. The psalmist (1:1)
Targums used it when he wrote, “How blessed is
hermeneutics the man who does not walk in the counsel
grammatical-historical method of the wicked.” To walk in the counsel of
genres the wicked means to take the advice of
wicked people. We may arrive at strange
 What Is the Old Testament and Why Study It?

interpretations if we fail to recognize the mans 3:28 says, “So we are made right with
Bible’s use of figurative language. God through faith and not by obeying the
law” (NLT) Do the two verses contradict
Let Scripture Interpret Scripture each other, or is there another explanation?
Sometimes we find a Bible passage that In such cases, we should let Scripture
remains difficult to understand even after interpret Scripture. That is, we should find
another biblical text that presents clear
we apply the principles of hermeneutics.
teaching on the topic, and interpret the dif-
Perhaps the passage has two possible
ficult passage in light of the clear one. We
meanings or seems to contradict another can do this because God’s word does not
Bible passage. contradict itself.
For example, how should we under- By applying this principle, we find other
stand James 2:24? The verse says, “So you biblical passages that clearly teach salva-
see, we are made right with God by what tion comes by grace through faith alone
we do, not by faith alone” (NLT). But Ro- (Gal 3:1-6; Eph 2:8-9). Consequently, we

|Summary

. Tests for canonicity of the Old Testa- . The majority of the Old Testament was
ment must focus on the author, the originally written in Hebrew, the rest
audience, and the teaching. in Aramaic.
. The Bible itself does not tell us pre- . The most important Hebrew copies of
cisely how God inspired the human the Old Testament are the Masoretic
authors to write the Scriptures. text, the Samaritan Pentateuch, and
the Dead Sea Scrolls.
. Four of the most widely held theories
of inspiration are: neo-orthodox the- . The Septuagint is a Greek translation
ory, dictation theory, limited inspira- of the Old Testament.
tion theory, and plenary verbal inspi-
. To interpret the Old Testament, it is
ration theory.
important to follow the rules of
. The plenary verbal inspiration theory hermeneutics: use the grammatical-
implies that the Bible is trustworthy historical method; understand the
and is authoritative. context; determine the type of litera-
ture; interpret figurative language;
. Scribes who copied the biblical texts
and let Scripture interpret Scripture.
believed they were copying the very
words of God. . In understanding the context of the
Old Testament, the immediate con-
. The Masoretes did three things to pre-
text, the remote context, and the his-
serve the text they received: (1) they
torical context all must be considered.
developed a system for writing vow-
els; (2) they developed a system of ac- 12 The Old Testament is more than an an-
cents for the Hebrew text; and (3) they cient book. Its principles apply to our
developed a system of detailed notes lives today.
from the text.

31
Encountering the Old Testament

Study Questions

1. What do we mean by the term 3. Describe the process by which those

“canon”? How did people know or who copied the Scriptures passed
decide which books belonged in the them down to us. Name and briefly
Bible? describe the significance of the major
manuscripts we have.
. Identify the different theories of inspi-
ration. What do evangelicals mean . What do Bible interpreters mean by
when they use the term “plenary ver- the expression “grammatical-historical
bal inspiration”? What are the impli- interpretation”? Why is it important
cations of plenary verbal inspiration? to use good rules of interpretation?
How many of those rules can you
name?

should reexamine James’ words in their biblical book had to be written to all gen-
context to discover if James meant some- erations. The author originally wrote for
thing else when he used the expression a particular audience, but if the message
“justified by works.” Indeed, a careful was truly God’s Word, it would have ap-
reading shows that James meant Abraham plication to all generations.
and Rahab proved their faith was genuine The interpreter’s final task, after apply-
by doing good works, a concept that does ing the proper hermeneutical principles
to determine what the text meant to its
not contradict Paul’s teaching.
original audience, is to determine what
Discover the Application the text means for today. This step is some-
times the most difficult, but also the most
to Modern Life
crucial.
Earlier in the chapter, we explained how To do this, we must understand what
one of the tests of canonicity was that a issues in our modern culture parallel the

Further Reading

Brotzman, Ellis R. Old Testament Textual Criticism: A McQuilkin, J. Robertson. Understanding and
Practical Introduction. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994. Applying the Bible. Rev. ed. Chicago: Moody,
An excellent survey of the pertinent issues of 1992. A college-level exposition of the principles
textual criticism, easily understood by the of good Bible interpretation.
beginner. Tov, Emanuel. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible.
Fee, Gordon, and Douglas Stuart. How to Read the Minneapolis/Assen, Netherlands: Fortress/Van
Bible for All Its Worth. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Gorcum, 1992.
Zondervan, 1993. A good basic tool for learning
to interpret the Scriptures correctly.
Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969. A classic reference
work.
 What Is the Old Testament and Why Study It?

issues in the Bible passage we are study- the word of God. It spoke to Israel, and it
ing. Then, to the extent they are parallel, speaks to us today. Our task as Christians
we may apply the Bible’s teaching to our is to study it, to apply it to our lives, and
modern situation. to share it with a world that desperately
The Bible is not merely an ancient book needs to hear it.
with a message for an ancient people. It is

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 Where and When
Did the Events of the
mania
Old Testament Take Place? iN

|Outline —
Where Did the Events of the
Old Testament Take Place?
: Three Regions of the Ancient Near East Objectives
i Four Subregions of Israel
| Highways of the Ancient Near East After reading this chapter,
eee you should be able to

_ « What Events Does * Identify on a map

the Old Testament Describe? the three geographical regions
of the ancient Near East
Israel's Ancestry: The Patriarchs
¢ Compare the development
_ Israel’s Beginnings: Moses and Joshua of the cultures of Mesopotamia, Egypt,
Israel's Statehood: and Syria—-Palestine
David and His Dynasty ¢ Discuss the key geographic features
Israel’s Exile and Restoration: of the four subregions of Israel
Ezra and Nehemiah ¢ Trace the highlights of the history
of Israel and the ancient Near East
during the New Stone Age,
Copper-Stone Age, Early Bronze Age,
Middle Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age,
Iron Age I, and Iron Age Il
¢ List the different peoples
who significantly influenced
the history of Israel
Encountering the Old Testament

We read in the New Testament that God and transportation to other parts of the an-
aN

incarnation
revealed himself to humanity through the cient world. Second, many foreign cultural
incarnation; that is, God took on human influences poured into ancient Israel. She
form in Jesus of Nazareth. This means was exposed to great cultural interchange
God’s revelation occurred ina specific time and commerce throughout her history.
and place. Therefore, in order for us to un-
derstand the message of the New Testa- Three Regions
ment, we must study the events of the life of the Ancient Near East
of Christ and the early church. The history The ancient Near East contains three geo-
and geography of the first-century world graphical subregions joined by an arch of
of Palestine provide an important back- rich soil known as the “Fertile Crescent”
ground for Christians reading the New (notice the shaded area on the map below
Testament. is shaped like a crescent). Most of the ter-
God's revealed truth in the Old Testa- rain of the ancient world was rugged and
ment is also incarnational. He revealed inhospitable to human life. The fertile
himself in specific times and places to a lands are bordered by nearly impassable
specific group of people, the Israelites.
Therefore, it is important for Christians
to understand the time in which ancient
Israel existed. This chapter discusses the
land in which God’s revelation occurred
and the major events of Old Testament
history.

Where Did
the Events
of the Old Testament
Take Place?
Ancient Israel was one small part of a
larger area knownas the ancient Near East.
This term refers basically to what is known
today as the Middle East. It stretches from
the ZAGROs MOUNTAINS in the east to the
Mediterranean Sea on the west. The north-
ern boundaries of the ancient Near East
reach to the CasPIAN and BLACK SEAS, with
the Caucasus Mountains between them.
In the south, the ancient Near East is
bounded by the ARABIAN DeseERT and two
large bodies of water (the PERSIAN GULF
and the Rep Sea).
Though Israel was geographically
smaller than many of her neighbors in the
ancient Near East, her location made her
strategically important throughout ancient
history. This small piece of land forms a
bridge among three continents—Asia,
Africa, and Europe.' Israel’s crossroads lo-
cation had two important consequences.
First, many nations and empires through-
out history desired to control, or at least
have access to Israel for purposes of trade
36
 Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

mountain ranges to the north and vast the mouth of the Persian Gulf northwest-
deserts to the south. But within the cres- ward along the bend in the Euphrates and
cent, flat lands and an abundance of water reaches eastward to the Tigris at the foot
made this location the birthplace of human of the Zagros Mountains. All of modern
civilization. Iraq and parts of IRAN, SyRIA, and LEBANON
The three geographical subregions of make up the area known as Mesopotamia.
the ancient Near East were MESOPOTAMIA, Mesopotamia’s terrain is greatly var-
Syria—Palestine, and Egypt. These three ied—from the mountainous northern re-
regions were all marked in early antiquity gions to the desert sands of the southwest.
by important river cultures. The weather is unpredictable and the wa-
ters of the twin rivers are capricious.
Mesopotamia Flooding posed an ever-present threat for
The Greek term “Mesopotamia” (“be- the ancient Mesopotamians, but so did
tween the rivers”) refers to that great drought. Consequently, the region, espe-
stretch of land between the EUPHRATES and cially in the south, hovered constantly be-
Ticris Rivers.” This region extends from tween desert and swamp. Nor were there

The Ancient ar East during

Ararat Mts.
the Ole | Testament Period

ARABIA

Scale

ees Fertile Crescent 0 50 100 mi

REE EEE.
0 100 200 km

37
Encountering the Old Testament

CRRA any natural defenses to ward off enemy Mesopotamia and played a significant role
Neolithic Age
invaders. in Old Testament history.
AARON In spite of all the dangers, Mesopotamia
cuneiform
was capable of providing the good life for Egypt
NANA The same geographical features that
those fortunate enough to live there. This
hieroglyphs made early human civilization possible
was especially true in southern Meso-
in Mesopotamia were also present on the
AAA TTTTAN potamia, where the river water could be
pharaoh northeastern coast of Africa along the
channeled to provide irrigation for crops
Nile River.? While Mesopotamia showed
or navigated for purposes of trade. Schol-
a slow and gradual development from
ars of earliest human history believe civi-
the Stone Age to the beginnings of
lization began in the foothills north of the
human history, Egypt appears to have
Tigris River, when ancient Mesopotamians suddenly jumped overnight from the Ne-
of the Neolithic Age (around 7000 B.c.) first olithic Age into urban culture. The rela-
cultivated plants, domesticated animals,
tive suddenness of the birth of civiliza-
and began farming. Sometime around 3100 tion in Egypt is probably attributable to
B.c., the Sumerians invented writing in Mesopotamian influences on the Nile
southern Mesopotamia when they dis- Valley. The development of Egyptian hi-
covered they could use wedgelike shapes eroglyphs (Latin hieroglyphicus, sacred
on various materials to represent words. carving) may have been influenced by
The wedge-shaped writing (known as Mesopotamian cuneiform, though this
cuneiform, from Latin cuneus [“wedge”] is far from certain.*
and forma [“form’]) was most easily in- One ancient historian fittingly described
cised into wet clay, a substance readily ac- Egypt as the gift of the Nile River.° With-
cessible in southern Mesopotamia. Often out question, the Nile is the dominant geo-
the scribe would bake the clay tablets in graphic feature of Egypt and played a
the sun or in an oven, producing extremely major role in Egypt's history and cultural
durable cuneiform tablets, thousands of outlook on life. This great river stretches
which have been discovered by modern more than six hundred miles through the
archaeologists. Cuneiform could also be northeastern deserts of Africa to the
inscribed on metal or stone. Mediterranean Sea. The Nile thus created
The potential good life in Mesopotamia a sharp contrast between the riverside
was no secret to others living in the an- meadow and the desert on either side. The
cient Near East. With no natural defenses, black, fertile soil of the river valley
those enjoying life in Mesopotamia had to abounded with life and vitality, while the
keep an eye on external threats. Through- lifeless red desert sands reminded the an-
out ancient history, Mesopotamia saw the cient Egyptians of their mortality. The
influx of many different people groups Egyptians called the rich soil of the Nile
and changes of power. The Sumerians Valley “the black land” and the encroach-
were followed by a long succession of ing desert sands beyond “the red land.’”°
Semites of various nationalities. During They clearly treasured the great muddy
the last quarter of the third millennium river that brought life-giving water and
B.c., the first group of Semites, the Akka- soil.
dians, rose to power and occupied south- Ninety percent of the ancient popula-
ern Mesopotamia together with the Sume- tion lived in the fertile river valley, which
rians. But by the turn of the millennium, was seldom more than ten miles wide.
another Semitic group known as Amor- The Nile has no tributaries and the coun-
ites began to arrive in enormous numbers; try has no rainfall except for coastal show-
they dominated the next thousand years ers along the shores of the Mediterranean
of history in Mesopotamia. The Amorites Sea. The Egyptians understood how de-
eventually established major foci of power pendent they were on the river to main-
in the south at BABYLON on the Euphrates, tain life in their “black land.” They gave
and in the north at Assur and NINEVEH credit to their god-king, the pharaoh, for
along the Tigris. The Babylonians in the the Nile’s annual flood. From a source far
south and the Assyrians in the north were south of Egypt, beyond their under-
two of the most important groups in standing, the river rose predictably every
38
 Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

Without
question, the
Nile is the
dominant
geographic
feature of Egypt
and played a
major role in
Egypt's history.
This great river
created a sharp
contrast
between the
riverside
meadow and
the desert on
either side.

June, peaking in September and return- had fewer incidents of foreign aggression
ing to its normal level by November. This in its history. There were occasional threats
annual inundation was vitally important from Lipya to the west or invasions by sea.
to continued prosperity in Egypt because But the normal concern for Egyptian se-
its waters brought rich layers of silt and curity was Asian invaders from across the
rejuvenated the soil, making Egypt's body of water we now call the SUEZ CANAL.
“black land” one of the richest lands in With a few exceptions, however, the Egyp-
the world.’ tians were able to contain these threats
But the long and narrow river valley with mere police actions. Compared to
also tended to create a severe contrast be- Mesopotamia, Egypt was relatively free
tween north and south in ancient Egypt. from invasion. As a result, Egypt did not
The south included, and was distin- encounter the large number of ethnic and
guished by, the length of the Nile and was cultural infiltrations dotting Mesopotam-
called Upper Egypt (since the southern ian history.
region is upstream). Lower Egypt con- Egyptian history is, therefore, not one
sisted of the delta created where the Nile of constant power changes and new peo-
spreads out and empties into the Mediter-
ple groups, but rather the rise and fall of
ranean Sea. This contrast resulted in
mostly native Egyptian dynasties. Some
marked differences in language dialects
of these dynasties saw Egypt develop
and cultural outlooks on life. The geo-
large empires with international signifi-
graphically isolated Upper Egypt de-
cance in ancient Near Eastern history.
pended on cattle-herding, and was
These periods of imperial strength fall nat-
provincial and conservative. Lower Egypt
was interested in commercial trade be- urally into the Old Kingdom (dynasties
cause of its access to European and Asian 3-6, 2700-2200 B.c.), the Middle Kingdom
sea ports. It had.an international and cos- (dynasties 11-13, 2000-1700 B.c.) and the
mopolitan flavor.’ Political unification was New Kingdom (dynasties 18-20, 1550-
the first task of the pharaoh, and the strate- 1100 B.c.). Thus, the Egypt of the patri-
gic central location of Memphis was ob- archs was probably Middle Kingdom
viously important. Egypt; that of Moses and the exodus, New
Unlike Mesopotamia, Egypt enjoyed rel- KINGDOM Egypt. By the time of Israel’s
ative seclusion from the outside world. united monarchy, Egypt had lost its po-
The great desert borders and the Mediter- sition as an international superpower,
ranean Sea to the north provided natural though it continued to wield significant
geographical boundaries and meant Egypt cultural influence.

39
Encountering the Old Testament

Syria—Palestine plays a role in Israel’s longitudinal orien-

Syria—Palestine is the area from the north- tation. The country is divided north-to-
ANTTUNRNDNNNARNTNANN south into four zones: the coastal zone, the
rift ern bend of the Euphrates along the
Mediterranean coast, southward to the central mountain range, the Jordan Rift,
Sinai desert. Israel was the southernmost and the TRANSJORDANIAN HIGHLANDS.!?
section of Syria—Palestine. The coastal plains
The great river cultures of Mesopotamia These plains, as seen on map, p. 41, are
and Egypt were made possible by geo- narrow in the north, but gradually become
graphical features leading to the organi- broader in the south as the coastline slants
zation and unification of the regions. The westward. This region was one of the rich-
rivers were large enough to provide ac- est of ancient Israel because of its fertile
cessible trade, making economic growth soil and the accessibility of water (nu-
possible. The geographical features of merous springs and high groundwater
Mesopotamia and Egypt made national level).
unification possible. The striking characteristic of Israel's
By contrast, Syria—Palestine is charac- coastline compared to the rest of the Lev-
terized by segmentation. Smaller rivers ant in the north is the lack of natural har-
(the Jordan and the Orontes, see map, p. bors. The city of Acco, in the Bay or Hair,
37) and vast differences of topography di- was the only important harbor in Israel in
vided the region into subdivisions and Old Testament times. By contrast, the
smaller territories. Syria—Palestine was not coastal strip between the Mediterranean
the site of advanced civilization and na- Sea and the Lebanon Mountains north of
tional empires early in history. Instead, its Israel had many natural harbors because
primary geopolitical importance was in of the jagged terrain rising out of the sea.
its role as a land bridge along the Fertile The Phoenicians, who occupied this strip
Crescent. Throughout ancient history, the during most of the Old Testament period,
empires of the great river cultures, Egypt used these harbors to good advantage, be-
and Mesopotamia, sought to control ac- coming expert sailors and sea-merchants.
cess to Syria—Palestine for both economic The Israelites never quite learned to trust
and military /political reasons. the sea, however, and regularly had to hire
In addition to forming a land-bridge Phoenician expertise whenever it was nec-
among three continents, the area is marked essary to put to sea (1 Kgs 9:26-27).
by two other topographical features. First, This coastal zone has six subregions
the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea from north to south: the Plain of Acco, the
forms the western boundary of this area. JEZREEL VALLEY, the SHARON PLAIN, the
The coast (known as the “Levant”) extends PHILISTINE Coast, the SHEPHELAH (or “low-
for four hundred miles, and became the hills”), and the western NEGEB or south-
crossroads for all trade and travel in the ern desert (see map, p. 41). The Jezreel Val-
ancient world. The second important fea- ley is the only exception to Israel’s
ture in Syria—Palestine’s topography is longitudinal orientation, since it interrupts
known as the “rift.” The JoRDAN RIFT is a the central highlands and connects the
great fissure in the surface of the earth ex- coastal plains in the west with the Jordan
tending from north of the Sea of Galilee Rift to the east. This valley’s rich soil and
through the Jordan Valley and the Dead its location as an intersection for the re-
Sea to the shores of the Red Sea. To the gion’s great highways (see map, p. 41)
north, this cleavage is framed by the meant the major military powers of the
Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain biblical period passed through it and often
ranges (see map, p. 41). The altitude de- attempted to control it.
scends steadily as one moves south to the The southern coastal plain was home to
Dead Sea, the surface of which is 1,275 feet Israel's most bitter enemies, the Philistines,
below sea level, the lowest point on earth? throughout most of the Old Testament pe-
riod. The greatest concentration of Philis-
Four Subregions of Israel tines and their five major cities occupied
The prominent topographical feature of this plain. From the period of the judges
all of Syria—Palestine, the Jordan Rift, also to David's rise to the throne, the Philistines

40
The Four Longitudinal fis) &
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Zones of Israel
Sy
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Scale
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EDOM 0 10 20 km
Encountering the Old Testament

AAONNOUNNUOORRORNONOOREERNN fought intermittently with the Israelites of precipitously down to the Jordan Valley.
Via Maris
the central highlands. These Transjordanian highlands reach
AA heights up to 5,700 feet in the south, such
Vulgate The ridge, or central mountain range
as in the mountains of Edom.
A ridge of hills rises sharply between the This mountain tableland is divided by
coastal plains and the Jordan Rift. These four river canyons: YARMUK, JABBOK,
highlands may be subdivided into four ARNON, and ZERED (see map, p. 41). These
main regions: GALILEE, EPHRAIM, JUDEAN rivers flow through deep gorges in the
HILL country, and the eastern Negeb (see plateau into the Jordan River or the Dead
map, p. 41). Sea. Frequently in biblical history these
The highest point along the Levant coast rivers formed natural boundaries for na-
is the towering Mount Hermon, with an tional or political entities. The Yarmuk
altitude of 9,100 feet. Just south of Mount forms the southern border for BASHAN. The
Hermon, Upper Galilee reaches elevations area from the Yarmuk to the Jabbok we
of over three thousand feet. A steep slope may conveniently refer to as GILEAD. The
separates Upper Galilee from Lower territory between the Jabbok and the
Galilee to the south, with altitudes just Arnon was Moabite land during most of
below two thousand feet. the Old Testament period. South of the
The central hills of Ephraim and the Zered was Edomite country. So the trans-
Judean hill country are quite similar. This jordanian highlands may be subdivided
range of mountains is protected on both into four areas from north to south:
slopes by deep stream beds, making Bashan, Gilead, Moas, and Epom. Most of
east-west passage difficult. A north-south the borders were fluid, changing fre-
road along the eastern slope connects the quently in biblical times.
hills of Ephraim with the Judean hill coun- The eastern extremes of the transjor-
try. Many major cities lay along this road: danian highlands enjoy no natural border
MizpaH, SHECHEM, SHILOH, and BETHEL in
with the Arabian desert. The fate of this
Ephraim, and JERUSALEM, BETHLEHEM, and
mountain plateau in biblical times was
HEBRON in Judah. The eastern part of the often tied to its relationship with the
desert south of Judah (the “Negeb”) has a desert. Scorching winds and migratory
continuation of the hills of the central desert nomads often made it difficult to
mountain range. maintain agriculture and a settled life. But
The Jordan Rift the high ridges bordering on the Jordan
This main topographical feature of Rift caught the last benefits of the Mediter-
Syria—Palestine plays a prominent role in ranean storms and created enough rain-
the shape of Israel’s landscape. The deep fall to support sheep-herding and crops
depression in the earth’s surface has an of wheat.
average width of 10 miles, and descends
from an altitude of about 300 feet in the Highways of the
north to 1,275 feet below the Mediter- Ancient Near East
ranean at the shore of the Dead Sea.!? In Of the many important highways and
the center of the rift, the Jordan River flows communication routes of the ancient
down from the foot of Mount Hermon to world, two international roadways require
the Dead Sea. mention here.'° Their precise courses did
The Jordan Rift may be subdivided not vary greatly in biblical times because
north to south into five regions: the HULEH the broken topography of Syria—Palestine
VALLEY, CHINNERETH (that is, the Sea of made it difficult to create new routes.
Galilee), the JORDAN VALLEY, the DEAD SEA,
The way of the sea (Via Maris)
and the ARABAH (see map, p. 41).
The title “way of the sea” comes from Isa-
The Transjordanian highlands iah 9:1 and refers to an international road
East of the Jordan Rift, the land rises running along the Levant coast (see map,
sharply into a plateau, which gradually p. 45). This highway was used through-
gives way to the Arabian desert. This steep out the biblical period and some of the
plateau reaches greater altitudes than most important cities of antiquity were lo-
much of the central highlands then drops cated near it. The Vulgate rendered Isa-
42
 Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

Part of the
western Negeb
or southern
desert.

iah’s phrase as Via Maris, which was used to the Jezreel Valley. The valley, and es-
in later times to designate the whole net- pecially the city of Megiddo, were strate-
work of roadways from Egypt through gic locations for all commerce and travel
Syria— Palestine into Mesopotamia. in the ancient world.
On the southern coastal plain, the Via
The king’s highway
Maris moves northward and splits into
two branches, the western continuing The second important international route
along the coast and the eastern passing is the “king’s highway” (taken from Nm
through the Jezreel Valley to Megiddo, 20:17; 21:22). This roadway extends from
and from there to Hazor and Damascus the GULF OF AQABAH at ELATH through the
and on into Mesopotamia. The various transjordanian highlands to Damascus
branches of this great international high- (see map on pp. 44-45). Because of the four
way converge at Megiddo, at the entrance deep river beds in the transjordanian

43
Encountering the Old Testament

plateau, the highway follows a path period witnessed the invention of writing
twenty-five to thirty miles east of the and the beginnings of human history. In
Arabah on the very edge of the desert. Mesopotamia, the Sumerians first used
This was a secondary route from Dam- cuneiform extensively for writing; in
ascus to Egypt, often competing with the Egypt, the use of hieroglyphics during the
Via Maris. It was most popular for nomadic Old Kingdom Period is well attested. In
caravans transporting commercial goods Mesopotamia and Syria—Palestine, city-
and for the trade of agricultural products. states first began to grow, and with them
During the Israelite monarchy, the king’s the need for communication, travel, and
highway attained a special significance be- trade. In Mesopotamia, a series of strong
ANN cause of increased trade with Arabia. city-states gained dominance during the
Iron Age Sumerian Early Dynastic Periods. Toward
the end of the Early Bronze Age, the first
Early
Age
3
What Events Does _ Semitic empire gained control of all of
southern Mesopotamia from a power base
the Old Testament at the city of Akkad (2334-2193 B.c.).!° In

Describe?
The details of New Testament history cover
only about a century. By contrast, the his-
tory of Old Testament Israel spans nearly
two millennia. Over this length of time, Is-
raelites came in contact with many differ-
ent peoples and nations. The Old Testament
makes frequent reference to Assyrians,
Babylonians, Egyptians, Arameans, and
many other important peoples. This sec-
tion traces the broad outline of Israel's his-
tory, also introducing the most important
people groups.'4
Israel's Ancestry: The Patriarchs
Historians do not have enough evidence
to give precise dates for many of the events
we discuss in this survey text. In fact, since
absolute chronology is impossible, ar-
chaeologists divide the millennia before
the Christian era into periods according
to the technology available at the time. So
after the various stone ages (Paleolithic,
Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic),
we can refer in the broadest of terms to the
Bronze Age and the Iron Age. These terms
do not mean to imply that the switches
from stone to bronze to iron were sudden,
or that only bronze was used for tools and
other utensils during the Bronze Age while
only iron was used during the Iron Age.
But in general, around 3300 B.c., bronze
technology spread throughout the ancient
Near East, and around 1200 B.c., people
discovered the greater benefits of the use
of iron.
The period from about 3300 to 2000 B.c.
is known as the Early Bronze Age. This
aa
 Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

CAAT Egypt, the Early Bronze Age saw the flow-

Middle Bronze
renaissance of Sumerian culture (Ur III dy-
Age ering of the Old Kingdom Period, which nasty, 2112-2004 B.c.), the country came
was the era of the great pyramids and the under the control of a new Semitic element,
apex of Egyptian culture.!° By the close of the Amorites. Early in the Middle Bronze
the Early Bronze Age, all the main features Age, Amorites ruled Mesopotamia from
of human civilization and culture had ap- several strong city-states in an uncertain
peared in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. balance of power. But then one individual
Although precise dates for Israel’s pa- from the city of Babylon was able to con-
triarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) are solidate his strength and establish a new
impossible to determine, they may be gen- empire throughout Mesopotamia. Ham-
erally placed in the Middle Bronze Age MURAPI rose to power in 1792 and estab-
(2000-1550 B.c.).!” This period of ancient lished the Old Babylonian Empire, which
Near Eastern history is marked by the endured until 1595 s.c.'® Hammurapi is
movement of ethnic groups and new em- most famous for his collection of laws,
pires replacing the older powers of the Early many of which bear striking resemblance
Bronze Age. In Mesopotamia, after a brief to the laws of Moses in the Pentateuch.

ie
rchemish
Scale
i Nineveh
0 50 100 mi

e@/Asshur 0 100 km

git ek

Main route
ARABIAN DESERT
Important highway
Sea route

Highways and Communication

Routes of the Ancient Near East
45
 Archaeological Periods /
of Ancient Near Eastern History’ |
Approximate Archaeological
Dates (B.c.) Period Israel Ancient Near East

Before 14,000 Old Stone Age Pre-cave culture

(Paleolithic)

14,000-8000 Middle Stone Age Cave culture

(Mesolithic)

8000-4200 New Stone Age Neolithic Revolution:

(Neolithic) cultivation of
crops & beginning of rain-
based agriculture,
domestication of animals,
first permanent settlements
4200-3300 Copper-Stone Age Metal replaces stone in the
(Chalcolithic) production of tools and
weapons
3300-2000 Early Bronze Invention of writing
Birth of human civilization
Egyptian Old Kingdom
Sumerian & Akkadian
EAA kingdoms in Mesopotamia
Old Canaanite culture at Ebla
2000-1550 Middle Bronze Israel’s Patriarchs Arrival of Amorites and
other ethnic groups in
az
Mesopotamia
Old Babylonian Empire
Egyptian Middle Kingdom
1550-1200 Late Bronze Egyptian bondage International contacts
Birth of Moses & balance of power
The exodus Powerful Egyptian New
Wilderness wanderings Kingdom exerts influence in
Israelite conquest of Syria—Palestine
Canaan Rise & fall of the new
Hittite Empire BAZZ
Kassite control in
Mesopotamia
1200-930 lron Age | Period of the Judges Invasion of Sea Peoples &
United Monarchy: disruption of major powers
Saul, David, Solomon Rise of new ethnic groups,
including Arameans &
Israelites. Rise of Assyria
930-539 lron Age Il Divided Kingdom Weakened Egypt
Fall of Israel in 722 Assyria reaches greatest
LAA Fall of Judah in 587 strength before fall in 612
Neo-Babylonian Empire:
Nebuchadnezzar
539-332 Iron Age Ill Return of Jewish exiles Cyrus captures Babylon
EEE
Ezra & Nehemiah in 539
Building of Second Persian Empire
Temple & walls
of Jerusalem

'Philip J. King, American Archaeology in the Mideast: A History of the American Schools of Oriental Research
(Philadelphia: ASOR, 1983), 282; and Keith N. Schoville, Biblical Archaeology in Focus
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1978), 8-9.
 Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

AAT
covenant
In Egypt, after a period of darkness and into slavery, and taken to Egypt. While in
confusion called the First Intermediate Pe- Egypt, Joseph was blessed by God and
riod (2200-2000 B.c.), the country once again miraculously rose to high political office in
Age flourished during the Middle Kingdom Pe- the foreign land. During a severe drought,
riod (2000-1700 B.c.). The Middle Kingdom the sons of Israel traveled to Egypt in search
LAAT TST was a time of peace and stability, and one
New Kingdom of food for the family back in Canaan. Much
in which Egypt engaged in trade with the to their surprise, they were confronted by
Levant, resulting in the acquisition of con- the very brother they had betrayed, and
siderable wealth. But toward the end of now their lives were in his hands. But
Middle Bronze, Egypt also succumbed to Joseph provided food for them and saved
the rise of Semites, which is characteristic their lives. Israel and all his children moved
of the Fertile Crescent throughout this pe- from Canaan to Goshen in the northeast-
riod. Native Egyptian control of the coun- ern Delta of Egypt.
try ended when the Hyksos, Semites prob- We can date these events no more pre-
ably from Syria—Palestine, took control of cisely than a general time in the Middle
the Delta in the north. Whether the Hyksos Bronze Age (2000-1550 B.c.). The Hyksos
invaded and took control, or whether they rule of Egypt (1700-1550) may well have
had been gradually growing in strength is been the time when the children of Israel
not known. They ruled Egypt for about 150 lived in Egypt and multiplied so rapidly.
years in what is called the Second Interme- But once the Hyksos were expelled, a
diate Period (1700-1540 B.c.). For the first “new king arose over Egypt, who did not
time in Egypt's history, the country was con- know about Joseph” (Ex 1:8). The “new
quered and dominated by foreigners. king” probably refers to the first king of a
The Middle Bronze Age world into different dynasty. For the next several hun-
which Abram stepped was one of peoples dred years, the Israelites were enslaved by
on the move. In Syria—Palestine, too, Se-
the Egyptians, and forced to build their
mitic peoples were settling in. The Canaan- cities and drive their economy.
ites were establishing city-states in the
coastal plains and valleys as early as the Israel's Beginnings:
third millennium. These people may have Moses and Joshua
been of the same Amorite stock as those
who had settled Mesopotamia.'” The Late Bronze Age (1550-1200 B.c.) was
Abram departed from Ur of the Chalde- one of international trade and balance of
ans in southern Mesopotamia with his ex- world powers, with Syria—Palestine
tended family and journeyed to HaRAN on caught in the middle. The Egyptians suc-
the Euphrates in northwestern Mesopo- cessfully ended their subjugation to the
tamia. His father, Terah, died in Haran and Hyksos and entered the period of their
Abram (whose name was changed to Abra- greatest political strength, the New King-
ham) was called to travel on in faith to un- dom (dynasties 18-20, 1550-1100 B.c.).
known lands.”? When Abraham reached Whereas Egypt was dominant through-
Canaan, God established a covenant with out this period, Mesopotamia experienced
him and promised to give hima vast num- a time of political weakness. After the fall
ber of descendants and the land of Canaan of Hammurapi’s Old Babylonian Empire,
as an inheritance. These promises were southern Mesopotamia was controlled by
uniquely suited for a transitory, migrant foreigners from the Zagros Mountains, the
Amorite looking for land to settle. After Kassires. The long rule of the Kassite dy-
many years, Isaac was miraculously born nasty (over three hundred years) brought
to Abraham's wife Sarah when she was peace and stability to Babylonia, though
ninety years old and Abraham was one not military superiority. The Kassites pre-
hundred years old. ferred peace treaties and other nonmili-
Isaac’s wife Rebekah had twin sons, Jacob tary means of diplomacy to defend their
and Esau. Although Esau was the oldest, borders. They adopted many elements of
Jacob became the child of the patriarchal traditional Babylonian culture and raised
promises. Jacob, whose name was changed southern Mesopotamia to a new level of
to Israel, had twelve sons. His favorite son, international prestige during this period.
Joseph, was betrayed by his brothers, sold The Babylonian dialect of Akkadian be-

47
Encountering the Old Testament

came the lingua franca, or international identially given the finest Egyptian edu-
language of the day. cation (Acts 7:22).
Ww ANU
Egypt’s powerful rulers of the New Moses was prepared and called by God
Amarna Letters
Kingdom attempted to control the coastal to lead the Israelites out of their bondage in
areas of Syria—Palestine, the coastal high- Egypt. God used a series of ten plagues to
way to Phoenicia (Via Maris), and Nui prove he was in control of the cosmic order,
to the south.”! By controlling commercial not the Egyptian god-king, pharaoh. These
trade with the Aegean and the rest of west- plagues demonstrated the superiority and
ern Asia, Egypt dominated trade and majesty of Israel’s God, Yahweh. God then
acquired tremendous wealth and pros- used Moses to deliver Israel from Egypt and
perity. At the height of this empire, AMEN- bring them to the Sinai Peninsula to estab-
HOTEP IV of the 18th dynasty became lish a covenant with them. There he gave
pharaoh around 1353 B.c. Soon thereafter them the Law to maintain the new covenant
he changed his name to AKHENATEN and relationship and protect them in the
moved the capital about two hundred promised land they were to inherit.
miles north of THEBES to modern EL- The new nation, Israel, rejected God’s
AMARNA. For about a decade, Akhenaten leadership in the wilderness and refused
elevated Aten, the visible image of the sun, to enter the promised land. God punished
toa place of supremacy and came close to them by requiring them to wander forty
monotheistic worship. Hundreds of clay years in the wilderness. During this time
tablets written in Babylonian (the so-called the rebellious generation died. Moses also
Amarna Letters) have been found at died in the plains of Moab without hav-
Akhenaten’s short-lived capital. These let- ing the privilege of entering the land
ters from Egyptian vassal-kings in promised to the patriarchs. Joshua, Moses’
Syria—Palestine and rulers in ANATOLIA successor, led the nation Israel in conquest
and Mesopotamia reflect the politics of the of the promised land, fulfilling the pro-
mid-fourteenth century B.c. It appears that mises to the patriarchs.
Akhenaten was no longer capable of con- Though it is impossible to give these
trolling the city-states of Syria—Palestine. events a precise date, it is clear that the Is-
Whether through neglect or military weak- raelite exodus occurred sometime during
ness, Egypt began to lose its international the New Kingdom Period of Egyptian his-
grip in western Asia. tory. Scholars have proposed two possi-
In Anatolia, the Hittite Empire gained ble dates for the exodus event, approxi-
control of western Asia Minor and north mately 1446 or 1275 (see chapter 6). The
Syria. Under strong royal leadership, the question is whether the pharaoh of the ex-
Hittites retained control of Syria almost as odus was THurmoss III (perhaps Amen-
far south as Damascus from about 1344 hotep II) of the 18th dynasty or Ramesses II
B.C. to 1239 B.c.” Hittite kings fought the of the 19th dynasty. Regardless of the in-
pharaohs of Egypt's 19th dynasty for con- ability of modern scholarship to date these
trol of Syria—Palestine, eventually coming historical events precisely, the exodus nar-
to a draw in the mid-thirteenth century. ratives in the Bible reflect genuine Late
Toward the end of the Late Bronze Age, Bronze pee customs and their factuality
the Hittite king Hatrusuiti III and the is certain.”
Egyptian Ramesses II agreed to a peace
treaty, ending the hostilities between the Israel’s Statehood:
two nations. David and His Dynasty
Sometime during the Late Bronze Age, Around 1200 B.c., cataclysmic changes
while Israel suffered under the heavy bur- began to occur in the ancient Near East.
den of slavery in Egypt, Moses was born The major powers (notably the Egyptians
to the tribe of Levi. At the time of Moses’ and the Hittites) suddenly declined and
birth, the pharaoh was attempting to con- the political map changed dramatically.
trol the rapidly growing Israelite popula- Most scholars assume the changes started
tion by killing newborn Israelite boys. But with the fall of Troy (around 1250) and the
Moses was miraculously saved by subsequent fall of the Mycenaean cities on
Pharaoh’s own daughter and raised in the the mainland of Greece. Survivors must
Egyptian royal court. There he was prov- have fled by sea along the coasts of the
48
 Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

St. Catherine’s
Monastery,
Sinai. God used
Moses to deliver
Israel from
Egypt and bring
them to the
Sinai Peninsula
to establish a
covenant with
them.

EATERY Mediterranean, disrupting all the major Near East, two are of special significance
Sea Peoples
powers of the ancient world. These new- here. First, within a century of their ar-
comers are known collectively as “Sea Peo- rival, the political order that had existed
ples.” One group of these sea peoples, for over three hundred years dissolved,
known from Egyptian sources as “Pele- leaving a power vacuum. Rather than mil-
set,” settled on the southwest coastal plains itary campaigns involving international
of Syria—Palestine. They are known in the powers such as the Egyptians and Hittites,
Old Testament as “Philistines,” a term that local skirmishes and regionalized conflicts
also gave us the word “Palestine.””° ensued. New ethnic groups filled the
Of the many changes brought about by power vacuum and eventually developed
the arrival of the sea peoples in the ancient smaller empires of their own, notably the

49
Encountering the Old Testament

CAAA Arameans of Damascus and the Israelites tribes in times of national or regional cri-
Iron Age
in the highlands of Palestine. sis. Military threats arose from surround-
The second result of the arrival of the ing neighbors, particularly the Philistines
sea peoples was the spread of new metal- to the southwest. Though a central gov-
working technology, particularly the use erning body was not a necessity, the Is-
of iron for making weapons. Though it is raelites grew weary of constant military
not certain which group actually invented threats from surrounding enemies. They
iron technology and first exploited it for began to long for a permanent king and
weaponry, it is clear that the Philistines royal court to maintain a standing army
had the early advantage in battles with the and secure peace for the future.
Israelites due to a superiority in metal- The Israelite monarchy developed be-
working technology and monopoly of the cause of this constant threat of military in-
use of iron (1 Sm 13:19-22). Gradually, iron vasion coupled with cultural pressure to
technology replaced bronze, and archae- become like other nations: “We want a king
ologists refer to the period after 1200 B.c. over us. Then we will be like all the other
as the Iron Age. nations, with a king to lead us and to go
So the period known as Iron Age |(about out before us and fight our battles” (1 Sm
1200-930 B.c.) began with the invasion of 8:19b—20). Samuel was a prophet and judge
the sea peoples and the shifting of politi- who led Israel in the time of transition from
cal power throughout the ancient Near judges to kings. With God’s blessing,
East. Sometime toward the end of Late Samuel anointed Saul as the first king of
Bronze, Joshua and the children of Israel Israel. But Saul failed to maintain his rela-
had taken Canaan and settled in the cen- tionship with God and was eventually re-
tral highlands. For at least a couple cen- jected as king of Israel. Saul’s life illustrates
turies after the Israelite conquest, Israel the importance of guarding our relation-
governed itself as a loose confederation of ship with God as the most important task
twelve tribes, one for each of the sons of we have to do. After Saul’s failure, God in-
Jacob. During this time, leadership rose structed Samuel to anoint a man after
from the ranks of the common people on God's own heart (1 Sm 13:14), the young
a temporary ad hoc basis. These “judges” David, as the next king of Israel.
were divinely gifted and ordained to con- Under David's strong leadership, Israel
solidate the strength and resources of the finally defeated the Philistines and forged

Solomon's North
Palace,
Megiddo.
Solomon
expanded
Israel’s borders
and ruled
during the only
period of Israel's
history that may
be called an
empire.

50
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City fortified
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SINAI ==aas=== Boundary of Solomon's kingdom

Saul's kingdom

Ezion-geber\® Conquered by David

Under Solomon's
GUE OF AOARA economic control
Encountering the Old Testament

a degree of peace and security in Syria— dom, continued to have one royal family,
Mosaic
Yahwism Palestine. David's reign ushered in a pe- the Davidic dynasty, for nearly 350 years
riod of stability that would become Israel’s (931-587 B.c.). Although Judah maintained
Canaanite
golden age. He unified the tribes and pro- political stability, she also fell into religious
Baalism vided economic and political freedom. apostasy, though much more gradually
Though there continued to be much in- than her neighbor to the north. Many of the
ternal strife during his reign, he was able kings of Judah were faithful to the Lord, es-
to leave a unified kingdom to his son, pecially early in the kingdom’s history. The
Solomon. This was the beginning of dy- final century of Judah’s history is marked
nastic succession in ancient Israel. by an interchange of good kings and bad
Solomon expanded Israel’s borders to kings. Sadly, Judah’s capital, Jerusalem, fell
the Euphrates in the north and to Egypt to the Babylonians in 587 B.c.
in the south. He ruled during the only pe- Archaeologists refer to Iron Age II (about
riod of Israel’s history that may be called 930-539 B.c.), which covers Israel’s divided
an empire. He brought great wealth and kingdoms: northern Israel and southern
prosperity to the nation through interna- Judah. Elsewhere in the ancient Near East
tional trade. God gave Solomon wisdom at this time, Egypt was trying to reassert
in all matters, including the ability to gov-
_ern the people. The royal court grew and
became more involved in the affairs of the
state. Solomon’s fame as an inspiring
leader spread around the world, and in-
ternational contact became commonplace.
Solomon also had the privilege of build-
ing God’s temple in Jerusalem. The reigns
of David and Solomon, or the “united
monarchy,” would always be remembered
as the ideal time of peace and prosperity
(1 Kgs 4:25).
The success of the united monarchy was
short-lived. Solomon, like Saul before him,
allowed his heart to turn away from God:
“his heart was not fully devoted to the
Lorp his God, as the heart of David his fa-
ther had been” (1 Kgs 11:4). Shortly after
the death of Solomon, the kingdom split
into two weaker nations, Israel in the north
and Judah in the south; this became the
so-called divided monarchy.
Northern Israel fell quickly into religious
apostasy. The first king of the north, Jer-
oboam I, attempted to use religion for po-
litical purposes and compromised the
practices of ancient Yahwism inherited
from Moses. But a later king of the north
went even further. Omri and his son Ahab
intentionally combined Mosaic Yahwism
with Canaanite Baalism in an attempt to
gain greater political control. The north-
ern kingdom was also plagued by politi-
cal instability. Over the two hundred years
of its history (931-722 B.c.), Israel had nine-
teen kings in nine separate dynasties. In
722 B.c., the capital of northern Israel,
Samaria, fell to the Assyrians.
By contrast, Judah, the southern king-

52
 Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

itself as a major world power. But except (793-753 B.c.) and Uzziah in Judah
for a brief moment at the turn of the sixth (792-740 B.c.). But success is not neces-
century B.C. (26th dynasty), Egypt was sarily a sign of God’s approval. While both
never again a major player in the ancient kingdoms prospered during this half cen-
world. The real story of Iron II is the rise tury, social injustice and moral decay
and fall of new empires in Mesopotamia. began to consume the soul of Israel and
Along the banks of the Tigris River in Judah. This was the backdrop for the first
northern Mesopotamia, a new force of the classical prophets: Amos, Hosea,
emerged in the Iron Age that would dom- Isaiah, and Micah. God raised up his ser-
inate ancient Near Eastern history for two vants to warn the nations of impending
centuries. Assyrian imperialism emerged doom and to call them to repentance.
in the mid-ninth century and began to im- Assyria’s weakness was but a tempo-
pact the politics of Syria—Palestine. Yet As- rary lull in her rapacious drive for more
syria went through a period of internal power; the early eighth century was only
weakness in the first half of the eighth cen- the calm before the storm. When TIGLATH-
tury. This allowed for the long and pros- PiLeser III brought Assyria back to full
perous reigns of Jeroboam II in Israel strength in 745 B.c., the nation was stronger

URARTU

Pa Shalmaneser Ill

Tiglath-pileser Ill

ARABIAN DESERT
Ps Esarhaddon
Scale

0 50 100 mi
Ashurbanipal

0 100 km

a3
Encountering the Old Testament

than before and ready to be used as God’s lonia, and Persia) before the power shifted
instrument of destruction against the re- to the west (Greece and Rome). Under the
bellious northern Israel. Over the next two kings of the early seventh century (SEN-
decades, Israel vacillated between paying NACHERIB, ESARHADDON, and. ASHURBANI-
tribute to the Assyrians and rebelling PAL), the Assyrians were able to defeat their
against them. Finally, Tiglath-Pileser’s son traditional enemies to the north, the Urar-
SHALMANESER V laid siege to Israel’s cap- tians. They even captured faraway Egypt
ital Samaria in 725 B.c. Three years later, in 663. But throughout this period of in-
the northern nation fell (722 B.c.) and be- ternational domination, Assyria had a per-
came a province in the enormous Assyr- sistent and ever-present problem closer to
ian Empire. home. The Chaldeans of southern Baby-
During the next century, Judah also at- lonia were growing ever more rebellious
tempted various ways of dealing with the and difficult to contain. They soon became
Assyrian threat. For example, Hezekiah independent and eventually replaced the
of Judah was anti-Assyrian, but his son Assyrians.
Manasseh adopted a pro-Assyrian policy. Under the able rulership of NABopoLas-
During the seventh century, Assyria SAR and his famous son NEBUCHADNEZ-
reached the pinnacle of its imperial power ZAR II, Babylonia participated in Assyria’s
and became the first truly world empire, defeat and became the next great world
as wellas the first ina line of such empires empire. During the 43-year rule of Neb-
from a Mesopotamian base (Assyria, Baby- uchadnezzar (605-562 B.c.), Babylonia

| oe Persian E | he ne 6th
oth Centu

54
 Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

Relief of Tiglath-
Pileser III of
Assyria from
Calah. When
Tiglath-Pileser III
brought Assyria
back to full
strength in 745
B.c., the nation
was ready to be
used as God's
instrument of
destruction
against
Northern Israel.

reached the apex of its wealth and politi-

cal power in what is called the Neo-Baby-
Scale lonian Period. Judah’s response to Baby-
0 100 200 300 mi lonia’s imperial aspirations alternated
ee between two tactical strategies. Some fa-
0 200 400km vored rebellion, supported by a pathetic
trust ina weakened Egypt (“that splintered
reed,” Is 36:6). Others, such as Jeremiah,
urged Judah’s submission to Babylon as a
vassal state. In 597 Nebuchadnezzar at-
tempted to end Judah’s rebellious streak
by capturing Jerusalem and taking King
Jehoiachin into exile in Babylonia, along
with many of the people of Jerusalem, in-
cluding the prophet Ezekiel. Another re-
bellion under Zedekiah resulted in the total
IRTHIA destruction of Jerusalem in 587.
The Babylonians not only destroyed the
city and deported much of the population,
but they also tore down the temple and
effectively ended the Davidic dynasty. The
Davidic line would barely survive through
Jehoiachin during the exile. The loss of
temple and kingship was a dominant and
formative event in Old Testament history.
It forced a rethinking of old theological as-
sumptions and made it necessary to re-
formulate Israel’s earlier religious con-
victions, especially the nature of God’s
covenant. All of this formed the backdrop
for some of Israel’s most significant
prophetic figures: Jeremiah, Habakkuk,
and Ezekiel.

55
Encountering the Old Testament

Israel’s Exile and Restoration: and ended the string of world empires
Ezra and Nehemiah from a Mesopotamian base.
Cyrus established a new policy with re-
The final archaeological age of the Old Tes-
gard to subjugated peoples and their
tament period is the Persian Age (539-332
deities. Unlike the Assyrians and Babylo-
B.C.), otherwise knownas Iron Age III. The
nians, Cyrus desired to placate as many
reign of the Persian king Cyrus marks the gods as possible. He felt he could better
beginning of the Persian Empire. This maintain and govern his vast empire with
kingdom was one of the largest in the an- a policy of tolerance and benevolence,
cient world, stretching from the isles of the rather than cruelty and brutality. The Jew-
Aegean Sea and the Nile across the ancient ish exile officially ended when Cyrus de-
Near East to the Indus Valley.” The Per- creed that captive peoples in Babylonia
sian Empire controlled the ancient world were free to return to their homelands and
for two centuries. ALEXANDER THE GREAT establish a degree of self-rule. The Old Tes-
conquered the Persians around 330 B.c. tament interprets this historical event as

Summary

. Israel was part of the ancient Near 6. The invention of writing—cuneiform

East that is now called the Middle in Mesopotamia and hieroglyphics in
East. Egypt—began during the Early Bronze
Age.
. The three geographical regions of the
ancient Near East—Mesopotamia, . The Sea Peoples probably fled from
Egypt, and Syria—Palestine—were Mycenaean cities in Greece about
joined by an arch of rich soil called the 1250 B.c. to the ancient Near East. This
Fertile Crescent. brought political changes and new
metalworking technology.
. The four subregions of Israel are the
coastal plains, the ridge or central . The constant threat from military inva-
mountain range, the Jordan Rift, and sion from neighbors caused the Is-
the transjordanian highlands. raelites to want a king.
. Two of the important highways of the . The period of David's reign was a very
ancient Near East passed through stable time in the history of Israel.
Syria—Palestine: the Via Maris or way
10. Under Solomon’s reign, the borders of
of the sea and the king's highway.
Israel expanded northward to the Eu-
. The history of the Old Testament phrates and southward to Egypt.
spans a time period of about two mil-
At Jewish exiles returned from Babylon in
lennia as opposed to the New Testa-
three separate groups led by Zerubba-
ment which covers a century.
bel, Ezra, and Nehemiah.

56
 Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

lingua franca Caspian Sea Judean hills

Amarna Letters Black Sea Mizpah
Sea Peoples Caucasus Mountains Shechem
lron Age Il Arabian desert Shiloh
Mosaic Yahwism Persian Gulf Bethel
Key Terms Canaanite Baalism Red Sea Jerusalem
Mesopotamia Bethehem
incarnation
Key People/ Euphrates River Hebron
Fertile Crescent Tigris River Huleh Valley
cuneiform
Places Iran Chinnereth
Neolithic Age Hammurapi Syria Jordan Valley
hieroglyphs Hyksos Lebanon Dead Sea
pharaoh Kassites Babylon Arabah
Levant Amenhotep IV _ Assur Yarmuk
Nineveh Jabbok
rift Akhenaten
Via Maris Hattushili III Libya Arnon
Suez Canal Varad
Vulgate Ramesses || Jordan Rift Bachan
Paleolithic Thutmose III Transjordanian Gilead
Mesolithic Tiglath-Pileser III highlands Moab
Neolithic Shalmaneser V A
Chalcolithic Sennacherib AP Edom
Bay of Haifa
Bronze Age Esarhaddon Jezreel Valley Gulf of Aqabah
lron Age Ashurbanipal Sharon Plain Elath
Early Bronze Age Nabopolassar Philistine coast Haran
Middle Bronze Age Nebuchadnezzar II Shephelah Nubia
covenant Cyrus Negeb Thebes
Late Bronze Age Alexander the Great Galilee El-Amarna
New Kingdom Zagros Mountains Ephraim Anatolia

Study Questions

. How is the Old Testament 6. Discuss the international social and

“incarnational”? political climate during the times of
Moses and Joshua.
. Why was the location of Israel strate-
gic in ancient times? . What was the political climate of the
ancient Near East around 1200 s.c.?
. Locate on a map the geographical re-
What effect did this have on the
gions of the ancient Near East and dis-
Israelites?
cuss their major characteristics.
. What political changes did lron Age II
. Locate on a map the four subregions
bring to the ancient Near East? What
of Israel and discuss their major char-
ramifications did this have for Israel?
acteristics.
. Discuss the international social and
political climate during the patriarchal
age of Israel's history.
 Encountering the Old Testament

Further Reading

AMEUNNMOTONINA NOONAN Zz

Aharoni, Yohanan. The Land of the Bible: Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq. 2nd ed. Baltimore:
A Historical Geography. 2nd ed. Trans. Anson F. Penguin, 1980. Readable and informative
Rainey. London: Burns & Oates, 1979. Best introduction to ancient Mesopotamia.
available historical geography. Saggs, H. W. F. The Greatness That Was Babylon:
Baly, Denis. The Geography of the Bible: A Study in A Sketch of the Ancient Civilization of the Tigris-
Historical Geography. New York: Harper & Row, Euphrates Valley. New York: Hawthorn, 1962 .
1957. Extensive treatment by a leading scholar.
Bright, John. A History ofIsrael. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: . The Might That Was Assyria. London:
Westminster, 1981. A classic from a moderate Sidgwich & Jackson, 1984. Companion volume to
perspective. The Greatness That Was Babylon.
Hallo, William W., and William Kelly Simpson. The Shanks, Hershel, ed. Ancient Israel: A Short History
Ancient Near East: A History. New York: Harcourt from Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the
Brace Jovanovich, 1971. Good, well-written Temple. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.Washington, D.C.:
beginning point for study of the entire ancient Prentice Hall/Biblical Archaeology Society, 1988.
Near East. Soden, Wolfram von. The Ancient Orient: An
Hoerth, Alfred J., Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Introduction to the Study of the Ancient Near
Yamauchi, eds. Peoples of the Old Testament East. Trans. Donald G. Schley. Grand Rapids:
World. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994. Good Eerdmans, 1994. Helpful introduction to
introduction to each of the major people groups Mesopotamia by a leading scholar of Akkadian.
mentioned in the Old Testament. Wilson, John A. The Culture of Ancient Egypt.
Merrill, Eugene H. Kingdom of Priests: A History of Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
Old Testament Israel. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987. Standard introduction.
Best conservative history of Israel.
Page, Charles R., Il, and Carl A. Volz. The Land and
the Book: An Introduction to the World of the
Bible. Nashville: Abingdon, 1993. A concise
overview of key archaeological sites in the land of
the Bible.

the fulfillment of the prophecy of Jeremiah the country materially as the first re-
(2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezr 1:1-4). turnees had done. He was concerned with
Over the next century, three separate the social and spiritual well-being of the
groups of Jewish exiles returned to people.
Jerusalem to rebuild and start over.” The Nehemiah led the third return to Jeru-
first group came under the political lead- salem in 445 B.c. (Neh 1-13). Nehemiah
ership of Zerubbabel and the religious was a Jewish exile who had risen to high
leadership of the high priest Jeshua (Ezr office in the Persian royal court. He saw
1-6). The returnees tried to rebuild the his task primarily as one of rebuilding
temple, but had to battle opposition, dis- Jerusalem’s city walls and providing bet-
couragement, and lack of resources. It was ter defense for its inhabitants. After com-
only after the ministries of the prophets pletion of the wall, Nehemiah stayed in
Haggai and Zechariah that the second Jerusalem as governor of the Persian
temple was finally finished in 515 B.c. province.
Ezra the priest and scribe led the sec- The Old Testament ends with God’s
ond expedition from Babylonia in 458 B.c. people restored to the land and a new tem-
(Ezr 7-10). Ezra’s task was not to rebuild ple rebuilt for proper worship of God. Yet

58
 Where and When Did the Events of the Old Testament Take Place?

this was clearly not a “kingdom of God,” time and place. The Old Testament ends
with a son of David on the throne of an in expectation and faith. God would yet
empire with worldwide significance. The fulfill his purposes in his own timing and
promises of God’s sacred covenant with in his own way.
his people would have to wait for another

59
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Encountering
the Pentateuch
cae =i.
 Introduction
to the Pentateuch
The Birth of God's People
Pee eee ie ooo EEE EEE Eo EE EEE EEE Sy

WhatIsthe Pefitateuch?
What Isthe Pentateuch About?
» What Are the Overarching Themes
of the Pentateuch? isk one
i Sovereignty of God Ns aac VANE RAR ‘*
: History 5 III EIT III ESTA

~ Fallen Condition of Humanity

Sica:
alvation
Objectives
_ Holiness After reading this chapter,
¢ Who Wrote the Pentateuch? you should be able to
Authorship and Traditional Consensus ¢ Define the term “Pentateuch”
Modern Critical Approaches e Draw conclusions about what the purpose
of the Pentateuch was
¢ Identify the key message of each
of the five pentateuchal books
¢ Compare the themes of the Pentateuch
¢ Apply modern critical approaches
to the question of authorship
of the Pentateuch
¢ Identify the key scholars who defined
the documentary hypothesis
e Assess the contribution of evangelical —
scholars to the study of the Pentateuch

63
Encountering the Pentateuch

AN
IN AANA Many people are familiar with the classic struction.” “Torah” is thus an appropriate
Pentateuch
stories about Abraham, Moses, Israel’s tag for these first five books of the Bible,
crossing through the Red Sea, and the giv- because they contain instructions for life.
ing of the Ten Commandments. But where Together these five books establish the his-
do these stories come from and why are torical and theological foundations for the
they important? How have they become rest of the Bible, and they also teach us
so well known? In this chapter, we intro- how to live faithfully.
duce the section of the Bible where these
stories are found. These books are called
the PENTATEUCH.
What Is the
Pentateuch About?
What Is the The Pentateuch is basically the story of
God’s people, the nation of Israel. It ex-
Pentateuch? plains where the nation came from, how
The term “Pentateuch” refers to the first God saved her from extinction, and the
five books of the Bible (from Greek pente, struggles in her relationship with God. But
five, and teuchos, scroll). The biblical evi- the Pentateuch is not simply a “history”
dence supports the view that Genesis, Ex- of Israel. It contains much that we would
odus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteron- not expect in a national history, and omits
omy belong together as a literary unit. The certain details that might ordinarily be
Old Testament probably refers to the Pen- considered historically pertinent.
tateuch when it uses phrases like the The Pentateuch is not just a document
“Book of the Law of Moses” (2 Kgs 14:6) to provide us with important and true in-
or the “Book of the Law” (Josh 1:8), while formation, but also to strengthen our faith.
the New Testament refers to these books It was originally meant to encourage an-
as “Law” in the expression “the Law and cient Israelites to believe and trust in God
the Prophets” (Lk 16:16). Thus, we should because of his faithful relationship with
not necessarily view the Pentateuch as five their ancestors. So without presenting a
separate books. Perhaps the limited size complete “history of Israel,” it traces the
of ancient scrolls necessitated the division actions of God and Israel in history. For
into the five-book format. over two millennia, believers have found
The Pentateuch spans history from the important historical, religious, and theo-
beginning of time down to, but not in- logical truths in these books.
cluding, Israel’s conquest of the promised This story opens with a book of begin-
land. This land would later become Israel's nings. “Genesis” comes from a Greek
homeland. Excluding for the moment word meaning “origins.” The first eleven
Genesis 1-11, the story is basically one of chapters of Genesis describe the beginning
a family that grew, by God’s grace, into of the universe, humanity, sin, and pun-
his people. God dramatically and mirac- ishment. These opening chapters are cru-
ulously saved this nation from the agony cial for understanding the rest of the Bible
of slavery and entered into a commitment because they reveal God’s nature, the role
of intimacy with them. After many years of his created universe, and the position
of struggle, the people reached the land humanity holds in that universe.
God had promised to their ancestors and Above all else, Genesis 1-11 presents a
prepared to possess it. So Genesis—Deut- problem. God created a universe that he
eronomy is a self-contained story with a evaluated as “good” (acceptable to him)
clearly defined beginning, an intricate plot at every phase of its creation. But hu-
with many important subplots, and a de- manity ruined what he accomplished.
cided ending. After Adam and Eve brought sin into the
The Jewish designation for these books world (Gn 3), its consequences were im-
is the Hebrew word “Torah.” Though we mediately obvious. The effects of sin were
usually translate this word “law,” it means evident in every aspect of God’s creation,
much more. It comes from a word for and became progressively worse. After
“teach” and is better understood as “in- humankind resisted other attempts to
64
 Introduction to the Pentateuch

At the
conclusion of
the Book of
Genesis, God has
miraculously
delivered his
people from a
famine and they
are living
peacefully in
Egypt. But many
years later, the
Egyptians
oppressed the
whole Israelite
population and
forced them into
slavery.

stem the tide of evil, God chose a single “departure”). This miraculous deliverance
man and his family as the solution to this of God's people is the formative event in
awful problem. Israelite history and the best example of
Genesis 12-50 is the story of Abraham, God's power and grace. As such, the exo-
his family, and their journey of faith. Their dus is the Old Testament equivalent to the
story is one of enduring value because they cross in the New Testament. The book also
responded to God in faithfulness. The text describes God’s special new binding re-
presents each character honestly, with no lationship (covenant) with his people
attempt to hide shortcomings. But the (chapters 19-40).
point of Genesis 12-50 is that these peo- The third book of the Pentateuch is
ple believed God, and he used their faith Leviticus. This book seems to interrupt the
as the solution to the sin problem in the historical thought flow, and impresses
world, or at least as the beginning of the many modern readers as strange. But
solution. So this first book of the Bible tells Leviticus (having to do with the sons of
of the beginnings of the world and of “Levi,” or priests) is indispensable to the
God’s people. Genesis describes the be- total message of the Pentateuch. It calls
ginning of everything except God. God's people to ritual and moral purity.
At the conclusion of the Book of Gene- In Exodus, God liberated captive Israel
sis, God has miraculously delivered his and established a unique relationship with
people from a famine and they are living her. Leviticus focuses on how the people
peacefully in Egypt. But many years later, can maintain that relationship. It instructs
the Egyptians oppressed the whole Is- the priests in how to offer appropriate sac-
raelite population and forced them into rifices to God. This book is thus devoted
slavery. The Book of Exodus opens, as does to preserving Israel’s holy moral charac-
Genesis, with a problem. God's people are ter as an aid to worship and enjoyment of
suffering under Egyptian bondage, and the Lord and his blessings.
his plan to use them as the solution to sin The Book of Numbers continues the
seems impossible. But, as before, God story of Israel’s journey to the promised
chooses to deal with the problem by call- land. The book opens with elaborate
ing a faithful few individuals to serve him preparations for leaving Mount Sinai
unconditionally. where the covenant has been established
Exodus relates the preparation and call (including a census of the people—hence
of Moses, and his role in leading the Is- the name “Numbers”). But the book then
raelites out of Egypt (“Exodus” means describes a series of events in which the
65
Encountering the Pentateuch

ASTANA RS using preexistent matter and did so ef-

sovereignty people chose to disobey God. Israel’s dis-
obedience cost her dearly, as God did not fortlessly, through the power of his spo-
AAACANTONINORNNNNNAN
permit her to enter the promised land im- ken word. Centuries ago, the early church
creatio ex nihilo
mediately. Numbers relates how God’s saw the importance of the ideas of “cre-
AKAN AAA
people tragically wandered in the desert ation out of nothing” (creatio ex nihilo)
fiat
for forty years, unable to accomplish what and creation by divine decree (fiat). These
LAAN he had in store for them. have always been central doctrines of the
myths Christian faith. So the simple style of Gen-
Deuteronomy, the final book of the Pen-
tateuch, is a series of Moses’ farewell esis 1 powerfully establishes God’s sov-
speeches. On the plains of Moab, across ereignty over his creation. The subsequent
the Jordan River from the promised land, stories of the flood (Gn 6-9) and the Tower
Moses addresses God’s people and pre- of Babel (Gn 11) also bring the point home.
pares them for the future. He restates the The Pentateuch further demonstrates
law of the covenant (“Deuteronomy” God’s supreme dominion by rehearsing
means “second law”), and warns them his dealings with individuals like Abra-
ham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, and Moses.
against turning from God to worship other
deities. The book aims to reestablish the Throughout their lives, wherever they
traveled across the ancient Near East, God
covenant between God and his people.
We may summarize the Pentateuch as assured them of his presence, protection,
follows. Genesis is a book of origins. It and guidance. The universal scope of his
describes the beginnings of the universe dominion stands in stark contrast to that
of other deities of the ancient Near East,
and the origins of God’s people. Exodus
traces the salvation of his people, who are whose jurisdiction had definite geo-
helpless to save themselves. Leviticus graphical limits.
In dramatic fashion, God demonstrated
calls for holiness as the only natural
lifestyle for the Israelites and as the only his sovereign lordship over Egypt. He
possible response to God’s grace. Num-
called Abram out of Ur of Mesopotamia,
bers is a book of wanderings in which the eastern extremity of the ancient world.
God’s people suffer the consequences of He protected him and guided him to Pales-
tine, his people’s future home. But could
their unbelief. But the story ends ona pos-
Moses and the Israelites trust God to help
itive note, when Deuteronomy presents
a program for renewal. them against Egypt, the most advanced
and sophisticated nation of the time? The
plagues were spectacular demonstrations
OT SSS SS
that God was lord of Egypt and, indeed,
What Are the of all the earth. God’s dramatic appear-
ance at Mount Sinai (Ex 19) and his do-
Overarching Themes minion over Israel during her desert wan-
of the Pentateuch? derings further confirmed that his
sovereignty knew no boundaries, geo-
Several important themes run throughout graphical or otherwise.
the Pentateuch. The first of these is foun-
dational for the rest. History
Asecond dominant, overarching theme of
Sovereignty of God the Pentateuch is the importance of his-
The Pentateuch begins by emphasizing tory. Unlike the writings of certain reli-
God's sovereignty. The Israelite creation gions (Confucianism, Buddhism, etc.), Old
story (Gn 1-2) is unlike the creation sto- Testament religion attributed special sig-
ries of other ancient Near Eastern cultures. nificance to history from the beginning.
While other peoples speculated about the Other ancient Eastern religions expressed
origins of deities, Genesis assumes the pre- their theology in terms of myths, in which
existence and eternality of God. important events took place beyond time
Furthermore, the Israelite God created and space. But in the Old Testament, God
the whole universe with no assistance created history and worked in and
from anyone (also a unique concept in an- through its events. This is most apparent
cient literature). He created it without in Israel’s distinctive creation story.
66
 Introduction to the Pentateuch

Near Ur of the
Chaldeans,
South Iraq. God
called Abram
out of Ur of
Mesopotamia,
the eastern
extremity of the
ancient world,
protected him,
and guided him
to Palestine, his
people’s future
home.

Besides establishing God's sovereignty, ple: Humankind is fallen. God created

the creation narratives describe the be- Adam and Eve as the climax of his perfect
ginning of history by relating the creation creation. They were at peace with God,
of time and space (Gn 1:5, 9-10). Because having ready access to his presence and
history is part of God’s creation, it follows enjoying his favor. They were also at peace
that he is sovereign over human history with his creation around them, capable of
and may alter it if he chooses. Thus, the enjoying its rich and perfect fullness. This
Israelites saw their national history as an portrait of paradise is the biblical defini-
arena for divine intervention. They came tion of shalom, “peace.” Shalom means
to know God better by studying his acts more than the absence of conflict. It refers
in history. Events such as the plagues of to a life where wholeness and well-being
Egypt and the giving of the Sinai covenant are present. Shalom-peace is present when
are more than the nation’s historical her- God is not hindered by human sin and is
itage. They are theological truths that the free to add significance and meaning to
Israelites recognized as unique, divine an otherwise meaningless existence.
revelation. But sin entered the Garden of Eden and
So the Old Testament consistently pre- immediately changed this perfect picture
sents theological truth through the (Gn 3). Humanity’s parents experienced
medium of history. Just as the entire New separation from their gracious Creator for
Testament relates to Jesus’ birth, life, death, the first time. The loss of a peaceful rela-
and resurrection, so the Old Testament is tionship with God also affected the way
inextricably tied to historical events. In the they related to creation and to each other.
Bible, spiritual truth is always fleshed out These effects of sin accumulated and wors-
in historical reality. Humanly speaking, ened, so that the message was clear: Hu-
faith expresses itself in works. From the manity was incapable of righting its own
divine perspective, the revelation of God's wrongs. The fallenness of humanity leaves
truth is always incarnational, that is, God every individual with specific needs only
reveals himself in time and space. God can address.

Fallen Condition of Humanity Salvation

A third important theme of the Pentateuch The fourth principal theme of the Penta-
is its systematic appraisal of the condition teuch is salvation. This is not just a New
of humanity. The message is painfully sim- Testament doctrine. The Pentateuch relates

67
Encountering the Pentateuch

the salvation of God in story form. God’s ancient people. The church has long rec-
love and grace moved him to take specific ognized these writings as sacred Scripture.
steps to remedy the human dilemma. The Asis true of all Scripture, God intends that
salient events in this story (the call of this story—a story of his saving grace
Abram, the call of Moses, the plagues of poured out freely on needy humans—
Egypt, the covenant, etc.) signify his love should become our story as well. For in-
and grace, and the single thread of re- deed, this is the story of all who follow
demption ties these events together. Christ.
This theme is particularly striking in For Christians, personal salvation is very
view of the other main points discussed similar to the story of the Pentateuch. God,
above, especially God’s sovereignty and the Sovereign of the universe, breaks into
humanity’s fallenness. God was not forced our personal history and provides a solu-
by any third party or external circum- tion for our brokenness. Because of his love
stances to reach down to fallen humanity. and grace, he provides salvation by his own
His sovereignty means he has no needs, revelation in history (incarnation). God
including the need for human love and gives us prophets and teachers to interpret
worship. The only motivating factor for his historical acts and help us maintain our
his redemptive actions may be found in relationship with him. The rest of the story
his nature as a loving and compassionate is one of growth in grace, or the imitation
God (Jn 3:16). This fact, combined with an of our Savior. So the gospel of Jesus Christ
awareness of the hopelessness of the was also the gospel of the Israelites.
human predicament, helps us understand
how great his salvation is (Heb 2:1-4).

Holiness Who Wrote thhel .

The Pentateuch’s emphasis on God's sov-
ereign grace in redemption leads naturally
Pentateuch?
to the fifth major theme. The only proper
Authorship and Traditional
human response to God’s grace and love
Consensus
is personal sanctity. So the Pentateuch
strongly emphasizes the concept of holi- The Pentateuch contains several self-
ness. This sovereign God is supreme in his claims regarding the composition of some
moral character. When he draws his peo- of its parts. There are two clear references
ple to himself, he invites them to imitate to Moses as the author of Exodus 20-23,
his character (Lv 11:44). He brought Israel which is known as the “Book of the
out of Egypt and made them his own peo- Covenant” (Ex 24:4, 7). The text also claims
ple. But he expected their new relation- Moses wrote the Ten Commandments at
ship with him to alter their conduct for- the Lord’s direction (Ex 34:27). At least two
ever. Holiness is the human appropriation other incidents are said to have been pre-
of God’s grace. served in writing by Moses (Ex 17:14; Nm
In the Pentateuch, as elsewhere in the 33:2). There are also clear references to
Bible, God’s grace is always followed by Moses as author of parts of the Book of
law. God is never content to be in rela- Deuteronomy (Dt 31:9, 19, 22, 24).!
tionship with his people if they are mak- In addition to the literary activity of
ing no effort to imitate his character. So Moses, speeches of God are frequently in-
law is not intended to restrict life, but to troduced with such phrases as “The Lorp
instruct God’s people in the “paths of spoke to Moses, saying” (Lv 4:1). In fact,
righteousness.” Law plays a dominant role most of the material from Exodus through
in the Pentateuch, but it never serves as a Deuteronomy relates to the life and min-
fence to enslave God’s people. Instead, his istry of Moses in one form or another.
law protects them from their own self-de- Moses was the central historical figure dur-
structive actions, and as a means of grace, ing the period that Exodus—Deuteronomy
makes them more like him. describes. This fact, in conjunction with
So the Pentateuch contains the story of all of the internal evidence, led to a nearly
God's people. There is much more here uncontested tradition of Mosaic author-
than an account of his dealings with an ship for the Pentateuch.
68
 Introduction to the Pentateuch

talmud
Both Jewish and early Christian tradition face to face. The E document was written
consistently associated the Pentateuch with around 750 B.c. as a corrective to theJdoc-
PRATT Moses. The talmud refers to the first five ument. This document uses the less inti-
Mishnah
books of the Bible as “the Books of Moses.”2 mate word Elohim (“God”), and avoids an-
ATA ETN The Mishnah and the Jewish historian JosE- thropomorphic terminology. E presents
source
criticism
PHus both accepted the Mosaic authorship the northern perspective in a prose style
of the Pentateuch.? The New Testament that is more stilted and formal than J’s.
ALLAN refers to the Pentateuch as the first of two Sometime after the Assyrians conquered
Documentary
Hypothesis sections of the Old Testament Scriptures in the northern kingdom of Israel (722 B.c.),
the expression “Moses and the prophets” J and E supposedly were combined into a
KANNAN
anthropomor- (see, for example, Lk 24:27, 44). new document, JE. This new document
phic reflected the theological convictions after
Modern Critical Approaches the historical crisis. Around 650 B.c., the
AALAND
monotheism Though early tradition regarding Mosaic D document was written to reinforce the
authorship of the Pentateuch was perva- cultic purity of Judah’s worship. This new
sive, it was not without early challengers.* source stressed the importance of wor-
But it was not until the early 1800s that the shiping the Lord God (often combining
traditional consensus began to crumble, “Yahweh” and “Elohim”) at a central
when European Old Testament scholar- shrine, Jerusalem. The D document thus
ship seriously challenged the idea of Mo- corrected and updated the less precise and
saic authorship. The combination of eigh- older JE document. Early versions of the
teenth-century enlightenment thinking Wellhausen hypothesis limited D to
and the evolutionary tenets of the nine- Deuteronomy 5-26, 28. This document
teenth century resulted in a wave of spec- used a sermonic style, often expressing its
ulation about the origins of the Pentateuch. theology in exhortations.
According to this hypothesis, the JE and
Source and redaction criticism D documents were fused into the JED
Toward the end of the nineteenth century, source sometime after 587 B.c., when
anew paradigm emerged that taught that Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians. But this
the Pentateuch had been compiled from new document neglected the priestly con-
four separate sources. This approach is cerns of the postexilic community. At some
known as source criticism. In this section point during the middle of the fifth cen-
we briefly trace the basic tenets of source tury B.c., the P document was written to
criticism and the various answers other address this deficiency. Wellhausen
modern scholars have given to the ques- believed the P document contained the ma-
tion, “Who wrote the Pentateuch?” jority of the pentateuchal material con-
This theory is frequently known as the cerning the sacrificial system. This docu-
Documentary Hypothesis and its most ment’s legal material concerns priests,
pervasive protagonist was JULIUS WELL- Levites, and the various types of sacrifices
HAUSEN.? He formulated a theory explain- (e.g., Lv 1-7), and emphasizes the tran-
ing how four originally independent doc- scendence and awesomeness of God.
uments (J, E, D, and P) were combined to Around 400 B.c., these two final docu-
form the Pentateuch. By the turn of the cen- ments (JED and P) were combined into a
tury, leading Old Testament scholars in JEDP complex of materials that comprise
Germany, Britain, France, and America ac- the Pentateuch as we know it today. Well-
cepted many of Wellhausen’s conclusions. hausen believed that monotheism and cul-
The basic components of this theory are tic legislation were late developments in
as follows. The Jdocument was composed Israelite history. Any references to a cen-
around 850 s.c. in Judah and uses the di- tral sanctuary with exclusive worship of
vine name “Yahweh” (or Jehovah, which God at Jerusalem had to be later than 622
is “the Lord” in the English translations). B.c., when Josiah’s reforms were enacted
In a simplistic narrative style, this docu- and D was composed. Religious material
ment presents God in anthropomorphic from the late postexilic period was read
terms (with human-like qualities). Angels back into the ancient history of Israel. There
appear in this document occasionally, but was thus almost no historical veracity in
usually God deals directly with humans the Pentateuch. Wellhausen’s reconstruc-
69
Encountering the Pentateuch

idence from the ancient Near East, is based

on evolutionary philosophies from the
The Classical Formulation of the nineteenth century that are no longer ten-
Documentary Hypothesis able, and is too subjective. Others have
protested that the hypothesis rejects the
Northern
important testimony of inspired New Tes-
Southern
Traditions Traditions tament writers. On the whole, these ob-
jections have not been answered.

ee Form criticism
Since Wellhausen’s landmark synthesis of
the Documentary Hypothesis, Old Testa-
E
pee 750 B.c. ment scholarship has taken many turns.
JE But the road has never led far from Well-
650 B.c. hausen’s original hypothesis. Redaction
Josiah’s
criticism has attempted to explain scien-
Reform tifically how these four separate sources
Book were edited together, but this approach
has met with little agreement among schol-
ars. Form criticism became a popular ap-
proach shortly after Wellhausen’s devel-
opment of the source theory.
JED
The pioneering scholar of form criticism
550 B.c.
was HERMANN GUNKEL, who established
Exilic
the basic tenets of the approach around the
Priestly
Materials
turn of the century. He began by accepting
Pp the JEDP hypothesis. But he was not as
za
450 B.c. skeptical as source critics had been about
the historical value of the pentateuchal sto-
8E=EZ_ ries. Instead, form criticism analyzes the
JEDP various literary types (or genres) found in
2AAZZZZZZ
400 B.c.
the Bible and isolates these smaller units.
P—RRBA— By emphasizing the “situation in life” (or
&uc
Sitz im Leben) of the smaller units, form
IANA tions were dominated by antisupernatu- criticism attempts to uncover the “histor-
redaction
criticism ralism and philosophical evolutionary ical kernel” for each literary genre. Ac-
thought. The theory made no allowance cording to Gunkel and others, these smaller
ARTISTA
form criticism for divine intervention in history, or for units were later joined into the four sources
unique divine revelation. of the Pentateuch.
LAAN

genres The reaction of the church was clear. Tradition criticism

Early conservative scholars were vocal in
ACTINNNNNNTNTONNONTINNNNNUNY Form criticism also speculated about the
Sitz im Leben their opposition to the skeptical presup- oral, preliterary history of the various lit-
positions of the hypothesis. E. W. Heng- erary types. Were these biblical stories
AAACN
tradition stenberg (1802-69) was the most prolific passed down by word of mouth over a
criticism challenger of the new and radical source long period of time before they were writ-
theories. His criticisms were carried fur- ten down? A branch of form criticism thus
ther by James Orr, Oswatp ALLIS, E. J. developed in the first half of the twenti-
YOUNG, and others. These scholars claimed eth century that devoted itself to tracing
that the new theory violated the internal this oral tradition—tradition criticism.
self-claims of the Pentateuch. For instance, This approach, whose most celebrated ex-
the text claims the events described were ponent was MArtIN Notu, believed that
historical and that Moses wrote sections writing came late in the development of
of the Pentateuch. Conservative scholars Old Testament literary sources. The liter-
have also maintained that the Documen- ary types reflect a long history of oral trans-
tary Hypothesis ignores archaeological ev- mission, so that the pentateuchal sources
70
 Documentary Hypothesis: The Major Players!

BENEDICT SPINOZA: Seventeenth-century scholars who opposed the Documentary

Jewish philosopher who rejected Mosaic Hypothesis.
authorship of the Pentateuch and K. H. GRAF: In 1865, Graf agreed with Vatke
appeared to give Ezra credit for these about the late date of much of the
books. Pentateuch. He argued for a foundation
JEAN ASTRUC: In 1753, this French medical document that was concerned mostly with
professor published a work on Genesis priestly interests. This he dated later than
that marked the beginning of Deuteronomy, which De Wette had
pentateuchal source criticism. Astruc established at 622 B.c. He associated this
believed Moses relied on sources from the so-called priestly document to the time of
patriarchal period. He used the divine Ezra. At the same time, others had taken
names Elohim and Yahweh to divide Hupfeld’s E1 source as the priestly
Genesis into separate sources (later known document, and thereafter the symbol P
as E and J) which he believed was used. By attempting to assign dates to
approximated the sources used by Moses. each of the documents, Graf went beyond
source criticism and expanded the
J. S. VATER: In 1805, Vater argued that the
discussion to historical criticism. This paved
Pentateuch was composed of as many as
the way for Wellhausen’s formulation of
forty fragmentary sources. This became
the Documentary Hypothesis, which is
known as the fragmentary hypothesis.
sometimes called the Graf-Wellhausen
W. M. L. DE WETTE: In 1807, De Wette Hypothesis.
equated the legal core at the center of
JULIUS WELLHAUSEN: German scholars were
Deuteronomy with “the book of the Law”
divided over the date and sequence of the
discovered in the temple under the
sources. Should it be PEJD or JEDP?
direction of King Josiah (2 Kgs 22). This
Wellhausen published books in 1877 and
became the most important criterion for 1883 in which he settled the debate and
dating the D document as late as 622 B.c. gave the Documentary Hypothesis its
H. EWALD: In 1823, Ewald proposed one basic classical expression. He began by
document, the E source. This was accepting the source analysis of previous
supplemented by older Jmaterials and a scholars, especially Graf. His main
Jehovistic editor put it all together. This contribution was adopting the
became known as the supplemental evolutionary concepts of the nineteenth
theory. century and applying them to the history
WILHELM VATKE: In 1835, Vatke suggested of Israel. In this way, he explained how the
many sections of the Pentateuch were sources grew and how they were related
written as late as the exile, instead of to the successive stages of Israelite history.
early as the text claims. He anticipated His explanation of the sources and how
they were created won wide acceptance in
Wellhausen by believing the Pentateuch
was produced late in Israel’s history rather a brief period of time.
than early as a religious constitution for FRANZ DELITZSCH: In his 1887 commentary on
the nation. Genesis, Delitzsch attacked the hypothesis
as defined by Wellhausen. He argued that
V. HUPFELD: In 1853, Hupfeld argued that
all the sections attributed to Moses in the
there were actually two separate writers
text were in fact authentic.
who had used Elohim. He also proposed
Deuteronomy was a separate D document. S. R. DRIVER: The most influential scholar of
So now there were four basic documents: Great Britain at the time, Driver published
J (which was the dominant of the four), an important Introduction in 1891. He
E1, E2, and D. Hupfeld also emphasized the modified the Wellhausen hypothesis only
role of an anonymous editor as the one slightly, and established the theory as a
responsible for tying the documents standard approach for English-speaking
together. This idea of an editor became scholars.
popular with later scholars who used him JAMES ORR: In 1906, Orr attacked the
conveniently to explain any inconsistencies Wellhausen hypothesis on theological and
in the documentary theory. philosophical grounds. He exposed the
E. W. HENGSTENBERG: Hengstenberg was an weaknesses of source and historical
early opponent of the source theories. In criticism and their attempt to reconstruct
several writings during the 1830s and Israelite history and literature. His
1840s, he strongly challenged those who criticisms were never answered.
denied Mosaic authorship. Hengstenberg
iFurther Reading: R. K. Harrison,
inspired a generation of more orthodox Introduction to the Old Testament
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), 9-32.
Encountering the Pentateuch

evolved over many centuries before peo- ceived form of the Old Testament and to
ple wrote them down. expose its theological message. While not
Tradition criticism is more subjective totally rejecting the findings of the docu-
literary than other approaches and fails to take mentary approaches, scholars using
criticism into account evidence from elsewhere in canonical criticism seek to study the final
the ancient Near East. In fact, ancient Near form of the Bible since this is what has au-
Eastern studies may provide control data thority for the religious community.’ They
for Old Testament scholars, no matter are less concerned with how the text ar-
which method they are using. Some schol- rived than with the internal message of
ars have argued convincingly that we may the canon. This approach provides a help-
avoid serious errors by making proper ful corrective to the atomizing tendencies
comparisons between the Old Testament of its critical predecessors.
and ancient Near Eastern literature.® In A further new development is the rise
the case of tradition criticism, for exam- of literary criticism. This approach also
ple, studies suggest that ancient Near East- addresses the larger literary issues, but its
ern literary traditions were often recorded proponents are often antagonistic to the
in writing soon after the events they de- older source and form critical approaches
scribe, not centuries later. to the Pentateuch. A further difference is
in the emphasis on text-centered, or some-
Canonical and literary approaches times reader-centered, analysis rather than
The second half of the twentieth century the traditional author-centered approaches
saw the rise of two new approaches to the of earlier scholars.® Those who use this ap-
Old Testament. The first was canonical proach have produced mixed results, but
criticism, with its attempt to study the re- the newer literary criticism seems to hold
great promise for significant new insights
into biblical interpretation.
Evangelical contributions
Key Terms Conservative biblical scholarship has
learned a great deal from these various ap-
Pentateuch
Torah
proaches. No single approach has the de-
covenant
finitive answer for the question of au-
Key People sovereignty thorship of the Pentateuch. But clearly
creatio ex nihilo certain of these critical approaches (espe-
Josephus fiat cially redaction, form, canonical, and lit-
Julius Wellhausen myths erary studies) are helpful when we use
Benedict Spinoza Talmud them with proper ancient Near Eastern
Jean Astruc Mishnah control data.’ It is in this area that conser-
J. S. Vater source criticism vatives have contributed most to Old Tes-
W. M. L. De Wette Documentary Hypothesis tament scholarship—the use of ancient
H. Ewald anthropomorphic Near Eastern comparative materials to
Wilhelm Vatke monotheism serve as checks and balances for proper
V. Hupfeld redaction criticism methods of Old Testament research.
E. W. Hengstenberg form criticism When answering the question of pen-
K. H. Graf genres tateuchal authorship, conservative schol-
Franz Delitzsch Sitz im Leben ars generally take one of three positions.!”
S. R. Driver tradition criticism First, some date the Pentateuch to the Mo-
James Orr canonical criticism saic era, but allow for various degrees of
Oswald Allis literary criticism post-Mosaic material. The basic structure
E. J. Young
of the Pentateuch was established by
Hermann Gunkel
Moses, or under Moses’ supervision. Later
Martin Noth
alterations and additions occurred in line
with recognized ancient Near Eastern lit-
erary procedures. Minor changes, suchas
spelling and editorial revisions, continued
 Introduction to the Pentateuch

to occur until around Samuel's day (ap- tian tradition, it is prudent to assume basic
proximately 1050 B.c.). Mosaic origins for most of the Pentateuch.
Second, some conservative scholars date The evidence clearly credits Moses with
the final form of the Pentateuch to a pe- the substance of these books. He is its
riod between Joshua and Solomon (as late source, its originator, its authorizer. How-
as 930 B.c.). Most of the Pentateuch is ever, terms such as “author” and “au-
thought to be Mosaic, but substantial thorship” are inappropriate when refer-
amounts of post-Mosaic material were also ring to ancient Near Eastern literary
included.
products, since they carry modern impli-
Third, other conservative scholars be-
cations that were absent in antiquity.
lieve the Pentateuch acquired its current
form relatively late in Israel’s history In some cases Moses may have initiated
(ninth to fifth centuries B.c.). These schol- a literary tradition that he later simply
ars recognize much that is ancient in these monitored. In Deuteronomy 31:9 he wrote
books. But they believe the Pentateuch the basic document and then entrusted its
grew as a result of later generations adapt- safe-keeping to the priests (see also Dt
ing Mosaic material at important crisis mo- 24:8). The priests may have preserved and
ments in Israel’s history. expanded the material, but Moses was its
Based on the self-claims of the Penta- source. Mosaic authorship plays an im-
teuch and the unity of Jewish and Chris- portant theological function in Old Testa-

Study Questions

. What is the derivation and meaning 6. What is the evidence for Mosaic author-
of “Pentateuch”? What Hebrew term ship of the Pentateuch? What name is
is used for these books and what is its given to the alternative approach and
meaning? who was its principal advocate?
. What is the derivation and meaning . What is the focus of each of the fol-
of “Genesis”? What is the problem lowing: redaction criticism; form criti-
of Genesis 1-11? What is the point cism; tradition criticism; canonical criti-
of Genesis 12-50? cism; and literary criticism?
. What problem is presented at the out- . In what area have conservative biblical
set of Exodus? What is the meaning of scholars contributed most to Old Tes-
“Exodus”? What role does the exodus tament scholarship? What three posi-
play in Israelite history and theology? tions do these scholars take on author-
What term is used to describe the spe- ship of the Pentateuch? What are
cial binding relationship between God their common points of agreement?
and his people?
. What does Leviticus seek to accom-
plish? What portion of Israel's history
is found in Numbers? What is the con-
tent of Deuteronomy?
. What are the overarching themes
of the Pentateuch?
Encountering the Pentateuch

1. The Pentateuch consists of the first 6. The concept of salvation is found

five books of the Old Testament: Gen- in the Pentateuch.
esis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
7. Questioning of Moses’ authorship
Deuteronomy.
of the Pentateuch was begun by
2. The Pentateuch provides us with the nineteenth-century European Old
early history of God's people and fo- Testament scholars.
cuses on strengthening the faith of
8. The primary modern forms of criticism
believers.
include source criticism, redaction crit-
3. Genesis is known as a book of icism, form criticism, tradition criti-
beginnings. cism, canonical criticism, and literary
criticism.
4. Moses is the key human figure
in the Pentateuch.
5. God's sovereignty is emphasized
in the Pentateuch.

Further Reading

Clines, David J. A. The Theme of the Pentateuch. Hayes, John H. An Introduction to Old Testament
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament— Study. Nashville: Abingdon, 1979. Survey of higher
Supplement Series 10. Sheffield: JSOT, 1978. critical issues.
Important volume on the covenant theme of the Livingston, G. Herbert. The Pentateuch in Its Cultural
pentateuchal narratives. Environment. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.
Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman Ill. Valuable survey of historical and cultural
An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand background.
Rapids: Zondervan, 1994. Contains a helpful Wolf, Herbert M. An Introduction to the Old
survey and evaluation of the higher critical issues. Testament Pentateuch. Chicago: Moody, 1991.
Hamilton, Victor P. Handbook on the Pentateuch:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Deuteronomy. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1982. —
Thorough introduction to the content of the
Pentateuch.
Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969. Encyclopedic
treatment by an evangelical.
 Introduction to the Pentateuch

ment studies, just as apostolic authority is the final date of composition was early or
important for New Testament books. late, the message began with Moses and
Though conservative scholars may dif- was applicable at all periods in Israel’s his-
fer on the date of the final form of the Pen- tory. So today, the Pentateuch continues
tateuch, they agree that these books of to challenge the church with God's au-
Moses are inspired, historically trustwor- thoritative word.
thy and still speak with authority. Whether

75
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 Genesis: 1—-11-
The Prelude to Israel
AANA

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| Outline
-¢ Primeval History and Its Nature
¢ Contents of Genesis 1-11
Outline
Creation and Its Nature (1-2)
Sin and Its Nature (3-11) Objectives
After reading this chapter,
you should be able to
¢ Compare the Genesis account of creation
with the Mesopotamian account
e List the ancient Near Eastern accounts
of creation
¢ Outline the major content
of Genesis 1-11
¢ Identify the facts in Genesis 1
that support the doctrine
that God was alone at the beginning
¢ Chart the symmetry
of the days of creation
¢ Describe the content of chapters 3-11 that
support the major theme
—moral failure of humankind
e Contrast the Genesis account
of the flood with the Gilgamesh Epic
Encountering the Pentateuch

AAA
primeval history Though the primary theme of the Penta- scribes a cosmic conflict between the lead-
teuch is the story of God’s people, this is ing deities. The young and daring Mar-
LAAT AAA not where Genesis begins. In order that duk kills the monstrous Tiamat, mother
cosmogony
we may fully appreciate all the actors in- goddess personifying the primeval ocean.
ANTANHANNRURNERHNNEONERE volved in this drama, the Bible begins by Using Tiamat’s divided carcass, Marduk
Enuma Elish
telling about God and humankind as a creates heaven and earth. From the blood
{ANNO NNSA whole. Genesis 1-11 sets the stage by de- of her co-conspirator, he and his father cre-
Epic of
Atrahasis
scribing God, his created universe, and the ate humankind to do the hard labor of the
fallenness of humankind. So before relat- universe, leaving the deities free from
ing the personal story of national Israel, the work. Out of gratitude to Marduk for res-
Bible first tells the sad universal story of all cuing them from wicked Tiamat, the gods
humankind. As such, these chapters are build for him the city of Babylon, the great
far more than mere background to the pen- capital city (ANET, 60-72, 501-503).
tateuchal story. They comprise some of the But this monumental piece of literature
most profound truths of our faith. is relatively late in Mesopotamian history
(our copies come from the first millen-
OSS Sy nium, though it was probably composed
much earlier). Recent scholarship has
Primeval History found more direct parallels in an older
and Its Nature Mesopotamian document, the Epic of
Atrahasis. This epic is the oldest Near
Israel was not alone in formulating ex- Eastern primeval history in nearly com-
planations for the world’s beginnings. All plete form (early second millennium). It
the great civilizations of the ancient Near presents in historical sequence both the
East had literature that described how the creation of humanity and his near extinc-
universe began. Elaborate mythologies de- tion in the flood in a sequence similar to
scribed the earliest shadowy events of pre- that in Genesis. The Atrahasis epic con-
history, or primeval history. These nearly firms that the basic plot of Genesis 1-11
always included a cosmogony, or a de- was well known throughout the ancient
scription of how the world was made. Orient.!
A comparison between Genesis and In light of the numerous ancient creation
other ancient literature highlights the dis- myths from the Near East, Genesis 1-11 is
tinctive concerns of the ancient Israelites a relative latecomer. If we assume Moses
and illustrates the nature of Old Testament was the source for most of the Pentateuch,
faith. The rest of the ancient Near East has the Atrahasis epic is at least five hundred
nothing like Genesis 1-11. Since most years older than the Mosaic edition of Gen-
modern readers already assume the one- esis. Therefore, numerous parallels with
ness of the sovereign God and the signif- Mesopotamian literature should not sur-
icance of humanity, we usually fail to grasp prise us.
the innovative contribution these chapters The many comparisons between Gene-
made as theological foundations for the sis 1-1] and ancient Near Eastern litera-
rest of Scripture. As divine revelation, ture should not give the wrong impres-
these chapters demolished the cherished sion. There is no evidence that the Old
beliefs of the day. The plurality of the gods Testament borrowed any of these paral-
and the insignificance of humanity were lels. Instead, the Old Testament answered
unquestioned assumptions in the ancient the same questions other authors of the
Near East. But God’s profound truth al- ancient world were considering—and in
ways causes human wisdom to crumble. unique ways that expressed Israel's dis-
Though Egyptian literature contained tinctive theology.’ Only the Bible gives an
several parallels with Genesis, MEsoPo- inspired answer to these important ques-
TAMIA has proved closer to the ancient He- tions of life. Although the origins of Gen-
brew concepts. The Enuma Elish (Akka- esis 1-1] are shrouded in mystery, God re-
dian title, meaning “When on high”) is the vealed to Moses the truth about creation
most complete Mesopotamian account of and the nature of the world through the
creation and has many interesting simi- ancient Hebrew traditions.
larities to the biblical record. The story de- The Bible is not merely a human prod-
78
 Genesis 1-11

Excerpts from the Enuma Elish

Mar uk hears the words of the gods, | will establish a savage, ‘man’ shall be his name. S —
heart prompts (him) to fashion artful works. Verily, savage-man | will create. S= 8
Opening his mouth, he addresses Ea He shall be charged with the service2 ofthe aoe =
To impart the plan he had conceived in his heart: That they might be atease!” :
- "Blood | will mass and cause bones to be. : an

uct and its purpose is not just to satisfy (God and humanity) and describes the
our curiosity. Modern readers often look stage on which their relationship will be
to Genesis to answer the wrong questions. _enacted (creation).
But by comparing Genesis with other an-
Genesis 1
cient literature, we learn what the funda-
mental concerns were. The first eleven Chapter 1 begins with a two-verse intro-
chapters of Genesis are about the sover- duction. Interestingly, the first sentence of
eign Creator, the nature of his creation, the Bible presents a difficult problem. The
and the extent of its ruin. Hebrew is somewhat unique and schol-
ars differ as to its proper interpretation.
The question is one of its relationship with
CATA ATTAL A AAA NA A
the rest of the chapter. Some take the sen-
Co ntents tence as subordinate to verse 2 or verse 3
. (that is, as a dependent clause). In this case,
of G Enesis 1 al 1 verse 1 becomes a temporal clause intro-
ducing creation: “When God set about to
Outline create the heavens and the earth, the earth
Te TheGrestion ofthe World was a formless void . . .” (see NEB, NAB, NJPS,
(1:1-2:3) Nrsv, and As, though some include sucha
translation only in a footnote). Such a
II. Adam and Eve (2:4—25) translation implies that God did not cre-
ate the substance from which he made the
Ill. The Fall (3:1-24) earth. Instead, he began with preexistent
matter. Scholars who hold this view often
IV. Cain and Abel (4:1-26) compare Genesis 1 with the Enuma Elish,
V. From Adam to Noah (5:1-32) where Marduk begins creation with Tia-
mat’s corpse, or preexisting matter.
VI. The Flood (6:1-8:22) A more traditional interpretation of
verse 1 assumes it is an independent sen-
VII. Noah after the Flood (9:1-29) tence that serves as a title to the rest of the
VIII. The Table of Nations (10:1-32) chapter. There are numerous variations of
: ; this traditional interpretation of verses
IX. The Tower of Babel (11:1-9) 1-3.3 The most likely is that verse 1 is a
. summary statement that describes the rel-
X. The Shemites (11:10-32) ative beginning of everything, without any
; reference to specifics. Verse 2 describes the
Creation and Its Nature (1-2) nature of primeval chaos before God con-
The first two chapters use concise lan- _ tinued his creative work. The rest of the
guage to state succinctly what we need to chapter (vv. 3-31) explains how God cre-
know about creation. In unsurpassed lit- ated heaven and earth. This interpretation
erary style, the passage introduces us to assumes an original creation that cannot
the main characters of the biblical drama _ be dated. Verse 2 describes the character
79
Encountering the Pentateuch

ARKATORNOELAN ION
polytheism
JALAN Table 4.1
imago Dei Narrative Symmetry of the Days of Genesis One

DAY ONE/LIGHT > DAY FOUR/LUMINARIES

DAY TWO/SEA AND SKY p> DAY FIVE/CREATURES FOR WATER AND AIR

DAY THREE/FERTILE EARTH p> DAY SIX/CREATURES

FOR THE FERTILE EARTH
DAY SEVEN/SABBATH

of this unproductive and empty matter be- narrative symmetry means that each day
fore God spoke in verse 3.4 corresponds with a matching day (see
The traditional approach to verse 1 as table 4.1).° The creation of light (day 1) cor-
an independent sentence is supported by responds with sun, moon, and stars to
all ancient versions (and most modern govern the use of light (day 4). The cre-
ones; NASB, NKJV, NIV, and js). The gram- ation of the sky (day 2) prepares the reader
mar, vocabulary, and literary style of the for day 5, in which God creates the birds.
passage leave it open to a wide variety of This narrative structure highlights days 3
interpretations. But theologically only the and 6 in which God makes the dry land
traditional approach is possible. In other and then creates animals and humankind
references to creation, the Bible is consis- to inhabit it.
tently clear that God created the universe The correspondence of days 3 and 6 re-
from nothing and did so without taxing veals the literary climax in the passage.
his powers or energy (Ps 33:6, 9; Heb 11:3). God evaluates each stage of creation (with
The rest of Genesis 1 also supports the the exception of day 2): “And God saw
ancient Christian doctrine that God was that it was good.” But days 3 and 6 con-
alone at the beginning and created the uni- tain the evaluation two times. The repeti-
verse from nothing (creatio ex nihilo). He tion of each formula builds to the sixth
did not require some preexistent sub- day, in which God says, “Let us make peo-
stance. By creating light and darkness (vv. ple in our image, to be like ourselves” (v.
3-5) and by calling forth a land mass from 26 NLT).
the waters (vv. 9-10) God actually created It is impossible to exhaust the theolog-
time and space. ical significance of being created in God’s
At the beginning, only God existed. He image (the imago Dei). The least we can
alone is the all-powerful One who is ca- say is that humanity was to have domin-
pable of speaking the universe into exis- ion over all creation as a result of bearing
tence without help or assistance. This pow- God's image. Adam and Eve were the vis-
erful truth was new to the ancient world, ible representatives of God in creation. But
and represented a direct attack on doc- being created as divine image-bearers also
trines such as polytheism. Likewise today, implies that humans were created specif-
the opening words of Genesis, “In the be- ically for relationship with God. Unlike
ginning God .. .”, give us a proper per- the rest of creation, human life is not an
spective on who he is and make it possi- end in itself. It comes with the privilege of
ble for us to accept the rest of the Bible’s relating to God.°
message. This first truth is foundational The dignity of humankind and his
to all that follows. unique position in creation are marked by
Repetition and literary symmetry char- the image of God. Again, biblical truth ag-
acterize the rest of chapter 1. Set formulas gressively attacked the prevailing doc-
introduce each day of the creation week: trines of that day. Other ancient Near East-
“And God said, ‘Let there be...’” Another ern creation accounts such as the Enuma
formula concludes each day: “And there Elish and the Atrahasis epic portray the
was evening and there was morning, the creation of men and women as a slave
first [second, etc.] day.” Furthermore, the force for the gods. Humanity was more or
80
 Genesis 1-11

A flood account less a means for the gods to avoid physi-

on Tablet XI of
the Assyrian cal labor. But in Genesis 1, humankind is
version of the the jewel in this literary royal crown, the
Epic of climax of God’s creative activity.
Gilgamesh.
The mandate “be fruitful and multiply”
(v. 28) demonstrates that humanity was
capable of communicating with God and
receiving his commandments. It also im-
plies that humanity was to continue God’s
CALLA ATTA creative work in the world. After the ini-
generations
tial stage of creation, the universe was “un-
productive and uninhabited.”” But on day
3, God brought forth vegetation (v. 11). The
land became inhabited when he com-
manded it to bring forth living creatures
and when he created humanity (vv. 24, 26).
So God made the earth productive and in-
habited by his creative activity, and hu-
manity is to continue the process.
If one word could summarize the
essence of creation in this chapter, it would
be “good” (téb, pronounced “tov”). God
is pleased with all that he sees in his cre-
ated order; this is especially apparent in
days 3 and 6, where the evaluation is stated
twice. Genesis portrays God as the divine
artist who stands back to admire his hand- occurrence probably introduces a new lit-
iwork. All is just as it should be, includ- erary unit of the book. This is the only time
ing humanity. As the climax of his creative the expression is not followed by a per-
work, humanity also pleased him and was sonal name and it seems in this instance
free to serve him in complete obedience. to serve as a narrative hinge, introducing
Genesis 2 2:4b-25 and summarizing 1:1-2:3.5
The creation of humanity is the climax
Chapter 2 (actually, vv. 2:4-25) presents a
of chapter 1 but the centerpiece of chap-
picture of creation that complements that
in chapter 1. Chapter 1 portrays in broad ter 2. The love and tender care of God are
strokes the creation of heaven and earth,
apparent in the creation of the Garden.
and ina general way, all the universe’s con- He meticulously prepared everything
tents. Chapter 2 uses finer strokes to paint else in creation as the ideal home for hu-
in the specific features. This section describes manity. His gentle, divine breath brought
the Garden of Eden with geographical de- Adam’s lifeless clay figure to life (v. 7).
tails (note the names of the rivers). It depicts The relationship between God and the
the creation of the first human couple, their innocent first couple was one of great in-
ideal garden surroundings, and the inti- timacy. Adam and Eve were surrounded
macy of their relationship. with God’s love. Yet even here, the di-
This unit begins with an interesting ex- vine command is clear (“You shall not
pression that is an important literary struc- eat... ,” v. 17), and there is the subtle
tural device in the Book of Genesis: “These possibility of disobedience and broken
are the generations of the heavens and the relationship.
earth.” The term “generations” (tdlédot) In summary, the first two chapters of
means offspring or history. Elsewhere in Genesis introduce the main characters of
Genesis it introduces either a genealogy the Bible’s redemptive drama: God and
or a personal history (e.g., Adam, 5:1; humanity. These chapters also set the stage
Noah, 6:9; etc.). The phrase occurs eleven for the drama by describing God's cre-
times in the Book of Genesis. Although ation. This introduction tells us a great deal
scholars disagree on its significance, each about the character of God and the nature

81
Encountering the Pentateuch

God's creation and completely within his Bert

sovereign work. i rey
Though such views as theistic evolution
oe

Seat Bathing to do with it, and use

evolution only to explain the “how” of
creation. Since it is a secondary law of biology,
not a doctrine of creation, it does not
& contradict belief in a Creator God. So theistic questions.
— evolutionists believe evolution was part of

AAACN
monotheism
of his universe. The opening chapters changes into the ideal scene of chapters
begin by assuming monotheism and the 1-2. Anew character is introduced: the ser-
sovereign, all-powerful nature of God. pent (Satan, Rv 12:9). His seditious nature
These were startling concepts for ancient and purposes are evident in his role as the
readers. His work in creation is beautiful great Deceiver who challenges the good-
and pleasing to both himself and human- ness of God head-on. Adam and Eve are
ity. He pronounced his work “good” (t6b) not helpless victims of some persuasive
at each stage of creation. This is crucial to force, but collaborators in evil.
remember when reading the rest of the After the first sin in chapter 3, human-
Bible. ity changed in a number of ways. First,
But this section also prepares us for what Adam and Eve lost their original inno-
happens next. Humankind’s character is cence. Their opened eyes and sudden
portrayed as perfect in chapters 1 and 2. awareness of their nakedness signify their
Adam and Eve were without sin and their shame and guilt (v. 7). Before their sin,
characters, like their bodies, were un- they knew no guilt, in either their rela-
blemished by disease and death. They tionship with each other or with God. Sec-
were free from pain and suffering. They ond, they lost their immediate and easy
enjoyed unlimited access to God’s won- access to God’s presence. Instead of meet-
derful presence. But this would soon ing God in the cool of the day, they hid
change. Unlike the constant and un- themselves because of a new awareness
changing God, humanity would fall from of estrangement from him (vv. 8-10). They
this blessed estate. were no longer comfortable in his holy
presence. Third, they lost the peaceful par-
Sin and Its Nature (3-11) adise and freedom of the Garden of Eden
At first glance, chapters 3-11 appear to con- when God expelled them (v. 23). Thus
tain an assortment of unrelated and strange they lost their freedom from pain, disease,
stories. But in reality this unit is a carefully and death.
orchestrated symphony with a single Eating fruit may appear innocent
theme: the moral failure of humankind. enough! But the action itself displayed
Chapter 3 introduces cataclysmic something immoral below the surface: re-
82
 Genesis 1-11

On the Origin of Evil

So God allows evil to continue, sometimes as

judgment or punishment for sin. But not all evil —
|- is due to human sin. The fact that some people _
\eisall-ee but unable to suffer unjustly is the problem of theodicy,
ichcasehe is not all--powerful. which the Bible deals with in the Book of Job

hem as evil beings. He did, however, give them

a degree of responsibility for their own
~ behavior. They had to choose to obey or
_ disobey God's word. To some degree, evil is
inherent in free will. In this sense, humans are
responsible for sin and evil, not God.

Drawing of a
temple-tower or
ziggurat from Ur.

bellion against God’s command (2:17). chapters 4-11 events build in a great
Temptation always entails a challenge to crescendo of sin to illustrate the utter des-
God's word (3:1, 4, 5), which he speaks for peration of the human condition. Sin is
our eternal good. God alone understood indeed lurking at the door and “its de-
the full danger of disobedience. He always sire is for you” (4:7, a theme verse for this
knows what is best for us. passage). In chapter 4, a brother’s mur-
Through this event, humanity un- der illustrates how quickly sin moves
leashed an evil power in the world. In from eating forbidden fruit to taking a

83
Encountering the Pentateuch

Human Sexuality

Sex was part of God's good and perfect relationships. We might think of it as God’s
creation. It was his stamp of approval on the special wedding gift.
intimate relationship between Adam and Eve But as with any of God's gifts, sexuality
before their sin (Gn 2:24-25). But just as sin has becomes tainted if we misuse it. The Bible’s
blemished the rest of creation, so sin and evil guidelines on sex are meant to protect us from
have marred our use of this gift from God (3:7). misusing God's gift and abusing each other.
Today, God wants Christians to enjoy sex Premarital and extramarital sex hurt us and
within the confines of marriage. Sex remains continue the effects of sin in our lives. God’s
part of God’s good creation, a blessing for grace can forgive and heal, but the
those who live in faithful, monogamous consequences of sexual sin can last a lifetime. ae

CAEN ATA human life. Humankind has now begun line of Cain. However, it may also be a
Gilgamesh
Epic to reverse the creative work of God in veiled statement on the failures of human
chapters 1-2. kingship. In this interpretation, the sons
The genealogies of chapters 5 and 10 of God were rulers or princes, who un-
serve an important function in this med- justly took the daughters of helpless com-
ley of sin. Chapter 5 traces ten generations moners against their will.’
of the faithful line of Adam from Seth to The point of the flood (6:9-9:29) is clear
Noah. The long lives of these early hu- in 6:5-8. The Lord determined that sin and
mans may be attributed to the slowly de- wickedness had grown to such an extent
caying effects of sin in the world. After the that creation should be destroyed. Verse
flood, the ages of Noah’s descendants 5 is most emphatic in God’s evaluation of
gradually shortened. the human condition: “the wickedness of
Chapter 6 begins with a troubling story humankind was great in the earth, and...
about marriage between the sons of God every inclination of the thoughts of their
and the daughters of humanity (vv. 1-8). hearts was only evil continually.”
In light of this unit’s emphasis on human There are many points of comparison
rebellion versus faithfulness, this is prob- between the story of Noah and the ancient
ably referring to immoral unions between Mesopotamian story known as the Gil-
the faithful line of Seth and the decadent gamesh Epic (ANET 72-99; 503-507). This
is a touching account of how Gilgamesh,
probably a historical figure who was king
of Uruk around 2600 B.c., rebelled against
Key Terms death after he lost his friend. Gilgamesh
meets Utnapishtim, who has been called
primeval history the “Babylonian Noah.” Utnapishtim re-
cosmogony lates how he achieved immortality when
Enuma Elish he was forewarned of a divine plan to
Key Place Epic of Atrahasis flood the world. He survived the flood in
polytheism a large reed boat, accompanied by his fam-
Mesopotamia imago Dei ily and pairs of all animals. But this event
generations was unrepeatable and gives Gilgamesh
monotheism little hope for immortality. He himself fails
Gilgamesh Epic three tests by which he could have re-
Table of Nations ceived immortality. But in defeat he re-
ziggurat signs himself to the inevitability of death
and takes comfort in his achievements.
There are obviously many similarities to
as well as differences from the biblical ac-
 Genesis 1-11

Global or Local Flood?1

Some have argued these expressions are

symbolic.
“The problem is one of interpretation, not
inspiration.”2 Though one may wonder about
Geological evidence is inconclusive. Many the scope and nature of Noah's flood, the
geologists deny that global catastrophes have biblical record leaves no doubt that it was a
~ any role in geologic theory. Catastrophist real historical event, covering at least the
~ geologists believe that some of the world’s rock inhabited world.
formations are due to a sudden universal flood
— that lasted about a year. 1Steven A. Austin and Donald C. Board
“Did Noah's Flood Cover the Entire Wo
On the other hand, the language of the flood in The Genesis Debate, ed. Ronald F. Youngb
narrative seems clear. God stated his purpose as (Nashville: Thomas Nelson,1 ,
2Bernard L. Ramm, The Christian View ofSci
wiping every living creature “from the face of (Grand Rapids:E
the earth” (Gn 7:4). The text reports that the
waters covered “all the high mountains under
the entire heavens” (7:19; and see 7:21, 23).

Gilgamesh Epic #1

~ On the seventh day the ship was completed. Whatever | had of all the living beings | laded
The launching was very difficult, upon her.
_ So that they had to shift the floor planks All my family and kin | made go aboard the
above and below, ship.
Until two-thirds of the structure had gone into The beasts of the field, the wild creatures of
the water. the field,
Whatever | had | laded upon her; All the craftsmen | made go aboard.
Whatever | had of silver | laded upon her;
Whatever | had of gold | laded upon her; —Utnapishtim tosae 4
—Gilgamesh nee XI, 76-85 Auey >

AAT AG count, though direct literary relationship begin to address the sin problem (see
Table of is impossible to trace. below on 11:10-32). Here finally is a glim-
abons The “Table of Nations” (10:1-32) clas- mer of hope.
me, sified the nations of the known world The Tower of Babel in chapter 11 high-
ziggurat under the three sons of Noah: Shem, Ham, _ lights the pride and arrogant rebellion of
and Japheth. The Japhethites inhabited humanity. Ancient Mesopotamian temple
mostly the Mediterranean islands and Asia complexes often featured a stepped tower
Minor, and were peoples most remote (ziggurat) of three to seven stages. They
from Israel. Most of the Hamites were peo- may have been connected to the idea that
ples with whom Israel had hostile rela- gods originally lived in mountains and the
tionships. The descendants of Shem were ziggurat served as a substitute. Near the
reserved for last because of their impor- foot of this tower stood the ancient pagan
tance.!° This is the line God would use to temple itself.

85
Encountering the Pentateuch

Summary

AEA

. Of all the accounts of creation found . The results of original sin are that hu-
in ancient Near Eastern literature, the mankind lost its innocence, its easy ac-
Mesopotamian accounts are closest to cess to God, and its peaceful paradise
the Hebrew account. and freedom.
. Chapter 1 of Genesis describes the . Underlying original sin is the sin of re-
overview of creation. bellion against God.
. Chapter 2 of Genesis provides a more . Sin increased until God decided that
specific account of creation. creation should be destroyed, and he
used the flood to accomplish this.
. God was alone at the beginning of
creation and created the universe . The Gilgamesh Epic contains similari-
from nothing. ties to the story of Noah and the
flood.
. There is inexhaustible theological sig-
nificance in the fact that man was cre- . The pride and rebellion of humankind
ated in God's image. is epitomized in the Tower of Babel.
. The moral failure of humankind is the
theme of Genesis 3-11.

The name of the most important city of was unified in rebellion. But unification
Mesopotamia was Babylon, which, by and peace are not the ultimate goods of
popular etymology, came to mean “Gate society, because they can result in pride
of God.” But the Genesis account of the and rebellion.!? God’s response once again
Tower of Babel refuted this arrogant teaches that he who created the universe
claim. The powerful city represented hu- continues to govern sovereignly the affairs
manity’s unified rebellion against God of humankind.
and was therefore marked by confusion The genealogy at the end of chapter 11
(Hebrew balal, 11:9). So Genesis turns the (vv. 10-32) brings the primeval history to
rebellious “gate of heaven” into confu- a close on a subtle note of hope. The em-
sion of speech and the dispersion of hu- phasis since chapter 3 has been on the
manity. In an interesting coincidence, the tragic avalanche of sin that has ruined
wordplay still works in English, where God's perfect creation and humanity it-
“babble” means “to make incoherent self. The universal situation is nothing but
sounds.” despair. But here the line of Shem (cf.
With a single international language and 10:21-32) continues and narrows to a sin-
advanced building technology, humanity gle family, that of Terah, father of Abram.

86
 Genesis 1-11

Study Questions

. What are the three principal subjects . What is the relationship of Genesis 2
of Genesis 1-11? to Genesis 1? How is the creation of
humanity presented differently (from
. How did the primeval history and cos-
a literary standpoint)? In summary,
mology of Genesis conflict with
what do these two chapters present?
the prevailing views of the ancient
Near East? . What is the theme of Genesis 3-11?
In what ways did humanity change
. What are the three possible interpre-
after the first sin of Genesis 3? What
tations of the Hebrew in Genesis 1:1?
challenge is always involved in temp-
On which interpretation is the tradi-
tation? What two verses depict the
tional theological view based? How is
dangers and the spread of sin
this in conflict with the ancient Near
in Genesis 3-11?
Eastern views?
. In what way does the Table of Nations
. What two literary devices characterize
(10:1-32) hint at the way God will ad-
the rest of Genesis 1?
dress the problem of sin?
. What are the theological implications
. How does the account of the Tower of
of being created in God's image?
Babel serve as a climax of the
What word describes the essence of
avalanche of sin in Genesis 3-11? How
creation in Genesis 1?
does this unit end on a note of hope?

Further Reading

Hamilton, Victor P. The Book of Genesis: Chapters Rogerson, John W. Genesis 1-11. Old Testament
1-17. New International Commentary on the Old Guides. Sheffield: JSOT, 1991.
Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990. Ross, Allen P. Creation and Blessing: A Guide to the
Thorough exposition by an evangelical. Study and Exposition of the Book of Genesis.
Kidner, Derek. Genesis: An Introduction and Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988. Helpful evangelical
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament study of the literary aspects of the text.
Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1967. Wenham, Gordon J. Genesis 1-15. Word Biblical
Theologically sensitive treatment. Commentary 1. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1987. Most
Mathews, Kenneth A. Genesis 1-71. New American comprehensive treatment available, including all
Commentary 1A. Nashville: Broadman, 1996. the pertinent ancient Near Eastern materials.
Ridderbos, N. H. /s There a Conflict between Genesis Youngblood, Ronald F., ed. The Genesis Debate.
1 and Natural Science? Trans. John Vriend. Grand Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1986. Presents differing
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957. Classic work dealing positions on the most difficult questions of
particularly with the nature of “day” in Genesis 1. Genesis.

87
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 Genesis 12—50
The Patriarchs:
Ancestors of Israel’s Faith
EG
ESS See ee WWE ER ROL Sa ONGC
ARC ETS

Background
_ of the Patriarchal Narratives
| ¢ The Story of the Patriarchs
~ Abraham and Isaac (12-25)
Jacob and His Twelve Sons (25:19-36:43) Objectives
pe 211 90.20) After reading this chapter,
Wages ere you should be able to
& ee aves e Contrast the focus of Genesis 1-11
Election with that of Genesis 12-50
Promise ¢ Identify the three major characters
Covenant in Genesis
e Describe the covenant God made
with Abram
¢ Explain how Abraham illustrates the
Christian doctrine of conversion
¢ Compare the relationship of Jacob and
Joseph to the patriarchal narrative
¢ Illustrate the theological concepts
of election, promise, and covenant from
Genesis
Encountering the Pentateuch

ORAS What is a “patriarch”? This term refers to overwhelmingly pessimistic picture of hu-
patriarch
the individuals who stand at the foun- manity’s moral failure. Once sin entered
tainhead of our faith: Abraham, Isaac, and the world, it spread so rapidly it was im-
Jacob. They, their wives, and their fami- possible to contain.
lies were pioneers of faith who paved the Genesis 12-50 begins to address the sin
way for ancient Israel. They also have an problem. The primeval history was un-
honored position in the New Testament. mistakable in its assessment of the human
The patriarchs are the ancestors of our condition. Though there had been a faith-
faith. ful line (Seth), even using a flood to de-
stroy all of humanity except for that line
could not solve the sin problem. Finally,
Background of the God dispersed humankind and confused
their languages. Beginning with Abram’s
Patriarchal Narratives call in Genesis 12:1-3, the Bible now in-
Genesis 12 begins a new literary unit. The troduces the solution to the world’s sin-
differences from Genesis 1-11 are obvious. ful dilemma. The faithful obedience of a
The opening section of Genesis addressed single individual becomes a powerful in-
broad, universal themes in terms similar strument in God’s hands.
to other ancient literature. But these pa- This unit describes events that occurred
triarchal accounts are narrower in scope over centuries of time. Sometimes the
and unique in the ancient world. They con- events are separated by many years and
cern the members of a single family and the text leaves out intervening details. The
their journey of faith in contrast to the pre- unit also contains few references to his-
vious section’s concern with the creation torical events in other ancient Near Eastern
of the world. nations that would give modern readers
As we saw in the previous chapter, a historical anchor. Furthermore, since the
Genesis 1-11 has a twofold purpose. First, patriarchs lived before Israel was a settled
it challenged the other ancient Near nation, there are no archaeological traces
Eastern belief systems by attacking them of their experiences. For these reasons,
on their own turf. It borrowed themes modern scholars do not agree on a spe-
common to all ancient Oriental cultures cific date for the patriarchs. Suggested
and adapted them to express divine rev- dates range from 2200 B.c. to 1200 B.c.
elation. Second, Genesis 1-11 painted an Some scholars even doubt these indi-

Marshlands near
biblical Ur,
Mesopotamia.

90
 Genesis 12-50

patriarchal
viduals ever really existed. They assume the world. Now the story turns to a dif-
narratives later tribal groups tried to explain their ferent way. That other way is the fasci-
own existence by conjuring up Isaac and nating account of one man whose exem-
Middle Biota Jacob as fictional ancestors. In the case of plary faith paves the way of salvation for
Age Abraham and Joseph, many modern all. In a real sense, the human dilemma
scholars believe they were distant ances- finds its solution in God’s grace and the
tors from the shadowy past who became faith of Abraham. Among other important
objects of tradition and legend in later truths, this unit shows how the faithful
Israel. The stories about them in Genesis obedience of a single individual has uni-
are not accepted as reliable, so we cannot versal significance.
really know the truth about Abraham and
Joseph.' Outline
Despite all this skepticism, none of the I. Abraham (12:1—25:18)
evidence disproves the patriarchal narra- . The Call of Abram (12:1-9)
tives, and Christians have every reason to Abram in Egypt (12:10-20)
believe they are reliable. In fact, modern . Abram and Lot Separate
archaeologists and historians have cor- (13:1-18)
roborated many features of the accounts . Abram Rescues Lot (14:1-24)
we read in Genesis 12-50. So even if we OWL
AO God’s Covenant with Abram
are unable to date the events precisely, no (15:1-21)
evidence contravenes the trustworthiness Hagar and Ishmael (16:1-15)
of the patriarchal record. . The Covenant of
Questions of date and historicity are a Circumcision (17:1-27)
problem only because much of Old . The Lord of Birth and Death
Testament scholarship has refused to (18:1-33)
avail itself of the growing body of knowl- The Destruction of Sodom
edge on the ancient Near East brought to and Gomorrah (19:1-38)
light by archaeology. Though we do not Abraham and Abimelech
have the same striking literary parallels (20:1-18)
we saw in Genesis 1-11, the patriarchal . Friction Inside and Outside
narratives have certain cultural parallels the Family (21:1-34)
that help give historical perspective. So Abraham’s Test (22:1—24)
the patriarchal accounts are a piece of . The Death of Sarah (23:1-20)
Israelite “family history” that we should . Isaac and Rebekah (24:1-67)
accept as authentic until clearly shown . Abraham and Ishmael
to be unreliable.” (25:1-18)
The events of Genesis 12-50 fit well into
the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1550 B.c.) II. Jacob (25:19-36:43)
in light of available archaeological, cul- . Esau and Jacob (25:19-34)
tural, and literary evidence (see discus- PAA!
dae
|
oe
ee
eee
aay
eae
CUZ
D> Isaac and Abimelech
_ sion in chapter 2 above). Even without pre- (26:1-35)
cise dating, the patriarchal story line is . Jacob’s Deceit (27:1-46)
clear. No more specific date is necessary . Jacob Flees to Haran
when we read it in context with Genesis (27:47-29:14)
1-11 and Exodus. On Jacob, Leah, and Rachel
m
(29:15-30:24)
ANN Jacob and Laban (30:25-31:55)
. Jacob and Esau (32:1-33:20)
The Stor . The Rape of Dinah (34:1-31)
of the Patriarchs Gy
Jacob Returns to Bethel
(35:1-29)
To this point in the biblical story, God dealt J. Esau’s Descendants (36:1-43)
with his ruined creation on a universal
scale. Despite God’s redemptive aims, nei- Ill. Joseph (37:1-50:26)
ther massive flooding nor dispersion of A. Joseph and His Brothers
humankind stemmed the tide of evil in (37:1-36)
91
Encountering the Pentateuch

. Judah and Tamar (38:1-30) Abraham and Isaac (12-25)

. Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife Asimportant as Abraham is in the biblical
(39:1-23) story, we know surprisingly little about the
. Joseph’s Interpretation of first seventy-five years of his life. Genesis
Dreams (40:1-41:57) 11:27-32 outlines his genealogy. But he is
introduced as the leading character rather
. Joseph’s Brothers in Egypt
suddenly in Genesis 12:1: “Now the LorpD
(42:1-38) said to Abram.” He is “Abram” until
. The Second Journey to Egypt Genesis 17, where his name is changed to
(43:1-34) the more familiar “Abraham.” The Bible
. Judah’s Plea (44:1-34) is less concerned with the history of Abram
. Joseph and His Brothers than with his obedient response to God's
(45:1-28) claim on his life.
Abram was a successful and wealthy
. Jacob in Egypt (46:1-50:14)
person. But one area of his life was filled
. Joseph’s Reassurance with pain and unfulfilled dreams. As God
(50:15-21) often does with us, he dealt with Abram
. Joseph’s Death (50:22-26) at the point of his pain. The issue was

Abraham's Journeys

@ Damascus

Jordan R.
echem

thel
ARABIAN DESERT
Dead Sea
-sheba

92
 Genesis 12-50

ION
Abram’s childlessness and the unique ily. But he had no children. This was a
promise
problems it presented in that ancient cul- worst-case scenario for an individual of
ture. From the beginning of the story, that day and age.
God’s word to Abram was clear: He In the call narrative of Genesis 12, God
would make Abram’s family grow into a asked Abram to leave all possible sources
great nation that would become a bless- of security. He called on Abram to step out
ing for humankind. The call of Abram in faith and leave Haran to travel to an un-
contained two great promises that were known land and begin life anew.
most important to an ancient man: land Eventually, Abram traveled through
and descendants. Moreu, BETHEL, and the NEGEB (southern
Abram’s family had come originally Palestine). The point of the narrative is
Abrams faithfulness all along the way—
from UR of the Chaldeans, which is prob-
from Ur to Haran to Moreh.
ably the famous city by that name in south-
The rest of the unit shows how the great
ern Babylonia.’ But his father Terah had
promises of Abram’s call are worked out
settled in HARAN in modern Syria, perhaps in his life. There are many ups and downs,
early in Abram’s life.’ After the death of and many questions about Abrams life,
his father, Abram was left with his wife, his resolve, and God's faithfulness. But
nephew, and other members of his fam- through the suspense and drama, the mes-
sage is clear: God has established a unique
relationship with this man and his family.
He would certainly work out his promises
to Abram somehow.
For much of the story, it appears Abram
would fail in the attempt. Early on, he had
FNineve to survive famine and temporary exile in
e
Egypt (Gn 12), a dispute with his nephew
(Gn 13), and regional war (Gn 14). But God
intervened to remind Abram of the origi-
nal promises and to assure him of ultimate
success (Gn 15).
In light of all these difficulties and hard-
ships, we are not surprised that Abram
questioned the future. Genesis 15 is one
of those important passages in the Bible
that demands our careful reading. God
comforted Abram and assured him of the
promises given at the time of his call (v. 1).
Abram objected that he had no evidence
those promises would ever become real-
ity (v. 2). Because he remained childless
during all this time, he had made other
arrangements. He had adopted Eliezer of
Damascus, presumably a slave, to inherit
his wealth. Mesopotamian examples of
slave adoption suggests a man without
sons could adopt his own slave.° But God
assured Abram he would one day have a
biological son who would be the child of
promise. He took him outside and told
Scale him to look up and try to count the stars
of heaven. So would Abram’s descendants
0 50 100 mi
be numbered!
pa
or ea In one of the most important verses of
0 50 100 150km
the Bible (v. 6), the author states simply
that Abram believed God, even though he
93
Encountering the Pentateuch

The |
Use of Slain Animals
‘in1 Ancient Treaty Ceremonies

/ ETTER FROM MARI (18th century B.c.): 2. A TREATY BETWEEN ASHURNIRARI V, KING
went to Ashlakka and they brought to me a OF ASSYRIA, AND AN ARAMEAN RULER OF
young dog and a she-goat in order to SYRIA, MATI’ILU OF ARPAD (8th century B.c.):
conclude a covenant (lit. “kill a donkey foal”) This spring lamb... has been brought to
between the Haneans and the land of sanction the treaty between Ashurnirari and
_Idamaras. But, in deference to my lord, | did Mati‘ilu... This head is not the head of a lamb,
not permit the use of the young dog and the it is the head of Mati’ilu, it is the head of his
| she-goat, but instead had a donkey foal, the sons, his officials, and the people of his land. If
young of a female donkey, killed, and thus Mati‘ilu sins against this treaty, so may, justas —
__ established a reconciliation between the the head of this spring lamb is torn off. .the. 7 a
Haneans and the land of Idamaras. head of Mati’ilu be torn off. ... This Be Is
not the shoulder of a spring jamb itisthe,
—Moshe Held, “Philological Notes on the Mari Covenant Rituals,” shoulder of Mati‘ilu, it is the shoulder of his
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
200 (1970): 33, and see ANET, 482. sons, his officials, and the people of his lan If
Mati‘ilu sins against this treaty, soMay, just
the shoulder of this spring lambis
the shoulder of Mati‘ilu, of his s
and the people of his land
be to:

KALA LEARNS
was old and his wife remained barren. various animal corpses while Abram slept.
covenant Somehow God would fulfill his word, even The ancient custom called for COVENANT
if Abram could not at the moment see how. partners to walk between bleeding halves
God counted such trusting acceptance of of sacrificial animals (Jer 34:18). They were,
his word as righteousness. Through such in essence, pledging not to break the new
faith, Abram became the forefather of “all covenant, lest they become like the dead
those who believe” (Rom 4:11). animal.°
The apostle Paul defined the doctrine of Though the customs are distant and
justification by faith, explaining how one strange to us, it is clear that God was com-
becomes a Christian (Rom 3:21-31). To il- mitting himself to Abram in a remarkable
lustrate the doctrine, he chose Abram as relationship. God was actually invoking
the perfect example of saving faith (Rom a curse upon himself should he fail to keep
4). Even though Abram was advanced in his covenant with Abram. This covenant,
age and Sarah remained barren, “no dis- or intimate and lasting relationship be-
trust made him waver concerning the tween God and Abram, is one of several
promise of God” for he was “fully con- in the Bible. We shall see this covenant
vinced that God was able to do what he with Abram modified and adapted under
had promised” (Rom 4:19-21). Truly this Moses, David, Ezra, and, eventually, Jesus
is the kind of faith God is seeking from all Christ. Remember that the New Testament
of us! is actually a new “covenant.”
The remainder of Genesis 15 is likewise In Genesis 16, Abram made alternative
important for understanding biblical arrangements. Abram’s wife Sarai had
thought. God wanted to assure Abram of borne no children. Because of her ad-
his promises and bind himself to Abram vanced age, she gave her Egyptian slave-
in an intimate and permanent relation- girl, Hagar, to Abram to bear children for
ship. In the eerie ceremony described here, her as a sort of surrogate mother. Again,
a smoking fire pot, representing God’s though the custom is strange to us, the an-
own presence, passed between pieces of cient Near East presents parallels illus-
94
 Genesis 12-50

The Cave of
Machpelah,
Hebron, by
tradition the
burial place of
the patriarchs
Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob.

trating the practice was acceptable in that and life-changing consequences of rela-
culture.” Abram may have assumed this tionship with God are described in Genesis
was God's means of providing a biologi- 17. The opening verses make it clear: God
cal heir to fulfill his promises. Sarai and is righteous, and he expects Abram now
Abram were attempting to carry out God’s to live a righteous life (“walk before me,
promises in their own strength. Hagar’s and be blameless,” v. 1). In 15:6 God con-
son Ishmael would not be the son of the sidered Abram as though he were a right-
promise. eous man because of his strong faith. That
God officially established the covenant righteousness in the Old Testament is the
with Abram in oy dae15. But theisis full love and trust of the wholeoroon ee
SSS SS
SSSSSss aS SS SSS

The Gift ofa Wife’ S Siave:ain

1. LAWS FROM THE CODE OF HAMMURAPI 2. A PERSONAL ARCHIVE FROM NUZI

(18th century B.c.) (14th or 15th century s.c.)
When a free man married a priestess and that Gilimninu has been given to Shennima as wife.
priestess gave a female slave to her husband If Gilimninu bears children, Shennima shall not
and she has then produced children, if that take another wife. But if Gilimninu does not ]
|1
free man has made up his mind to marry a lay bear, she shall take a slave-girl from the Lullu-
priestess, they may not allow him, since he region as wife for Shennima. As for the
'
may not marry the lay priestess. concubine’s offspring, Gilimninu shall not send
When a free man married a priestess and she them away.
gave a female slave to her husband and she
—Adapted from E. A. Speiser, “New Kirkuk Documents Relating
has then borne children, if later that female
to Family Laws,” Annual of the American Schools of Oriental
slave has claimed equality with her mistress Research 10 (1930): 32, and ANET, 220.
because she bore children, her mistress may
not sell her; she may mark her with the slave-
mark and count her among the slaves.

—Laws # 144 and 146, ANET (adapted), 172

95
Encountering the Pentateuch

6:5), which Abram exemplified. It results The son of the covenant was not Lot, not
in the consistent “rightness” of actions and Eliezer, not Ishmael, but Isaac!
character that God is seeking from his ser- Chapter 22 brings a surprising twist to
vants. Such living is an extension of God’s the story. Everything in Abrahams life had
own holy righteousness. Now God in- centered on Isaac, the only son of his
forms Abram: Those who live in covenant beloved Sarah. Isaac now symbolized the
relationship with God must reflect that fulfillment of the covenant promises of
righteousness. land and descendants (12:1-4). Isaac was
Recent literary study has isolated this Abraham’s hope for the future.
unit (17:1-5) as the focal point of the The command came from God clearly
Abrahamic materials.* It is the centerpiece and unmistakably (22:2). The command
in which all the important aspects of is carefully phrased so there can be no mis-
Abram’s life come together. God appears understanding. The mountaintop sacrifice
to Abram when he is ninety-nine years old will have to be Isaac, Abraham’s only son
and changes his and Sarai’s names. by Sarah, the son whom he loves! Though
Henceforth in the narrative they are this would hardly be a legitimate test of
Abraham and Sarah—“Father of a our faith, it must have struck at the core
Multitude” and “Princess.” Here as else- of Abrahams soul. Other deities of the an-
where in the Bible, change of name sym- cient world required child sacrifice; per-
bolizes a new reality, a changed status be- haps this was a new aspect of God he had
fore God (Saul to Paul, Simon to Peter, etc.). not yet learned.
Furthermore, God introduces circumci- The chapter opened with the informa-
sion as a physical sign of the covenant. In tion that this would be a test of Abraham's
addition, God informs Abraham that faith. Would he pass the test? Would
Sarah, his eighty-nine-year-old wife, Abraham obey God in carrying out this ter-
would conceive and have a son within a rible requirement? Verse 3 gives us the an-
year’s time. swer. With great resolve and little hesita-
This is obviously a turning point in tion, Abraham began fulfilling the
Abraham’s life. The single fact that marks command. But what struggle must have
the turn is his covenant (b*rit) with God. occurred! Isaac was the son of the promise;
The term occurs thirteen times in twenty- of this Abraham was sure. Yet now the God
two verses. God often refers to “my Abraham had come to trust and believe
covenant,” which he has signified by name was asking for Isaac’s life. If God had mirac-
changes and the physical sign of circum- ulously given Isaac life, perhaps he would
cision. It is clear: God has established a bring him back from the dead (Heb 11:19).
unique, permanent, and binding rela- The passage has a strange familiarity
tionship with Abraham. So Abraham, the about it. The command itself and Abra-
father of our faith, illustrates the Christian ham’s response have direct parallels with
doctrine of conversion. Our relationship chapter 12. Each divine directive (12:1;
with God through Christ marks us forever 22:2) calls on Abraham to take radical ac-
and causes radical changes in our lives. tion that required total dependence on
God miraculously fulfilled his word to God. He first traveled to an unknown land;
Abraham and Sarah. Isaac was born when then he took his son as a sacrifice to an un-
Sarah was ninety years old and Abraham known mountain. In the first case, the com-
was 100 (17:17; 21:5). When he first left mand was followed immediately by a
Haran for an unknown destination, promise (“I will make of you a great na-
Abraham must have assumed Lot would tion...” 12:2-3). But here, there is no
be his heir, since Abraham was already promise to soften the blow.
seventy-five years old. Then when Lot dis- In both passages, Abraham quickly and
tanced himself from Abraham, Abraham quietly obeyed the word of God. There is
adopted Eliezer as the next presumed heir no argument or debate here. We read only
(chapter 15). After the Lord informed of obedience, of humble submission to
Abraham that his heir would be a biolog- God's will (12:4; 22:3). In chapter 12, God
ical son, Abraham assumed Ishmael, son called on Abram to give up his past and
of Sarah’s slave-girl, would be the heir to trust in him. Now, in chapter 22, he chal-
his estate. But God meant what he said. lenges Abraham to trust him with his fu-
96
 Genesis 12-50

An oak tree
marks the
traditional site
where Abraham
pitched his tent
at Mamre.

ture. As before, Abraham was up to the served!® So now the story depends on this
challenge. This event is the climax of new character. What of the covenant and
Abrahams spiritual journey. He has proven its promises now?
faithful to God from Ur to Haran to Moreh Chapter 28 provides the answer in dra-
and the Negeb, and now at Morin. matic fashion. While fleeing to the patri-
archal homeland (Haran) to make a new
Jacob and His Twelve Sons life for himself, Jacob had a dream (vv.
(25:19-36:43) 10-22). In the dream, God confirmed that
Though Isaac was the son of the covenant, Jacob was the continuation of the patriar-
he soon fades as a leading character after chal covenant (vv. 13-15). God reasserted
his twin sons are born (25:24—26). Esau is his commitment to Abraham by promis-
the firstborn, and again, the presumed heir ing to give the land to Jacob and to make
of the covenant promises. But birthrights him the father of a great multitude. Jacob’s
have little to do with inheriting God’s response was noble, if perfunctory (vv.
favor. Jacob displaced the firstborn, as is 18-22). The reader may still not be confi-
a common occurrence in the Old dent of Jacob’s character and intentions,
Testament (Ephraim and Manasseh, but God’s are now clear.
Moses and Aaron, David and his broth- The rest of the Jacob narrative describes
ers, etc.). Privilege of position by birth has his marriages to Leah and Rachel in Haran,
little to do with our standing before God. his relationship with Laban, and the births
The question of the Jacob stories is, of his twelve sons. The covenant promises
“What will become of God’s covenant finally began to be fulfilled in Jacob’s
promises?” Jacob had to run for his life growing family. These twelve sons even-
after the dispute with Esau (27:41-43). So tually became the twelve tribes of the na-
now the child of the promise is running tion Israel.
away from the promised land. Further- Upon Jacob’s return to Palestine, he
more, his qualities are hardly like those of sought and found reconciliation with his
Abraham. He seems more intent on seiz- estranged brother Esau. Then, in a re-
ing the moment for his own selfish pur- markable passage (Gn 32), Jacob wrestled
poses than on obeying the God of with God (probably meaning an angel, Hs
Abraham. His name, which means 12:4) and God changed his name to Israel.
“Supplanter” or “Cheater,” is justly de- As with his grandfather Abraham, the

97
Encountering the Pentateuch

ANAT NEN change of Jacob’s name signified a change So the Joseph narrative is included in
Messiah
of character due to his relationship with Genesis for two basic reasons. First,
God. Jacob was no longer the “cheater.” Joseph’s life is worthy of emulation. Under
Now he had become the one who “strives the worst of circumstances and the most
with God.” As always, growth in grace extreme temptation, Joseph was faithful
means a change of lifestyle. to God. His story demonstrates how God
So now with Jacob, the patriarchal can use an obedient servant to accomplish
promises are partially fulfilled. The land his divine and benevolent purposes, even
promise will wait future fulfillment. But in the face of severe human persecution
the descendants of Abraham are increas- and opposition (Gn 50:20). Second, the
ing innumber. As one reads the Jacob nar- Joseph narrative explains how God’s peo-
rative, one slowly realizes Jacob will even- ple came to be in Egypt instead of in
tually succeed as the heir of the covenant Palestine. Joseph's rise to power in Egypt
promises, but not without a great deal of and the subsequent move of Jacob and his
suspense. family there meant the people of God’s
covenant promises were now living far
Joseph (37:1-50:26)
from the promised land. But the book ends
The account of Joseph is unique among looking to the future (“when God comes
the patriarchal narratives. Unlike to you,” 50:25), anticipating that day when
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, Joseph is not God will fulfill his promises to his people.
in the direct line of the covenant promises.
The Messiah came through the tribe of TTT
Judah. In that sense, Joseph is a periph-
eral character in the drama of redemptive Theology of the
history portrayed in the Bible. But the Bible
is also interested in marginal characters, Patriarchal Narratives
especially when they exemplify the kind The patriarchal narratives contain much
of moral life for which God is looking. that is foundational for the rest of bibli-

Summary

. The subject of Genesis 12-50 is the . Abraham obeyed God in preparing to

patriarchs. sacrifice Isaac, the son of the
covenant.
. Biblical scholars can find much support
for the patriarchal accounts of Genesis . Joseph was faithful to God under the
in the work of modern historians and worst of circumstances.
archaeologists.
. God elected the patriarchs not by
. The three patriarchs are Abraham, birth or by character or by action, but
Isaac, and Jacob. because he called them.
. The Abrahamic covenant is the foun- . Election, promise, and covenant are
dation for the other covenants of the three theological concepts developed
Bible. in Genesis 12-50.
. Abraham illustrates the Christian doc-
trine of conversion.
 Genesis 12-50

tained the purpose for the future nation

Israel: “I will make of you a great nation
Key People/ ...and in you all the families of the earth
Places shall be blessed” (12:2-3). God brought
the nation Israel into existence for a pur-
Hammurapi
pose: to serve as his instrument of salva-
Ur
Key Terms Haran
tion for the world. Too often, she assumed
this election was only a privilege, and for-
Moreh
patriarch got it also brought responsibility.
Bethel
patriarchal narratives The unusual circumstances surround-
Negeb
Middle Bronze Age ing the births of Isaac and Jacob illustrate
Damascus
promise further the principle of election. God’s elec-
Mari
covenant tion of Isaac over Ishmael, and Jacob over
Nuzi
Messiah Esau, was not because of their character
Moriah
election or their actions. He elected them to con-
tinue the covenant promises before they
were even born. They had not done any-
thing good to deserve his favor. They were
chosen to be in the line of the covenant
promises, “not by works but by his call”
cal thought and for Christian theology in (Rom 9:11).
general. God’s election of the patriarchs focuses
more on his plans for them as his instru-
Election ments of salvation to the world. God chose
One of the most important ideas is that of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob to stand in the
election. The call of Abraham also con- line of the covenant. They prepared the

Study Questions

. What is a “patriarch”? they receive? What physical sign of

this new relationship is introduced?
. What turn occurs in Genesis 12 (as
compared to Gn 3-11)? What is the . How did Abraham respond to the
Bible’s principal concern in presenting command to sacrifice Isaac? How did
the story of Abram? What is the key this command differ from the com-
verse on this topic? mand to travel to an unknown land?

. How did God assure Abram with the . What question is raised by the Jacob
smoking fire pot? Define a stories? When and how does God as-
“covenant.” sure the reader? What is Jacob’s mo-
ment of transformation?
. What three “other arrangements” did
Abram make when Sarai remained . How does the Joseph story differ from
childless? those of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob?
Why is his story included in Scripture?
. What is the “turning point” in Abram
and Sarai’s life? What is God’s require- . What are the major theological con-
ment of them? What assurance do cepts of Genesis 12-50?
Encountering the Pentateuch

Further Reading

Baldwin, Joyce G. The Message of Genesis 12-50. Moberly, R. W. L. Genesis 12-50. Old Testament
The Bible Speaks Today. Downers Grove/Leicester: Guides. Sheffield: JSOT, 1992.
InterVarsity, 1986. Ross, Allen P. Creation and Blessing: A Guide to the
Clines, David J. A. The Theme of the Pentateuch. Study and Exposition of the Book of Genesis.
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament— Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988. Helpful evangelical
Supplement Series 10. Sheffield: JSOT, 1978. study of the literary aspects of the text.
Important volume on the covenant theme of the Wenham, Gordon J. Genesis 16-50. Word Biblical
pentateuchal narratives. Commentary 2. Dallas: Word, 1994. Most
Kidner, Derek. Genesis: An Introduction and comprehensive treatment available, including all
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament the pertinent ancient Near Eastern materials.
Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1967.
Theologically sensitive treatment.
Millard, A. R., and Donald J. Wiseman, eds. Essays on
the Patriarchal Narratives. Winona Lake, Ind.:
Eisenbrauns, 1983. An excellent collection of
articles by leading scholars.

way for the coming of Israel’s Messiah, promises and the covenant that God es-
through whom salvation would be ac- tablished with Abraham (Gn 15 and 17),
complished and offered to the world. he also confirmed to Isaac (Gn 26:2-5),
Election in the patriarchal narratives is pri- Jacob (Gn 28:13-15), and Joseph (Gn
marily to service. 48:3-4; 50:24).
God's covenant with the patriarchs is
Promise foundational to other covenants in the
Asecond major concept in the patriarchal Bible. The covenantal relationship between
narratives is that of promise. The promises God and Abraham establishes a theolog-
of God to Abraham in Genesis 12:2-3 serve ical framework for redemptive relation-
as focal points for the rest of the patriar- ships throughout the Bible and in
chal account.’ That they are only partially Christian theology. Other covenants play
fulfilled in Abraham is obvious. At his an important role later. The Mosaic
death, he has acquired only a small plot covenant formalized the relationship be-
of ground in the promised land (Gn tween God and the nation Israel (Ex 19).
23:17-18), and Isaac hardly constitutes a The Davidic covenant made permanent
multitude of descendants. Though the pa- the relationship between God and the
triarchal family grows dramatically under royal dynasty of Israel (2 Sm 7). Jesus
Jacob, Genesis closes with their descen- Christ sealed the relationship between
dants living in exile in Egypt. The promises God and his people through his redemp-
of God are sure and therefore the patriar- tive life, death, and resurrection (“This cup
chal narratives are forward looking. The is the new covenant in my blood, which
ultimate fulfillment of these promises must is poured out for you,” Lk 22:20). All of
await a later generation. these covenantal relationships with God
are related to the patriarchal covenant. So
Covenant the covenant structure that God estab-
A third important theological concept of lished with the patriarchs “underlies the
the patriarchal narratives is related to program of redemption.”1°
promise, that is, the idea of covenant. The The covenant was necessary to main-

100
 Genesis 12-50

tain the right kind of relationship with God Almighty; walk before me and be
God. The promises were central and eter- blameless” (Gn 17:1). We cling to the
nal. But the covenant taught the patriar- promises of God. But we must also un-
chal believers what was expected from derstand that knowing and loving him
them in their relationship with God: “Iam means following his ways (Jn 14:15).

101
 Exodus
A Miraculous Escape

: ‘Contents ofthe Book of Exodus

Outline
a The Events of the Exodus ToT ITT
e Historical Problems of the Exodus
_ Historicity of the Exodus Objectives
Date of the Exodus
After reading this chapter,
~ Route of the Exodus
you should be able to
x ¢ Theological Significance ¢ Contrast the emphasis on beginnings in
of the Exodus Exodus with those in Genesis
Deliverance
¢ Outline the basic content of Exodus
Covenant
¢ Give examples of how God saved Israel
Presence of God
¢ Define casuistic law as found in Exodus
e Explain the purpose of the covenant
¢ Identify the three major historical
problems of the exodus
¢ Discuss the theological significance
of the exodus

103
Encountering the Pentateuch

The Book of Exodus is about a daring es- A. From the Sea to Elim
cape. Even the meaning of the word “ex- (15:22-27)
odus” implies a quick exit.! By God’s grace B. From Elim to the Wilderness
and mercy, he rescued Israel from a life of of Sin (16:1-36)
slavery in Egypt. But the book is also about . From Sin to Rephidim
Israel’s relationship with God after her de- (17:1-16)
parture from Egypt. Exodus describes . Moses’ Family (18:1-27)
these two main events: Israel’s departure a . From Rephidim to Sinai
Ts
from Egypt (rescue) and her newly estab- (19:1-2)
lished alliance with God (relationship).
III. The Sinaitic Covenant
(19:3-24:18)
A. Preparations (19:3-25)
Contents of the B. The Covenant (20:1—23:33)
C. The Covenant Ceremony
Book of Exodus (24:1-18)
Exodus is a book of beginnings, as was
Genesis. The first book of the Bible related IV. Instructions for Israel’s
the beginning of everything. Genesis in- Sanctuary (25:1-31:18)
cluded the beginning of faith in the form A. Preparations (25:1-9)
of the patriarchal line. Exodus now con- B. The Ark (25:10-22)
tinues that line, relating the beginning of . The Table (25:23-30)
the nation Israel. . The Lampstand (25:31-40)
. The Tabernacle (26:1-37)
Outline The Altar (27:1-8)
. The Courtyard (27:9-19)
I. Oppression and Deliverance
. The Oil (27:20-21)
(1:1-15:21)
a The Priestly Garments
ty
ea
(CD
Gaietaeee
. Introduction (1:1-7)
(28:1-43)
. Oppression (1:8-22)
Consecration of the Priests
. The Birth of a Deliverer —

(29:1-46)
(2:1-10)
. The Altar of Incense (30:1-10)
. Moses as Refugee (2:11-25)
. The Offering (30:11-16)
. Moses’ Call (3:1-4:17)
. The Laver (30:17-21)
AWLS
AMO Moses Returns to Egypt
. The Anointing Oil and
(4:18-31)
Incense (30:22-38)
. Increased Oppression (5:1-23)
. Bezalel and Oholiab (31:1-11)
. God Encourages Moses
(6:1-13)
Zern
HO Sabbath Instructions
(31:12-18)
Moses’ Genealogy (6:14-30)
Moses and Aaron Warn V. Apostasy and Intercession
Pharaoh (7:1-13) (32:1=33:23)
. The Nine Plagues (7:14-10:29) A. The Golden Calf (32:1-33:6)
The Tenth Plague Announced B. The Tent of Meeting (33:7-23)
(11:1-10)
. The Passover (12:1-27) VI. The New Tablets (34:1-35)
. The Exodus (12:28-51)
OZ
ae
ay
eG). Consecration of the Firstborn VII. Execution of Sanctuary
(13:1-16) Instructions (35:1—40:38)
=e. The Crossing of the Red Sea
The Events of the Exodus
(13:17-14:31)
Q. Celebration of Salvation The Book of Exodus describes Israel's trav-
(15:1-21) els under the direction of God, from Egypt
through the desert to the foot of Mount
II. The Journey to Mount Sinai SINAI. So the book has a geographical
(15:22-19:2) arrangement: Israel in Egypt (1:1-12:36),
104
 Exodus

Eee
Hebrews
Israel in the desert (12:37— 18:27), and Is- that God knew their plight. He heard, re-
rael at Mount Sinai (19-40). membered, saw, and knew of the groaning
As the book opens, the patriarchal of the Israelites. God was committed to tak-
covenant promises are in jeopardy. The de- ing action to redeem his people from Egypt
scendants of Abraham are living in Egypt, because of his covenant with the patriarchs
where we left them at the conclusion of (v. 24). Because of Abraham, the Israelites
Genesis. But it is now hundreds of years must be redeemed from Egypt. Moses may
later. The people have grown in significant have forgotten, but God had not!
numbers, enough to become a threat to the Moses and God were on a collision
Egyptian population (1:10). In order to con- course. The Lord was determined to save
trol this threat, the Egyptians enslaved the the Israelites; Moses was determined to
Hebrews and attempted to control their forget about them. The famous call of
birth rate (chapter 1). Moses at the burning bush (Ex 3-4) is
The birth of Moses is God’s answer to where the two collide. The resulting de-
this terrible predicament. Exodus 2 relates bate is classic and powerful. God called
how the baby was spared and raised in the Moses to go back to Egypt and lead the Is-
Egyptian court, providing him with the best raelites out of their slavery. Moses raised
education possible (Acts 7:22). As an adult, four objections, all of which God an-
Moses tried to take matters into his own swered. Finally Moses simply refused to
hands ina pathetic attempt to fulfill his call- go: “please send someone else” (4:13).
ing (Ex 2:11-15a). As a result, he had to flee God assured Moses of his presence in
Egypt. Moses found his way to Midian, Egypt and of his ultimate victory. Together
where he started life over again. He tried with the help of his brother, Aaron, Moses
to forget about the terrible plight of the He- would become the deliverer of his people.
Egyptian wall
painting brews by settling into a new occupation, a He returned to Egypt and warned Pharaoh
showing a scribe new family, a new home (vv. 15b-22). of impending disaster if the Egyptian ruler
conducting a But God did not forget or forsake his peo- failed to obey God’s command to let the
count of geese
on an Egyptian
ple. In an important paragraph at the con- people go. The ten plagues were intended
official's estate. clusion of chapter 2 (vv. 23-25), we are told not only to force the Egyptians into com-

105
Encountering the Pentateuch

ws from Ancient Mesopotamia

n has accused another citizen and 4. If a son has struck his father, they shall cut
brought a charge of murder against him, but off his hand. (Compare Ex 21:15)
has not been able to prove it, his accuser shall 5. If he has broken another citizen's bone, they
be put to death. (Compare Ex 23:1-3) shall break his bone. (Compare Ex 21:23-25)
2. \f a citizen has stolen the young son of 6. If an ox, when it was walking along the
another citizen, he shall be put to death. street, gored a citizen to death, that case is
(Compare Ex 21:16) not subject to claim. If a citizenhadagoring _
3. 1f an obligation came due against a citizen ox and his city council warned him about it, —
and he sold into slavery his wife, his son, or his but he did not pad its horns or tie up his ox, —
daughter, or he himself has been bound over and that ox gored to death a member of the
to service, they shall work in the house of their aristocracy, he shall give one-half mina of
purchaser or obligee for three years, with their silver. (Compare Ex 21:28-36) _
freedom reestablished in the fourth year.
(Compare Ex 21:2-11) -Selected from the Law Code of Hammurapi
195, 197, and 250-51, ANET (adap’

ATTA pliance, but also to teach the Egyptians what he has done for us, we would quickly
casuistic law
and the Israelites about the sovereign char- obey his Word.
acter of the God of Israel. The Egyptians In chapter 19, the Israelites arrived at
believed their god-king, the Pharaoh, was Mount Sinai. The rest of the book describes
responsible for maintaining the life-giv- the events that took place there. In dra-
ing Nile River and for the sun’s daily ris- matic fashion, God met with the nation
ing. But the plagues demonstrated that Is- (vv. 16-25). Now he began to transform
rael’s God, Yahweh, was in control of the this ragtag group of former slaves into a
cosmic order. nation devoted only to him, a “treasured
On the night of the release of the Is- possession” (v. 5). Just as he had used a
raelites, God established a permanent covenant to establish his relationship with
memorial to commemorate the event, the the patriarchs, so now he used a covenant
Passover (chapter 12). Future generations with Israel.
must never forget God’s great and mighty The Sinai covenant was anchored in the
acts of salvation. Exodus 14:30-31 serves Ten Commandments (20:1-17). The Bible
as a theological summary of the entire ex- actually calls these “words” instead of
odus event that became so central in fu- commandments (Dt 10:4), because they
ture Israelite thought. The Lord saved Is- are more like ten principles for living than
rael in that day and they saw the Egyptians laws. The rest of the law is based on them.
dead on the seashore. This sight became Chapters 21-23 are called the “Book of the
the concrete sign that God had accom- Covenant” (Ex 24:7). These chapters list
plished salvation and brought a new life specific cases in which the principles of
for Israel. covenant law are applied to life. This type
The second main unit of the book traces of law (known as casuistic law) was
Israel’s strange odyssey through the widely used in the ancient Near East. Sev-
desert. How could Israel question God and eral parallels from Mesopotamia illustrate
complain about their circumstances? Had how the Bible often used the writing styles
they not just witnessed the greatest mira- and customs of the day to express God’s
cle of history? Did they not yet understand revelation.
what God had done for them? Yet sin and After God gave the law to Israel, Moses
rebellion often fly in the face of facts. If we led the nation in a solemn and sacred
would only remember who God is and covenant ceremony, binding God and na-
106
 Exodus

tion together (24:3-8). Moses sprinkled to Israel. This must surely be behind the
sacrificial blood on the altar, which repre- words of Jesus: “This is my blood of the
sented God (v. 6). Then he read the Book covenant, which is poured out for many
of the Covenant to the people and sprin- for the forgiveness of sins” (Mt 26:28).
kled blood on them as well (vv. 7-8). Moses The purpose for the desert tabernacle
called this blood “the blood of the was clear from the beginning (25:8). It was
covenant” because the ceremony was sym- not like our churches, stadiums, or arenas,
bolic of the kind of covenant God made where large groups gather for various pur-
with Abraham in Genesis 15, using di- poses. It was God’s way of living in the
vided animals. Just as God bound himself midst of his people. Prior to this, God had
to Abraham, he was now binding himself demonstrated his presence with them in
the form of pillars of fire and smoke dur-
ing their desert travels (13:21-22). This
Plan of the Wilderness large tent, however, would now be God's
dwelling place. The glory of his presence,
Tabernacle which had provided both protection and
comfort, would now reside in the center
Sanaa OO CUItSii aa of the Israelite camp. The word “taberna-
cle” itself (miskan) means “dwelling place.”
The tabernacle section of the book uses
Ark of the covenant repetition. Seven chapters (25-31) give de-
tailed instructions in how to build the
The Most Holy Place
tabernacle with all of its furnishings. Then
Ve four chapters (35-39) relate how Moses
and the Israelites obeyed in every detail.
While this may be unlike the modern lit-
erature we are used to reading, the point
Veil
should be clear. The people were obedi-
Altar of incense ent to God, down to every detail of the
Table of the tabernacle’s curtains, rings, and hooks.
Seven-branch presence
lampstand What comes between the two sections
on the tabernacle, however, is an example
of rank disobedience (chapters 32-34).
While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiv-
ing the law of God, the children of Israel
blatantly and quickly turned from the very
The Holy Place God who had just delivered them from
their life of slavery and misery in Egypt.
Apparently they wanted God to look like
the familiar gods of Egypt and Canaan.
So, while Yahweh was creating a nation
that would reflect his moral likeness, the
Israelites were trying to create God in their
Bronze sea
image.
Chapter 40 is a triumphant climax to the
Book of Exodus. The recurring phrase
makes the point: Moses and the Israelites
performed the tasks of building God’s
tabernacle just “as the Lorp had com-
Altar of burnt offering manded Moses.” When all was completed
as required, God’s wonderful glory filled
the tabernacle (v. 34). The presence of God
Entrance
that led the Israelites in pillars of cloud
and fire and that met them so dramatically
lee fe) on Mount Sinai would now rest on the
movable tabernacle. They must leave
107
Encountering the Pentateuch

Mount Sinai behind, but God’s presence chaeological evidence from Palestine con-
would go with them. tradicts the earlier date and suggests in-
stead a thirteenth-century B.c. date. The
480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 must, in this case,
be an ideal figure. For example, the num-
Historical Problems ber might be the sum total of the 12 tribes
of Israel multiplied by an ideal generation
of the Exodus of 40. The real time between the exodus
Like the patriarchal narratives, the Book and the temple would be approximately
of Exodus gives few historical references 300 years instead of 480.
to other times and places in the ancient Exodus 1:11 states the Israelites worked
Near East. Consequently, we are faced on the construction of the city of Ramesses,
with several unanswered questions about which is believed to have been built by
the exodus event. Pharaoh Ramesses II (1279-1213 B.c.).
Thus the exodus could not have taken
Historicity of the Exodus place prior to 1279 B.c., when Ramesses
The first of these is the question of its his- began to rule. Also, recently published re-
toricity. The lack of firm extrabiblical evi- liefs from Karnak combine with the “Is-
dence leads some to deny the event actu- rael Stela” inscription to support the later
ally occurred. But the exodus is so central date. Since the inscription designates Is-
to later Israelite thought and theology, it rael as a “people” instead of a land or
is inconceivable the events could have no country, it may be assumed Israel had only
basis in the national history. Furthermore, recently arrived in the area and not yet
it seems unlikely Israel would have been completely settled. Thus the exodus and
so uncomplimentary about her past as to conquest were thirteenth-century B.c.
include suffering and servitude if it were events.
not true. Those who question the his- Reevaluation of the archaeological evi-
toricity of the exodus ignore too many dence shows that archaeology cannot an-
other pertinent questions. swer this question. Archaeology can, in
fact, be used to argue for the earlier date.*
Date of the Exodus Singling out a definitive date for the exo-
The second problem has to do with the dus is currently impossible because of a
precise date of the exodus. Basically there lack of more complete information. Of
are two options, though there are many course, we can still affirm the reality of the
variations of these. The exodus may be event, even if we do not know exactly
dated to around 1446 B.c. or 1275 B.c. when it occurred.
First Kings 6:1 dates the exodus 480
years before Solomon built the temple in Route of the Exodus
966 B.c. By simple addition, we derive the The third problem facing those who study
fifteenth-century B.c. date, 1446, for the ex- Exodus is identifying the route the Is-
odus. Judges 11:26 gives three hundred raelites took after leaving Egypt and then
years between Jephthah’s day (around traveling through the desert from Egypt
1100 B.c.) and the conquest, which would to the promised land. Ramesses and Suc-
also seem to suggest the earlier date. coth (Ex 12:37) may be identified with
An Egyptian inscription known as the some degree of confidence. But the other
“Israel Stela” records the victory hymn of Egyptian place-names mentioned in the
Pharaoh Merneptah in 1209 B.c. This in- narrative are not clearly identifiable.°
scription reports the Pharaoh’s victory The sea that has been known as the “Red
over several peoples in Palestine, includ- Sea” since the days of the Septuagint is ac-
ing “the people of Israel” (ANET, 378). tually the “Sea of Reeds” in Hebrew. Pre-
Some would argue the Israelites must have sumably the body of water Israel miracu-
been in the land for a considerable length lously crossed is one of the freshwater
of time in order to be recognized by an lakes east of the Nile Delta where such
Egyptian Pharaoh. This would also sup- reeds were found: Menzaleh, Ballah, Tim-
port the early date. sah, or the Bitter Lakes (some would add
However, others have contended the ar- Lake Sirbonis to this list). The Red Sea’s
108
 Exodus

theophany a
Gulf of Suez probably should be ruled out, the Nile Delta all the way to Gaza. The Is-
as may the GULF oF AgaBa, since these raelites, with God’s guidance, bypassed
larger salt water bodies lack the reedy veg- this dangerous northern route and took
etation necessary to qualify them as the “the roundabout way of the wilderness
“Sea of Reeds.”” toward the Reed Sea” (Ex 13:18). We may
Once across the sea and out of Egypt, assume this was a more southerly direc-
there were three basic options for the Is- tion, taken to avoid military conflict with
raelite trek across the Sinai Peninsula: the Egyptians. Unfortunately, we are un-
northern, central, or southern routes. able to discern just what that roundabout
The northern route was along the “Way way was. The locations of important
of the Sea,” an international highway that places mentioned in the desert narratives
stretched from Egypt to Canaan along the are still uncertain—even the location of
Mediterranean coastline. The Bible refers Mount Sinai.
to this highway as the “way of the land The central route hypothesis locates
of the Philistines” (Ex 13:17). This would Mount Sinai somewhere in northwest
have been the most direct route, though Saudi Arabia, beyond the Gulf of Aqaba.
not the easiest. Archaeology has con- Some who hold this position believe the
firmed certain Egyptian inscriptions that Bible’s references to the theophany at Sinai
speak of a heavy Egyptian military pres- describe an active volcano (Ex 19:18; 24:17,
ence along the highway, reaching from etc.). Geological evidence points to vol-

Dating the Exodus

Of the abundance of evidence cited in the debate, we include here only a selective
list, along with the interpretation of each approach.

Evidence Fifteenth-Century Thirteenth-Century

Approach Approach Approach

1) 1 Kings 6:1 The numbers are taken The 480 years are ideal
480 years from exodus to seriously, and are literal. numbers and figurative.
the temple of Solomon

2) Exodus 1:11 The name “Ramesses” was Since Ramesses came to

Israelites built the city of also used prior to the power in 1279 s.c., the
Ramesses, named for thirteenth century. exodus could not have BAZ

pharaoh Ramesses of the occurred prior to this time. CAAA

thirteenth century.

3) Judges 11:26 Jephthah was approximately Jephthah had no historical

Jephthah refers to 300 years correct, placing the records, and was making a
between his day (around Transjordanian conquest broad generalization.
1100 b.c.) and the conquest around 1400 s.c.
of the Promised Land. EaEAaABBZZD-
_—
4) Merneptah’s Stela Since the pharaoh Other groups in the inscription CA
The thirteenth-century mentioned them by name, are designated as territorial
pharaoh mentioned “the the Israelite smust have been city-states. Only Israel is
people of Israel” as there for an extended referred to as a people. She
inhabitants of Palestine. period of time. The must have been a relative
thirteenth-century approach newcomer to the area. The
does not provide enough fifteenth-century date
time for Israel to become leaves too much time.
recognized by Egypt.

MIO ST

109
Encountering the Pentateuch

The view from canically active areas in Arabia at that time, basilica of St. Catherine. The identification
Jebel Musa
(Mount of
while the mountains of the Sinai Penin- of Jebel Musa with Mount Sinai dates to
Moses), often sula were not. Also, the land of Midian a Christian tradition from the fourth cen-
identified as was located east of the Gulf of Aqaba. So tury A.D. However, the rugged granite
Mount Sinai. when Moses fled Egypt, settled in Mid- mountains of the Sinai Peninsula offer sev-
ian, and eventually met God at Mount eral other possibilities for the mountain of
Sinai (Ex 3:1), a region in northwestern God: Ras Safsaf, Jebel Serbal, Jebel Kata-
Arabia was intended. rina, or Jebel Sin Bisher.
However, the Bible’s description of The Israelites often gave names to places
God's appearance at Sinai does not require in the desert as they passed through the
an active volcano. Many theophanies of area. But without a continuous popula-
the Old Testament describe extraordinary tion in the region to carry on the traditional
phenomena, and Exodus 19:18 has other names, we are unable to identify locations
more plausible explanations. Moreover, precisely. Furthermore, the Israelites lived
Moses’ connection with the Midianites is a nomadic lifestyle during these years in
inconclusive. The Bible relates him to a the desert. Their tents, animal-skin cloth-
Midianite subtribe, the Kenites. This Mid- ing, and containers would leave behind
ianite clan was not settled ina single area, few artifacts for modern archaeologists to
but was nomadic, sometimes appearing discover. As a result, we have no specific
in the Sinai Peninsula.* Few today would information on the route, and are unlikely
insist on the central route as the way taken to acquire any soon. However, the tradi-
by the Israelites. tional, southern route answers more ques-
Advocates of the southern route usu- tions than the others. This is our best es-
ally accept the identification of Mount timate of the direction the newly freed
Sinai with Jebel Musa (Mount of Moses), Israelite people took on their way to God’s
where today there is a monastery and a promised land.
110
 Exodus

tive beginning of the nation Israel, histor-

Theological ically and theologically. Similarly, the life,
death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ was
Significance a parallel event of salvation, which was
of the Exodus the formative beginning for the church.
Jesus spoke of his “departure” (Greek ex-
The Book of Exodus and the events it de- odos) that he would accomplish on the
scribes are of paramount importance in cross (Lk 9:31).
Christian theology. God sovereignly re-
deemed his people from a life of bondage Deliverance
and bound himself to them in covenant The theme of the first section of the book is
relationship. This role of God became cen- deliverance (chapters 1-18). The people of
tral for the rest of the Old Testament. The God were languishing under the heavy
exodus as salvation event was the forma- bondage of the Egyptians. They had no

Ra‘amses,@
& Lake Ballah

Succoth @ ©
Jebel Helal ®@
Lake Timsah Kadesh-barnea
reat Bitter Lake WILDERNESS
OF SHUR
Little Bitter Lake

DERNESS
OF PARAN
A Jebel Sin Bisher

Ezion-geber

mums Possible alternative Israelite rou

WILDERNESS
Route of the Israelites
from Egypt to Mt. Sinai OF SIN
al Road

bel Serbal A a Rephidim

Ras Safsaf&
aeJebel Musa

Jebel Katarina
 Encountering the Pentateuch

ANNONA
leadership and no hope of escape. But God However, the Sinai agreement added a
covenant
was moved by his grace and his earlier com- new element to the covenant. Although
ENCANA mitment to the patriarchs (2:24-25). He de- God had demanded ethical behavior from
Torah
livered his people by providing the neces- Abraham (Gn 17:1), the details of living in
sary human leader, Moses. Through relationship to God were not available to
dramatic plagues, God demonstrated his the Hebrew people in written form. The
sovereign control of nature and broke the Sinai covenant was a public and specific
Egyptian hold on Israel, freeing her to es- statement of the demands of having a re-
cape. The spectacular miracle at the Sea of lationship with God, establishing clear and
Reeds was the ultimate act of deliverance uplifting instruction (chapters 20-23).
(chapters 14-15). The helpless Israelites were Though the covenantal promises are in a
now free through no merit of their own; the sense permanent and unconditional, the
Lord had become their salvation:(15:2). covenant itself requires faithful obedience
to God: “You have seen what I did to the
Covenant
Egyptians .. . Now therefore, if you obey
my voice and keep my covenant . .”
The theme of the second section of Exo- (19:4-5). The Sinai covenant placed God’s
dus is covenant (chapters 19-40). As we Torah (“law”), his divine instruction, at the
have seen, the patriarchal covenant pro- very center of his relationship with Israel.
vides the foundation for the covenant at The Ten Commandments and the other
Sinai. The Abrahamic covenant (Gn commands of chapters 21-23 were a nat-
15:7-21) anticipated the covenant of blood ural part of the relationship between God
between Yahweh and Israel (Ex 24:3-8). and the Israelites. The terms of the
Just as the Abrahamic covenant involved covenant were a result of God’s grace and
promises of land and descendants, the love for his people. He issued his laws for
Sinai covenant fulfills those promises par- the nation after he had redeemed them and
tially and continues them (19:4-5). established his bond of intimate relation-

Summary

LN ARON ANNO

Te The Book of Exodus describes how . The date of the Exodus is placed by
God led Israel from Egypt through some scholars in the thirteenth cen-
the desert to Mount Sinai. tury B.c. and by others in the fifteenth
century B.c.
. The Passover was God's method of
commemorating the release of the Is- . There are three possible routes for the
raelites from Egyptian bondage. exodus—the northern, central, and
southern routes.
. The Ten Commandments were the
foundation of the Sinai covenant. . The life, death, and resurrection of
Christ is a parallel event of salvation
. The tabernacle was the place where
to the exodus of Israel.
God dwelt in the midst of his people.
. The Book of Exodus is important theo-
. Scholars find three major historical
logically in terms of the way deliver-
problems with the Book of Exodus:
ance, covenant, and God's presence
the historicity of the exodus, the date
are presented.
of the exodus, and the route of the
exodus.

112
 Exodus

St. Catherine’s
Monastery,
Sinai, situated
close
to Jebe
Musa, Mount
Moses.

ship with them. The law served as a seal Presence of God

on that relationship. Throughout the Old Deliverance and covenant—these are the
Testament, law is a positive expression of themes of the two main sections of Exo-
God’s will for his people. dus (chapters 1-18 and 19-40). But an em-
Laws are a part of life, whether they are phasis on the presence of God runs
natural laws of the universe or divine laws throughout the whole book. The purpose
prescribed by God. We should not break of the exodus from Egypt and the covenant
any of God’s laws any more than we at Sinai, with its Law and tabernacle, can
would attempt to break the laws of nature. be summarized in this way: God was
Trying to break the law of gravity, for ex- preparing Israel for his arrival in their
ample, by jumping off a high cliff only midst.
proves the law to be true and breaks in- The patriarchal covenant had contained
stead the person who jumps! So it is with the promise of descendants and a land. An
God's laws. Breaking them only hurts us element of that Genesis land-promise was
and proves that God’s laws are just and living in the presence of Yahweh. When
true (Ps 19:7-10). On the other hand, obey- the promise was confirmed to Abraham’s
ing his law is the right response to God’s children, God assured them “I am [or will
grace, not as a means of salvation, but as be] with you” (Gn 26:3 for Isaac; Gn 28:15
the response to salvation. for Jacob). Joseph’s life illustrated the prin-
ciple of living in God’s presence (Gn 39:2).
But at the beginning of Exodus, the land
was not yet a reality and the descendants
Key Terms of Jacob were in danger of extinction. Even
worse, the people were incapable of in-
Hebrews heriting God’s land-promise because they
casuistic law were unprepared to live in the land. Life
theophany in the promised land also meant life in
Key Places covenant God's presence.
Torah The Israelites were not ready for life in
Mount Sinai God's presence because they had not yet
Gulf of Aqaba learned of his great character. This was
one of the lessons of the plagues. They

143
Encountering the Pentateuch

Study Questions

. What are the two main events in the . What was the purpose of the desert
Book of Exodus? What “beginning” tabernacle?
is established in the book? What is the
. What are the possible dates of the ex-
arrangement of the book?
odus? What is the evidence for each
. What was the point of collision be- date?
tween God and Moses?
. What is the best estimate of the route
. What was the permanent commemo- followed by the Israelites?
ration of the Israelites’ release from
. What are the theological themes of
captivity?
the Book of Exodus? What other em-
. What were the two intended purposes phasis runs throughout the book?
of the plagues?
. What was the anchor of the new Sinai
covenant?

were unprepared to live under his lord- weh”). But after Moses and the Israelites,
ship, as Exodus 32 demonstrates and as the name is associated with the exodus
we shall see in the Book of Numbers. Con- and the Sinai covenant. He is the One who
sequently, they were also unprepared to was with his people to redeem them and
inherit the promised land. to mark them with his holy presence.
The book’s emphasis on the presence of God's desire was for a “priestly king-
God is related to the important reference dom and a holy nation” that he could in-
in Exodus 3:14. The significance of God’s dwell (Ex 19:6). The purpose for the exo-
personal name of intimacy, Yahweh, is that dus from Egypt was so God could dwell
he is the God who is there for Moses and in the midst of his people. The coming of
the Israelites. Moses has asked God what God’s glorious presence into the newly
to say if the reluctant Israelites want to constructed tabernacle forms the climax
know who sent him to Egypt to deliver of the Book of Exodus (40:34). Thus the
them. Their request for a name is their way tabernacle was the partial fulfillment of
of asking, “Exactly what kind of God is the the patriarchal promise that God would
God of our ancestors?” (v. 13). In response, be with the descendants of Abraham,
God said to tell them, “I am (the God who Isaac, and Jacob. Eventually the temple in
is there for you).” It would be a long jour- Jerusalem would replace the tabernacle as
ney. But Moses and the Israelites learned the habitation of God’s glory. Likewise,
through the plagues and the exodus what Christ came to “tabernacle” among us (Jn
kind of God Yahweh was (and is). He was 1:14; Heb 8:1-9:15). Now the Holy Spirit
a God who was present with them in their dwells within the church and has there-
time of need and suffering. He was with fore fulfilled the ultimate purpose for both
them to deliver them mightily. tabernacle and temple.
The exodus, in fact, marked Yahweh for- At the conclusion of Exodus, God’s pa-
ever as the God who was present with Is- triarchal promises are partially fulfilled.
rael to deliver them. The statement that The descendants of Abraham are free and
the patriarchs did not know God as Yah- in covenant relationship with God. They
weh (Ex 6:3) does not mean they were are not yet living in the promised land.
completely unfamiliar with the name (see But they still have the promise, and at the
Gn 22:14, where Abraham used “Yah- end of the book they receive God's pres-
114
 Exodus

Further Reading

Bimson, John J. Redating the Exodus and Conquest. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1973. Helpful
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament— evangelical introduction to all the issues in
Supplement Series 5. Sheffield, JSOT, 1981. Exodus.
Cassuto, Umberto. A Commentary on the Book of Childs, Brevard S. The Book of Exodus: A Critical,
Exodus. Trans. Israel Abrams. Jerusalem: Magnes, Theological Commentary. Old Testament Library.
1967. Excellent treatment from a Jewish Philadelphia: Westminster, 1974. Important
perspective. literary and theological introduction to the book.
Cole, R. Alan. Exodus: An Introduction and Durham, John |. Exodus. Word Biblical Commen-
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament tary 3. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1987.
Commentary.

ence. Exodus is about the salvation and the exodus and Sinai covenant constitute
preparation of the Israelites for life in the the central act of redemption in the Old
land. The gift of God’s presence is a pre- Testament. Here, the promises of God and
fulfillment reality. the acts of God met to save his people from
The miracle at the Sea of Reeds became their bondage. The exodus and Sinai
the primary symbol of salvation in the Old events are thus as central for the Old Tes-
Testament. Likewise, the Sinai covenant tament as the cross is for the New.
became the principal symbol of an en-
during relationship with God. Together,

115
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 Leviticus
Instructions for Holy Living
TUALANGNN ANON DANTE TOUS SO SSRN
EUs SON AU MT

- Outline
_ ¢ Background of the
_ Book of Leviticus
¢ Contents of Leviticus
Outline
INN Objectives
¢ Themes of Leviticus
Law
After reading this chapter,
you should be able to
Sacrifice
¢ Compare the uses of sacrifice
Holiness
in Israel with uses of sacrifice
in Mesopotamian cultures
¢ Contrast the emphasis on worship
in Leviticus with that in Exodus
e Outline the basic content
of the Book of Leviticus
¢ List the types of Old Testament sacrifices
and explain their usage
¢ Identify the three basic themes
of the Book of Leviticus
e Describe how modern Christians relate to
Old Testament law.
Encountering the Pentateuch

Leviticus is one of the most neglected Despite its strangeness and apparent
books of the Bible. This is true for two main awkwardness, Leviticus plays an impor-
reasons. First, the book seems quite strange tant role in the thought flow of the Penta-
to modern readers. The sacrificial worship teuch. It was of great significance for an-
it describes is so far removed from today’s cient Israelites and is still pertinent for
believers that its very unfamiliarity pre- modern Christians.
vents some from reading Leviticus. Sec-
ond, Leviticus appears at first glance to in- Cia

terrupt the flow of events in the story of

God’s people. We must wait until the Background of the
fourth book of the Pentateuch, the Book Book of Leviticus
of Numbers, to read of Israel’s journey
All of Israel's neighbors among the ancient
from Mount Sinai to the edge of the
Near Eastern nations practiced sacrificial
promised land.
worship. Animal sacrifice was common in
Yet Leviticus plays an essential role in ancient Mesopotamia and similar to that
God’s word and makes a vital contribu- of Israel. Israel even shared many of the
tion to our understanding of God’s rela- same terms for the different types of sac-
tionship with humankind. We need to rifices with her more immediate neigh-
make the extra effort required to under- bors in Canaan.! The sacrifices of the an-
stand its message. We must all attempt to cient Near East, like those of Israel, were
understand the ancient practice of sacri- designed to provide fellowship with the
fice and its significance for Old Testament deity, to appease the gods, and to insure
religion. continuance of divine favor.
In a sense, Leviticus does interrupt the But certain differences existed between
narrative of the Pentateuch. The story line the Israelite sacrificial system and those of
flows naturally from the conclusion of Ex- the ancient Near East. Superficial differ-
odus to Numbers 10. Leviticus and Num- ences are obvious, such as a lack of burn-
bers 1-10 form an intermission of legal ing sacrifices by fire in Mesopotamia as
materials. But this observation illustrates the Israelites did.2 However, there are
the importance of the book. The Israelites more fundamental differences that make
would not have inserted Leviticus into Israel unique.
their sacred literature if it were not im- First, the Mesopotamians commonly
portant to their story. Its emphasis on per- used the sacrificial animal as a means of
sonal, priestly, and national holiness was clairvoyance, in order to discern the fu-
anecessary and integral part of that story. ture actions of the gods. Priestly special-

A round stone
altar dating
from around
2500 B.c. at
Megiddo in the
Jezreel Valley.

118
 Leviticus

AONE RRNANNOTRRSNETAY
Levites
ists believed they could decipher the fu- called”), which emphasizes that Leviticus
ture by studying and “reading” a dead an- is a continuation of the Exodus story line.
AAT imal’s entrails. Such practices were absent The Israelites have a new covenant rela-
Septuagint
in Israel. tionship with God, and now the Lord is
Second, the most distinctive aspect of sending Moses forth to the nation with in-
the Israelite sacrificial system is the way structions for proper worship (1:1—2). Since
it was linked to the covenantal relation- the book was intended for the whole na-
ship with God.’ God gave the instruc- tion Israel (as in 1:2), we should remem-
tions for Israel’s sacrifices during the last ber that it still functions as God’s word for
month and a half the people were at all who read it today.
Mount Sinai, between the construction of Whereas Exodus ended by emphasiz-
the tabernacle (Ex 40:17) and the depar- ing where to worship God (i.e., the taber-
ture from the mountain (Nm 10:11). The nacle), Leviticus deals with how to wor-
sacrifices make up a major ingredient of ship him.‘ After listing the regulations for
the covenant bond between Israel and the various types of sacrifices that may be
God. The ancient Near Eastern nations offered to him, Leviticus deals with the
have nothing comparable. priesthood and the topics of cleanness and
A third unique feature of Israel’s use of holiness.
the sacrifices is her concept of holiness. Is-
rael’s notion of the term “holy” (Hebrew Outline
gados) was based on the elevated moral
I. The Offerings (1:1-7:38)
and ethical nature of God. Because this
A. General Regulations (1:1-6:7)
idea was so central to the covenant with
B. Priestly Regulations
Yahweh (Ex 19:6), it also impacted Israel’s
use of the sacrificial system for worship (6:8-7:38)
of Yahweh. Israel’s neighbors had no such II. The Priesthood (8:1-10:20)
concept. A. Consecration (8:1-36)
Though the sacrificial system seems B. Installation (9:1-24)
strange and foreign to us, it was part and C. Consequences of
parcel of Israel's cultural environment. We Disobedience (10:1—20)
should not be surprised that she was com-
fortable using animal sacrifices as a part III. Cleanness and Uncleanness
of her worship of Yahweh. But we should (11:1-16:34)
also remember these striking differences A. Regulations (11:1-15:33)
between the way Israel and her neighbors B. The Day of Atonement
practiced sacrifice. (16:1-34)

OEE EEE EE
IV. The Holiness Code (17:1—26:46)
> . The Sanctity of Blood
Contents of Leviticus (17:1-16)
Who were the Levites? Why was this book Moral Laws (18:1—20:27)
named for them? The Levites were de- . Priestly Regulations
scendants of Levi, one of the twelve sons (21:1-22:33)
of Jacob (Gn 29:34). Aaron and his family . Worship Calendar (23:1-44)
were chosen from this tribe to serve as BS Oil, Bread, and Blasphemy
.
(O4
priests and to offer the sacrifices. God ap- (24:1-23)
pointed the rest of the Levites to the service ™ The Sabbath Year and Jubilee
of the tabernacle, to assist the priests in the (25:1-55)
worship at the sanctuary (Nm 3:5-10). G. Rewards and Punishments
The Septuagint named the book for the (26:1-46)
Levites because portions of it deal with H. Vows and Tithes (27:1-34)
their instructions for offerings to God.
These portions served as an instruction Overview
manual for the Old Testament priesthood. The opening sections of the book deal with
But the Hebrew title for the book is taken right forms of worship inside the taber-
from the first word (wayyiqra’, “and he nacle (and later the permanent temple):
119
Encountering the Pentateuch

ANNI ANTTTORNNNNNNN the five types of acceptable sacrifices ual of Offerings for all Israelites (see the
Holiness Code
(chapters 1-7), and the conditions for rep- summary at 7:38-39). These chapters de-
resentative priesthood (chapters 8-10) and scribe five different sacrifices. The first
for acceptable worshipers (chapters 11-16). three sacrifices (burnt, cereal, and peace
The rest of the book (chapters 17-27, the offerings) are the most common in the Old
so-called Holiness Code) is devoted to Testament. Each description of these of-
right living outside the tabernacle. So ferings concludes with a variation of the
Leviticus is concerned with right worship expression “an offering by fire of pleasing
and right living, with becoming holy and odor to the Lorp” (1:9, 13, 17; 2:2, 9, etc.).
staying holy. The Bible consistently joins These three sacrifices stress the result of
right worship inside the church to right the offering from-God’s perspective.
living outside it. Any worship that toler- The sections presenting the two other
ates and continues to permit unrighteous sacrifices (sin and guilt offerings) have a
behavior is not Christian worship. different arrangement and function. They
The first seven chapters serve as a Man- are less concerned with the value of the
aaa a a aT ee \

Types of Sacrifices
There were many types of sacrifices in the Old Testament and numerous
"ZZ
variations of the basic ones listed here. This list includes only the prescribed
sacrifices of Leviticus 1-7.

7V""Z
1. BURNT OFFERING, with the burnt offering, which was
Leviticus 1 consumed by God. Does not appear to
a Typical Hebrew offering, dominant have been expiatory, but had to do
throughout Old Testament history, with restoration and reconciliation.
and probably the oldest form of Had three subtypes: thanksgiving
atonement sacrifice. The term sacrifice, vowed sacrifice, and freewill
describes an “offering of ascent,” or offering.
an offering that goes up. The animal
was completely burned on the altar, 4. SIN OFFERING,
its smoke rising toward heaven. Leviticus 4:1-5:13
Leviticus required a male without Expiatory for offenses against God.
blemish. Various animals were Emphasized the act of purification.
allowed according to financial ability. Involved ceremonial defilement,
DDZEZ
ZA deception, misappropriation, and
2. CEREAL OFFERING, seduction. Varied across four classes of
Leviticus 2 individuals: priest, congregation, ruler,
May originally have been a present or and individual.
gift, since the term simply means
“gift.” In levitical regulations, the 5. GUILT OFFERING,
cereal offering carried an expiating Leviticus 5:14-6:7
sense. Frequently accompanied burnt A subcategory of sin offering.
and peace offerings. Probably served Expiatory, but devoted to restitution
as a less expensive burnt offering for and reparation. Generally deals with
those who could not afford an animal. profanation of sacred items and
violations of a social nature.
3. PEACE OFFERING,
Leviticus 3 See Gary A. Anderson, “Sacrifice and Sacrificial
Offerings,” in Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David
The basic form of sacrifices brought Noel Freedman, 6 vols. (New York: Doubleday, 1992),
on feast days. A celebrative offering, 5:877-81.
consumed by humans. Often paired
=
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ZZZZZZZZZZZLZLELZLZLZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
EEE EEE

120
 Leviticus

An artist's animals presented and more with the mans were intended to be vegetarians (Gn
impression of
priests making a
types of sin committed (intentional or in- 1:29-30). But after the flood, God granted
burnt offering advertent) and the status of the sinner. to Noah and his family the right to eat meat
on the altar in Each section dealing with these two sac- as long as the blood was properly drained
front of the
tabernacle.
rifices is marked with variations of the ex- (Gn 9:3-4). Leviticus 11 now expands the
pression “the priest shall make atonement restrictions based on the distinction be-
on his behalf for his sin, and he shall be tween clean and unclean animals.
forgiven” (4:20, 26, 31, 35; 5:6, 10, etc.). We do not know in every case why eat-
These two sacrifices, then, emphasize the ing certain foods or why certain physical
result from the human perspective. activities caused uncleanness. Some foods
Chapters 8-10 describe the ordination were unclean because they carried dis-
and installation of the priesthood and
eases. In ancient societies, where no re-
demonstrate the consequences of im-
frigeration was possible in a hot climate,
proper priestly activity. We do not know
meat posed a serious threat to public
the specifics about the “unholy fire” of
health.
Nadab and Abihu (10:1). But the context
emphasizes the holiness of Yahweh and But there may have been theological rea-
the necessity of approaching him only as sons for the ban on certain foods. Perhaps
he has prescribed (10:3). some were too closely associated with
Chapters 11-16 have to do with the dis- pagan worship practices. Others were
tinction between clean and unclean. They prohibited because of the idea that blood
deal with practical, everyday issues in an- and life are synonymous (Lv 17:11). Is-
cient life: foods (chapter 11), childbirth raelites were required to show the high-
(chapter 12), skin and fungus diseases est respect for life as a gift from God, so
(chapters 13-14), and bodily discharges that even edible animals must have their
(chapter 15). The food restrictions of chap- blood drained completely (17:13-14). The
ter 11 build on previous injunctions re- people could only eat animals that fed on
garding the eating of meat. At creation, hu- various kinds of grasses, making all car-

121
Encountering the Pentateuch

nivorous predators forbidden as part of of the goat in this part of the ceremony is
the diet. . clear. It physically symbolized the removal
Ultimately, we have to conclude that of the nation’s sin. Aaron placed his hands
these chapters on the distinction between on the head of the goat, confessed Israel's
clean and unclean are object lessons teach- guilt, and then sent the goat into the desert.
ing a hidden reality. Chapters 11-15 look Significantly, the ideas of “bearing,” car-
forward to and prepare us for the Day of rying iniquities into the desert, and “for-
Atonement in chapter 16. They describe giving,” are expressed by the same He-
what is meant by uncleanness so that it brew verb (nasi, v. 22).
may be absolved on the Day of Atonement Chapters 17-27 (sometimes only chap-
(16:16). Just as chapters 1-7 describe the ters 18-26) are known as the Holiness
sacrifices offered at the consecration of the Code.® The recurrence of the term “holy”
priesthood (chapters 8-10), so chapters in this section signifies its unifying prin-
11-15 define the uncleanness that makes ciple. This term with its derivatives occurs
the Day of Atonement necessary.” eighty-five times in these eleven chapters.
The Day of Atonement was one of the The unit prescribes the way of holiness for
most sacred days in the Old Testament cal- all Israelites. It deals with topics ranging
endar (see also Lv 23:26-32, where it is from sexual purity to observance of sacred
listed in Israel's religious “feasts” or “ap- holidays to fair treatment of the poor. This
pointed times”). Unlike many of Israel’s appeal for holy living is based on God’s
other high holy days, it does not com- holy character: “You shall be holy, for I the
memorate one of God's great and mighty LorD your God am holy” (19:2).
acts of the past or celebrate his goodness
at harvest time. On the Day of Atonement, TEESE
God provided an annual time for purging
all the sins and uncleannesses that were Themes of Leviticus
unatoned for during the year. It provided Leviticus establishes several basic themes
atonement for the high priest, the sanctu- for the rest of biblical thought. Bible au-
ary, and the people, so that all might be
thors assumed their readers understood
“clean before the Lorb” (16:30).
certain concepts, such as sacrifice, atone-
On this one day each year, the high
ment, forgiveness, and holiness. Leviticus
priest was permitted to enter the Holy of
gives the fundamental definition for all of
Holies, the inner precinct of the taberna-
these.
cle (vv. 2-3; see diagram in previous chap-
ter). There he carried the blood of the slain Law
offerings to make atonement for himself
and the nation (vv. 14-15). For the Chris- As we saw in the previous chapter, the
tian, a new High Priest has removed the Book of Exodus clarified the concept of
need for an annual Day of Atonement. law as it functioned in the covenant rela-
Christ entered the Most Holy Place “once tionship between God and the Israelites.
for all” to make atonement, not with the Leviticus now outlines a large body of
blood of animals, but with his own blood legal material. One verse near the end of
(Heb 911-12): the book ties all of Leviticus to the Sinai
The blood of the slain offerings was only covenant: “These are the statutes and or-
part of the ceremony. Unique to this sa- dinances and laws that the LorD estab-
cred occasion was the use of a scapegoat lished between himself and the people of
(or “Azazel,” vv. 8-10, 20-22). The exact Israel on Mount Sinai through Moses”
meaning of “Azazel” is unclear. Some be- (26:46).
lieve it refers to a specific evil location or But the nature of law in Leviticus is
to a desert demon (so v. 10 may be trans- somewhat different from that of Exodus.
lated, “that it may be sent away into the Exodus outlined the Ten Commandments
wilderness to Azazel,” NRSV). But the He- and explained how they applied to
brew word, as understood by the ancient covenant life in ancient Israel. Leviticus is
translations, probably refers to the goat it- concerned with the laws for proper
self (“into the desert as a scapegoat,” NIV; covenant worship and ritual cleansing.
and see NKJV). In either case, the function The question for the modern believer is,

122
 Leviticus

Leviticus on Sexuality
(Leviticus 18)

submit to God's standards (vv. 3-5). Their

relationship with God marked the Israelites as
unique in the ancient world. They were to
reflect his holy character, allowing him to touch —
every aspect of their lives. Letting God Ay
vior: incest (vv. 6-18), adultery (v. 20), determine their standards of sexual morality _
, mosexuality (v. 22), and bestiality (v. 23). also affected their definitions of a ene
- Because of this, God had rejected them and relational faithfulness.
expelled them from the land (wv. 24-25).
Leviticus 18 is a warning to the Israelites to
~ guard themselves against sexual sins. Failure to
listen to his warning would result in their
expulsion from the promised land, just like the sexuality often reflects how si
Canaanites (v. 28). Instead of compromise, they submitted every area of our
must listen to God's word; instead of control. ie
conformity to the world’s standards, they must

How do these laws of sacrificial rites and rection, and for training in righteousness”
ritual cleansing relate to us? The same (2 Tm 3:16).
question may be asked of the casuistic Instead of the moral, civil, and ceremo-
laws of Exodus 21-23. nial distinction, it is better to accept some
Many Christians distinguish among laws of the Old Testament as broad and
moral, civil, and ceremonial law in the generally intended for all societies. Oth-
Old Testament. The Ten Commandments ers are specific applications to Israelite cul-
are the moral law. Laws specific to Old ture and society that cannot be applied in
Testament society are civil laws whereas the same way today to our Western soci-
laws dealing with sacrifices and ritual ety and culture. On the other hand, much
cleansing are ceremonial laws. Since of the world today is closer to ancient Is-
Jesus affirmed and reestablished the Ten rael than we may think. For the majority
Commandments (Mt 5), the moral law is of the world’s population, the specific ap-
still applicable today. But many Chris- plications of civil law are not so far re-
tians sweep away the rest of pentateuchal
moved from ancient Israel.
law as outmoded, because it is civil and
Old Testament law continues to be
ceremonial.
God's word for us, though we may apply
But this division into moral, civil, and
it variously in different contexts. The moral
ceremonial law was unknown in Jesus’
day. Some laws are both moral and civil,
substance of all of his commands contin-
such as those against adultery, stealing, ues to speak to the church today. Jesus
bearing false witness, and the like. Others summed up the law as love for God and
are both moral and ceremonial, such as love for all humanity (Mt 22:36-40). If we
laws against idolatry and Sabbath-break- ask, “Yes, but how does this or that law
ing. All these laws contain a moral di- apply to me?” the Bible invites us to ex-
mension, making the lines between the amine ancient Israel as the model and ex-
categories somewhat arbitrary.’ Further- ample. As we compare our situation to
more, this approach to Old Testament law theirs, we accept Old Testament law as
leads some Christians to take too lightly confirmed by Christ, and with the help of
Paul’s injunction that “all Scripture . . . is his Holy Spirit and lessons learned from
useful for teaching, for reproof, for cor- church history, the specifics of how we
123
Encountering the Pentateuch

shiper desired. The last two (sin and guilt

offerings) were used to provide expiation
from sin. Expiation is the purging of im-
purity caused by sin. It results in the re-
moval of guilt, the granting of forgiveness,
and the restoration of the relationship be-
Key Terms tween the sinner and God.’
For several of the blood offerings, the
Levites worshiper placed his hand on the head of
Septuagint the sacrificial animal (1:4; 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15,
Holiness Code 24, 29, 33). This action identified the ani-
casuistic laws mal as his substitute. This does not nec-
expiation essarily mean the worshiper’s guilt was
atonement transferred to the animal. But the animal
suffered the consequences of the wor-
shiper’s sins.
ALAA ought to love God and neighbor should God ordained sacrificial blood as the
expiation become clear.® means for cleansing sin: “I have given
ALATA [blood] to you for making atonement for
atonement Sacrifice your lives on the altar” (17:11). Every form
Leviticus is the primary source in the Old of life is a precious gift from God. Here
Testament for regulations on sacrifice and God established the spiritual principle that
how properly to offer sacrifices to God. life itself, not some lesser gift, must be re-
Yet the book seldom states explicitly what turned to him for the purpose of atoning
the theology behind such sacrifices is for sin. The exact meaning of the Hebrew
(17:11 is an exception). In general the first word for atonement (kipper) is uncertain.
three sacrifices (burnt, cereal, and peace But it somehow means the animal's sac-
offerings) could be presented as the wor- rifice ransomed the sinner from the death

Summary

. Sacrifice was common throughout the . The scapegoat symbolized the re-
ancient Near East, but Israel used it in moval of the sin of the nation.
a unique manner.
. Leviticus established laws for proper
. The Levites were descendants of Levi, covenant worship and for ritual
and they served as priests. cleansing.
. The contents of Leviticus are: the of- . Through the use of blood, God made
fering, the priesthood, cleanliness, un- clear that nothing less than life itself
cleanliness, and the Holiness Code. must be presented to him as an atone-
ment for sin.
. The basic type of sacrifices are: burnt
offering, cereal offering, peace offer- . In Leviticus God called Israel to live a
ing, sin offering, and guilt offering. holy life, and he calls us to do the
same.
. On the Day of Atonement the priest
made a sacrifice to make atonement
for himself and the nation.

124
 Leviticus

Study Questions

. Why is Leviticus one the most ne- . Distinguish the two main categories
glected books of the Bible? of sacrifices.
. What are the major differences be- . What was the function and ritual
tween the Israelite sacrificial system of the Day of Atonement?
and those of the ancient Near East?
. What are the three major themes
. Who were the Levites? Why is the of Leviticus?
book named for them?
. What is the basis of God's call for Is-
. What are the four main divisions of rael to live a holy life?
the book?

which the sinner deserved. The animal be- Holiness

came the worshiper’s substitute and lost The keynote of Leviticus is its resounding
its life in order for the sinner to live. “be holy, for Iam holy” (11:44-45; 19:2;
The New Testament asserts that the 20:7, 26). God’s call for Israel to live a holy
death of Jesus Christ is now the sacrifice life is based on his own holy character. He
that makes atonement for sin (Heb 9:26; has not asked his people to become some-
1 Jn 2:1-2). His sacrifice was not limited thing he is not. The difference between his
to a single worshiper or nation, but is of- holiness and Israel’s holiness is that his is
fered to the world as a means of forgive- intrinsic, while theirs is derived from their
ness. It need never be repeated, for his sac- relationship with him.
rifice is sufficient for all who respond in So it is with Christians today. God sum-
faith (1 Pt 3:18). Christ’s death on the cross mons us to live a holy lifestyle. But our
has thus replaced the levitical system of holiness is derived from him, as we live
sacrifices. But just as in the old system, in fellowship with him and learn to obey
God still invites us individually to respond his will with the help of his Holy Spirit.
in repentance and faith, so that Christ may Through the ancient message of Leviticus,
become a substitute for us, redeeming us God invites us to share in his holy char-
from our sin and guilt. acter: “You shall be holy, for I the Lorp

Further Reading

Harrison, R. K. Leviticus: An Introduction and Westminster, 1973. Helpful background

Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament information on ancient Near Eastern religious
Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1980. institutions.
Thorough introduction. Wenham, Gordon J. The Book of Leviticus. New
Hartley, John E. Leviticus. Word Biblical Commentary International Commentary on the Old Testament.
4. Dallas: Word, 1992. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979. Most complete
Ringgren, Helmer. Religions of the Ancient Near treatment of all the issues.
East. Trans. John Sturdy. Philadelphia:

125
Encountering the Old Testament

your God am holy” (19:2). This message thermore, the New Testament Epistle to
is not time-conditioned, since the apostle the Hebrews expounds the importance
Peter made it the cornerstone of his first of Leviticus for Christians today. It clar-
epistle (1 Pt 1:15-16). This is indeed hu- ifies the meaning of the sacrifice and
mankind’s highest calling: to imitate God priesthood of Jesus Christ. As God’s word
(Mt 5:48). for believers in today’s world, Leviticus
The Book of Leviticus is indispensable still speaks to us about reverence in wor-
for understanding the warp and woof of ship, purity in lifestyle, and our need for
ancient Israelite society and culture. Fur- forgiveness.

126
 Numbers
Failure in the Desert
PAA aa CANA LL TT AT TTI SSS

etait of the Book of Numbers

Literary Structure
~ The Book’s Use of Numbers
Outline |
- Overview a e
= Use of the Book of Numbers Objectives
in the New Testament After reading this chapter,
First Corinthians 10 you should be able to
Hebrews e Explain the apparent disorganization
of the Book of Numbers
e Outline the basic content
of the Book of Numbers
° Describe the difficulties of the journey
from Mount Sinai to the desert of Paran
¢ List Israel's acts of rebellion and the
consequences of those acts
¢ Give examples from Numbers
of humankind’s lack of faith
¢ Describe the key events that took place in
the Plains of Moab

IP
Encountering the Pentateuch

AAAS Israel had everything going her way. God chronological arrangement, the Book of
Septuagint
had worked a spectacular miracle in re- Numbers presents a literary problem. The
deeming her from Egypt. Now she had a references to geography and chronology
new and unique relationship with God. provide merely a historical framework,
The Sinai covenant came complete with supporting materials of various types.
tabernacle, a worship program, and an Though the overarching pattern is clear,
elaborate legal system—Israel’s new blue- the book disperses legal sections, histori-
print for the future. Like no other nation cal narratives, and records of censuses in
in history before or since, Israel had every- a pattern that appears almost arbitrary.
thing she needed for complete success. But The combination of different types of ma-
Israel’s is not a story of success—at least terials (especially history and law) in an
not immediate success. The Book of Num- apparently random order has led some
bers relates her struggles with obedience scholars to view the book as hopelessly
and the consequences of her disobedience. disorganized.
But when dealing with ancient biblical
CITE Sy books, we must not define literary artistry
according to our own modern, Western
Contents of the criteria. A lack of such design and consis-
tency ina book does not mean the book is
Book of Numbers confused, confusing, or without a dis-
This book contains the census reports that cernible message. In fact, the materials in
Moses and the Israelites recorded while Numbers that seem misplaced or disor-
in the desert (chapters 1-4, 26). The trans- ganized contribute significantly to the
lators of the Septuagint entitled the book book’s major themes. It is in the sprout-
arithmoi, “numbers,” which our modern ing of Aaron’s rod (17:1-13) and the
English Bibles follow. But the Hebrew title prophecies of Balaam (chapters 22-24) that
bémidbar, “in the desert,” more accurately we can discern God’s hand and purposes
reflects the book’s contents. Numbers de- most clearly.
scribes events that occurred during the Moreover, it is possible to discern a con-
nearly forty years Israel wandered in the sistent thematic purpose in Numbers de-
desert between Mount Sinai and the spite its literary diversity. BREVARD CHILDS
PLAINS OF MOAB. has demonstrated that the book contains
a unified interpretation of God’s will for
Literary Structure his people by contrasting the holy with
The Book of Numbers has a clear geo- the profane. The Book of Numbers por-
graphical and chronological arrangement trays the holy “as the presence of God, the
in three parts. First the Israelites were en- blessing of numbers, the laws of cleanli-
camped at Mount Sinai, then they wan- ness, the service of the Levites, the atone-
dered in the desert for nearly forty years, ment of Aaron, and the inheritance of a
and, finally, they were on the plains of clean land.” On the other hand, “the pro-
Moab. fane consists of all sorts of uncleanliness,
More specifically, Numbers 1:1-10:10 and results in the wrath of God, his
contains various instructions and prepa- plagues of judgment, a lost inheritance by
rations for the journey from Sinai to the a dying people, and the pollution of the
promised land. God gave these to the Is- land.”
raelites while they were still at Mount The confidence with which some mod-
Sinai. Numbers 10:11—20:21 relates the fail- ern scholars have criticized the literary
ure of the Israelites to trust God while they structure of Numbers is unwarranted. It
wandered in the deserts of the Sinai Penin- is possible to see the book as “a travel
sula, particularly at KADESH-BARNEA in the diary,” assembled by an editor sometime
desert of PARAN. Finally, after Israel’s forty after the death of Moses.” The apparent
years of wandering, 20:22-36:13 describes literary disjointedness of Numbers might
their preparations for entering the even be used to argue for its early date of
promised land while they were on the composition. The combination of histori-
plains of Moab. cal narrative, cultic legislation, and a va-
Despite this clear geographical and riety of other materials against a backdrop

128
 Numbers

The
Arrangement of
the Tribes in
ag Naphtali

Tabernacle
Manasseh

Reuben

of desert life would naturally result in a million or more (see also Ex 12:37). These
more haphazard literary arrangement. In numbers present several difficulties.
view of these circumstances, it would ac- A group this size would more than fill
tually be quite surprising to find a care- northeastern Egypt (the land of Goshen).
fully constructed and tightly composed Such an Israelite population would have
literary whole. had no problem overpowering the Egypt-
The literary nature of Numbers is ian government. The Egyptian army num-
unique in the Pentateuch. Genesis, Exo- bered probably no more than 20,000 men
dus, and Leviticus have more unity. The at this time. The numbers are especially
written or oral sources behind Genesis, striking since the entire population of
the historical nature of the Exodus mate- Canaan would have been well below 3
rials, and the predominantly legal mate- million at this time. Yet the Israelites were
rials of Leviticus were unifying factors for said to have been much smaller in num-
those books.? Numbers is altogether ber than the Canaanites—too few, in fact,
unique, though the message is clear and to occupy the land (Dt 7:6, 7, 17). If the Is-
pertinent for modern readers. raelites had been 2 million strong, they
would not have feared the Egyptian army
The Book’s Use of Numbers or the Canaanite population.*
Israel's population tallies presented in the In addition, the logistical problems of
census reports have roused much debate. such numbers are staggering. One scholar
The two main lists (1:46 and 26:51) record has estimated that 2 million people march-
over 600,000 men, which would mean Is- ing in close order would create a line hun-
rael’s total population would number 2 dreds of miles long. Before the last rank
129
Encountering the Pentateuch

had crossed the Red Sea, the first rank preparation was necessary because the
would have reached Kadesh-Barnea.° ° first did not work.
The best solution (of several possibili- Preparations at Mount Sinai
ties) is that the Hebrew terms used in these (1:1-10:10)
lists have incorrectly been limited to nu-
Mount Sinai, with its constant reminders
merical designations. The terms “thou-
of God’s presence, was never intended to
sand” and “hundred” may originally have be the final destination for God’s people.
referred to social units (families, clans, tent
There comes a time to break camp, head
groups) or to military units (captains of out into the world, claim God’s promises,
thousands or hundreds). For example, if and fulfill his calling. The first major unit
we assume “hundred” designated a mil- of Numbers (1:1-10:10) comprises in-
- itary contingent and “thousand” a cap- structions for breaking camp and moving
tain, we could calculate an estimate for the through the desert under God’s direction.
total Israelite population at the time of the Chapter 9 is the literary climax of
exodus at approximately 72,000.° But this 1:1-10:10. In the first half of the chapter,
solution is tentative, and a conclusive an- the Israelites celebrated the Passover be-
swer to this problem remains elusive. fore their departure from the mountain.
Likewise, they would again celebrate the
Outline Passover before the battle of Jericho and
the conquest of the promised land (Jos
I. At Sinai (1:1—-10:10) 5:10-12). Remembering and celebrating
A. The First Census (1:1-54) the mighty acts of God in the past is a good
B. The Arrangement of the prelude for expecting his guidance and
Camp (2:1-4:49) protection in the future. The rest of Num-
C. Legislation (5:1-8:26) bers 9 emphasizes the role of the divine
D. Final Events at Sinai cloud over the tabernacle as an indication
(9:1-10:10) of God's leadership throughout the peo-
ple’s journeys.
II. From Sinai to Edom
The entire unit since the beginning of
COS 20:-2415
the book has been building to this point
A. To Kadesh (10:11-12:16)
in chapter 9. The census mustered the
B. At Kadesh (13:1-20:21)
strength of the nation for military pre-
II. From Edom to the Jordan paredness and organized them around the
(20:22-36:13)
tabernacle (chapters 1 and 2). The censuses
A. Aaron’s Death (20:22-29) of the Levites (chapters 3 and 4) organized
B. The Destruction of Arad
them for service to the tabernacle. Their
awesome responsibility is clear from the
(21:1-4)
brief reminder of Aaron’s two sons, Nadab
C. The Bronze Serpent (21:5-9)
and Abihu (3:4), who failed to give proper
D. The Journey to Moab
reverence to God and to take proper care
(21:10-20)
with their divine service (Lv 10:1-3).
Initial Victories (21:21-35)
These first four chapters organized the
ms The Plains of Moab
entire nation, both laity and clergy, around
(22:1-36:13) the tabernacle. It was the dwelling place
of God in the midst of his people, and its
Overview
care and maintenance had to be done ac-
The Book of Numbers is about prepara- cording to his instructions. Much of the
tion. Everything in 1:1-10:10 prepares the preparation of chapters 1-4, then, is de-
nation to leave Mount Sinai, where they voted to religious instruction. The Is-
had been for almost eleven months (Ex raelites were being prepared to maintain
19:1-2; Nm 10:11). But the Israelites re- the awesome presence of God in their
fused to enter the promised land in God’s midst. They were not simply packing and
timing (10:11-20:21). So the rest of the book moving.
(20:22-36:13) may be viewed as another The people were to maintain clean and
preparation to enter Canaan. This second holy lives because of God’s pure and holy
130
 Numbers

tabernacle (7:1; 9:1, 15). The laws and in-

structions of chapters 1-6 are more natu-
rally a continuation of Leviticus. But
chapters 7 and 8 list important gifts and
instructions that were necessary for the
transportation of the tabernacle through
the desert. They contribute to the literary
movement toward chapter 9, preparing
the Israelites for their departure from
Mount Sinai.
Final preparation for departure from
Mount Sinai involved instructions for two
silver trumpets (10:1-10). Variations of
trumpet alarms would indicate specifi-
cally how the camps of Israel would pro-
ceed in the march (vv. 5-6). The trumpets
were also used to prepare for warfare (v. 9)
and on various occasions of worship
(v. 10). With this final bit of instruction, the
people were ready for their departure.
Disobedience in the desert
(10:11-20:21)
The long period of desert wandering is de-
scribed in 10:11-20:21. The importance of
Israel’s actual departure from the moun-
tain is underscored by the precise date in
10:11 (“on the twentieth day of the second
month of the second year” since their res-
cue from Egypt). The divine cloud rose
over the tabernacle and the people of Is-
rael set out on their journey to the promised
land (10:11-12). Moses was overjoyed at
the scene and prayed that God’s enemies
would be scattered before them as they
marched (v. 35). But unfortunately, this was
only a prelude to failure. The bright opti-
The long period presence in their midst. Chapter 5 describes mism of chapter 10 is soon shattered by
of desert
wandering is
the processes required for turning out of the stubborn rebellion of chapter 11.
described in the camp those who defiled it. The Nazirite Chapters 11 and 12 relate the difficult
Exodus vow (chapter 6) emphasized the impor- journey from Mount Sinai to the desert of
10:11-20:21.
tance of dedication and faithfulness to those Paran (only a few of the sites mentioned
commitments made to God in the past. The here can be positively identified, like
famous Aaronic blessing (6:22-27) seems HAZEROTH; see map). The Israelites had
to serve as the culmination of a section on trouble all along the way. Numbers 11:1
priestly activities (chapters 3-6). Note that sets the unfortunate tone for the next sev-
Aaron does not actually bless the people. eral chapters: “Now when the people com-
He is merely the instrument, the transmit- plained in the hearing of the LorD about
ter, of the Lord’s blessing. their misfortunes, the LORD heard it and
The instructions of chapters 7-10 are out his anger was kindled.” They had com-
of chronological sequence. The census of plained from the moment they left Egypt
chapter 1 was taken on the first day of the about the lack of food in the desert. So God
second month during the second year after had miraculously provided quails and
the exodus (1:2). But the instructions of bread from heaven, called manna (Ex 16).
chapters 7-9 were given during the pre- But now their supply of quail had run out
vious month, when Moses erected the and they were weary of the manna. Once

131
Encountering the Pentateuch

The Wilderness again God provided for them, but their re- to rebellion. As the Israelites left Hazeroth
of Paran,
looking west
bellious attitude resulted in desert fires and moved farther into the desert of Paran
from the and plagues (11:1, 33). (12:16), it was obvious they were not will-
modern There is something ironic about the Is- ingly following the Lord. Their destina-
Egypt/Israel raelites complaining over their desert diet tion was the promised land. But were they
frontier.
and longing for the variety of foods in capable of following the promise?
Egypt. Had they forgotten they were Israel’s ultimate failure was her refusal
slaves in Egypt? Is it possible they had so to enter the promised land when God of-
quickly forgotten how God had rescued fered it (chapters 13-14). Numbers 13 re-
them from severe pain and suffering? How lates the famous story of the twelve
could they rebuff his guidance? Their com- Israelite spies, two of whom were Joshua
plaints were far more serious than merely and Caleb. When God commanded Moses
whining about food. The Israelites had an to send spies into the promised land, he
inner attitude of rebellion that plays a intended this reconnaissance mission to
dominant role in the Book of Numbers. prepare Israel for conquering the land
They were prone to reject God’s provisions (“Send men to spy out the land of Canaan,
and leadership for their lives, even after which I am giving to the Israelites,” 13:2).
his miracles and deliverance from Egypt God was already in the process of “giv-
and his provision for their needs along the ing” the land to his people.
way. But the spies brought back a mixed re-
Chapter 12 continues this theme by re- port (13:25-33). The Canaanites were well
lating the opposition of Aaron and Miriam fortified in the land and enormous in
to the leadership of Moses, and, therefore, stature, making the Israelite spies look and
to God. Moses’ own family was jealous of feel like grasshoppers (13:33). So over-
his unique position before the people as whelming was the task that the majority
God's sole spokesman. God dramatically opinion was that it was impossible (ap-
affirmed Moses as his chosen leader. But parently Joshua and Caleb were the only
now the leadership, as well as the wider ones to demur, 14:6-8). When they heard
populace, was disagreeable and discon- the report, incredibly, the Israelites re-
tented. The whole nation seemed inclined gretted ever leaving Egypt: “If only we
12
 Israel’s Desert Wanderings

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Hormah @

The King’s Highway

=———— Israelites’ route from Mt.Sinai to Shittim

—————_ Campaign to capture Bashan

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Si
Encountering the Pentateuch

had died in the land of Egypt” (14:2)! They enter and occupy the land. They were
promptly decided to replace Moses with going to die in the desert. But God in-
a new leader who would take them back tended these laws for worship, and their
to Egypt (14:4). children were to learn them in anticipa-
Disaster was narrowly averted when tion of that future day when they would
God appeared at the tabernacle in all of live in Canaan—a day that would certainly
his glory (14:10) and Moses interceded for come.’
the people. As punishment for their dis- The rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abi-
trust and disobedience, the Lord declared ram (16:1) seriously threatened Israel’s
that everyone twenty years old and older leadership, especially the priestly line of
would die in the desert. They were never Aaron. But an earthquake killed the rebels
to see the promised land! Only their chil- and fire consumed all their followers
dren, after a forty-year delay, would be al- (16:31-43). In confirmation that Aaron’s
lowed to enter and possess it. family was the legitimate priestly line,
To make matters worse, the Israelites Aaron successfully interceded on behalf
tried to reverse the divine judgment. Upon of the people (16:44-50). As further vin-
hearing the terrible news, the people de- dication of Aaron, God caused Aaron’s rod
cided they were capable of conquering the to sprout and produce ripe almonds in a
land of Canaan after all. Moses warned test to see who was really chosen by God
them it was too late and they were launch- (chapter 17).
ing out on their own without the Lord’s Chapters 18 and 19 contain more laws
blessing. But they stubbornly persisted to protect the Israelites against unclean-
and promptly lost a major battle to the ness. The priests and Levites were re-
Amalekites and Canaanites at Hormah sponsible to prevent divine judgment for
(14:39-45, see map). Chapter 14 forms a any uncleanness regarding the tabernacle
literary climax for this unit on Israel's dis- (chapter 18). Chapter 19 is concerned
obedience. The Israelites persistently re- specifically with ritual uncleanness caused
fused to hear the word of God through by contamination due to any contact with
Moses, at their great peril. the dead. Once again, these laws antici-
Chapters 15-20 relate the subsequent pate life in Canaan. The author has again
wanderings of the Israelites for nearly followed a report of rebellion and failure
forty years in the desert. Presumably they with one of instructions for a future life in
stayed near KADESH in the desert of Paran the promised land. God’s plan will not be
(13:26), though the desert of ZIN is also thwarted.
mentioned (20:1, and see map). But curi- Moses’ sin at Kadesh is a reminder that
ously, these chapters actually tell us little no human leader, not even Moses himself,
about the events of those years. They do is exempt from the consequences of un-
not relate the course of the Israelites’ trav- belief (20:2-12). He spoke to the people in-
els nor any particular timetable for trav- stead of the rock (20:10-11), and thus
eling, as the author did for the rest of the reflected a lack of faith in God’s directive.
book. Instead, these chapters contain laws The Old Testament knows no distinction
the Israelites were to obey once they were between faith and obedience. Faith is the
in Canaan and a few selected stories of correct response to God’s word, of either
failure and disobedience. promise or command.* So Moses’ actions
The location of the laws on offerings to were comparable to the rebellion of the
be observed in Canaan is curious (chap- people when they refused to enter the
ter 15). The movement from the previous promised land on God’s timing. Now his
chapter to these cultic and ritualistic laws fate was like theirs. He would not be per-
seems abrupt, and scholars have won- mitted to enter Canaan (20:12).
dered why they are here instead of in The Book of Numbers is basically silent
Leviticus. But coming immediately after on events that occurred during the more
the revolt in Kadesh, these laws may be than thirty-seven years of desert wander-
intended asa striking statement that God’s ings. This silence reflects the book’s pri-
purposes would continue, with or with- mary purpose. Numbers is not a history
out Moses’ generation of Israelites. They of Israel, but an essay about the conse-
had refused to obey God’s direction to quences of disobedience. The laws of chap-
134
 Numbers

The Jordan ters 15-20 look to the future in the land (20:17; 21:22). They were on a mission to
Valley, and site
of Jericho,
and imply that the rebellion of a single another place, a better place that God had
viewed from generation cannot prevent God from ful- promised to them.
Mount Pisgah. filling his promises to the patriarchs. The In addition to the armies of Edom and
accounts of Korah’s rebellion and Moses’ the Amorite armies of Moab and Bashan,
sin at Kadesh indicate that the promises the journey was hampered by more com-
of God will be fulfilled in spite of the fail- plaints by the Israelites. Numbers 21:4~9
ure of Israel’s leadership. Moses’ genera- relates an episode in which “fiery” (or poi-
tion was forced to mark time in the desert, sonous) serpents plagued the people be-
but God was undeterred. He was faithful cause of their rebellion. When the people
to his promises to Abraham, even when repented of their sin, God instructed
the Israelites were faithless. Moses to make a bronze serpent and
mount it ona high pole. Whenever one of
Preparations in the plains of Moab the serpents bit an Israelite, the dying per-
(20:22-36:13) son was instructed to “look at the serpent
The rest of the Book of Numbers describes of bronze and live” (v. 9). This event pre-
events in the plains of Moab (see map 8:1). figured the simplicity and availability of
The journey to Moab was an eventful one salvation for us. Just as the ancient Israelite
(20:14-21:35). Moses and the Israelites could be saved by looking at the bronze
faced several Amorite and Canaanite serpent lifted up in the desert, so may we
armies during this march to the promised be saved by looking in faith to Christ lifted
land. The strategy was to avoid con- up on the cross (Jn 3:14-15).
frontation where possible, since the Is- Numbers 22-24 presents the first of a
raelite nation was not interested in series of events that happened to the Is-
subduing these transjordanian areas raelites while they camped in the plains

135
Encountering the Pentateuch

The Jordan
Valley, Plains of
Moab, and site
of Jericho
viewed from the
west.

of Moab. Balak, the ruler of Moab, was both humorous and deadly serious
rightly concerned about this Israelite na- (22:22-30).? Balaam’s donkey proved to be
tion encamped in his backyard. They had more spiritually astute and sensitive than
demonstrated a surprising ability to sub- this great Mesopotamian seer, who turned
jugate any enemy that tried to stand in out to be quite dull after all. The animal's
their way. As a means of insuring military awareness of the Lord’s angel on the path
success against Israel, Balak enlisted the saved Balaam’s life (v. 33). The angel con-
services of a professional magician to pro- fronted Balaam and prepared him to pro-
nounce a blessing on Israel instead of a
nounce a curse on Israel. He enticed Bal-
curse.
aam of northern Mesopotamia to mount
The rest of the unit (chapters 23-24) con-
his donkey and return with the official del- tains the four blessings Balaam pro-
egation from Moab for the purpose of pro- nounced over the unsuspecting Israelite
nouncing the curse. camp. Balaam articulated the exact oppo-
The account of what happens next is site of that which Balak had commissioned
him to speak, much to Balak’s disap-
pointment. But the talking donkey was
not the most miraculous element of the
Key Term episode. The Spirit of God came upon Bal-
Septuagint aam (24:2) and reversed the curses he had
planned. This is the greatest miracle of the
passage and must have surprised even the
Key Person/ seer himself, not to mention the Moabite
king. In so-doing, God was fulfilling the
Places promises of the covenant, even while Is-
Brevard Childs rael lay passively spread out in the valley
Plains of Moab
below.
The Israelite encampment at Moab was
the final stopping place before they
crossed the Jordan River and entered the
promised land under Joshua’s leadership.
In the two previous temporary camps
(Mount Sinai and Kadesh), the Israelites
 Numbers

had jeopardized their covenant relation- punishment threaten to bring God’s peo-
ship with God through apostasy. Aaron’s ple to an end, the next unit presents legal
golden calf at Mount Sinai (Ex 32) and a material for worship in the promised land
series of rebellions at Kadesh (Nm 11-14) and instructions for life in the new setting
threatened Israel’s existence. Unfortu- in Canaan. Numbers 26 records another
nately, Israelite behavior in the plains of census taken to provide the statistical in-
Moab was no different. formation necessary to divide up the
While encamped directly across the Jor- promised land among the various tribes.
dan River from Jericho, the Israelites fell So, while Israel’s sin and religious apos-
into the practice of Canaanite Baal wor- tasy seemed to imperil the covenant plan
ship, which would continue to plague for the future, God patiently and lovingly
them throughout their history (Nm 25). In continued to insist that they would enter
Moab, the manifestation of Canaanite the land.
Baalism (Baal of Peor) included sexual im- The rest of the book (chapters 27-36) re-
morality. Under Balaam’s influence (Nm counts the final preparations for Israel be-
31:16; Rv 2:14), the Israelites were quick fore she leaves the plains of Moab and
to intermarry with the women of Moab enters the promised land. This mixture of
and to worship their gods (Nm 25:1-3). Law and historical narrative is an implicit
God’s displeasure was evidenced in a assurance that the covenant promises are
plague (25:9) that nearly brought the end soon to be fulfilled. Chapter 27 presents
of the nation. instructions for worship on special occa-
But as in other passages where sin and sions in the religious calendar once the Is-

| Summary

. The Book of Numbers relates Israel’s . Little is recorded about the details of
difficulty in obeying God and de- the forty years of wandering in the
scribes the consequences of that desert.
disobedience.
. God listed laws on offerings that indi-
. The Book of Numbers is arranged in cated that his will would be done re-
three parts: the encampment at gardless of the Israelites’ attitude.
Mount Sinai, the forty years of desert
. Moses displayed his human nature at
wandering, and the encampment on
Kadesh, where he disobeyed God and
the plains of Moab.
showed his lack of faith.
. The general theme in Numbers is
. During their stay in the plains of
preparation to leave Mount Sinai and
Moab, the Israelites had to face
to enter Canaan.
the armies of the Amorites and
. The Israelites continually complained Canaanites.
about their circumstances, forgetting
. The encampment at Moab was the
that they were free and no longer en-
final stop for the Israelites before they
slaved in Egypt.
crossed the Jordan River.
. The greatest failure of the Israelites
. The message of obedience in Numbers
was that they refused to enter the
is used in the New Testament books of
promised land when God offered it.
1 Corinthians and Hebrews.

137
Encountering the Pentateuch

Study Questions

. What is the English translation of the dicate about God's plan for the next
Hebrew title of this book? How does generation?
this title describe the struggle which
. What is the geographical location of
the book depicts?
the final unit (20:22-36:13)? What
. What are the geographical-chronolog- image in this unit prefigures salvation
ical units of the book? What literary through Jesus Christ? What are the
types of materials are dispersed miraculous elements of Numbers
throughout these units? 22-24? How was the covenant rela-
tionship threatened in Numbers 25?
. What problem is presented in the
How does God's response show com-
book's census reports?
mitment to the covenant plan for the
. Describe the major subunits of Num- future?
bers 1:1-10:10. What is the literary cli-
. How does Paul draw on Numbers in
max of this unit? What part is not in
speaking to the church at Corinth?
chronological order?
. What events in Numbers are men-
. What time period is described in the
tioned in Hebrews? What point does
next unit (10:11-20:21)? What inner
the author of Hebrews illustrate
attitude is borne out in the Israelites’
through these events?
complaints? How does this attitude re-
sult in the forty years of desert wan-
derings? What does the placement of
legal materials (chapters 15, 18-19) in-

raelites are in their new homeland. Joshua that once enslaved them. Paul reminded
was then designated as the replacement his readers that the Israelites had also
for Moses and the one who would lead begun a new life of freedom in God’s
them into the land (27:12-23). Chapters grace. He used events from Exodus and
28-36 contain instructions for land allot- Numbers to illustrate that God’s people
ments, further wars with surrounding ad- can and sometimes do fail in their new re-
versaries, and laws for justice and worship lationship with God. Even after the Is-
to be implemented in Canaan. raelites experienced the exodus and the
miraculous bread and water in the desert,
LO Sy
they rebelled against the very One who
had delivered them.
Use of the Book Paul used the Israelite failure recorded
in the Book of Numbers to warn the
of Numbers in the Corinthians. The Israelites fell into sexual
New Testament immorality in the desert (v. 8; Nm 25:1-9),
rebellious rejection of authority (v. 9; Nm
21:5) and complaining (v. 10; Nm 14:2).
First Corinthians 10
The result was forty years of desert wan-
Paul made it clear that the sins of the derings and death. The Corinthian Chris-
Corinthians were not new (vv. 1-13). As tians were in danger of the same failures.
new Christians, the Corinthians must be- Paul asserted that the Book of Numbers
ware lest they fall back into the old ways was written as a warning to them and to
138
 Numbers

Further Reading

Ashley, Timothy R. The Book of Numbers. New Maarsingh, B. Numbers: A Practical Commentary.
International Commentary on the Old Testament. Trans. John Vriend. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993. Helpful exposition Wenham, Gordon J. Numbers: An Introduction and
and bibliographies. Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament
Budd, Philip J. Numbers. Word Biblical Commentary Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester:
5. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1984. InterVarsity, 1981. Most readable and informative
Harrison, R. K. Numbers: An Exegetical Commentary. commentary available.
Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992 (1990).

us (vv. 6, 11). He concluded: “So if you raelites of old (3:12). Their disobedience
think you are standing, watch out that you and unbelief prevented the desert-weary
do not fall” (v. 12). Israelites from enjoying the rest and
peace of the promised land. But now the
Hebrews Good News has come to Christians just
The author of the Letter to the Hebrews as it did to the ancient Israelites (4:2), and
refers to the account of the spies and the there remains for us a “Sabbath rest”
nation’s refusal to enter the promised (4:9). Using the Israelite failure in the
land as a warning to Christian readers desert as a warning, the author encour-
(3:74:13). This letter warns the Hebrew ages his readers: “Let us therefore make
Christians to “take care” lest they have every effort to enter that rest, so that no
“an evil, unbelieving heart that turns one may fall through such disobedience
away from the living God” like the Is- as theirs” (4:11).

139
 Deuteronomy
Restoring the Covenant
LAA A MT TT

Outline
Contents of the
Book of Deuteronomy
‘Literary Structure
Outline
Overview Objectives
© Parallels from the Ancient World
After reading this chapter,
The Hittite Parallels
you should be able to
Treaty Structure in Deuteronomy
e Explain the chiastic structure
¢ Significance of Deuteronomy of the speeches of Moses
in Biblical Thought
¢ Outline the basic content
Role of Deuteronomy in the Pentateuch of the Book of Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy and the Historical Books ¢ Identify the major theme of each
of the three speeches given by Moses
¢ Explain the purpose of Moses’ speech
about the law
¢ Demonstrate how the laws discussed
in Chapters 12-26 are based
on the Ten Commandments
e List the reasons why Deuteronomy
is primarily a covenant document
¢ Compare the structural similarities
between Deuteronomy and the
suzerainty treaties of the ancient Near
East
e Evaluate the place of Deuteronomy
in the first nine books
of the Old Testament

141
Encountering the Pentateuch

LATA Things had not gone exactly as planned onomion, “second law”) fails to communi-
Septuagint for Israel. Despite God’s wonderful de- cate this important idea clearly, for the
{ANNAN liverance from Egypt and miraculous pro- book is much more than a simple restate-
chiasm visions in the desert, Israel had failed to ment of the law.!
obey him. She refused to enter the
promised land and rebelled against God’s I eS
leadership. As a result, the trip from Egypt
to Canaan took nearly forty years instead Contents of the Book
of a few months. Now, a generation later,
the people were finally in the plains of
of Deuteronomy
Moab ready to cross the Jordan River and Deuteronomy picks up the Israelites where
claim the promises of God. the Book of Numbers left them, “on the
But Moses was not allowed to enter the plains of Moab by the Jordan across from
land with the people. He had acted in Jericho” (Nm 36:13). The occasion for the
anger at Meribah (Nm 20), and had to pass writing of Deuteronomy was the impor-
the baton of leadership to someone else. tant covenant renewal in Moab just before
Furthermore, this generation needed to God's people were to enter the patriarchal
claim the covenant and its promises for land of promise. Instead of relating details
themselves. It was time for the covenant of the covenant ceremony itself, the book
of Sinai to become the covenant of Moab presents Moses’ farewell addresses on that
The fertile oasis as well (Dt 29:1). The Book of Deuteron- occasion. The book contains three lengthy
of Jericho lay on omy relates the reestablishment of the speeches of Moses intended to exhort the
the opposite covenant with Israel, including the laws Israelites to keep the covenant faithfully.
side of Jordan
from the Plains
of the covenant. The name “Deuteron- These addresses survey God's saving acts
of Moab. omy,” from the Septuagint title (Deuter- for the previous generation and summa-
rize the laws of the covenant in order to
prepare the new generation of Israelites
for the future.

Literary Structure
The first address of Moses (1:1-4:43) re-
counts God’s mighty acts on Israel’s be-
half from the time of the covenant at Sinai
to this renewal ceremony in Moab. Moses
wanted to teach about God’s nature as sav-
ior and protector in order to motivate the
Israelites to keep the covenant (4:35-40).
The second speech (4:44-26:19) restates
the covenant laws originally presented in
Exodus 20-23. The Ten Commandments
needed to be specifically applied to the
people’s new life in the promised land in-
stead of their wilderness lives. The third
speech (27:1-31:30) is Moses’ final address
to the nation. He begins with a ritual of
curses and blessings dependent on
covenant compliance, charges the nation
to be faithful in the future, and formally
commissions Joshua as his successor. The
book closes with three appendixes: the
“Song of Moses” (chapter 32), the “Bless-
ing of Moses” (chapter 33), and the death
and burial of Moses (chapter 34).
Recent studies have also detected a five-
part concentric pattern known as chiasm.
 Deuteronomy

The speeches of Moses may thus be de- C. The Covenant Oath

scribed in the following fashion: (29:1-30:14)
D. Call to Decision (30:15-20)
A THE OUTER FRAME: E. Leadership and the Law
A Look Backwards (31:1-30)
(chapters 1-3)
V. Appendixes (32:1-34:12)
B THE INNER FRAME: A. The Song of Moses (32:1-47)
The Covenant Summary B. The Testament of Moses
(chapters 4-11) (32:48-33:29)
C. The Death of Moses (34:1-12)
C THE CENTRAL CORE:
Covenant Stipulations
Overview
(chapters 12-26)
The book opens with a five-verse intro-
B’ THE INNER FRAME: duction that establishes the historical and
The Covenant Ceremony geographical basis for the rest of the book.
(chapters 27-30) These are speeches of Moses delivered on
A’ THE OUTER FRAME:
the plains of Moab forty years after the ex-
A Look Forwards
odus. Verse 2 subtly reminds the reader of
(chapters 31-34) the consequences of sin and rebellion by
stating that the trip from Mount Sinai to
The two parts of the outer frame may be Kadesh-Barnea was only an eleven-day
journey. But Moses begins his final ad-
read together as a continuous whole, as is
dresses forty years after the exodus (v. 3).
true also of the two parts of the inner
The introduction closes with the state-
frame. This type of structure emphasizes
ment that on this occasion Moses “began
the central core, which in Deuteronomy
to expound this law” to Israel (v. 5).
comprises the primary body of legal in-
Deuteronomy is more than a restatement
struction for ancient Israel.”
of the covenant and the laws of Exodus
Outline
and Numbers, though many of those laws
find new expression here. Deuteronomy
is, rather, an exposition of the covenant in
I. Prologue (1:1-5)
a new setting. The paragraph also em-
II. The Great King’s Faithfulness phasizes the speech of Moses (“Moses
(1:6-4:43) spoke,” vv. 1 and 3). A chief claim of
A. From Sinai to Kadeshbarnea Deuteronomy is that Moses spoke that
(1:6—2:1) which Yahweh “commanded” him (v. 3).
B. From Edom to the Plains of The next paragraph begins with the em-
Moab (2:2-3:29) phatic assertion that Yahweh our God
C. Exhortation to Obedience “spoke” (the same word used for Moses’s
(4:1-40) speech in vv. 1 and 3, dibber) to the Israelites
D. Cities of Refuge (4:41-43) through Moses. Let there be no mistaking
this point: Deuteronomy claims to be the
III. The Covenant Way of Life very words of God.
(4:44-26:19)
First speech: The great king's
A. Introduction (4:44-49)
B. The Great Commandment
faithfulness (1:6—-4:43)
(5:1-11:32) The first speech presents a theology of his-
C. Ancillary Stipulations tory. By reviewing the recent past, Moses
(12:1-26:19) sought to prepare the nation to obey God
in the future. God began with the com-
IV. Covenant Sanctions (27:1-31:30) mand to leave Mount Sinai and enter
A. Ratification Ceremony Canaan, which he promised to give to Is-
(27:1-26) rael as the fulfillment of his promises to
B. Blessings and Curses the patriarchs (1:6-8). Thus the covenant
(28:1-68) already ratified at Sinai was a partial ful-
143
Encountering the Pentateuch

>f Moab vi A Mt. Ebal

@
Shechem
Mt. Gerizim

¢
Abel-shittim z
$
Heshbon
©
Beth-peor e
Mt.Nebo @
Pisgah

or

Scale

0 10 20 mi
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0 10 20 km
® Kadesh-barnea

fillment of God’s promise to the patriarchs. Kadesh-Barnea and its consequences in

Since that promise was as eternal as God’s 1:26—46. But then 2:1-3:22 reminds the Is-
own character, this covenant renewal in raelites of their successes in the desert.
Moab and the subsequent conquest of the They had obeyed God’s command to
promised land were certainly within God’s avoid confrontation with the Edomites,
will. Such assurances should provide the Moabites, and Ammonites. Though God
basis for obedience. promised to protect the Israelites as they
This survey of Israel's recent past illus- went around these nations (2:6-7), he
trates the benefits of keeping covenant as warned them they were not to try to con-
well as the pitfalls of disobedience. Be- quer their territories (2:5, 9, 19). Israel also
ginning with the command to leave Mount met with success against the Amorite
Sinai (1:6-7), Moses reviewed both the vic- kings, Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan
tories and the failures of Israel along the (2:24-3:17). God assured Moses and the
way. He reviewed the great rebellion at Israelites that he had given these kings
144
 Deuteronomy

LATTA
monotheism
and their lands over for defeat and charged immediately after the description of Is-
his people to engage Sihon and Og in bat- rael’s successes. The nation succeeded by
OAT ANNAN submitting to God’s will, but even an in-
tle (2:24, 31; 3:2). By acting when God com-
Shema
manded and by strictly obeying God’s di- dividual like Moses could fail through dis-
rectives, Israel learned that the victory is obedience.
God's to grant: “The Lorp our God deliv- Such illustrations of obedience and dis-
ered him over to us and we struck him obedience prepare the reader for chapter
down” (2:33; see 3:3). 4. Here Moses turns from reviewing the
After surveying such great successes, past to exhort the nation about the present
Moses reminded Israel that God’s bless- and the future. He recurringly warns
ings are often directly related to submis- against “forgetting” the covenant (vv. 9,
sion to his will. Deuteronomy 3:23-29 ex- 23). Moses knows that when it comes to
plains that even Moses had to suffer the keeping covenant commitments, God’s
An artist's
consequences of his sinful actions. He people have short memories.
impression of
the Israelite high would not be allowed to enter the Second speech: The covenant
priest. Moses’ promised land with the nation because of way of life (4:44-26:19)
brother Aaron
was the first
his sin at Meribah (Nm 20). This passage Moses’ sermon on the covenant in chap-
high priest. provides a contrast because of its location ter 4 is a suitable preparation for the sec-
ond address. Here Moses reviews the
covenant stipulations and establishes them
as the normative way of life for the Is-
raelites after they enter the promised land.
The unit is introduced as “the law that
Moses set before the Israelites” (4:44). After
an editorial introduction in 4:44-49, Moses
begins his discourse by explaining that
these are the “decrees and laws” of the
Sinai covenant now applied to their future
life in Canaan (5:1-3).
Deuteronomy 5-26 has two sections.
Chapters 5-11 comprise a general state-
ment about the covenant law. This is fol-
lowed by the specific application of that
law to future Israelite society and culture
(chapters 12-26). The general section be-
gins by repeating the Ten Commandments
as a convenient summary of the principles
of covenant living. Moses emphasizes that
these covenant life-principles were not just
for their ancestors at Mount Sinai. This
new generation of Israelites must now ac-
cept the law as their own (5:2-3).
As we saw in the chapters on Exodus
and Leviticus, law means divine instruc-
tion for righteous living. In the general
presentation of this instruction, Moses
gave the most important expression of the
Israelite concept of monotheism: “Hear,
O Israel: The Lorp our God, the Lorp is
one” (6:4). This famous verse is known as
the Shema, which is the first Hebrew word
of the sentence (Séma‘, “hear”). The unique
way in which Moses states this great truth
is more than a simple philosophical ex-
pression of the idea that the Israelite God,

145
Encountering the Pentateuch

TT Yahweh, is the only God in existence. It pertaining to ritual worship (like those of
polytheism
does mean that. But it also emphasizes the Leviticus) are intermingled with those
AN
consistency of God.° He never changes; having to do with civil and societal issues.
Decalogue
there is no duplicity in his character. He Those living in the promised land must
acts the same today as he did yesterday. exhibit obedience in all areas of life.
This was a new concept in the ancient Covenant faithfulness is not just for ab-
Near East, since different responses from stract religious observances, but for every-
deity implied different deities, hence poly- day life.
theism. But Yahweh is always the same, This unit contains a bewildering
never changing or leaving any doubt arrangement of the laws. Scholars have
about his nature. Moses’ statement of tended to see the arrangement of chapters
monotheism answers more than the ques- 12-26 as haphazard and hopelessly be-
tion, “How many gods are there?” It an- yond systematic analysis. But literary stud-
swers the question, “What type of God is ies have recently discerned a pattern in
our Yahweh?” It asserts that he is consis- which the laws of this unit are based on
tent within himself and in his dealings the Ten Commandments in chapter 5.
with humankind. He is the same for this STEPHEN A. KAUFMAN has described this
new generation of Israelites on the plains unit as “an expanded Decatocuz.”° The
of Moab as he was for their ancestors at laws of chapters 12-26 are arranged in four
Sinai, and as he is for any generation of major issues that the Decalogue, or Ten
believers. Because of this, Moses’ state- Commandments, addresses.
ment of the oneness of God flows into the This observation seems to have solved
greatest summation of God’s law: “Love the structural problems in the laws of
the Lorp your God with all your heart and chapters 12-26, and indeed possibly for
with all your soul and with all your Moses’ entire second speech in chapters
strength” (Dt 6:5; Mt 22:35-37). God can 5-26,
be and should be loved wholeheartedly be-
cause of his character. Third speech: Covenant sanctions
The purpose of this discourse on the law (27:1-31:30)
is not primarily to inform the Israelites, but Moses’ final discourse is actually a com-
rather to form them spiritually. Chapters bination of speeches pertaining to the
5-11 are intended to motivate the nation covenant and the transfer of leadership
to keep the covenant and obey God’s from Moses to Joshua. Chapters 27 and 28
covenant laws. Important concepts related could actually be taken as the conclusion
to keeping covenant are the words “love” to the second speech, leaving chapters
and “fear,” both of which Moses uses re- 29-30 as the final speech of Moses.8
curringly in chapters 6-11 (ahab and yare, In chapter 27, Moses gave instructions
respectively).* In this unit, Moses urges for a covenant renewal ceremony to be
the Israelites to both love and fear God. performed after the Israelites had taken
These ideas are not incompatible. Rather possession of the promised land. At the
they complement and need each other. ancient city of Shechem, in the heart of the
Love without fear becomes sappy senti- promised land, they were to build an altar
mentality and fails to result in obedience, and set up a stone memorial for the occa-
the ultimate goal of chapters 5-26.° Like- sion. The city lay between Mount EBAL
wise, fear without love becomes terror and (v. 4) and Mount GeriziM (v. 12). Moses
drives people away from an intimate re- gave instructions to divide the tribes, half
lationship with God. Together love and on one mountain and half on the other. In
fear produce a healthy relationship with this impressive and dramatic setting, the
him, and result in obedience to his will. In Israelites would recommit themselves to
chapters 5-11, God’s commandments, God's covenant. The Levites were to sing
statutes, and ordinances are wrapped up the warnings about breaking the covenant,
in the ideas of loving and fearing him. and the people were to respond an-
Chapters 12-26 now present the specific tiphonally. In one of the most moving
applications of the covenant obligations, scenes in Israel's history, this covenant re-
giving special attention to how the law re- newal ceremony was held under Joshua’s
lates to the new situation in Canaan. Laws leadership (Jos 8:30-35).
146
 Deuteronomy

DAACITN
deuteronomic
theology The Laws of Chapters 12-267

Main Issues Regarding God Regarding Humans

Authority Commandment 1 Commandment 5

chapter 12 1 6:18-1 8:22

Dignity Commandment 2 Commandments 6, 7, 8

chapter 12 19:1-24:7

Commitment Commandment 3 Commandment 9

13:1-14:21 24:8-16

Rights & Privileges Commandment 4 Commandment 10

14:22-16:17 24:17-26:15

Chapter 28 lists for the Israelites the to practice advanced decision making, to
blessings and curses of the covenant. Ina decide now what their future behavior
simple doctrine of retribution (often called would be. The Bible warns that we can-
deuteronomic theology), Moses explains not afford to wait until the moment of
that faithfulness to the covenant will re- temptation to decide what our answer will
sult in blessings in the future while dis- be.
obedience will result in curses. This is the In the final section of speeches, Moses
basic theology behind the historical books, makes provisions for the future of the na-
as we shall see. tion (chapter 31). He begins by passing the
Though Deuteronomy’s doctrine of ret- baton to his chosen successor: “Joshua...
ribution is certainly true, it is not the whole will cross over ahead of you, as the Lorp
picture because it deals with the immedi- said” (v. 3). Later, he appears with Joshua
ate future. Israel will succeed in the at the tabernacle so the nation can witness
promised land only if she is faithful to the the transfer of power (vv. 14-23). The
covenant. On the other hand, if she dis- whole nation could see it was the Lord
obeys God, she will lose the land. The rest who commissioned Joshua, not Moses
of biblical revelation broadens the scope alone (v. 23).
by teaching that character ultimately has Chapter 31 also provides for the future
to do with one’s eternal destiny. The cir- of the written word. Moses wrote down
cumstances of this life may have little to “this law” (presumably the speeches of
do with one’s character. Someone born Deuteronomy) and gave the nation in-
blind cannot be accused of being in that structions to read it publicly every seven
condition because of sin (Jn 9:1-3); people years (vv. 9-13). He left the copy of the
killed tragically in accidents have not met written law in the hands of the Levites,
untimely death because of sin (Lk 13:4-5). who were to preserve it in the ark of the
In the next part of Moses’ speeches to covenant (vv. 24-29).
the people (29:1-30:14), he reviews their
recent victories over enemy nations and Appendixes (32:1-34:12)
predicts their future disobedience, exile, In obedience to the Lord’s command to
and return to the land. Then Moses charges summarize the covenant in song (31:19),
them to make a conscious decision to be Moses composed a lengthy poem outlin-
faithful in their commitments to God ing Israel's history (32:1-32:47). In the form
(30:15-20). He has placed before them of a covenant lawsuit, the song surveys
blessings and curses, a choice between life the nation’s recent past, looks ahead to fu-
and death. Moses called on the Israelites ture rebellion and exile, and predicts God’s
147
Encountering the Pentateuch

forgiveness and restoration. The song was who would speak for God in a way that
covenant
intended as a final means of motivating not even Moses had done (18:15-19).
the nation to keep their covenant with Anineteenth-century poet captured the
God. The concepts expressed in the Song spirit of this chapter’s reverence for Moses.
of Moses, and even the phrases used to
express them, made a lasting impact on By Nebo’s lonely mountain,
On this side Jordan’s wave,
the nation. In fact, Deuteronomy 32 has
In a vale in the land of Moab,
been called the “phrase book” for the sev- There lies a lonely grave.
enth- and sixth-century prophets of the But no man dug that sepulchre,
Old Testament.’ In this way, the Song of And no man saw it e’er;
Moses served as the “Bible” for later For the angels of God upturned the sod,
prophets who preached about Israel's bro- And laid the dead man there.
ken covenant with God.
The time for Moses’ death had now ar- O lonely tomb in Moab’s land,
rived. After receiving instructions to go O dark Beth-peor’s hill,
Speak to these curious hearts of ours,
up to Mount Neso where he would view
And teach them to be still.
the promised land from a distance God hath his mysteries of grace—
(32:48-52), Moses pronounced a fatherly Ways that we cannot tell;
blessing over each tribe (33:1-29). Rather He hides them deep, like the secret sleep
than warnings or even final exhortations, Of him he loved so well.!°
these blessings declare God’s future for Is-
rael. This places the covenant and the Mo-
saic law squarely within God’s sover-
eignty. Moses has emphasized Israel's alee a ine
covenant obligations. But now his farewell
blessings assure the nation of God’s com-
Ancient World
As we have said, Deuteronomy contains
mitment to them.
The final chapter of the Pentateuch lov- Moses’ farewell speeches. These speeches
ingly describes the death of the esteemed have been deliberately arranged in a doc-
leader (34:1-12). The Lord identifies ument format resembling certain types of
treaties common in the ancient Near East.
Canaan as the land he swore to give to the
This arrangement makes Deuteronomy
patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob
first and foremost a covenant document.
(34:4). This new homeland is the fulfill-
Its goal is to reestablish the covenant of Sinai
ment of that covenant promise of long ago.
with this new generation of Israelites,
As Israel's representative, Moses symbol-
whose parents had broken the old
ically took possession of the land by view- covenant. In Deuteronomy, the Sinai
ing it from Mount Nebo. But because of covenant was being updated on the plains
his sin at Meribah (Nm 20), Moses was not
of Moab. As the Israelites stood in Moab,
permitted to enter the land physically. Per- with the land of God’s covenant promise
haps his personal tragedy is meant to warn just across the Jordan River, they were
God’s servant-leaders that all forms of per- putting the old wilderness life behind them.
sonal gratification run counter to God’s A covenant is a means of establishing a
purposes. Moses’ unfulfilled promise binding relationship that does not natu-
should encourage all of us to be content rally exist otherwise. As we saw in the
in fulfilling our roles in God’s great plan. study of Genesis, God bound himself for-
Following him intimately and leading his ever to Abraham and his family in the pa-
flock faithfully is no guarantee of inherit- triarchal covenant (chapters 12, 15, 17). In
ing his promises in this life. Exodus, Moses and the Israelites entered
Moses was an unparalleled prophet in into a sacred covenant with the Lord,
Israel’s history (v. 10). From the experience which carried with it life-changing oblig-
and historical viewpoint of the one who ations (24:3-8). Deuteronomy is now reaf-
added this note, God had not sent a firming that national covenant with the
prophet since who could compare to new generation of Israelites in the plains
Moses in stature. Yet Moses prophesied of of Moab.
one who would come later, the Messiah In the mid-1950s, the political and so-
148
 Deuteronomy

_ Excerpts from Hittite Suzerainty Treaties

) reamble o the king and in the presence of the sons of the

"These are the words of Mursilis, the great country.
_ king, king of the Hittites, the valiant. 5) The list of gods as witnesses
2) The historical prologue The Sun-god of Heaven, the Sun-goddess of
When your father died, | did not drop you. Arinna, Ishtar, the gods and goddesses of the
Since your father mentioned your name to me Hittites, the gods and goddesses of the
with great praise, | sought after you. To be Amorites, all the olden gods, the mountains,
sure, you were sick and ailing. But | still let you the rivers, heaven and earth, the winds and
replace your father and accepted your clouds—let these be witnesses to this treaty
brothers, sisters, and your land in oath for you. and to the oath.

3) The stipulations
6) The curses and blessings formula

You shall remain loyal to me, the Hittite king, Should Duppi-Tessub fail to honor this treaty,
the Hittite land, and my sons and grandsons may these gods of the oath destroy Duppi-
forever! The tribute imposed upon your Tessub together with his wife, his son, his
grandfather and your father (300 shekels of grandson, his house, his land and everything
high quality gold) you will also present to me! that he owns. But if Duppi-Tessub honors the
Do not turn your eyes to anyone else! Your treaty inscribed on this tablet, may these gods
fathers presented tribute to Egypt; but you protect him together with his wife, his son, his
shall never do that! grandson, his house and his country.

4) Provision for deposit in the temple Extracted and adapted from two treaties:
and periodic public reading 1) Mursilis and Duppi-Tessub (ANET, 203-5) and
: ; 2) Suppiluliumas and Mattiwaza (perhaps spelled Sattiwaza or
A duplicate of this document has been Kurtiwaza, ANET, 205-6). |
deposited before the god Tessub. At regular
intervals they shall read it in the presence of

EXAAAATANAAN cial background of the Sinai covenant was The Hittite Parallels
suzerainty
discovered in treaties from the ancient This treaty structure was used by differ-
Near East. Though some scholars today ent nations over many centuries in ancient
disagree, the consensus is that Deuteron- Near Eastern history. But the best exam-
omy shares the same structural organiza- ples for our purposes are found in Hittite
tion as international treaties made between documents from the mid-second millen-
kings of two nations. The suzerainty nium B.c. (fourteenth and thirteenth cen-
treaties were political covenants between turies B.c.). These Hittite suzerainty
unequal partners. The suzerain (or over- covenants nearly always have the follow-
lord) agreed to a binding relationship with ing six elements, though there is consid-
his vassal (or subject nation). In such an erable variation in the order and wording
arrangement, the suzerain king offered to of these elements.!!
provide protection for the vassal, but the 1. Preamble. This introduction usually
subject nation must faithfully pay tribute identifies the suzerain king, giving his ti-
and be loyal to the suzerain exclusively. tles and attributes.
Many scholars believe the original Sinai 2. The historical prologue. A second in-
covenant (Ex 20-24) and Joshua’s covenant troduction describes the historical rela-
renewal at Shechem (Jos 24) also have this tions between the two parties leading up
literary structure. to this agreement. It usually details the
149
Encountering the Pentateuch

benevolent acts of the suzerain on behalf Treaty Structure in Deuteronomy

of the vassal. This section is intended to The idea of “covenant” was important
make the vassal feel obligated to the throughout the Pentateuch. The parallels
suzerain for favors already received. The between the ancient Near Eastern treaties
suzerain is hoping to exchange past ben- and certain covenant passages of the Old
efits for future obedience to specific com- Testament are undeniable.'? But Deuteron-
mands, which will be detailed in the doc- omy is unique in that we have an extended
ument. This section usually uses an portion of Scripture structured literarily
“I-Thou” form of address. The suzerain, according to an ancient covenant. The Hit-
as author of the document, addresses the tite suzerainty treaties of the second mil-
vassal directly. lennium B.c. are the closest parallel to this
3. The stipulations. This section outlines structure.
the terms of the agreement, explaining the
obligations imposed on and accepted by 1 Preamble 11-5
the vassal. It usually includes a prohibi- 2. The historical prologue. 1:6-3:29
tion against relationships with any other 3. The stipulations. 4-26
foreign nations outside the Hittite Empire. 4. Provision for deposit of the docu-
Among several other stipulations, the ment and periodic public reading.
treaty customarily requires an annual visit 31:9-13, 24-26
to the suzerain, probably on the occasion 5. The list of witnesses. 30:19; 31:19-22
of annual tribute, and a pledge of loyalty 6. The curses and blessings formula.
to the suzerain. chapter 28
4. Provision for deposit in the temple
and periodic public reading. The obliga- The structure of Deuteronomy seems to
tions of the treaty applied to the entire vas- have been borrowed from the ancient
sal nation, not just the king. Regular pub- treaties. But comparing God's relationship
lic readings ensured that the population to Israel with the Hittite king’s relation-
of the vassal nation were familiar with the ship to his subject nation has limitations.
requirements. Also, because the treaty was The parallel between Deuteronomy and
protected by the deity, the document was the Hittite treaties has to do only with form
deposited as a sacred object in the sanc- and structure, not content.
tuary of the vassal nation. This created the It is not difficult to see why Israel could
impression that any breach of the treaty so easily compare her new relationship to
would offend the local deity. God with the ancient Near Eastern treaties.
5. The list of gods as witnesses. The au- The suzerain demanded exclusive devo-
thors of these international treaties thought tion. The vassal could not form another
of the gods as witnesses to the treaties, like such relationship with any other king or
witnesses in a legal contract. The gods of nation. Mosaic monotheism needed to ex-
the Hittites and those of the vassal coun- press the exclusive nature of relationship
try could all be appealed to as witnesses. to Yahweh. There could be no other gods
Sometimes deified mountains, rivers, involved. But the suzerain king was also
springs, sea, heaven and earth, or winds under some obligation. This was a mutual
and clouds were also listed in this section commitment between two parties. So Yah-
(DES2alaiIcEm): weh was also committing himself to Is-
6. The curses and blessings formula. Fi- rael. Yahweh’s covenant love (hesed) is an
nally, the treaty listed blessings for those important concept throughout the rest of
who were faithful to the agreement and the Old Testament.
curses for those who were not. The Hittite Does this parallel between Deuteron-
king could always use military force as a omy and the second-millennium Hittite
threat to any vassal who broke a treaty. treaties help with the problem of when
But the written document listed the curses Deuteronomy was written (see discussion
and blessings of the treaty as actions of the in chapter 3)? As helpful as this observa-
gods. The sanctions of the treaty were re- tion is, it only demonstrates that Deuteron-
ligious ones, and the Hittite military ma- omy fits well into the second millennium
chine was merely the agent of divine will. and could have been composed then. This
150
 Deuteronomy

An artist's
impression of a
family tent from
Old Testament
times. During
their years of
wandering the
Israelites lived a
nomadic
existence.

parallel makes it possible to date of the covenantal law, it summarizes the

Deuteronomy to the time of Moses, though Pentateuch and brings this monumental
it fails to prove Mosaic authorship, since first section of the Bible to a fitting close.
other treaties with similar outlines were But Deuteronomy is also forward-look-
used in the first millennium. It does, how- ing. It prepares the Israelites for their fu-
ever, demonstrate the essential unity of ture life with God in the promised land,
the whole book. All of Deuteronomy (with and lays the literary and theological foun-
the possible exception of chapters 33 and dation for the historical books.
34) were part of this treaty structure. Deuteronomy is a pivotal book in the
Old Testament canon. The first nine books
NUN INN of the Bible (Genesis to 2 Kings) may be

Significance called the Primary History.'8 Deuteron-

omy is literally at the center of that his-
of Deuteronomy tory, serving as the literary and theologi-
cal hinge on which all the rest swing.
in Biblical Thought
Deuteronomy is important for the way it Role of Deuteronomy
ties together what precedes it to what fol- in the Pentateuch
lows. Historically, the covenant in the Deuteronomy is the culminating expres-
plains of Moab bridged the Sinai covenant sion of the Mosaic covenant. As in the pre-
with life in the promised land. So also vious books of the Pentateuch, Deuteron-
Deuteronomy forms a literary bridge be- omy is greatly concerned with law. Here,
tween the Pentateuch and the historical as nowhere else in the Pentateuch, the un-
books. It looks both back in time and for- derlying principle of the law is love, which
ward to the future. As a recrystallization characterizes the relationship between

151
Encountering the Pentateuch

CACTI from their appropriate response of obedi-

Deuteronomistic
History ence. When God’s people break his com-
mandments, they break the relationship
of love (Mt 22:35—40; Jn 14:15). Obedience
to God’s law is a byproduct of a relation-
GENESIS JOSHUA ship of love. Love is the essence of the re-
EXODUS JUDGES lationship; law is the natural result.
LEVITICUS SAMUEL
NUMBERS KINGS Deuteronomy
and the Historical Books
Deuteronomy is the foundation stone for
Y
DEUTERONOM
the so-called Deuteronomistic History.
The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and
Kings comprise a unit of historical books
with a strong deuteronomistic influence
God and his people. The concrete imper- (see next chapter). Deuteronomy sets the
atives of the Ten Commandments objec- stage on which the drama described in the
tify this principle and then receive more historical books takes place. The cov-
specific application in the stipulations of enant’s call to choose between life and
chapters 12-26. death, blessings and curses, is a prelude
The basis of the nation’s relationship to to the story of national Israel (Dt 30:19).
God flowed from his love for them and God's people stand on the verge of na-

. In the form of three addresses given . In his third speech Moses discusses the
by Moses, the Book of Deuteronomy sanctions of the covenant.
presents an exhortation to the Is-
. Before his death, Moses pronounced a
raelites to keep the covenant.
blessing over every tribe.
. The Book of Deuteronomy is orga-
. The organization of the Book of
nized in a five-part concentric pattern
Deuteronomy is that of a suzerainty
known as a chiasm.
treaty, which was a common political
. The faithfulness of God is the topic of agreement in the ancient Near East.
Moses’ first speech.
10. The six parts of a Hittite suzerainty
. The subject of Moses’ second speech is treaty are: preamble, historical pro-
a review of the covenant, which stipu- logue, stipulations, list of gods as wit-
lates that the promised land is for the nesses, curses, and blessings formula.
Israelites.
. Deuteronomy is at the center of the
. Moses presented a monotheistic ap- primary history of the Old Testament.
proach for the Israelites as contrasted
. Deuteronomy is the foundation for
with the polytheism of the ancient
what is called Deuteronomistic history.
Near East.
. The arrangement of the law in chap-
ters 12-26 follows the major topics of
the Decalogue.

152
 Deuteronomy

Study Questions

. In what way does the title “Deuteron- How do these combine to accomplish
omy” fail to express the essence of the the goal of Deuteronomy 5-26?
book? What is the geographic location
. What new situation is addressed in
in the book's opening scene? What is
Deuteronomy 12-26? How do the Ten
the occasion for its writing? What
Commandments provide a structure to
three events are depicted in detail in
the laws of Deuteronomy 12-26?
the book?
. What are the two parts of Moses’
. What are the subjects of the first
third speech (27:1-31:30)? Describe
(1:1-4:43), second (4:44-26:19), and
the covenant renewal ceremony and
third (27:1-31:30) literary units? De-
the doctrine of retribution. What pre-
scribe the book's appendixes.
diction is made and what choice is of-
. When do the events of the book fered in the final part of Moses’
occur? How do the book’s legal mate- speeches (29:1-30:14)? What are the
rials differ from the laws of Exodus two provisions for the nation’s future
and Numbers? What is the basis of in Deuteronomy 31?
Moses’ authority?
. How was the Song of Moses used by
. In his first speech (1:6-4:43), what later prophets? What is the warning
does Moses illustrate in the survey of to future leaders in Moses’ death out-
Israel’s recent past? side the promised land?
. What are the two sections of Moses’ . What is a suzerainty treaty? What ele-
second speech (4:44—26:19)? What is ments of a Hittite suzerainty treaty are
the function of the Ten Command- seen in Deuteronomy?
ments here? What truths are con-
10. How does Deuteronomy serve as a
tained in the Shema? What questions
bridge between the Pentateuch and
does it answer? How are we instructed
the historical books?
to respond to the character of God?
What is the proper balance of love
and fear in our relationship with God?

tionhood in Canaan. Deuteronomy be-

Key Terms comes the nation’s formative constitution.
Itis a covenant renewal document, which
Septuagint also prescribed their future relationship
chiasm with God, with each other, and with sur-
monotheism rounding nations. The expression of Is-
Key Person/ Shema rael’s relationship to God in the form of a
polytheism covenant is the most important Old Tes-
Places tament expression of Israelite faith. This
Decalogue
Stephen A. Kaufman deuteronomic theology is the distinguishing characteristic of He-
Mount Ebal covenant brew religion.
Mount Gerizim suzerainty
Mount Nebo Deuteronomistic History

153
Encountering the Pentateuch

Further Reading

Christensen, Duane L. Deuteronomy 1-11. Word Craigie, Peter C. The Book of Deuteronomy. New
Biblical Commentary 6A. Dallas: Word, 1991. International Commentary on the Old Testament.
Unique approach, with some helpful insights. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976. One of the best
, ed. A Song of Power and the Power of Song: commentaries available in English.
Essays on the Book of Deuteronomy. Sources for Thompson, J. A. Deuteronomy: An Introduction and
Biblical and Theological Study 3. Winona Lake, Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament
Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1993. Wonderful introduction Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester:
to the major issues and scholarly approaches to InterVarsity, 1974.
Deuteronomy.

154
Encountering the
Historical Books
 Introduction to the
Historical Books
The History of Israel’s Nationhood

- Outline
¢ Contents of the Historical Books
__¢ The Role of History in the Bible
Herodotus, the Father of History?
The Jewish Canon and the
Christian Canon Objectives
History and Theology
¢ Authorship of the Historical Books After reading this chapter,
you should be able to
The Deuteronomistic History
¢ Identify the purpose of each
Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah
of the historical books
Ruth and Esther
e Explain how the Bible is more than
a history book
¢ Discuss the role of historicity
for a biblical faith
¢ Evaluate the Noth-Cross approach
to authorship of the historical books
Encountering the Historical Books

The Pentateuch records the birth of God’s does not contrast obedience with disobe-
people. The account continues in the sec- dience as do the Books of Kings.
ond section of the canon known as the Judges, on the other hand, relates the al-
“historical books.” These books are im- most hopeless state of Israel after the con-
portant first of all because of their histor- quest. The nation fell victim to religious
ical content. They cover a period of time compromise. Israel seemed incapable of
at least eight-hundred years in length, sustained periods of obedience to God’s
from Joshua’s conquest to the Persian Em- will and doomed to failure. Temporary pe-
pire in which Esther lived. riods of obedience brought peace and suc-
The historical books begin by describ- cess, but each time the nation fell back into
ing Israel’s conquest of the promised land sin. The Book of Judges was written to vin-
(Joshua). Then this section of the Bible con- dicate Israel’s need for a king.
tinues by telling of the period before Is- Ruth is inserted after the Book of Judges
rael had kings, when judges ruled the peo- because the events detailed in it took place
ple (Judges, Ruth). They also cover the during the judges period. This little book
period of the monarchy. The united king- illustrates God’s sovereign care for faith-
dom of Saul, David, and Solomon was
ful individuals who live in the midst of
eventually divided into Israel in the north national religious apostasy. God used the
faithfulness of a single family to work a
and Judah in the south (1-2 Sm, 1-2 Kgs).
miracle and to provide Israel’s greatest
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah retell the
king, David.
history from a later theological perspec-
The Books of Samuel trace the early his-
tive and continue the narration into the
tory of Israel’s monarchy. Samuel was a
postexilic restoration. Esther illustrates the
prophet and judge who led Israel through
role of God’s people under Persian rule. the transition from judges to kings. The
Besides their historical worth, these
books tell the stories of Israel’s first two
books are also important for what they kings: Saul and David. Second Samuel is
teach theologically. They describe Israel’s especially devoted to describing the major
history, but they are more than history or events of David’s kingship.
a record of mere historical facts. They are The Books of Kings detail the history of
God’s word today for all Christian be- the monarchy from Solomon to the fall of
lievers. The church has always affirmed Jerusalem. They contrast obedience with
the value of these books for “teaching, re- disobedience in order to illustrate the re-
buking, correcting and training in right- sults of both. Things went well for Solomon
eousness” (2 Tm 3:16). We read these initially. But his failure to remain faithful
books for more than their historical value. to Yahweh resulted in a divided kingdom,
They trace the history of God’s relation- Israel in the north and Judah in the south.
ship with his nation, revealing his faith- Northern Israel was religiously apostate
fulness and steadfast love for his people from the start and fell to the Assyrians in
even when they broke covenant. These are 722..C. Judah vacillated between evil kings
important events to learn from, not merely and a few good ones, until the wickedness
about. of certain kings was too great. Nebuchad-
nezzar and his Babylonian military ma-
q IN chine took Jerusalem in 587 B.c.
The rest of the historical books come
ontents of the from the postexilic period. The Books of
Historical Books Chronicles form the first commentary on
the Scriptures. These books retell the sto-
The Book of Joshua was written to show ries of David, Solomon, and the kingdom
the surpassing value of obedience. It paints of Judah, accounts already known from
the picture of Israel’s successful conquest the Books of Samuel and Kings. But the
of the promised land, highlighting the im- Chronicler was not simply rehashing old
portance of absolute commitment to God’s news. He highlighted God’s work among
word and dependence on his power. his people through David's line. He de-
Though there are a few examples of dis- sired to follow a straight line of faith and
obedience, in general the Book of Joshua salvation without detours into the failures
158
 Introduction to the Historical Books

myths
of the past. His audience in the exile knew
all too well the story of national moral col-
lapse and defeat. His generation needed
The Role of History
to be reminded of the victories of Israel’s in the Bible
heritage as a means of providing hope for As we saw in the Pentateuch, Israel was
the future. unique among her ancient Near Eastern
The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, neighbors for her emphasis on history.
which were probably written together as God created time and space and is there-
one composition, present the events of the fore sovereign over human history. It
restoration in the middle of the fifth cen- should not be surprising that a large por-
tury B.c. Under Persian rule, the Jews liv- tion of Israel’s sacred writings were his-
ing in Babylonia were allowed to return torical narratives.
to their homeland to rebuild. The able Most religious expression in the ancient
leadership of Ezra and Nehemiah, along Near East was mythological. Ancient peo-
with certain prophets who were active ples generally expressed their theological
during that time, helped the Jewish peo- convictions and worldviews through elab-
ple rebuild the temple and the walls of orate myths, in which important events
Jerusalem. In addition to describing these took place outside history. Most holy
physical structures, these books also re- books of world religions are collections of
late the rebuilding of the social and reli- wisdom literature and religious APHO-
gious foundations of God’s people. RISMS. But Israel saw her own national his-
The fascinating little Book of Esther tory as an arena for divine revelation.
demonstrates how God's sovereign care God's word for the world is largely a nar-
and protection extend to his people, even rative of his relationship with one nation,
while they are living in Persian exile. The and his plan for establishing a relation-
book is a historical short story about Queen ship with all humankind.
Esther and her cousin Mordecai. Unlike
any other biblical book, Esther shows that Herodotus, the Father of History?
even when God is silent, he is at work ful- Because history was the primary means
filling his promises to his people. of God’s revelation, Israel was the first na-

An Assyrian
relief showing a
scene following
a battle.
Northern Israel
was religiously
apostate and fell
to the Assyrians
in 722 B.c.
Encountering the Historical Books

NTNINANTANANARNNNNSNNY tion to give great attention to the record- History and Theology?
Heilsgeschichte
ing of history. HERoportus, the fifth-cen- The Bible is more than a history book. It
ALATA tury B.c. Greek historian, earned the title writes history from a decidedly religious
salvation
history
“Father of History” for his history of the perspective. There is no attempt at what
Greek and Persian wars. But a hundred we today might call objectivity in modern
years before Herodotus, the Bible had a history writing. The writers are writing
history of Israel containing many of the what scholars refer to as Heilsgeschichte,
same features we now think of as history: or salvation history. This designation dis-
cause-and-effect connections, continuous
tinguishes biblical history from general
narration, fully developed characteriza-
history, which usually deals with the se-
tion, and so on.
quence of human events in the natural
The Jewish Canon and the sphere. The events of salvation history are
Christian Canon supernatural divine revelations in time
and space, and recorded in Scripture to
History is important in both Jewish and
promote faith.
Christian canons. As we saw in chapter 1, The recording of that salvation history
the Christian canon separates and groups is important in biblical faith. The events
together all the books that are predomi-
themselves cannot be recreated and stud-
nantly historical in nature. These histori-
ied firsthand, only the record of the
cal books narrate the story of Israel’s his-
events. So faith must study the events
tory from a religious viewpoint. The
through the written record. Biblical faith,
Jewish canon calls Joshua, Judges, Samuel,
then, assumes the historicity of the events
and Kings the “Former Prophets.” How
that reveal the history of salvation. The
can this be an appropriate designation for
these books? What is the relationship be- Bible accepts as true the historical events
tween these books and prophecy? on which the revelation is based. It also
The answer to this question lies in a asserts the truthfulness of the interpreta-
proper understanding of both prophecy tion of those events, which the Bible pre-
and history. Prophecy is not primarily fu- sents in written form. The written form
turistic, but concerned with obedience in itself then becomes an important piece of
time and space, in the here and now. historical evidence.°
Prophecy looks to the covenants of the past Biblical authors frequently appeal to
and interprets their significance for the events for validation of their theological
present as well as the future. It uses his- points, and they assume the historical ac-
tory to tie the past to the present. Our his- curacy of the events they describe. The fac-
torical books are appropriate in the Jew- tuality of those historical events makes it
ish canon as “Former Prophets” because possible to accept the theological asser-
they narrate the nation’s reaction to the tions of the Bible as true. Historicity does
covenant throughout its history. These not prove its theology is true. But histori-
books present the history of Israel from a cal trustworthiness is necessary in order
prophetic point of view. Jewish tradition for the theological assertions to be true be-
credits prophets for the composition of cause those assertions are based on the
some of these books (Samuel for Judges events of history.
and Jeremiah for 1 Kings).! For example, we may assert that we be-
Though the evidence for such conclu- lieve in the Lord of the Old Testament as
sions is lacking, it is nonetheless logical a gracious and loving God who makes and
because of the devotion to the role of keeps covenant with his people. That is a
prophecy in these books. They are “For- theological assertion. But unless Yahweh
MER PROPHETS” because they relate the did in fact make and keep the covenant
early history of prophecy and write the with the children of Israel, the theological
national history in light of theological and assertion is groundless, regardless of its
prophetical interests. Joshua, Judges, plausibility. If the history is not true, then
Samuel, and Kings are just as appropriate the theology based on that history is mere
as “Former Prophets” in the Jewish canon human speculation.
as they are as historical books in the Chris- The faith the Bible defines and expresses
tian canon. is explicitly a historical faith. It is rooted
160
 Introduction to the Historical Books

Hexateuch
and grounded in the historicity of certain books relate to each other and to the Pen-
past events. Historicity is a necessary in- tateuch?” Many scholars have overem-
gredient of biblical faith, though not an phasized the relationship between
Tetrateuch
adequate basis of faith, in and of itself. Deuteronomy and Joshua. Joshua is the
Faith in the Old Testament is defined in fulfillment of the promises to the patri-
Deuteronomistic
History terms of past events, no less so than New archs, and much of what is assumed in the
Testament faith is rooted in the resurrec- Pentateuch becomes a reality in Joshua.
tion (1 Cor 15:12-19). For example, Moses prepared the nation
for the covenant renewal ceremony at
Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, which
Joshua enacted (Dt 27:5-6; Jos 8:30-35).
Renhorehinip 0of:
fthe Furthermore, many scholars have argued
that the same literary sources they believe
Historical Books were used to compile the Pentateuch (JEDr)
All of the historical books are anonymous were used also in Joshua. Instead of a Pen-
(though the personal memoirs of Ezra and tateuch, these scholars have argued for a
Nehemiah were used to compile those Hexateuch, preferring to view Genesis—
books). Other biblical references to these Joshua as a literary unit.
books are of no help in determining au- Other scholars have overemphasized
thorship. The titles indicate subject mat- the relationship between Deuteronomy
ter of a particular book, and usually have and the four histories contained in Joshua,
no connection to the authors. Joshua may Judges, Samuel, and Kings. Assuming a
have been the source for much of the book late (seventh century) date for Deuteron-
bearing his name, but Samuel’s death is omy, this theory pictures a self-contained
Mount Gerizim recorded in 1 Samuel 25. It is unlikely he historical work edited during the exile.
viewed from
had much to do with composing 1-2 Deuteronomy served as the introduction
Mount Ebal.
Samuel, despite Jewish tradition.* The to this historical work, which extended
Moses prepared
the Israelites for Books of Samuel appear to be named in through 2 Kings (minus Ruth). The result
the covenant
his honor because he is the central figure is a truncated Pentateuch, having only four
renewal
in the early sections and because of his im- books. These scholars refer to a Tetrateuch
ceremony at
containing Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, and
Mount Ebal and portant role in anointing Saul and David.
Mount Gerizim, Numbers, and a Deuteronomistic History
Acentral question for the authorship of
which Joshua comprised of Deuteronomy-2 Kings (ex-
enacted. the historical books is: “How do these
cluding Ruth).

The Deuteronomistic History

The classical expression of this hypothe-
sis was published in 1943 by Martin
Notu.® The hypothesis states that an
anonymous editor (called the “Deuteron-
omist,” and abbreviated Dtr) combined
several sources into a long document de-
tailing Israel’s history theologically. After
Jerusalem’s fall in 587 B.c., Dtr sought to
interpret the tragedy as well as to explain
the fall of northern Israel in 722 B.c. He
traced the divine punishment of the Is-
raelite kingdoms to their persistent sin and
experiments with idolatry. His task was
essentially a negative one. He attempted
to answer the question, “What went
wrong?”
This hypothesis has won wide scholarly
approval. It has been modified in several
ways, but most significant is the proposal
that there were in fact two Dtr editors.
161
Encountering the Historical Books

ATARI FRANK Moore Cross has argued that the

deuteronomic
theology first Dtr editor (Dtr!) composed the initial
work during the time of Josiah (640-609
ALO
covenant
B.c.).’ According to Cross, this first edition
emphasized the sins of Jeroboam I in the
northern kingdom, and God’s choice of
David and the city of Jerusalem in the
south. Since Dtr! lived and worked before
the fall of Jerusalem, his work was more
hopeful than the final edition.
The second Deuteronomist (Dtr?) fin-
ished the work during the exile (around
550 B.c.). This editor blamed Manasseh for
Judah’s collapse in an attempt to explain
how Jerusalem could fall and how the
royal line of David could be dethroned.
Manasseh’s role is parallel to that of Jer-
oboam [in Israel. Dtr? updated the history
Israelite tower by chronicling the subsequent events from
in Jerusalem
dated to the Josiah’s time to the end of the southern
seventh century kingdom. He used a light editor’s pen,
B.C. while Dtr! was an actual author. Thus, in-
stead of a Hexateuch (Genesis—Joshua)
Noth, Cross, and many scholars today pre-
fer to speak of a Tetrateuch (Genesis— nomic theology. The Books of Samuel
Numbers) followed by the Deuterono- demonstrate Saul and David, both under
mistic History, which was compiled dur- the blessing first, then both under the
ing the late monarchy and edited during curse. The Books of Kings bring retribu-
the exile. tion theology to the foreground as the the-
One of the major themes of the Deut- ological explanation for the fall of both
eronomistic History, according to Noth, is kingdoms. Acknowledging this overar-
its emphasis on the doctrine of retribution ching philosophy of history brings unity
based on the curses and blessings of to the whole.
Deuteronomy 28 (see comments on The Noth—Cross approach also accen-
deuteronomic theology in chapter 9). The tuates the continuity between Deuteron-
idea of reward for obedience to the omy and the historical books. This is most
covenant and punishment for disobedi- helpful in observing, for example, the in-
ence is foundational for the historical fluence of Deuteronomy’s “law of the
books. Just as Deuteronomy 32 is a “Bible,” king” (Dt 17:14-20) and “law of the
or phrase book, for the Old Testament prophet” (Dt 18:9-22) on the later histor-
prophets, Deuteronomy 28 may be seen ical books. These important laws stand at
as the “Bible” for the authors of the his- the center of Deuteronomy and also func-
torical books. tion as primary sources for key sections of
There are several ways in which the the historical books dealing with political
Noth-Cross theory of a Deuteronomistic leadership: Joshua (Jos 23), Samuel (1 Sm
History is helpful. There can be no doubt 12), Elijah (1 Kgs 19), and many others.®
that these historical books share a theol- However, there are difficulties with the
ogy of retribution, which seems clearly to theory as well. Most scholars holding to
be based on the Book of Deuteronomy. this hypothesis assume a late date for the
These four historical books are all com- Book of Deuteronomy. They assume Dtr!
mitted to the concepts of blessings and began with a portion of Deuteronomy
curses under the covenant. Joshua in- written during the seventh century B.c., to
cludes the Achan episode to illustrate the which he added an introduction (Dt
irreversible losses of disobedience (Josh 1:1-4:43) and various other materials.
7). The recurring cycle of sin and punish- Then, using sources from the premonar-
ment in Judges is clearly based on deutero- chic and monarchic periods of Israel's his-
162
 Introduction to the Historical Books

An Assyrian
assault on a
town, pictured
ina
contemporary
relief. Scholars
believe the
historical books
were written
during the exile.

tory, he compiled a unified history of the Samuel follow very different organizing
period. But this rejects Deuteronomy’s self- principles. These four books also have con-
claims and ignores the parallels with an- siderable differences in style and overall
cient Near Eastern suzerain treaties, which purposes. They undoubtedly share a com-
make it clear that Deuteronomy fits well mon worldview, a deuteronomic world-
in a second-millennium context, includ- view. But they are also quite distinct in
ing its introduction. many ways.
A further problem is the way many Finally, it might be added that the en-
scholars dissect Deuteronomy from the tire Old Testament contains “deutero-
Pentateuch, making it a Tetrateuch. This nomic” influences. It is clear that the doc-
leaves the first four books of the Bible in trine of retribution played an especially
an awkward literary relationship that has dominant role in these historical books.
never been fully justified. Defined in this But that is not to suggest the patriarchs
way, the theory forces an artificial break knew no such doctrine, or that Chronicles
between Genesis-Numbers (which antic- was unaware of it. Other sections of the
ipates the conquest) and the Book of Old Testament have different roles to play,
Joshua. Such a division also denies the and the deuteronomic influence was less
canonical function of Deuteronomy in its pertinent to that function than it was in
authoritative reinterpretation of the first these four books.
four books.’ Thus we may refer generally to a
In addition, the theory fails to account Deuteronomistic History to signify this
for the enormous amount of variety in the unified account of the history of Israel
historical books. The Deuteronomistic His- without accepting every aspect of the
tory as defined by Noth exhibits less co- Noth-Cross theory. The first four histori-
herent overall structure than he admitted. cal books (excluding Ruth) are certainly
These four historical books (Joshua, related to the theology of Deuteronomy.
Judges, Samuel, Kings) are internally self- The final edition of Kings was completed
contained works. They are sufficiently dif- after 561 B.c., since this is the date of the
ferent from each other as to require no last recorded event (2 Kgs 25:27-30). There
common editor or author. Judges and is no mention of the Persians and their lib-
Kings use a concentration of repetition to eration of the Jews in 539 B.c. Therefore,
structure their contents, while Joshua and we may conclude Kings was completed

163
Encountering the Historical Books

of his work as a continuation and culmi-

Key Ti nation of that history. To that extent, we
ey terms may refer toa Deuteronomistic Historian.

es Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah

aphorisms
“Former Prophets” Early Jewish tradition names Ezra as the
Key People Heilsgeschichte author of 1-2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Ne-
JEDP hemiah.!° These last two are treated as one
Herodotus Hexateuch book in the oldest Hebrew manuscripts.
Martin Noth Tetrateuch Old Testament scholars have thought for
Frank Moore Cross Deuteronomistic History many years that the author of Ezra—Ne-
Josephus deuteronomic theology hemiah (almost certainly Ezra) was also
Mordecai covenant responsible for Chronicles. But recently a
new consensus has developed, which now
sees Chronicles as the work of a different,
anonymous author.'! It is interesting to
note that Chronicles follows Ezra—Ne-
hemiah in the Hebrew canon rather then
preceding these books as chronological
during the final twenty-two years of the order would dictate. This would support
exile. To what extent the anonymous au- _ the idea that a different author produced
thor of Kings had a hand in the compila- Chronicles.
tion of Joshua, Judges, or Samuel is im- Although there is no specific claim to
possible to determine. But he conceived authorship in Ezra, the first-person ac-

4 Summary
AZZ

1
hd |
i
CUTAN onl

1. The historical books also have 8. Ezra and Nehemiah present the
theological importance. history of the restoration in the
2. Joshua shows the value of obedience. fifth century 8.c.
9. Esther demonstrates how God's sover-
3. Judges tells of the near hopelessness
eign care and protection extends to
of Israel after the conquest.
his people.
4. Ruth illustrates God's sovereign care
10. The history of Israel contrasts with the
for individuals who are faithful in
mythological approach found in the
spite of national religious apostasy.
rest of the ancient Near East.
5. Samuel traces the early history of |s-
: 11. The authorship of all of the historical
rael's monarchy.
books is anonymous.
6. Kings tells about the history of the
12. One popular theory of the authorship
monarchy from Solomon to the fall
of the historical books is that an
of Jerusalem.
anonymous editor combined several
7. Chronicles is the first commentary sections into one lengthy document
on the Scriptures. of Israel's history.

164
 Introduction to the Historical Books

Study Questions

. Approximately how much time is cov- . From what perspective are historical
ered by the historical books? events recorded in this section
ible?
of the Bible?
. What is the theological value
of the historical books? . How are historical facts important to
Re :
(Briefly suramarize the major theme the theology of the historical books?
of each of the historical books. . Discuss the authorship of the
. How did the Israelites view the con- historical books.
cept of history? . Explain the deuteronomistic history
and its ramifications for the
. What is the main concern of biblical bianca books:
prophecy as portrayed in the
historical books?
. Why are the historical books referred
to as the “Former Prophets”?

Further Reading

Howard, David M., Jr. An Introduction to the Millard, A. R., James K. Hoffmeier, and David
_ Old Testament Historical Books. Chicago: W. Baker, eds. Faith, Tradition, and History:
Moody, 1993. Best introductory volume. Old Testament Historiography in Its Near Eastern
Long, V. Philips. The Art of Biblical History. Grand Context. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1994.
Rapids: Zondervan, 1994. Important theological Important scholarly treatment of many issues
discussion of all the issues. relating to the historical books.

counts in the book make him the likely Ruth and Esther
candidate. Nehemiah has a similar style Jewish tradition credits Samuel with writ-
and worldview, and was joined toEzraas ing the Book of Ruth.!” But this tradition
the second part of a single compositionin arose probably because of the similarity of
the Hebrew canon. It seems likely that Ezra language and content in Ruth, Judges, and
compiled this book using the personal _ the Books of Samuel. The book itself con-
memoirs of Nehemiah (“the words of Ne- _ tains no direct indication of authorship,
hemiah,” 1:1). and it is best to accept it as anonymous.
165
Encountering the Historical Books

The Book of Esther is no more specific century Jewish historian, held that MorDe-
about authorship. Jewish tradition states cAtwas the author.'’ It seems likely the book
that the book was written by the menofthe was written by a Persian Jew no later than
Great Synagogue, though JosePHus, the first- the middle of the fourth century B.c.

166
 Joshua
Conguest and Division

|Outline |
oe Outline
|e Background of the Book of Joshua AN KIT
| Joshua
the Man
~ Date and Authorship Objectives
Archaeology and the Book of Joshua
After reading this chapter,
Themes of Joshua
you should be able to
¢ Message of the Book of Joshua
¢ Outline the basic content
Israel Conquers the Land (chapters 1-12) of theBoolconionius
Israel Divides the Land (chapters 13-21) * List the events God used to prepare
Israel Begins to Settle into the Land Joshua for his role as leader
(chapters 22-24) ¢ Identify the three themes in Joshua
¢ Discuss reasons why Israel was allowed to
conquer Canaan
¢ List the three challenges God
made to Joshua after Moses died
e Explain the significant events of the
central campaign in chapters 6-9
e Evaluate the final challenge
Joshua gave to Israel

167
Encountering the Historical Books

Ee
The Israelites stood at the edge of Canaan,
on the verge of claiming the promise God Outline
had made to Abraham centuries earlier
(Gn 12:7). The task ahead was both excit- I. Israel Conquers the Land (1-12)
ing and sobering. Crossing the Jordan and A. Preparations for Conquest
conquering the land posed a serious chal- (1-5)
lenge. Israel would have to drive out the The Central Campaign (6-9)
strong peoples who lived in Canaan’s The Southern Campaign (10)
well-fortified cities (Nm 13:28-29). Sse
. The Northern Campaign
The Israelites stood at the end of one era (11:1-15)
and the beginning of another. Moses, Is- m Summary Statement
rael’s great leader, had died, and Joshua (11:16-12:24)
had assumed leadership. This role carried
great responsibility, and many probably II. Israel Divides the Land (13-21)
wondered if Joshua had the necessary skills A. Israel’s Remaining Challenge
to complete the job Moses had begun. (13)
The Book of Joshua describes how God’s B. Israel’s Land Inheritances
Part of the
excavated site of people faced Canaan’s challenge. They (14-19)
ancient Jericho conquered the land and divided it among C. Israel’s Designated Cities
today. Jericho is the tribes. They succeeded partly because (20-21)
one of the oldest
of Joshua’s strong leadership, but mostly
cities in the III. Israel Begins to Settle into the
world, and was because God empowered Joshua for the
Land (22-24)
the first city in task. When we face great challenges, we,
Canaan to fall to A. An Early Misunderstanding
too, can trust the Lord to help us accom-
Joshua and the Almost Leads to Civil War (22)
Israelites. plish his purpose.
B. Joshua’s Final Challenges to
God’s People (23:1-24:27)
C. Three Burials (24:28-33)

TAT

Background of the
Book of Joshua
The Book of Joshua continues the story of
the Pentateuch. Deuteronomy ends with
an account of Moses’ death, and Joshua
begins with the words, “Now after the
death of Moses. . . .” God’s purposes for
Israel were now carried forward through
Joshua.

Joshua the Man

Joshua first appears in the biblical record
in Exodus 17:9-14, where the Bible records
that he led Israel’s army to victory over
the Amalekites. We also find him at the
foot of Mount Sinai as Moses received the
Law (Ex 24:13) and near the tent of meet-
ing as Moses met with God face to face (Ex
33:11). The Lord used Moses to prepare
Joshua to lead Israel.
Later, Joshua was one of twelve men
Moses sent into Canaan to spy out the land
(Nm 13:8, 16). Joshua, along with Caleb,
urged the people to take the land by faith,

168
 Joshua

when? Here are the relevant pieces of

Can We Practice evidence:!

— “Holy War”? * Joshua 24:26 suggests Joshua wrote at

least part of the book, and Jewish tra-
dition names Joshua as the author.
_ TheBookof Joshua records Israel’s conquest of ¢The account of Joshua’s death
_ Canaan. God commanded his people to destroy (24:29-31) clearly indicates another au-
~ Canaan’‘s citizens, sparing no one. How can thor besides Joshua, at least for this
_ Christians deal with such passages of Scripture? section.
Does the Bible encourage us to practice “holy war”? ¢ The common phrase “until this day”
Regarding Israel’s conquest of Canaan, we need (4:9; 5:9; 7:26, etc.) suggests an ex-
to remember the following points: tended amount of time has elapsed
since the events described, though not
1. The people of Canaan were exceedingly necessarily an extremely long time.
wicked, and their social and religious customs ¢ The mention of Jebusites in Jerusalem
angered the Lord (Lv 18:24-30).
(15:63) suggests a date prior to 1000
. God had given them time to repent, but they B.c., when David conquered Jerusalem
had not done so (Gn 15:13-16). and drove out the Jebusites (2 Sm
. God used the Israelites as his instruments of 5:6-10).
judgment against the people of Canaan (Jos ¢ The reference to Canaanites in Gezer
11:18-20), just as he later used the Assyrians
(16:10) implies a date prior to about
and Babylonians to judge Israel and Judah 970 B.c., when the king of Egypt con-
(2 Kgs 17:6-7; 24:20-25:7). quered Gezer and gave it to Solomon
. “Holy war” (or the practice of herem) occurred GK gsi3:1; 9:16):
only at certain times during Israel's history
(1 Sm 15:1-3; 2 Chr 20:15-23), and we should When we look at all the evidence, it
not view it as a pattern for future generations. seems reasonable to conclude that much
Israel’s destruction of the Canaanites demonstrates of the book comes from eyewitness ac-
how seriously God takes sin. He governs the nations, counts, perhaps from Joshua’s own hand.
and he can and will judge those who oppose him. Furthermore, the historical references sug-
Christians should heed his warnings and seek to — gest the book was in its present form no
promote justice and righteousness in their nation later than Solomons time.
We dare not assume God will tolerate evil forever.
Archaeology and the
Book of Joshua
Archaeologists have excavated many sites
but the majority’s bad report prevailed the Bible says the Israelites conquered. Ev-
(Nm 14:1-10). God’s judgment came and idence from Jericho, unfortunately, has
Israel had to wander in the wilderness proven largely inconclusive, but excava-
until the disbelieving generation died, but tions at Lachish, Debir, and Hazor have
the Lord spared Joshua and Caleb because revealed massive destruction layers from
of their faith. After bringing the people to about the thirteenth century B.c. Some
the edge of the Jordan, Moses died; Joshua scholars have argued for a late date of the
then led the people into the land. exodus event because of this evidence.
Other scholars, however, have suggested
Date and Authorship the archaeological evidence may favor an
earlier date.> The Bible specifically names
The events in the Book of Joshua span ap- only three cities the Israelites burned—Jeri-
proximately twenty years. If we adopt an cho, Al, and Hazor. Moreover, evidence of
early date for the exodus from Egypt, the migration of other peoples into Pales-
Joshua’s ministry would cover the period tine about 1200 B.c. suggests these peo-
from about 1405 B.c. to 1385 B.c. A thir- ple—not the Israelites—may have de-
teenth-century date for the exodus places stroyed the many towns and villages.
Joshua’s death a little before 1200 B.c. Archaeology offers many benefits to
Who wrote the Book of Joshua, and Bible students, but also has many limita-

169
Encountering the Historical Books

The ruins of
Jericho today
(os 6). The Lord
gave Israel
peculiar
instructions for
conquering this
seemingly
impregnable
walled city.

AAA NAIR tions. In light of the disagreement over the battles. God sometimes commanded Is-
herem
archaeological data, it seems wisest to rael to destroy completely a nation that
await further evidence. We can still affirm opposed him. The herem, or the spoil of
the historicity of the events in the Book of war—be it people, animals, or goods—be-
Joshua, even if we do not know precisely longed to the Lord, and he had the right
when they occurred. to do with it as he pleased.
After Israel had gained control of
Themes of Joshua Canaan, the tribes divided the land into
twelve sections. God promised to help the
The transition of power tribes drive out any peoples remaining in
from Moses to Joshua the land (Jos 13:6), but God’s people lacked
Before Moses died, he commissioned the faith to do so. This failure led to dire
Joshua as his successor (Dt 31:3, 7-8, 14, consequences, as we will see later.
23). The Book of Joshua traces Joshua’s de-
God's faithfulness to his promises
velopment as Israel’s new leader and
shows God’s approval of him. Joshua be- The Bible stresses that Israel’s conquest
came, in effect, the new Moses, for the
and division of Canaan did not happen
because of Israel’s great military strength.
same God who worked through Moses
Rather, it happened because of God's faith-
now worked through him (Jos 1:5; 3:7).
fulness (Jos 21:43-45). The Lord kept his
The conquest and division of Canaan promise to Israel, just as he keeps all his
The Book of Joshua contains two major promises to believers today (2 Cor 1:20).
sections. Chapters 1-12 describe Israel’s
conquest of the land; chapters 13-24, Is- SEE
EE EE

rael’s division and settlement of the land.

The Lord had promised the land to Message of the
Abraham hundreds of years earlier (Gn Book of Joshua
12:7). Now he commanded Israel to de-
stroy the land’s inhabitants and take pos- Israel Conquers the Land
session of it for themselves. The conquest (chapters 1-12)
of Canaan thus serves two purposes: to
bring God’s judgment against the peoples Preparations for conquest
of the land (Lv 18:24—25; Jos 11:21), and to (chapters 1-5)
bring his blessing to Israel. God appeared to Joshua after thirty days
The Hebrew word herem plays an im- of mourning for Moses had ended (Dt
portant role in our understanding of these 34:8). The Lord challenged his new leader
170
 Joshua

Damascus @

SEA OF
GALILEE

Northern Campaign
Beth-shan @

Shechem e

Central Campaign

e@ Hebron
Sout

Beer-sheba @
mummesss sraelite army

Ro

three times to be strong and courageous them to help their fellow Israelites conquer
(Jos 1:6, 7,9). First, Joshua needed to focus Canaan (Nm 32:28-32). The tribes assured
on the task that lay before him—to lead Joshua he could count on their support.
God’s people into the land. Second, he Joshua secretly dispatched two spies to
must remember his godly heritage and Jericho (Jos 2:1—-24). The spies entered the
meditate on God’s word regularly. Third, home of Rahab, a prostitute, presumably
he must remember God’s presence—the because they thought they would raise the
Lord was with him! least amount of suspicion there. When the
Joshua approached the tribes of Reuben, king of Jericho heard that Israelite men
Gad, and Manasseh (1:12-18). Moses had had come to Rahab’s home, he ordered
granted these tribes permission to live on their arrest, but Rahab hid the spies and
the Jordan’s east side, but had commanded told the soldiers the men had already left.
171
Encountering the Historical Books

the people could have entered Canaan

The Central Campaign from the south and completely avoided
A Mt. Ebal
water, but God had other plans. As the
people trusted the Lord’s word, he worked
Mt. ie Shechem
a great miracle.
Gerizim Second, we must pass the faith on to the
next generation. Joshua established the
stones so future generations would see the
power of their God. What works of God
have you seen him do in your life that you
can pass on to others?
Joshua 5 describes two covenant memo-
rials. The Israelites had neglected the prac-
tice of circumcision while they wandered
in the wilderness, and God commanded
them to perform this sign of the covenant
on all their males. The people also cele-
brated Passover in the land for the first
time, forty years after they left Egypt. The
G cessation of the manna from heaven, on
which they had depended during their
days in the wilderness (Ex 16:13-35), her-
Jericho Shittim
(
alded the beginning of a new era. Israel
asss==a= Israelite army
( PLAINS OF was home at last.
} MOAB Joshua’s visit from a heavenly messen-
Battle ger (Jos 5:13-15) further linked him with
Moses (Ex 3:5) and encouraged him for
the battle with Jericho. God would fight
for his people!
Rahab then made a covenant with the
spies; she had saved their lives, now they The central campaign (chapters 6-9)
must save hers! Rahab affirmed her faith Israel’s strategy was to divide and con-
in the Lord, as well as the fright of the peo- quer by taking the central portion of the
ple of Jericho. The men agreed that if land first. The central campaign included
Rahab hung a scarlet cord from her win- victories over Jericho, Ai, and Bethel. Of
dow, the Israelite army would spare all these, the battle with Jericho is by far the
within her home. They returned to Israel’s most famous.
camp and reported to Joshua all that had The Lord gave Israel peculiar instruc-
happened. tions for conquering Jericho, a seemingly
Israel’s crossing of the Jordan River impregnable walled city. The army was to
demonstrated God’s hand on Joshua, his march around the city once a day for six
new leader (3:1-5:15). The melting of the consecutive days, with the ark of the Lord
winter snow had caused the river to over- leading the way. The priests who accom-
flow its banks, but the Lord stopped the panied the ark were to carry trumpets
water and Israel crossed on dry ground, made of rams’ horns. On the seventh day,
just as he had when Moses led the people the army was to circle the city seven times,
through the sea. Israel camped at Gilgal, with the priests blowing the rams’ horns.
and Joshua set up a pile of stones as a When the trumpet blew a long blast, the
memorial where Israel had crossed. Fu- people were to shout, and God promised
ture generations could then see where God the walls would fall down. The people fol-
had displayed his glory. lowed God’s instructions and Jericho’s
Joshua 3-4 illustrates two important walls fell.
principles. First, God sometimes takes us The miracle at Jericho illustrates an-
ona route we don’t expect in order to dis- other important spiritual principle. God
play his glory. It seemed to make little often chooses to act in response to his ser-
sense to lead Israel across the Jordan when vants’ faithful obedience. He sometimes
172
 Joshua

thern Campaign
Gilgal
©
e
Gibeon “f Jericho
Aijalon e
Re

Jerusalem

@ Azekah Pd Bethlehem

Lachish e
@ee@eee Battle
@ Hebron
mamass== Joshua's army oie
glone
Amorite army Scale

0
-—1—_—_
0 5

may use our talents and strengths, but Achan’s family also died; perhaps they
most of all he wants us to submit to his had participated in his crime by helping
plans. conceal the goods.
The Lord commanded Joshua to destroy Following the judgment of Achan’s fam-
everything alive and give the booty to him. ily, Israel renewed the attack against Ai. By
Only Rahab and her family survived the means of an ambush group, Israel claimed
battle, in accordance with the spies’ victory over Ai and neighboring Bethel,
promise. Rahab became part of Israel, but who tried to come to Ai’s assistance.
the Gospel of Matthew tells us something GIBEON, a major city of Canaan’s central
even more amazing: Rahab became an an- territory, quickly took steps to avoid a con-
cestor of Jesus Christ (1:5)! God’s grace frontation with Israel (9:1-27). Pretending
reached out to Rahab and not only made to have come from a distant land, a
her part of God’s family, but used her to Gibeonite delegation came to GILGAL and
bring about the Savior of the world. asked the Israelites to make a covenant with
Rahab’s life shows how God’s grace can them. After agreeing to a covenant, the Is-
reach all who are willing to humble them- raelites discovered the Gibeonites lived in
selves and put their trust in him. Canaan. God had commanded his people
to destroy the land’s inhabitants, but the
With Jericho behind them, the Israelites
people had now agreed to spare the
probably assumed no one could stand in
Gibeonites. Joshua and the leaders deter-
their way. Instead, Israel suffered a hum-
mined they would enslave the Gibeonites
bling defeat in the battle with Ai (Jos
instead.
7:1-8:35). Joshua inquired of the Lord and
discovered Israel had sinned—someone The southern campaign (chapter 10)
had kept some of Jericho’s treasure for The Israelites’ treaty with Gibeon meant
himself! God revealed Achan, the guilty they effectively controlled all of central
party, who died for his act of rebellion. Canaan. When the kings of southern

173
Encountering the Historical Books

Canaan heard about this treaty, they de-

The Northern / cided to attack Gibeon. Israel came to
Campaign / Gibeon’s rescue, and the Lord used this
occasion to rout these kings and give
VALLEY southern Canaan to Israel. The Lord rained
Scale Y OF large hailstones on Israel’s enemies, and
MIZPAH also prolonged the daylight to help Joshua
defeat the coalition.
After the Israelites prevailed, they con-
tinued fighting other southern cities and
kingdoms. Southern Canaan was soon in
Israelite hands.
The northern campaign (11:1-15)
In northern Canaan, another coalition was
forming. Jabin, king of Hazor, joined forces
with other kings against Joshua’s army.
As in the southern campaign, Joshua’s
GALILEE / forces routed their foes and conquered
} their cities. Victory over the coalition led
to continued victory over northern cities,
= @ Shimron towns, and villages.
ey yi Joshua 11:15 describes how Joshua com-
AN <ép pleted the work the Lord had given Moses.
God commanded Moses to take Canaan,
eccoce Battle Moses entrusted the task to Joshua, and
messes Canaanite army Joshua finished the job. The same God
Beth-shan who worked through Moses now com-
=== Israelite army @
pleted his work through Joshua. This same
God also will enable us to complete what-
from Gilgal ever he calls us to do.

Part of the
impressive
underground
water system at
Hazor in
northern Israel.
Jabin, king of
Hazor, joined
other kings
against Joshua’s
army.

174
Tribal Allotments d
and Cities
of Refuge
Encountering the Historical Books

land despite the obstacles. Now, the two

stood together at Gilgal, the only survivors
from a generation of unbelief.
Caleb presented his own testimony. As
he and the others had spied out the land,
he had “followed the Lorp fully” (Jos 14:8).
And he was still following the Lord fully
at eighty-five years of age! Caleb requested
Hebron, vowing to drive out the inhabi-
tants if God would give him victory. And
God did. Caleb’s life stands today as an
example of faithfulness for all believers.
Joshua 15-19 describes how Joshua al-
lotted the remaining tribes their land por-
tions (see map). As you study the map,
note the following items:
e EPHRAIM and Manasseh, the tribes that
came from Joseph's sons, each received
their own inheritance (Jos 16-17; Gn
The city of Summary statement (11:16-12:24) 48:21-22). In fact, Manasseh received
Shechem is
flanked by The Israelites had secured effective con- territory on both sides of the Jordan.
Mount Gerizim trol of Canaan and the TRANSJORDAN. Al- e The text mentions several tribes that
and Mount Ebal though it seems these many battles prac- could not or did not drive out those peo-
(Jos 8, 24).
tically happened overnight, Canaan’s ples inhabiting their territory Jos 15:63;
conquest actually required about six to 16:10; 17:12-13). The Israelites eventu-
seven years.‘ Israel’s victory was really ally accepted many of these people’s re-
God's victory, for God used Israel as his ligious practices, and this had a devas-
instrument to judge Canaan’s unbeliev- tating effect on Israel’s faith.
ing peoples (11:20). ¢ Israel had six cities of refuge, three
west of the Jordan and three east of
Israel Divides the Land the Jordan (Jos 20:19).
(chapters 13-21) ¢ The Levites received forty-eight cities
among the tribes (Jos 21).
Israel's remaining challenge
(chapter 13) When Joshua had finished giving the
The Israelites had already conquered the tribes their land, the people gave Joshua
area east of the Jordan, but although they his portion—Timnath-serah in the land of
controlled Canaan, their task remained Ephraim (19:49-51). Thus, Caleb’s portion
unfinished. Various peoples continued to was the first allotted in Canaan and
inhabit Canaan’s more remote areas. Is- Joshua’s was the last. These two men of
rael’s individual tribes received the chal- faith forever left their mark on those who
lenge to complete the conquest by exter- inherited the land.
minating these smaller groups. As we will
Israel’s designated cities
see, Israel did not succeed in driving out
(chapters 20-21)
these peoples, and pagan influences soon
corrupted God’s people. The cities of refuge (20:1-9) protected those
who accidentally brought about some-
Israel's land inheritances one’s death. A person guilty of such an of-
(chapters 14-19) fense would remain at one of these cities
As Joshua began to allot Judah’s portion, until the high priest died. Moses had in-
Caleb stepped forward (14:6-15). This man structed the people to provide such cities
of faith had accompanied Joshua forty- (Nm 35:9-15), and Joshua now completed
five years earlier when Moses sent twelve the task.
men to spy out the land (Nm 13-14). Only The Levites received no land inheritance
Caleb and Joshua had stood firm in their (Jos 21). Instead, God gave them forty-
conviction that God would give them the eight cities among the tribes, as well as the

176
 Joshua

tribes heard of it, and Phinehas, Eleazar’s

son and Aaron’s grandson, led a delega-
tion to investigate the matter.
At first, it appeared the eastern tribes
were disobeying God’s command to wor-
ship only where he said (Dt 12:13-14), and
the western tribes prepared to go to war
against them. But the tribe of Reuben, Gad,
and Manasseh insisted they had built the
altar as a testimony, a monument to re-
mind the Israelites in Canaan that those
who lived on the east side were also part
of God’s people. They intended the altar
only to commemorate that fact.
Joshua's final challenges
to God's people (23:1-24:27)
The Book of Joshua preserves two of
Joshua’s final challenges to God’s people.
No doubt he also challenged them on
many other occasions to follow the Lord
with all their hearts.
In his first speech (23:1-16), Joshua chal-
lenged Israel’s leaders to remember the
great things they had seen God do. He
urged them to claim God’s promise for the
present and future—God would drive out
the remaining peoples and establish them
in the land! God’s people were to demon-
strate their faith by keeping the Law of
Moses and not intermingling with the peo-
ples around them. If they failed to observe
A market scene surrounding pasturelands on which to these things, Joshua warned, they would
in Hebron, the surely perish.
city given by
graze their animals. The Levites thus lived
Joshua to Caleb, among God’s people and were available In his second speech (24:1-28), Joshua
one of the spies to help them with spiritual matters and to recounted Israel’s history from the days
sent to report
arbitrate disputes. of Abraham to that day. God had shown
on the land
(Jos 14). This section closes with a testimony to his faithfulness every step of the way. He
God's faithfulness (21:43-45). God fulfilled had acted in history to redeem his people.
all his promises to Israel, and we can count He had sustained his people through dif-
on him to do the same for us (Heb 13:8). ficult times in the wilderness. And he had
dealt with his people totally by grace.
Israel Begins to Settle Joshua exhorted the people to commit
into the Land (chapters 22-24) themselves fully to the Lord, adding his
own personal testimony: “As for me and
An early misunderstanding almost my house, we will serve the Lorb” (24:15).
leads to civil war (chapter 22) When the people affirmed they would fol-
The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh low the Lord, Joshua made a covenant
had helped their fellow Israelites secure with them and erected a large stone as a
the land of Canaan, thus fulfilling their testimony to their words. This covenant
promise to Joshua (Jos 1:16-18). Joshua confirmed the prior covenants the people
dismissed them with his blessing, chal- had made at Mount Sinai (Ex 24) and
lenging them to remain faithful to the Lord Moab (Dt 29-31). It also gave the people
and his ways. another chance to proclaim publicly their
But when the three tribes came to the allegiance to the Lord alone, as they had
Jordan, they built a large altar. The other done earlier (Jos 8:30-35).

ey
 Encountering the Historical Books

buried Eleazar, Aaron’s son. With the bur-

ial of Joshua and Eleazar, another era in
Key Places Israel’s history ended.
Ai
What kind of a job did Joshua do in
Gibeon
preparing the next generation? We read
the answer in Joshua 24:31: “And Israel
Hazor
served the Lorp all the days of Joshua and
Key Term Gilgal
all the days of the elders who survived
Transjordan
herem Joshua, and had known all the deeds of the
Ephraim
Lorp that He had done for Israel.” Joshua
led the people by word and example, and
entrusted God’s message to faithful lead-
Three burials (24:28-33) ers who continued in it after Joshua died.
Joshua 24:31 reminds us of an impor-
The Book of Joshua closes with a record
tant task the Lord has placed in our hands.
of three burials. Joshua died at the age of As Christians, part of our responsibility is
110, and Israel buried him in his territory. to place the Christian faith firmly in the
God's people also buried the bones of the hands of the next generation. Are we ready
patriarch Joseph, which they had brought to embrace that challenge?
from Egypt (Gn 50:24-25). Finally, they

gq Summary
ZZ
Sah\
ANU OOM AONNANONANNONNO l

1. The Israelites were successful in con- 7 The land of Canaan was divided up
quering Canaan because of the strong among the twelve tribes. The Levites
leadership of Joshua, who was em- received forty-eight cities among the
powered by God. tribes.
2. Joshua was most likely the author of 8. Israel designated six cities of refuge
the Book of Joshua. to protect people who had acciden-
3. The three themes of Joshua are: the tally caused the death of someone.
transition of power from Moses to 9. Because the tribes of Reuben, Gad,
Joshua; the conquest and division of and Manasseh had built a large altar
Canaan; and God's faithfulness to his when they reached the Jordan River,
promise. the other tribes were ready to go to
war, because they thought the eastern
4. God challenged Joshua to be a strong tribes had disobeyed God
leader by focusing on the task before
him, by remembering his godly her- 10. Before his death, Joshua challenged
itage, and by remembering that God the Israelite leaders to remember the
was always with him. great things they had seen God do; he
reviewed Israel’s history from the days
. Israel's battle strategy was to conquer
of Abraham; and he exhorted them to
the central part of Canaan first, where
commit themselves fully to God.
a key battle was at Jericho.
. Because Israel did not drive out
smaller groups of people, their pagan
influence corrupted the Israelites.

178
 Joshua

Study Questions

1. What are the major themes of the 3. What was the significance of the cities
Book of Joshua? of refuge and levitica! cities?
2. What basic plan did Israel use to con- 4. Do you think Joshua was successful in
quer the land? Describe the three fulfilling God’s plan for his life? Why
major waves of Joshua’s military or why not?
campaigns.

Further Reading

Hess, Richard S. Joshua: An Introduction and Com- Merrill, Eugene H. Kingdom ofPriests: A History of
mentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1996. Old Testament Israel. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.
A solid, evangelical commentary for the serious Seminary-level history of Israel that combines good
college student. scholarship and readability.
Howard, David M., Jr. An Introduction to the Old Tes- Woudstra, Marten H. The Book ofJoshua. New Inter-
tament Historical Books, Chicago: Moody, 1993. Ex- national Commentary on the Old Testament.
cellent survey of the historical books that makes Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981. For the serious stu-
good use of current scholarship. dent. Contains ample footnotes and references.

179
7 4 Atte
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 Judges and Ruth
Israel’s Moral Crisis
So ooo Eo ESSN

The Book ofJudges

- Outline
Overview
_ ¢ Historical Problems in Judges
Chronology Objectives
ica) otcucture After reading this chapter,
_* The Book of Ruth you should be able to
* Contents ¢ Describe what judges are
Literary Structure in the Book of Judges
Outline * Outline the basic content
Overview of the Book of Judges
¢ The Sovereignty of God ¢ Explain the reasons why Israel failed
and Faithful Living to complete the conquest
¢ Document the cycle used
to introduce the judges
e Name the major judges
and the minor judges
e Identify the central characters
of the Book of Ruth
¢ Outline the basic content
of the Book of Ruth
e Illustrate the role
of a kinsman-redeemer
e Explain the law of levirate marriage
¢ Illustrate the sovereignty of God
in the Book of Ruth

181
Encountering the Historical Books

The view of
Jezreel from
Mount Tabor.
Barak and his
troops gathered
on these steep
slopes before
charging down
to attack the
Canaanites
under their
leader Sisera.

KATATE The Book of Joshua was full of great suc- SE

STIRS GSO STS

The Book of Judges

Deuteronomistic
History cess. The tribes of Israel had been unified
under strong leadership and had suc-
cessfully conquered the promised land. This book is part of that larger literary unit
Though Joshua records momentary lapses detailing the history of God’s people,
such as Achan’s sin (chapter 7), the book which continues through the Books of
emphasizes Israel’s success in taking and Samuel and Kings. Because of the theo-
dividing the land. logical and literary impact of Deuteron-
But this period of great national victory omy on this unit, we may refer to it as
was short-lived. The swift and miraculous Deuteronomistic History (see discussion
conquest was followed by a longer period in chapter 10). The expression “in those
of time in which Israel seems to have lost days Israel had no king” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1;
its moral compass. During this period (ap- 21:25) suggests the author’s perspective
proximately two centuries), Israel contin- was from the later vantage point of the
ually sinned against God and broke his monarchy, looking back to the premonar-
covenant. The chosen people of God chic period. The book contains no refer-
seemed determined to embrace the for- ences to authorship, and we must accept
bidden Canaanite religion and to depend it as an anonymous composition.
on their own ability to defend themselves
from enemy nations. Lacking strong na- oT TT TT
tional leadership (Jgs 17:6; 21:25) and un-
willing to trust God, the nation was Contents
morally bankrupt—and seemingly un- The central characters of this narrative are
concerned about its state of affairs. “judges” (sopétim), a term that gives rise
Joshua had entered the promised land to the name of the book. These “judges”
with ease. But the next period of Israel’s were not simply legal authorities as the
history showed that life in God’s land English word implies. They were charis-
would be far from easy if his people per- matic military leaders whom God raised
sisted in their sin. Two Old Testament his- up and empowered for specific tasks of
torical books cover this period: Judges and deliverance (2:16).' The office implied gov-
Ruth. erning in a broad sense. These twelve
182
 Judges and Ruth

judges were local or national heroes who dixes (17:1—21:25) detailing episodes that
became military rulers endowed by God's occurred during the judges period, but
Spirit to lead the nation into victory which do not relate to a specific judge.
against a particular enemy nation. After
Introduction (1:1-2:5)
the military threat was over, the judges
generally continued in leadership roles, The book opens with the phrase “After
though none of them established a royal the death of Joshua,” which bears an im-
dynasty (except for the aborted attempt portant historical and theological func-
by Abimelech). tion. It marks both the end of the previ-
ous period of success under Joshua and
Outline the beginning of a new era in Israel's his-
tory.” In contrast to the conquest and oc-
I. The Incomplete Conquest cupation of the promised land, this new
(1:1-2:5) period of the judges is a time of disobe-
dience and failure.
II. Covenant Disobedience and This introductory chapter supplements
Judgment (2:6-16:31) the Book of Joshua and gives more details
A. The Pattern of Disobedience about the nature of the conquest. Joshua
(2:6-3:6) emphasized a unified Israel invading and
B. The Pattern Illustrated: A conquering the promised land. This was
History of the Judges appropriate to the purpose of that book.
(3:7-16:31) But Joshua also made frequent reference
to the need for the individual tribes to com-
III. The Collapse of Society (17-21) plete what they began corporately (Jos
A. The Breakdown of Religious 13:1=13; 16:10; 17:12-13, 16=—18; 18:2—4).
Life: Micah’s Idol (17-18) Joshua presented a picture of a great mil-
B. The Breakdown of Justice and itary victory, but an incomplete conquest.
Civil Order: Civil War (19-21) Judges 1:1-2:5 describes the limited suc-
cess of individual tribes. Judah and
Overview Simeon experienced measured success ini-
The center of the book (2:6-16:31) is a col- tially, but they were not able to drive out
lection of stories about the judges who the inhabitants of the territory allotted to
ruled Israel from the death of Joshua to them (1:19). Several other tribes were also
the rise of Samuel. An introduction is at- unable to gain victory over the Canaanite
tached (1:1-2:5), along with two appen- inhabitants of the land. This unit prepares
SS ae ROR
The site of Say ea Nee

Shiloh, the
resting place of
the ark of the
covenant during
the period of
the judges.

183
Encountering the Historical Books

us for the rest of Judges by informing us into the hands of X (enemy nation) for
that the Israelites lived side by side with X-years.”
Canaanites, who would inevitably influ- ¢ Repentance: “But when the Israelites
ence the religion and culture of God’s cried out to the Lorp.. .”
people. ¢ Deliverance: “... he raised up for them
The concluding paragraph of this unit a deliverer, X (name of judge), who
(2:1-5) confirms that Israel has been dis- saved them.”
obedient. Individual tribes compromised
with the inhabitants of the land and now This is usually followed by a statement
the conquest is incomplete. The remain- that the land had peace for X-years, while
ing Canaanites in the land will plague the judge was alive.
them in the future (2:2-3). Though the author uses several varia-
tions on this cycle, he repeats the pattern
Main body of stories (2:6-16:31)
six times in 3:7-16:31 to highlight six par-
Israel's failure to complete the conquest was ticular judges: Othniel (3:7-11), Ehud
a result of covenant disobedience and lack (3:12-30), Deborah (4:1-5:31), Gideon
of faith (2:2-3). The central section of the (6:1-8:28), Jephthah (10:6-12:7), and Sam-
book now goes on to demonstrate that this son (13:1-15:20). In addition to these six
covenant failure was not a rare or unique major judges, the author gives few details
occurrence. Unfortunately, covenant break- about the careers of six minor judges:
ing became Israel's way of life. Shamgar (3:31), Tola (10:1-2), Jair (10:3-5),
This central section has its own intro- Ibzan (12:8-10), Elon (12:11-12), and
duction. The author prepares for the Abdon (12:13-15).
judges by introducing three basic and gen- The judges are by no means portrayed
eral facts (2:6-3:6). First, Joshua’s genera- as exemplary and holy individuals. They
tion was now dead, and the new genera- were temporary leaders raised up by God
tion of Israelites had rejected Yahweh to deliver his people. Some are worthy of
(2:6-15). This new generation worshiped emulation (Othniel and Deborah). But
Canaanite gods instead of the Lord who Jephthah apparently had little concept of
led them out of Egypt. So the Lord became Yahweh’s requirements, and Samson’s
angry and allowed enemy nations to af- faults are renowned. As a rule, these
flict Israel (2:13-14). Second, whenever the judges illustrate God’s grace and mercy
people repented, the Lord raised up judges for his people. They are not necessarily ex-
to deliver them (2:16-23). But after the amples of devotion to God.
judge died, Israel lapsed back into sin and
idolatry, worshiping other gods (2:19). Appendixes (chapters 17-21)
Third, because of their failure to complete The last five chapters of Judges portray an
the conquest, the Israelites now lived age of general anarchy and lawlessness.
among other nations in the promised land They narrate two horrible episodes that
(3:1-6). These nations were a military illustrate one of the darkest periods of Is-
threat. But more important, they were a rael’s national history: Micah and the mi-
religious threat because of Israel’s ten- gration of Dan (chapters 17-18), and the
dency to accept their pagan beliefs. rape of the Levite’s concubine and the sub-
The historical features of this period (de- sequent intertribal war (chapters 19-21).
scribed in 2:6-3:6) became the general lit- Here we read of idolatry, conspiracy, sense-
erary pattern for the central unit of the less violence, and sexual degeneracy.
book: Israel sins against the Lord, the Lord These chapters do not present a chrono-
gives them over to an enemy nation, then logical history of the period. Rather, they
the Lord sends a judge to deliver them, portray what life was like during the
but the nation falls back into sin. The au- judges period before there was a king in
thor of the book used the following cycle Israel. The repeated phrase, “in those days
to introduce certain judges: Israel had no king” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25),
implies the author believed the lawless-
e Sin: “The Israelites did evil in the eyes ness was due to a lack of firm royal lead-
of the Lorb.” ership. He obviously supported the
© War as judgment: “The Lorb sold them monarchy and believed that it was God’s
184
 Judges and Ruth

Reconstructed
city gate at Dan,
in northern
Israel. This city
was captured by
the Danites
when they
migrated north.

instrument for providing security and judges period to the preceding period of
peace in the land. Many scholars assume success under Joshua. These narratives
the author lived during the days of David look forward to the time of the monarchy,
or Solomon and was a staunch supporter when the line of David would provide
of the Davidic kingdom. peace and security. The author has a
Like the introduction (1:1-2:5), these monarchic perspective, regarding the
chapters show Israel’s failure to live in chaos and moral crises of the period as the
covenant relationship with God. The in- result of the absence of a king. The cry of
troduction looks back and compares the this section, “there was no king in Israel,”

Moral Relativism in Modern

Culture

The Book of Judges warns about moral decision of the U.S. Supreme Court of that year
relativism, or behavior based on human changed the societal standard.
opinions. The Bible teaches that the standards But what really changed? Did some wrong
for human behavior are God-given. Left alone, and sinful action suddenly become acceptable,
humans will always fail to live up to those just because a powerful group decided so? Did
standards. But with God's help and in his grace, the universal truths that previously made
we can learn of his will for a more righteous abortion illegal suddenly change? No. Rather,
way (Ps 1:1-2). American society changed!
In contrast to the Bible, modern culture often God’s moral standards never change. Though
establishes societal standards of behavior on human cultures inevitably evolve, God's
the basis of majority opinion. Ideals of right requirements of righteousness and holiness
and wrong are determined by what the never do. The specific application of those
majority believes is right or wrong. But such requirements have to be thought through
morality is whimsical. For example, before 1973 carefully by each generation of Christians. But
abortion was illegal in the United States, it is clear that God has established and revealed
implying that it was morally wrong and hurtful an absolute standard of holiness that Christians
to American culture. The famous Roe v. Wade must revere more than human relativism.

185
Encountering the Historical Books

ALAA warns that anarchy results without firm the limited intrusion of Moab affecting
amphictyony
leadership. only the areas of Benjamin and Ephraim,
These narratives are different from the and Gideon’s wars with the Midianites af-
central section of the book because the fected only the tribe of Manasseh. The
problem has a different source. In book seems to suggest the judges ruled
2:6-16:31, Israel was afflicted by external different areas of Israel concurrently.
enemies who oppressed them militarily. This point is linked to the question of
But in chapters 1721, the problems were the date of the exodus and conquest (see
internal. Israel was her own worst enemy. chapter 6). The end of the period may be
The author of Judges laments the fact that dated more precisely as the beginning of
“all the people did what was right in their the reign of Saul (probably around 1050
own eyes” —which was usually wrong in B.c.). If the fifteenth-century date is cor-
God’s eyes! This repeated statement (17:6; rect for the exodus, then the 390 years for
21:25) recognizes the need for absolute the judges period is possible. But the years
order in society. Morality is not relative to of oppression and rest must also be added
one’s own experience. There must be an ex- to those of the judges’ reigns, raising ques-
ternal standard that determines right and tions about the early date.
wrong in human ethics. For the author of However, the Book of Judges does not
Judges, that external standard for Israelite demand this length of time, since some
society was maintained by the Israelite judges ruled simultaneously instead of
king. For the Christian, that external ab- consecutively. We conclude, then, that the
solute is still necessary, because human be- book presents only a relative chronology
ings are not capable of establishing their instead of an absolute chronology for the
own moral standards. Today, that external judges period. The shortest length of the
standard is still established and maintained period would be around 150 years, as-
by the heavenly King (Jn 14:15). suming a thirteenth-century exodus to the
time of Saul (approximately 1200-1050
EEE
B.c.). The longest length would be around
350 years, assuming a fifteenth-century
Historical Problems exodus (approximately 1400-1050 B.c.).#
in Judges Political Structure
The Book of Judges is more concerned What was the exact nature of the political
with covenant faithfulness (or the lack of organization of Israel during the judges
it!) than with historical details. This leaves period? This is another question raised by
us with a few important questions about the lack of historical details in Judges.
the history of this period. The Israelites were a landless group of
former slaves, organized in some sort of
Chronology
tribal society related to their family ties to
Since the number of years each judge ruled Jacob. Their tribal structure served them
is given, it might be possible to add up well during their wilderness wanderings.
their total years and derive the precise But the Book of Judges illustrates that set-
number of years covered by this book. tled life in the land was threatened, partly
Such a calculation yields a period of 390 due to this political arrangement.
years for the judges period.’ This assumes Modern scholarship has attempted to
the judges ruled consecutively, each rul- clarify this tribal organization by drawing
ing over a unified nation of Israel. parallels to ancient Greece. Martin Noth
But this assumes too much. The judges suggested in 1930 that Israel’s twelve-tribe
appear to have been local or regional system was sociologically analogous to
rulers. One of Israel’s problems during the the amphictyony of Delphi in Greece,
judges period was a lack of central gov- dated to around 600 B.c.° The amphicty-
erning authority. The judges brought peace ony was an association of twelve mem-
and security to a specific region for a lim- bers centered around a central religious
ited period of time. Only a relatively small shrine at Delphi. The twelve members
area was jeopardized by each military were committed to peaceful coexistence
emergency. For example, Ehud stopped and united defense against foreign ag-
186
 Judges and Ruth

Bethlehem from
the nearby hills.
Naomi left her
native town of
Bethlehem to
escape famine;
when she
returned, the
harvest was
beginning.

gression. The sanctuary was the site of

yearly religious festivals and provided an
important unifying center to otherwise
The Book of Ruth
disparate groups. Even during periods of moral crises, God
The parallels with ancient Israel seemed is looking for faithful servants to bless. The
obvious. The tabernacle as central shrine Book of Ruth is about the sovereign work
(located first at Shechem and then at of God in the lives of unassuming, hum-
Shiloh), the periodic covenant ceremonies, ble people during the judges period. This
and the unified military efforts all seemed amazing story tells of a faithful family
to support the idea of Israel as an amph- from Bethlehem in a period of total moral
ictyonic structure. This approach won chaos and confusion. God blesses this fam-
wide acceptance initially. ily in a surprising way.
But in more recent decades, scholars
have criticized the comparisons between
ancient Israel and Greece. The historical
books make no mention of such a specific
Content
organizing principle. In fact, Judges seems The Book of Ruthis a literary masterpiece.
to imply that just such a formal structure It may be categorized as an idyll, or a sim-
was missing in ancient Israel. Religion and ple description of rustic life. The action
ethnic ties were probably the most im- centers around three main characters:
portant unifying factors during the judges Naomi, Ruth, and Boaz. Naomi and her
period, more so than common devotion family were forced to flee from their home
to a central shrine. Today the term “am- in Bethlehem because of famine. During
phictyony” can be applied to Israel only their stay in Moab, Naomi’s husband and
in the most general way. sons died, leaving her alone with her
What is clear is that this period was a daughters-in-law. One of them, Ruth, re-
transitional time in ancient Israel. It was turns to Bethlehem with Naomi to start a
the period between Joshua and the kings new life. But unless someone intervenes
of the united kingdom, when judges pro- to help these two desperate widows, they
vided leadership. The Book of Judges de- can only expect a life of poverty and lone-
scribes this period from the tribal nomads liness. God does, in fact, intervene to help,
to the established monarchy. The transi- but in a way that neither of them could
tion would be critical for Israel because have imagined.
she came under the strong influence of
Canaanite fertility religion. How she re- Literary Structure
sponded to that cultural pressure to com- The four chapters of Ruth are written al-
promise her faith was a defining moment most like a four-act play. Each chapter (or
for national Israel. scene) has a clear opening and conclud-

187
Encountering the Historical Books

ing paragraph, and each revolves around local Moabite women. Through a series of
an important dialogue. The chapters are unexplained tragedies, the two sons also
organized according to a “problem-solu- died. In short order, the author has painted
tion” framework. Chapter 1 portrays the a dark picture. This woman, far from
problem and its severity. At the conclu- home, is without husband and children,
sion of the chapter, Naomi is without child and she is past her childbearing years
and Ruth without husband. Together they (v. 11). She faced the most extreme and
face the realities of poverty. The following desperate circumstances possible for a
three chapters describe the slow, gradual woman in ancient Israel.
unfolding of the solution to all of these Having lost every source of security and
problems. The book builds to a dramatic comfort, Naomi prepared to return to
climax in chapter 4, which has a surprise Bethlehem to a life of loneliness and de-
ending. spair. Marriage was the only source of sta-
bility and security for a woman in the an-
Outline cient Near East. Naomi realized the
sacrifice involved for her two daughters-
I. Introduction (1:1-5) in-law to return with her. Moabite women
living in Judah would have few chances
II. Return to Bethlehem (1:6—22) for a new life. Naomi did what was right:
She insisted both of her daughters-in-law
III. Ruth Encounters Boaz (2:1—23)
stay in Moab to put their lives together
IV. Ruth Visits the Threshing Floor again.
(3:1-18) But Ruth’s surpassing love and com-
mitment to Naomi led her to refuse. She
V. Boaz Redeems and Marries chose not to become a wife again, but to
Ruth (4:1-17) remain a daughter. Her expression of de-
votion to Naomi has become classic (vv.
VI. Concluding Genealogy (4:18-22) 16-17). Ruth’s decision to be buried in
Naomi’s homeland reflects a commitment
Overview
of life itself. Even in death, Ruth will never
Though the book is named for Ruth, the abandon Naomi.
story is really about Naomi and the re- Upon their return to Bethlehem, Naomi
versal of her life’s sad circumstances. The was hardly recognizable due to the years
events of chapter 1 take place in Moab, or of hardship (v. 19). She asked that her
more technically on the road back from name no longer be “Pleasant,” but “Bit-
Moab. The rest of the action is set in Beth- ter,” illustrating the contrast between her
lehem and its vicinity. former life and her present circumstances.
Naomi and Ruth return By her side stands the faithful but hardly
to Bethlehem (chapter 1) noticeable Moabitess, Ruth. The author
gives no hint that ultimately Ruth may
The opening paragraph (vv. 1-5) lists the
provide the answer to Naomi’s plight.
cast of characters and places them in their
historical and geographical contexts. Un- Ruth gleans in the field
like the characters in the other historical of Boaz (chapter 2)
books, the main characters here are not The chapter opens with an important piece
important judges, kings, or prophets. Elim- of information for the rest of the story (v. 1).
elech and his family are average Israelites, Naomi had an in-law named Boaz, who
negotiating their way through the every- was a man of considerable wealth and re-
day affairs of life. spect in the community.
Naomi’s name is probably an abbrevi- Ruth nobly volunteers to go into the
ation for “[God is my] delight,” or “Pleas- fields to collect what she can (v. 2). The Old
ant|ness].” However pleasant her life may Testament provides for the poor by re-
have been, Naomi’s life changed forever quiring farmers to leave sheaves behind
during the decade in which famine forced for the needy (Lv 19:9; 23:22). Verse 3 makes
the family to live in Moab. After Elimelech it clear that Ruth was unaware of the
her husband died, her two sons married “chance” encounter described in the chap-
188
 Judges and Ruth

A woman
harvesting grain
in Israel today.
Ruth went to
the field of her
husband's
relative, Boaz,
and picked up
grain left by the
workers.

ter. It just so happened (Niv’s “As it turned Ruth’s request of Boaz (chapter 3)
out”!) Ruth worked in the field of Boaz that So far, the story has been about ordi-
day. God was at work behind seemingly nary people moving in and out of the com-
insignificant events in a way the charac- plexities of life in an exemplary fashion.
ters could never have anticipated. Boaz the local farmer, the bereaved
When Boaz comes from the city to in- Naomi, the daughter-in-law recently re-
spect his laborers, he notices the industri- turned from Moab—all of these charac-
ous young woman gleaning in his field ters behave in a manner worthy of emu-
(vv. 4-17). He takes actions to provide for lation. But chapter 3 is full of suspense.
her safety and well-being during the work The question is, Will these three continue
day. This act of kindness is the first cheer- to act righteously in the midst of ques-
ful thing the book records. After Ruth’s tionable circumstances?
widowhood and acute poverty, this must This chapter contains ancient customs
have been a turning point in her life. that seem odd to us, and their full signif-
Upon Ruth’s return home, Naomi is icance is unknown. What is clear is that
pleasantly surprised by the unexpected Boaz understood Ruth’s striking actions
bounty (vv. 18-23). When she learned that as a proposal of marriage, and that be-
Boaz was responsible, she broke out in coming Ruth’s husband would be a func-
praise of Yahweh, who is consistently the tion of his kinsman’s role (vv. 10-13).
great moving force behind the events of The chapter gradually grows in suspense
this story. and anticipation. Ruth’s request is an hon-
Boaz is the family’s “kinsman-re- orable one and does not constitute anything
deemer” (g07él, v. 20). In Israelite society, of an illicit nature. But she has placed her-
all real property belonged ultimately to self in a compromising and vulnerable sit-
Yahweh. It was not possible legally to pur- uation. This midnight encounter between
chase another family’s land. In hard times, Ruth and Boaz is dangerous. Impropriety
one could sell the land temporarily (as a is possible, perhaps imminent. Will the
sort of lease). The kinsman-redeemer was characters continue to act honorably?
responsible for redeeming the property The suspense and ambiguity of the nar-
and restoring it to the original family rative are soon resolved. Not only does
owner. Naomi may have already had Boaz behave nobly, but also decisively and
hopes that Boaz was the answer to their honestly. He is genuinely honored and sur-
problems (“The Lorp has not stopped prised by Ruth’s request for marriage, for
showing his kindness to the living and the he assumed she would have preferred a
dead,” v. 20). younger man. Ruth likewise has acted

189
Encountering the Historical Books

vantage of the situation and married Ruth

before informing the other kinsman.
Nothing forced him to delay the wedding
or divulge the information to the other
man. But Boaz did not consider marrying
Ruth without first giving preference to the
Key Terms other kinsman-redeemer. His integrity is
exemplary.
Deuteronomistic History Ruth marries Boaz (chapter 4)
amphictyony
idyll
The events at the threshing floor in chap-
levirate marriage
ter 3 took place in the middle of the night,
in darkness and seclusion. But the events
of chapter 4 take place in the most public
arena in any ancient Israelite city, the city
gate. This was the site of important as-
morally. She has consistently given higher semblies and the only proper place for con-
priority to family obligations than to her ducting legal business. In the brightness
own personal well-being (v. 10). of the early morning sun, in full view of
Boaz informed Ruth about another all concerned, the problems of chapter 1
kinsman-redeemer who was a closer rel- are quickly resolved.
ative (vv. 12-13). He could have taken ad- We learn here for the first time of a piece

Summary

AEA AUNT
|

1. The history presented in the Book . The tabernacle as a central shrine, the
of Judges is part of a larger work periodic covenant ceremony, and the
called Deuteronomistic History. unified military effort support the
idea of Israel as an amphictyony.
2. The major characters in the Book
of Judges are judges who served as 9. The Book of Ruth is in the literary
leaders. form of an idyll.
3. The period of the judges is one of dis- 10. The contents of the Book of Ruth is
obedience to God. basically about the sad circumstances
4. God permitted enemy nations Omi siis
to attack Israel because Israel was wor- 11. Boaz served as the family’s
shiping other gods. kinsman-redeemer.
5. The cycle of events in the Book of 12. Boaz substituted Ruth for Naomi in
Judges is sin, judgment, repentance, a levirate marriage which was a re-
and deliverance. sponsibility of a kinsman-redeemer.
6. There were twelve judges—six major 13. The Book of Ruth shows that God's
judges and six minor judges. covenant is not limited by any bound-
7. The Israelites were guilty of moral rel- pi gl Me ao
or gender.
ativism by doing whatever was right in
their own eyes.

190
 Judges and Ruth

Study Questions

Judges 9. Discuss the chronological issues

and problems found in Judges.
1. How much time is covered by the
Books of Judges and Ruth? 10. How is the political situation of Israel
best described during this period?
. What political perspective is presented
by the author of Judges/Ruth? Ruth

. Who are the central figures of the 1. What is the basic theme of the
Book of Judges? What did their duties Book of Ruth?
entail?
2. Who is the real central character
. To what is Israel's failure to complete in this story?
the conquest attributed?
3. How is God’s plan worked out in the
. What is the basic literary pattern for events recorded?
the central unit of Judges?
4. What contributions does the Book of
. Who were the six major judges? Ruth make to ethnic and racial issues?
Who were the six minor judges?
. What is the theme of the last five
chapters of Judges?
. According to the author of Judges,
why was lawlessness so prevalent
in Israel?

NUNN A

levirate marriage of agricultural land belonging to Naomi significant expansion of the closer rela-
(v. 3). Old Testament law was clear that a tive’s own property. Marriage to Naomi
family’s real estate was inalienable (1 Kgs would have been no problem, since she
21:3). Because of Naomi’s poverty, the land was beyond child-bearing years and the
would be sold, but a kinsman must re- estate for his own children would not be
deem it so the property would not be lost further divided. But when Boaz substi-
to the family. tuted Ruth for Naomi, thus fulfilling the
After the unnamed kinsman declared spirit of the law, the closer relative was un-
his intention to redeem Naomi’s prop- willing to act as kinsman (4:6). An addi-
erty, Boaz added a condition to the trans- tional wife of child-bearing years would
action: marriage to Ruth. Apparently, fragment his estate and jeopardize his own
popular custom had associated levirate family. We may assume he was not a man
marriage as a further responsibility of the of unlimited resources.
kinsman-redeemer.® The law of levirate When the closer relative took himself
marriage required the nearest relative of out of the picture, the way was clear for
a deceased man to marry his widow (Dt Boaz and Ruth to marry. In one brief verse
25:5-6). The children born to this new (4:13), every problem in chapter 1 meets a
couple carried the name and inheritance solution: Ruth remarries, Yahweh grants
of the first husband. immediate conception, and a son is born.
Acquiring the field would have been a But after this verse, Boaz leaves center

191
Encountering the Historical Books

Further Reading

Arnold, Bill T. “Ruth.” In Asbury Bible Commentary. Lilley, J. P. U. “A Literary Appreciation of the Book of
Ed. Eugene E. Carpenter and Wayne McCown. Judges,” Tyndale Bulletin 18 (1967): 94-102.
Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992, 347-57. Sasson, Jack M. Ruth: A New Translation with a
Campbell, Edward F. Ruth: A New Translation with Philological Commentary and a Formalist-
Introduction, Notes, and Commentary. Anchor Folklorist Interpretation. 2nd ed. Sheffield: JSOT,
Bible 7. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975. 1989. Excellent sociological approach with a great
Cundall, Arthur E., and Leon Morris. Judges and deal of original thinking.
Ruth: An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Webb, Barry G. The Book of Judges: An Integrated
Old Testament Commentary. Downers Grove: Reading. Journal for the Study of the Old
InterVarsity, 1968. Testament—Supplement Series 46. Sheffield: JSOT,
Howard, David M., Jr. An Introduction to the Old 1987.
Testament Historical Books. Chicago: Moody, 1993.
Hubbard, Robert L., Jr. The Book of Ruth. New
International Commentary on the Old Testament.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988. Most thorough
and complete evangelical commentary available.

stages Nomisinuthithe central ietine: oUC- seen ene em

denly Naomi comes again to the fore- The Sonal reig nty
ground. She takes into her arms the baby
boy, as though she were his mother. The of G od
author has taken us from the point where j II
Naomi was bereaved ofher Bae two sons an d Fa ithtu | Liv nN9
to this point where she now holds thenew This account of an amazing wedding and
child, the son of Ruth and Boaz. a miracle baby is really about the sover-
All of the problems of chapter 1 have _ eignty of God. Though the book is named
now been resolved, and we have arrived for Ruth, it is Naomi who states the prob-
at a happy conclusion. But before the ge- lems addressed in the book (1:20-21) and
nealogy, the story ends witha concise sen- _who overshadows her daughter-in-law at
tence containing a surprise ending. thebook’s conclusion. But in another sense,
Naomi’s friends name the child Obed, neither of them is the central character.
who was none other than the father of |Throughout the whole narrative, it is God
Jesse, the father of David (4:17). The son who watches over Naomi, Ruth, and Boaz
born in these unlikely circumstances toa to accomplish what is best for them in ac-
foreign woman became the grandfather cordance with his purposes. The book is
of Israel’s greatest king. Of course, firstand foremost about God and his faith-
Matthew did not fail to see the significance __ful dealings in the lives of his people.
of Ruth’s presence in the lineage of the The sovereign plan of God is worked
Messiah (1:5). The Lord’s purpose wasac- out in the book through the faithfulness
complished through the lives of ordinary _ of its main characters. Naomi, Ruth, and
but faithful individuals. A life committed |Boaz providea striking contrast with other
to God meets no insignificant turns. Allof _ characters and events of the judges period.
life becomes sacred. The book’s placement immediately after
192
 Judges and Ruth

the Book of Judges in the Christian canon, Finally, the Book of Ruth illustrates that
and the opening words, “In the days when the benefits of God’s covenant are not lim-
the judges ruled,” highlight the differences ited by any boundaries, whether national,
between the faithful lives of these simple racial, or gender. Ruth is constantly re-
people compared to the sordid affairs of ferred to as the “Moabitess.” Her ethnic
the characters in Judges. During a period and national background is not forgotten
when many people did what was right in in the book, which teaches that even this
their own eyes, there were at least three Moabite woman can live in covenant with
who did what was right in God’s eyes. It Yahweh and benefit from faithful rela-
was through their faithfulness to God and tionship with him.
to each other that God provided the Mes-
siah for the world.

193
_

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ae »
 First Samuel
God Grants a King

* Backgroundof 1 Samuel
Pe setting
Authorship and Date
Themes of 1 Samuel Objectives
_ © The Message of 1 Samuel
After reading this chapter,
A Period of Transition (chapters 1-15)
you should be able to
David's Rise and Saul’s Decline
e Outline the content of 1 Samuel
(chapters 16-31)
e List the three themes of 1 Samuel
¢ Trace the events surrounding the ark
of the covenant as found in 1 Samuel
e Explain the reason for Israel having
a king
¢ Outline Samuel's final speech to Israel
¢ Identify three errors Saul made that
revealed his heart
¢ Compare and contrast David with Saul
¢ Discuss the key events in the struggle
David had with Saul

195
Encountering the Historical Books

Have you ever asked yourself the ques- East—Assyria, Babylon, Hatti, and Egypt—
tion, “Who am I?” It’s an interesting ques- were all in decline, and posed no real threat
tion to ponder. Who am I anyway, and to Israel. However, Israel’s neighbors al-
where am I headed? What has God placed ways presented a potential problem. A re-
me here to do? Questions like these are cent arrival was the Philistines, a people of
more than interesting—they’re essential. Indo-European descent who had settled
The correct answers to these questions pro- along the Judean coast.!
vide the secret to living the kind of life God As God’s people found themselves
expects. fighting the Philistines and others, they
In 1 Samuel, we find the nation of Israel struggled with an important issue. How
wrestling with these kinds of questions. could they present a united front against
The judges period featured much confu- their enemies? The Book of 1 Samuel re-
sion and anarchy. The people longed for lates how the Israelites solved the prob-
a leader who could pull the kingdom to- lem: They crowned a king.
gether and give them a sense of national
pride and identity. Authorship and Date
The Books of 1 and 2 Samuel originally
formed one united work in the Hebrew
Bible.* Samuel’s name appears in the title,
Aniline but the book does not name an author. Per-
haps early tradition linked Samuel’s name
I. A Period of Transition (1-15) with the work because of his great influ-
A. Samuel’s Birth and Call ence during this period of biblical history.
(1:1-3:21) We simply do not know who wrote this
B. The Ark Narrative (4:1-7:17) book.
C. Saul Becomes Israel’s First We also do not know the exact time the
King (8-12) Book of 1 Samuel assumed its present
D. Saul Reveals His Heart form. First Samuel 27:6, in referring to the
(13-15) city of ZIKLAG, says, “Ziklag has belonged
to the kings of Judah to this day.” This
II. David’s Rise and Saul’s Decline statement suggests some time had elapsed
(16-31) since the division of the kingdom around
A. David’s Anointing and 930 B.c. We may assume the inspired au-
Introduction to Saul’s Court thor of 1 Samuel had access to good in-
(16) formation regarding the period 1 Samuel
B. David's Victory over Goliath covers. Many of the stories read like eye-
(17) witness accounts.
C. David's Struggles with Saul
(18-27) Themes of 1 Samuel
D. Saul’s Final Battle (28-31)
Samuel’s ministry
TE SSE The judges period featured much sin and
corruption. The Israelite priesthood, under
The Background the leadership of Eli and his two sons,
of 1 Samuel Hophni and Phinehas, fared no better. Eli’s
sons used the sacrificial system for their
personal gain and also committed gross
Setting
sexual sins, all the while refusing to heed
The Book of 1 Samuel begins in the judges their father’s warnings (2:12-17, 22-25).
period, a time when people did what was The Book of 1 Samuel describes how
right in their own eyes (Jgs 21:25). The Samuel rose to prominence as a priest and
tabernacle rested at Shiloh, where Joshua judge in Israel. God judged Eli’s house and
had finished dividing the land (Jos 18:1). established Samuel as an important leader.
The nation lacked good political and spir- This man of God served the people faith-
itual leadership. fully and honestly, seeking only God’s best
The major powers of the ancient Near for them.
196
 First Samuel

A modern
replica of the
ark of the
covenant based
on its
description in
the Old
Testament.

Saul’s reign (the beginning of king- David's rise to prominence

ship in Israel) Although Saul experienced some success
The people became restless under Samuel's as Israel’s military leader, he showed him-
leadership. They feared external threats self unworthy of the kingship by dis-
such as the Philistines. They observed how obeying God’s commands (13:8-14;
the nations around them had kings ruling 15:1-31). The Lord subsequently in-
over them, and they asked for one, too. structed Samuel to go to Bethlehem to
God granted Israel’s request, though the anoint the man God would choose as Is-
text is clear this was not God’s plan for Is- rael’s next king (16:1). —
rael at the time (8:6-7; 12:17-18). At God’s direction, Samuel anointed
God's selection of Saul initiated a new David, a young Judean shepherd from
period in Israel’s history. Whereas the
Bethlehem (16:1-13). This anointing did
judges period featured rule by many lead-
not make David king; rather, it only af-
ers from various tribes, 1 Samuel describes
firmed him as Saul’s successor. But by
a time when centralized power rested in
the hands of one man—the king. God’s leading, David's fame began to in-
The rise of the monarchy also marked crease. First, he became one of Saul’s court
the end of the theocracy. Israel had been musicians, who played to ease the king’s
under the direct leadership of Yahweh, troubled spirit (16:14-23). Second, David
their heavenly King. Now they wanted an became a capable military leader, defeat-
earthly king. After this king assumed ing the Philistine giant Goliath and lead-
power, would the people place all their ing Israel’s army (17:1-18:5). This success,
trust in him and forget the Lord? Or would however, had its pitfalls. As we will see,
they remember Yahweh was their highest Saul became jealous of his new leader and
King? sought to kill him.

io?
Encountering the Historical Books

This church is
situated at
Kiriath-jearim,
where the ark
remained about
twenty years
(6:19-21).

AM AUS
God’s judgment on Eli’s house: Both
The Message Hophni and Phinehas would die on the
same day, and God would raise up a faith-
of 1 Samuel ful priest who would obey God’s com-
mands (2:27-36).
A Period of Transition The Lord then took steps to raise up that
(chapters 1-15) faithful priest. He called Samuel just as
Samuel was lying down for the evening.
Samuel’s birth and call (1:1-3:21) At first, the young man thought Eli was
The story of 1 Samuel begins at Shiloh, a calling him, but Eli soon discerned the call
city in the hill country of Ephraim. There, must be coming from God. Samuel's reply
Israel had divided the land during to the Lord—“Speak, Lorb, for your ser-
Joshua’s day (Jos 18:1-6) and established vant is listening” (3:10)—provides a fine
the tabernacle. The text describes two fam- model for Christian living. We should al-
ilies: the family of Elkanah and the fam- ways be ready to hear and obey God’s
ily of Eli. Word to us.
Elkanah, a Levite from the hill country All Israel soon recognized Samuel as
of Ephraim,? had two wives—Peninnah God's prophet (3:20). Eli’s failure to disci-
and Hannah. Peninnah had children while pline Hophni and Phinehas had not
Hannah had none, and this fact proved to thwarted God’s purposes for Israel. At the
be the source of bitter rivalry between the same time God was judging Eli’s house,
two women. During a visit to Shiloh, Han- he was raising up Eli’s successor.
nah prayed for a son, vowing to dedicate
him to the Lord as a Nazirite (1:10-11; cf. The ark narrative (4:1-7:17)
Nm 6:1-21). God answered her prayer, and The Philistines had established themselves
she conceived and bore Samuel (1:19-20). along the Judean coastline. They con-
Hannah’s situation illustrates how we can trolled the international coastal highway
always take our deepest troubles to the that ran through Israel and connected
Lord. He has asked us to pray and has Mesopotamia and Syria with Egypt. The
promised to hear us. Philistines camped at Aphek, threatening
After Hannah weaned Samuel, she to push eastward into Israel and cut the
brought him to Eli. Samuel grew up under land in half. The Israelites moved quickly
Eli’s care; soon, God would reveal his pur- to stop them, gathering their army to-
pose for this young man. gether at Ebenezer about two miles east
Meanwhile, Eli’s sons continued to sin. of Aphek (4:1).
An unnamed man of God announced The Israelites lost the first battle, and de-

198
 First Samuel

termined a new strategy for victory: They road to the Israelite city of BeTH-SHEMESH—
would take the ark of the covenant into highly unlikely under the circumstances—
battle with them. But their plan basically then the God of Israel was responsible for
amounted to treating the ark as an idol, the calamity. If anything else happened,
and God did not approve. The Philistines the Philistines would assume the evil came
won again, capturing the ark and killing by chance. But God left the Philistines a
Hophni and Phinehas (4:10-11). The bat- clear testimony: the cows marched directly
tle also claimed two indirect casualties. to Beth-shemesh (6:12-16), causing much
Eli, upon hearing the results of the battle, celebration upon their arrival.
fell off his chair, broke his neck, and died. Unfortunately, the people of Beth-
The wife of Phinehas died in childbirth, shemesh failed to show proper respect for
her labor brought on prematurely by the the ark, and God sent a plague to the city.
traumatic news. Finally the ark came to rest at Kiriath-
The Philistines brought their new tro- jearim, where it remained about twenty
phy to Ashdod and set it in the temple of years (6:19-21).
their god Dagon. But the ark’s presence Samuel called the people to forsake their
brought trouble for the Philistines. First, idols and to turn back to the Lord with all
the Lord caused Dagon’s idol to fall down their hearts. When Israel did so, the Lord
and “worship” the ark (5:3-4). Second, again delivered them from the Philistines
God sent plagues of tumors and mice and Israel recovered the territory it had
against the people of Ashdod and its ter- lost earlier (7:7-14). Faithfulness to the
ritories (5:6; 6:4-5). God’s judgment lasted Lord brought blessing, just as it does today.
seven months, the tumors and mice fol- Saul becomes Israel’s first king
lowing the ark wherever the Philistines (chapters 8-12)
sent it (5:8-12). Samuel judged Israel faithfully, but his
The Philistines finally decided to return sons did not follow his example. When
the ark to Israel. However, they first de- Samuel grew old, the people approached
vised a plan to make it appear the plagues him at RAMAH and asked him to appoint
were merely coincidental. They put the a king (8:4-5).
ark on a cart and hitched to the cart two Samuel hesitated to grant the people’s
milch cows who had never pulled a cart. request because he believed they should
These two cows had calves back in the trust in the Lord rather than in an earthly
stall. If the cows proceeded straight up the king. But the Lord advised Samuel to go

Aphek of
Ebenezer
@ Shiloh
EPHRAIM

@ Bethel

BENJAMIN

Kiriath-jearim
® Jerusalem
iyBeth-shemesh
JUDAH
ececce Battle
Route of the ark in
Israelite possession
<<... Route of the ark in
Philistine possession

jee
Encountering the Historical Books

ahead and appoint a king, assuring him, Third, Samuel urged the people to fol-
“They have not rejected you, but they have low the Lord with all their hearts (12:20-25).
rejected me from being king over them” Yes, they had sinned, but God would for-
(8:7). Samuel solemnly warned the peo- give them if they repented, put aside their
ple of all the new burdens a monarchy idols, and trusted in him. Samuel promised
would bring, but the people persisted in to continue to pray for them, but also is-
their desire for a king (8:10-22). sued a sober warning. If they persisted in
The Lord chose Saul, a man of the tribe their evil ways, not even their king could
of Benjamin, to be Israel's first king. Saul save them from God’s judgment.
stood taller than any of the people and re-
Saul reveals his heart
ally looked like he would make a good
(chapters 13-15)
king. Through circumstances God care-
fully guided, Samuel met Saul and First Samuel 13-14 records Saul’s effec-
anointed him king over Israel (10:1). A for- tiveness as a military leader. He enjoyed
mal public coronation later followed at some initial success against the Philistines
Mizpau (10:17-26). (14:19-23), and secured his borders by de-
When the Ammonites threatened feating Moab, Ammon, Edom, and Syria
JABESH-GILEAD, Saul gathered an army and as well (14:19-23, 47). Nevertheless,
routed them. Some scholars have ex- though Saul looked like a good king, his
plained Saul’s interest in the city by argu- heart often betrayed him. First Samuel
ing his ancestors came from there.’ At any 13-15 reveals three such instances.
rate, this great victory led to much cele- First, Saul usurped the priestly role
bration and praise to God, and the people when it served his purposes (13:8-14).
affirmed Saul as king a second time at Gil- Saul had gathered his army at Gilgal,
gal (11:14-15). The kingdom appeared to where he awaited Samuel’s coming to
rest in good hands. sacrifice to the Lord. Samuel had told Saul
With Saul now firmly established as to wait seven days, but sometime during
king, Samuel gathered the people together. the seventh day, Saul grew impatient and
Perhaps he saw this as his final opportu- offered the sacrifice himself to boost the
nity to address the nation. Clearly, now people’s morale. Samuel then arrived and
that Israel had a king, Samuel’s role as told Saul God would take the kingdom
judge was significantly lessened. from him. The Lord would choose the
Samuel’s speech included three parts. next king on the basis of his heart, not his
First, he offered to make restitution to stature.
anyone he had wronged (12:3-5). All who Second, Saul madea rash oath and later
wished could bring their claims before tried to apply it in a foolish manner
the king, and Samuel would make every- (14:24-46). On a day the people needed
thing right. But the people affirmed strength to fight their enemies, Saul pro-
Samuel’s constant faithfulness. Believers nounced a curse against anyone who ate
today should strive to live lives worthy before Israel had won total victory. The
of such affirmation. Our world desper- people’s intense hunger led them to sin
ately needs to see and learn again the by eating meat with blood in it after they
meaning of integrity. won the battle. And when Saul discovered
Second, Samuel told the people they that Jonathan, ignorant of his father’s
had sinned against their God (12:8-18). curse, had eaten some honey that day, he
God had remained absolutely faithful to resolved Jonathan should die. Fortunately,
the covenant, whereas Israel had failed the people prevented Saul from carrying
him time and time again. Asking for a out his decision.
king was wrong because it was not yet Third, Saul failed to follow God’s in-
God’s plan for them. Furthermore, the structions concerning the Amalekites
people asked with the wrong motives, for- (chapter 15). Through Samuel, the Lord
getting the Lord and scoie only a quick instructed Saul to destroy Amalekites and
solution to their problems.’ To show his all they had (Hebrew herem; see the dis-
displeasure, the Lord sent heavy rain on cussion of this concept in chapter 11, in-
the land, severely damaging the wheat cluding sidebar 11.1). But Saul had his own
harvest. plan: He and the people spared the best
200
 First Samuel

Donkeys near
Samaria. Saul’s
search for his
father's straying
donkeys led him
to the prophet
Samuel, and to
the discovery
that God had
chosen him to
be the first king
of Israel.

of the flocks and herds to sacrifice to the and raised up Samuel as a faithful priest.
Lord. Likewise, Saul’s failure did not mean
Again, Samuel confronted Saul, but all God’s defeat. The Lord would seek out an-
the prophet received from the king were other man to fulfill his plan for Israel’s
excuses: monarchy.
David's anointing and introduction
e “The people spared the best of the to Saul’s court (chapter 16)
sheep and oxen to sacrifice to the Lorp
The Lord sent Samuel to Bethlehem, to the
your God; but the rest we have utterly
house of Jesse (vv. 1-13). God had chosen
destroyed” (15:15).
one of Jesse’s eight sons as Israel’s next
e “I did obey the voice of the Lorp,...
king, but no one—including Samuel—
but the people took some of the spoil”
knew whom God had chosen until God
(15:20). directed Samuel to anoint David.
Notice two important items from this
Samuel’s stinging reply—“Because you account. First, the Lord looked at David’s
have rejected the word of the Lorp, he has heart, not his stature. Saul looked like a
also rejected you from being king” king, but his heart was not right before
(15:23)—finally produced half-hearted re- God. David did not particularly look like
pentance (15:24-25), but it was too late. a king, but his heart followed the Lord.
Samuel left Gilgal grieving over Saul, who Even today, God uses people of all kinds,
had disgraced the Lord and the kingly of- but most of all, he uses people who have
fice by his disobedience. It is vitally im- yielded their hearts to him.
portant for God’s leaders to live lives of Second, even though Samuel anointed
faithful obedience so others can learn from David, David did not immediately receive
their example. Of course, our ultimate trust the kingship. That would come later. How-
should always rest in the Lord, not in ever, David did receive something even
earthly leaders. more valuable—God’s Spirit. That same
Spirit is available today to empower be-
David's Rise and Saul’s Decline lievers to accomplish anything the Lord
(chapters 16-31) gives us to do.
In 1 Samuel 2-3, we saw how the failure Meanwhile, God withdrew his Spirit
of Eli and his sons to serve the people faith- from Saul; the king no longer had the em-
fully did not frustrate God’s plan for the powering of God to lead Israel. Further-
priesthood. Rather, God judged Eli’s house more, the Lord sent an evil spirit to afflict

201
Encountering the Historical Books

David's Victory
over Goliath

CAMP

en” OF ELAn
Ww
ISRAELITE
===> Philistines
=a=a=====—> Israelites

him (vv. 14-23). This statement presents a westward to a mountain overlooking the
theological problem: In what sense can an Elah Valley (see map 12.1).
evil spirit come from the Lord? At this point, Goliath, a Philistine giant,
Probably we should understand the ex- issued a challenge to Israel’s army. He
pression “evil spirit from the Lorp” in one would fight to the death anyone Israel put
of two ways. First, the Lord may have forward. If the Israelite won, the Philistines
brought the evil spirit on Saul in judgment would serve Israel. If Goliath won, the Is-
for Saul’s rebellion. God does sometimes raelites would serve the Philistines. For
discipline his children, and this spirit may forty days, Goliath continued his chal-
have been Saul’s discipline. Second, God lenge, but no one in Israel’s army dared
may have intended the evil spirit to serve to accept it.
a redemptive function. If the spirit caused One day, just as David arrived at the
Saul to realize his helplessness to lead Is- Israelite camp to check on his brothers,
rael without God’s enabling Spirit, the Goliath was once again issuing his chal-
king might turn back to God. lenge. David’s heart burned with anger:
At any rate, God also used the evil This Philistine was taunting the armies
spirit for another purpose—to introduce of the living God! God’s honor was at
David to the royal court. Saul’s servants stake! David told Saul he would fight
suggested the king hire a court musician Goliath.
to play soothing music to ease Saul’s Saul first tried to talk David out of
mind when the evil spirit troubled him. fighting Goliath, then suggested David
David had already established his repu- wear the king’s armor. But David re-
tation as a skilled musician (v. 18), and
fused, preferring his own weapon—a
consequently received this appointment.
slingshot.
God’s purposes thus continued to move
When Goliath saw David coming, he
forward.
cursed him by his pagan gods, but David
David's victory over Goliath and his God had the last word. David
(chapter 17) brought the Philistine to the ground with
The Philistines had pushed eastward from a well-aimed stone, then ran to him and
Ekron and Gath to an area between cut off his head. When the Philistines saw
Azekah and Socoh, right on the border of Goliath was dead, they fled in terror and
Israelite territory. The Israelites had to stop the Israelites pursued them all the way to
them quickly so they would not take con- Ekron and Gath.
trol of two major east-west highways in The story of David and Goliath illus-
Judah’s hill country. Israel's army moved trates three important spiritual principles:
202
 First Samuel

The barren
Judean
wilderness.
Through these
hills Saul
pursued the
fugitive David.

e We should be more concerned about David more than they praised him. He
God’s honor than about ourselves. began to view David more as a rival
David was very concerned about than a faithful servant (18:6—-9), and
God’s honor (vv. 26, 36, 46-47). He these feelings of suspicion led to a dra-
wasn’t willing to allow Goliath to get matic struggle between Israel’s king and
away with taunting the armies of the his successor-to-be.
living God. David's struggles with Saul include five
¢ God’s past faithfulness in our lives major events. First, David and Saul’s son,
should encourage us to take more Jonathan, became good friends. This
steps of faith. David had the courage friendship began shortly after David killed
to fight Goliath because the Lord had Goliath (18:1) and lasted until Jonathan’s
already enabled him to kill a lion and death.
a bear (vv. 34-37). Jonathan plays a tragic role in the nar-
e When we face battles that look im- rative of 1 Samuel. He loved David very
possible, we need to remember the much, but he also loved his father.
battle is the Lord’s. David fought Go- Jonathan’s constant efforts to reconcile
liath, but he was merely God’s in- David and Saul only brought his father’s
strument. The battle was really be- anger down on him as well (20:24-34). In
tween Goliath and the Lord (v. 47). the end, Jonathan died fighting the
Philistines alongside Saul on Mount
Perhaps most important of all, the story Gilboa (31:2).
of David and Goliath reveals David's Second, Saul became fanatical in his
heart. God had said he would choose Is- determination to kill David. His actions
rael’s next king according to his heart were those of a desperate man who felt
(13:14; 16:7). He had done so. his kingdom slipping away. He threw his
spear at David as David sat playing the
David’s struggles with Saul harp for him, and then sent messengers
(chapters 18-27) to David's house to arrest him (19:9-11).
After the victory over Goliath, David He responded quickly time and time
became one of Saul’s leading military again when people informed him of
men. The common people loved him, as David's location (23:7-8, 19-23; 24:1-2;
did Saul’s men. Unfortunately, Saul be- 26:1-2).
came jealous when the people praised Saul also displayed this fanatical anger

203
Encountering the Historical Books

Shechem e

Shiloh @

© Ekron @ Jebus
© Gath ee

Hebron ®

® Beer-sheba

In each of these instances, Saul ex-

pressed sorrow for his behavior toward
David (24:16-22; 26:21). Nevertheless,
when another opportunity to capture
® Kadesh-barnea David presented itself, Saul would re-
spond quickly.
Fourth, David met and married Abigail
© Major Philistine city
(chapter 25). Abigail’s husband, Nabal,
treated David and his men coldly when
they asked him for provisions. David de-
termined to destroy the men of Nabal’s
against David’s advocates. He hurled his estate, but Abigail’s intervention caused
spear at Jonathan when Jonathan tried to David to relent. When the Lord took
stand up for David (20:32-33). Saul also Nabal’s life ten days later, Abigail became
destroyed the entire city of Nos when he David's wife.
discovered its priest had given David's Fifth, David, utterly frustrated with
men provisions (21:1-9; 22:7-19). Saul, joined the Philistines (27:1-3). His
Third, David took extreme measures to action illustrates the old proverb: “The
prove his loyalty to Saul. David spared enemy of my enemy is my friend.” No
Saul’s life twice when the chance to kill doubt the Philistines, aware of David’s
Saul presented itself. On one occasion, Saul problems with Saul, assumed they might
turned aside into a cave where David and use him to their advantage.
his men were hiding, but David only cut Achish, king of Gath, gave David the city
off a piece of Saul’s garment (24:3-6). of Ziklag, and David became Achish’s ser-
David later felt remorse that he had done vant—at least formally. Secretly, David used
even this to the Lord’s anointed. the security of his relationship with the
On another occasion, David and his Philistines to further his own cause in Judah
nephew Abishai sneaked into Saul’s camp and the Neces. He destroyed the foreign
while the king’s army lay sleeping nomadic tribes in the area and brought the
(26:6-16). They took Saul’s spear and spoils to Achish, letting him think he had
water jug to prove they had been close taken them from Judeans. Ultimately, how-
enough to kill him, then retreated toa safe ever, the Philistine lords did not trust David,
distance and roused the camp, displaying and dismissed him from their ranks before
their evidence of loyalty. the final battle with Saul (chapter 29).

204
 First Samuel

Left: Fields near

the village of
Endor, Israel. Saul's Final Battle A Mt. Tabor
Saul disguised
himself and on Gilboa
visited Endor,
+73
where he heard
a medium lived, <Reg @ Endor
asking the x
woman to call Shunem
Samuel up from Wit
the dead. Megiddo e ese
va,
pig
Jezreele

Mt. Gilboa
Beth-shan
e

Israelite army
Saul’s retreat

Battle Jabesh-gilead
from Gibeah Philistine army s4

Saul’s final battle (chapters 28-31) Samuel announced Saul’s final judg-
As Saul prepared for battle against the ment—Saul would die in battle with the
Philistines, he sought spiritual guidance Philistines the next day. But despite
(chapter 28). He inquired of the Lord, but Samuel’s clear warning, Saul, though ter-
the Lord did not answer him. Saul became ribly alarmed, proceeded with battle
desperate. He disguised himself and plans—plans that would cost him his life.
Meanwhile, the Philistine lords decided
slipped around the Philistine camp to
they didn’t trust David to join them in
ENbor, where he heard a medium lived.
battle against Saul (chapter 29). They re-
Saul asked the woman to call Samuel up
membered the words of the Hebrew
from the dead for him. song—“Saul has slain his thousands, and
The text seems to indicate Samuel ac- David his ten thousands”—and knew
tually did appear. The passage calls the those great numbers described Philistine
figure Samuel, and he certainly spoke with casualties! Despite David’s protests of
Samuel's authority. Whether the woman loyalty, Achish dismissed David from his
had ever spoken with departed spirits be- service.
fore is unclear, but she did this time! This dismissal certainly proved to be a
blessing to David. If David had fought
against Saul, many Israelites would never
Nob have forgiven him. Instead, David became
Endor an innocent bystander to the battle that
Elah Valley claimed Saul’s life.
Mount Gilboa David returned to Ziklag to find the
Shiloh Amalekites had looted the city and taken
Key Places the women and children captive (chapter
30). At God’s direction, he pursued the
Ziklag Amalekites, defeated them, and rescued
Beth-shemesh the captives. As for the Amalekite spoils
Ramah of war, he sent them as a gift to the elders
Mizpah of Judah, a gesture that certainly increased
Jabesh-gilead David’s popularity among his own tribes-
Negeb people.
But perhaps at the very same time David
was defeating the Amalekites in Judah,

205
 Encountering the Historical Books

Saul was losing his battle with the And so the life of Israel's first king came
Philistines on Mount Gilboa.® Three of to a tragic end. As we come to the end of
Saul’s sons, including Jonathan, died in 1 Samuel, the text raises a question. Saul
battle, and the Philistine archers wounded has died, and the prophet Samuel has
Saul. The king, fearful his enemies would anointed David as Israel's next king. Saul
capture and torture him, fell on his own looked like he would make a great king,
sword and died. but he did not. David did not look like he
The Philistines found the bodies of Saul would make a great king. Would he? And
and his sons and fastened them to the gate if so, why?
at nearby Beth-shan.’ But the men of Israel’s struggle between theocracy and
Jabesh-gilead, probably because of Saul’s monarchy also raises another question for
blood ties and faithfulness to them (chap- us. Each of us must choose to submit to
ter 11), removed the bodies and gave them some ultimate authority, whether the Lord
a proper burial. God or another. Who’s king in your life?

AUNT TR AM Mi

i The Philistines captured the ark of the 8. David's defeat of Goliath illustrated
covenant and took it to Ashdod, but important spiritual principles for con-
they suffered plagues until they re- temporary leaders: we should be most
turned it to Kiriath-jearim. concerned about God’s honor, not
ours; we should act on faith because
. God granted Israel’s request for a
of God's faithfulness in the past; and
king, but this was not his highest will
in difficult situations, we should re-
for them at the time.
member that God is in control.
. Saul was not successful as king be-
. Saul became jealous of David and cre-
cause he disobeyed the commands of
ated many problems for David, but
God.
David continually tried to prove his
. David became well known by serving loyalty to the king.
as Saul’s court musician and by being a
10. David joined the Philistines for a time
successful military leader.
and used this alliance to destroy for-
. In his final speech as judge, Samuel of- eign nomadic tribes who were harass-
fered restitution to any he had ing Judah.
wronged, told the people they had
11. Saul asked the woman at Endor to call
sinned against God, and urged the Is-
up Samuel's spirit, and Samuel ap-
raelites to follow God with all their
peared and pronounced that Saul
hearts.
would die in battle with the Philistines
. Saul demonstrated his true heart by the next day.
usurping the priestly role at Gilgal, by
12; The Philistines took the bodies of Saul
making a rash oath and trying to
and his three sons and fastened them
apply it, and by not following God's
to the gate at Beth-shan.
instruction about the Amalekites.
. IN anointing David as king, God
looked at his heart rather than his
physical characteristics.

206
 First Samuel

Study Questions

. Describe the historical setting in Israel the people want a king, and why was
as the Book of 1 Samuel begins. How Saul chosen? Overall, do you think
were the people organized and who Saul was a good choice? Why or why
was in charge? What threats did they not?
face?
. Describe David's rise to prominence.
. What are the major themes of Why did Saul suspect him? Do you
1 Samuel? think Saul was right to be suspicious
of David?
. How did Samuel's life change Israel's
history?
. Describe the reasons behind the be-
ginning of Israel’s monarchy. Why did

Further Reading

Baldwin, Joyce G. 7 and 2 Samuel: An Introduction Seminary-level history of Israel that combines
and Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament good scholarship and readability.
Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester: Wood, Leon J. Israel’s United Monarchy. Grand
InterVarsity, 1988. Good college-level commentary. Rapids: Baker, 1979. A study of the period of Saul,
Brueggemann, Walter. First and Second Samuel. David, and Solomon. Contains much spiritual
Louisville: John Knox, 1990. Rich in theological application.
exposition and application.
Merrill, Eugene H. Kingdom of Priests: A History of
Old Testament Israel. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.

207
 ee ees

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e
ie"
5 a
7

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= —
. :
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17

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i.
 Second Samuel
David's Reign

“e Themes of 2 Samuel Objectives

_ ¢ Message of 2 Samuel
David's Rise to Power in Judah After reading this chapter,
(chapters 1-4) you should be able to
David's Reign over All Israel ¢ Outline the basic content
(chapters 5-24) of the Book of 2 Samuel
e Recite the four themes of 2 Samuel
¢ Explain the different details of Saul’s
death in 1 Samuel 31 and 2 Samuel 1
¢ Demonstrate how David's behavior in the
situation with Isbosheth helped him gain
the confidence of the people
¢ Identify the reasons why David selected
Jerusalem for the capital
¢ List the blessings of God’s covenant
with David
¢ Apply the results of David’s sin with
Bathsheba to contemporary life _
* Relate the events of the discontent
in David's kingdom
¢ Report the outcomes in Israel's history
of the census ordered by David

209
Encountering the Historical Books

Have you ever thought about what it anointed as Saul’s successor, is in Ziklag
would be like to lead a country? You after rescuing the city from Amalekite
would face a busy schedule every day. raiders. The Book of 2 Samuel relates how
Many important responsibilities would David became Israel’s king and highlights
rest on your shoulders. And sometimes certain details about his reign.
you would have to make unpopular de- Some scholars have suggested the writer
cisions—decisions you felt were in your of 2 Samuel arranged his material topi-
country’s best interest. cally rather than chronologically.' Second
Second Samuel records how David be- Samuel 1-10 describes how God blessed
came king of Israel at age thirty (5:4). The Israel when the king followed God’s ways;
text highlights several ways the Lord used 2 Samuel 11-24 basically describes how
David to bless Israel. It also describes the God judged Israel when the king strayed
heartache and tragedy that befell David from God’s ways.
and all Israel when God’s leader failed to
follow God's ways. Authorship and Date
Second Samuel is an anonymous work. As
OOo AA we stated in chapter 13, Samuel’s ministry
Outline set the stage for Israel’s monarchy. This
fact may be the reason tradition attached
I. David’s Rise to Power in Judah
his name to 1 and 2 Samuel.
We also do not know the exact time of
(1-4)
A. David Laments over Saul (1) the book’s writing. The accounts reflect a
B. David Struggles against thorough understanding of the events,
Ishbosheth (2-4) sometimes relying on early written sources
(1:18).
II. David’s Reign over All Israel
(5-24) Themes of 2 Samuel
A. David Secures his Borders (5,
David's rise to kingship in Israel
8, 10)
B. David Captures Jerusalem When the people asked for a king, God
(5-6) gave them Saul. Saul looked like a king,
C. God Makes a Covenant with but proved to be a poor one because his
David (7) heart did not follow the Lord faithfully.
D. David Sins with Bathsheba Early in Saul’s reign, God chose David
(11-12) to be Israel's next king (1 Sm 16:1-13). Saul
tH . David Experiences became jealous of David's popularity and
Discontent within His sought to kill him, and David spent sev-
Kingdom (13-20) eral years as a fugitive. But Saul’s death
1. Amnon Rapes Tamar (13-14) on Mount GILBoa prepared the way for
2. Absalom Leads a Revolt (15-19) God’s plan to proceed. David would soon
3. Sheba Leads a Revolt (20) occupy Israel’s throne.
F. David Finishes His Reign
(21-24) David's choice of Jerusalem
for his capital city
SSS
The Israelites had conquered JERUSALEM
during the judges period (Jgs 1:8), but the
Background Jebusites still occupied the site. David de-
of 2 Samuel feated them and made Jerusalem his cap-
ital (2 Sm 5:5-9). He also brought the ark
of the covenant there, making the city Is-
Setting rael’s political and religious center (6:1-19).
As we said in chapter 13, 1 and 2 Samuel Jerusalem was Israel’s capital through-
originally formed one united work in the out Solomon’s reign. After the kingdom
Hebrew Bible. As the book begins, Israel divided, it remained Judah’s capital until
lacks a king, for Saul has died in battle it fell in 587 B.c. to Nebuchadnezzar and
with the Philistines. David, whom Samuel the Babylonians.
210
 Second Samuel

The settlement God's covenant with David

Message of DsSamuel
mound at Beth-
shan, Israel. The David wanted to build God a temple, a
Philistines took “house” on which God could place his
the bodies of Name (chapter 7). Instead, God promised David's Rise to Power
Saul and
Jonathan here to build David a “house” of descendants! in Judah (chapters 1-4)
and nailed them The Lord affirmed David’s son would
to the walls. build the temple and that divine favor David laments over Saul (chapter 1)
would not depart from David’s line. God On the third day after David's triumphant
would establish David's throne forever. return to Ziklag, he received word of Is-
This marvelous promise to David plays rael’s defeat and Saul’s death on Mount
an important role in God’s plan of re- Gilboa. An Amalekite from Saul’s camp
demption and salvation. It culminates in came to Ziklag and told David the news.
Jesus Christ, David's ultimate descendant,
This man also told David he had found
who one day will return to reign forever Saul badly wounded and, at Saul’s request,
(Lk 1:32-33). had killed him to end his misery.
David's sin leads David's response was twofold. First, he
to serious consequences and all his company mourned and fasted
David's inability to control his passions until evening. Second, he ordered the
led to adultery with Bathsheba, and later Amalekite killed for striking down Saul,
to the murder of Bathsheba’s husband the Lord’s anointed. By these actions,
Uriah (chapter 11). God forgave David David gave clear testimony he had nei-
when David repented, but sin’s conse- ther rejoiced in Saul’s death nor partici-
quences haunted the king the rest of his pated in it.
life. Indeed, the account of David and Some scholars have pointed out the dis-
Bathsheba forms a significant turning crepancy in the details of 1 Samuel 31 and
point in the narrative of 2 Samuel. 2 Samuel 1. In 1 Samuel 31, Saul falls on

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Encountering the Historical Books

AULINONNTRTNORNOAINBNNSN his own sword and dies, while in 2 Samuel David's Reign over All Israel
tribute
1, the Amalekite claims to have killed a (chapters 5-24)
badly wounded Saul. The most probable David had waited for God’s timing, and
explanation is that the Amalekite was now it had come. All Israel’s tribes gath-
lying. He claimed he delivered Saul’s ered at Hebron and anointed him king
death blow because he thought David over the entire nation. The people finally
might reward him in some way. But he had a leader who desired to follow God’s
failed to anticipate David’s response and purposes.
unwittingly condemned himself.’ The rest of 2 Samuel recounts major
David chanted a lament over Saul and events from David’s reign. These events
Jonathan. His words revealed the depth portray David’s victories and failures, his
of his love and respect for these men, and righteous acts and sins. Most of all, they
testified to his sadness and innocence re- reveal God’s grace—grace that enabled
garding their deaths. David to serve Israel well and picked
David up when the results of his sin
David struggles against Ishbosheth
crashed down on him. The Bible offers that
(chapters 2-4) same grace to each of us.
At God's leading, David went up to He-
bron, where the men of Judah anointed David secures his borders (chapters 5,
him king over Judah. He also sent word 8, 10)
commending the men of Jabesh-gilead for Every kingdom must secure its borders.
burying Saul’s body (1 Sm 31:11-13). He For Israel, a small nation surrounded by
informed them of his anointing and many hostile peoples, the task was cru-
promised to show them kindness. cial. David took steps to secure his bor-
Meanwhile, Abner, Saul’s relative and ders and even move beyond them. His
general, crowned Saul’s son, Ishbosheth, reign marked the beginning of the Israelite
king over Israel. Only the tribe of Judah Empire.
followed David. The stage was set for a The Philistines had treated David well
bitter civil war that lasted two years. because they viewed him as someone who
As the fighting continued, David began could distract Saul and keep Israel weak.?
Now that David had assumed control,
to gain the advantage. Abner, now Ish-
bosheth’s general, probably sensed this, they counted him an enemy and marched
against him (5:17—25).
and used a dispute over his master’s con-
In the first battle, the Philistines camped
cubine as an excuse to defect to David’s
in the VALLEY OF REPHAIM southwest of
side. Abner’s desertion further weakened
Jerusalem, while David and his men
Ishbosheth’s cause.
camped at Masada (“the stronghold”)
But not everyone in David’s camp was
near the Dead Sea. David inquired of the
ready to trust Abner. Joab, David’s nephew
Lord, and the Lord brought him victory
and general, suspected him from the be- at BAAL-PERAZIM.
ginning and eventually killed him. David The Philistines regrouped and gathered
denied any connection with Abner’s again in the Valley of Rephaim. This time,
death, and even participated in Abner’s the Lord gave Israel victory from GEBA in
funeral procession. David’s actions the Central Benjamin Plateau all the way
pleased the people and helped heal the to GEZER at the mouth of the Aijalon Val-
wounds between the tribes. ley. This victory cleared the Philistines
News of Abner’s death sent shock from Israelite territory and pushed them
waves throughout all Israel. Baanah and back to the coast. In fact, the Philistines
Rechab, two of Ishbosheth’s commanders, came under David's control. They had de-
decided David had won. They killed Ish- feated Saul, but they would not defeat
bosheth and brought his head to David at David.
Hebron. Again, David denied any con- The Lord also gave David victories over
nection with the deed, and ordered Baanah other surrounding kingdoms—Moas and
and Rechab killed for their crime. Thus, EDoM to the southeast, AMMON to the east,
only one man remained to lead Israel, and and Syria to the north (8:1). David put gar-
that man was David. risons in DAMascus and accepted tribute
212
 Second Samuel

Damascus

4p Ay

Shecheme

AMMON
@ Rabbath-bene-
ammon

David defeats Philistines

David attacts king of Zobah
David defeats Edomites
David defeats Ammonite/Aramean Alliance

David defeats Armean Alliance

from many other Syrian city-states. He David captures Jerusalem

also made a covenant with Hiram, king of (chapters 5-6)
Tyre, who built him a palace in Jerusalem For the first 7 1/2 years of his 40 1/2 year
after David moved his capital there. reign, David ruled from Hebron. But He-
Conquered kingdoms sometimes bron’s location—far to the south—made
joined forces against David to try to win the city less than ideal for a capital. David
their independence. Syria and Ammon decided to move the capital about twenty
united against Israel (chapter 10), but miles north to Jerusalem.’
Joab divided Israel’s army against them Jerusalem lay just within Benjaminite
and defeated them. Israel’s borders stood territory, a fact David may have consid-
secure. ered in choosing the site. Saul, a Benjami-

213
Encountering the Historical Books

PANO Neate
EPR GAR NSEP SRR wv
The Jebusites eee reatee ae
controlled
Cros .cact t 19 + we
Sais
f
et fi recs tate hs i! I eh o ie a pe
Jerusalem
during David's
days, but David's Entrance to
army entered water tunnel —
the city through ik

its water tunnel

and conquered
it (2 Sm 6:6-8).

nite, had reigned from Gibeah, a few miles impressive palace. But where was God's
north of Jerusalem. Perhaps David palace? There wasn’t one! The ark of the
NA thought restoring Israel’s capital to Ben- covenant rested in a tent while David lived
covenant jamin might ease political tensions in the in luxury. David felt the Lord deserved a
land. Furthermore, the SPRING OF GIHON better place for his Name.
gave Jerusalem a plentiful water supply. Nathan the prophet assumed God
The Jebusites, part of the Canaanite pop- would want David to build a temple, but
ulation who inhabited the land during the God had other plans. He had not asked
days of Joshua (Jos 24:11), controlled for a temple. Also, David was a man of
Jerusalem during David's days. Their for- war who had shed much blood; God
tified city, high on a hill, made them feel would choose a man of peace to build the
invincible, but David’s army entered the temple (1 Chr 22:8-9). David needed to
city through its water tunnel and con- submit his zeal to God’s ways and timing.
quered it (2 Sm 6:6-8). Jerusalem became Nevertheless, God rewarded David’s at-
the city of David. titude. David had wanted to build the Lord
David then brought the ark of the a temple out of gratitude for all God’s bless-
covenant from Baale-Judah (also known ings. David's attitude was commendable,
as Kiriath-jearim, 1 Sm 7:1-2). Amid much even if he had the wrong solution.
celebration, the ark entered Jerusalem, and David wanted to build God a house, but
the Levites placed it in the tent David had God told David he would build him one—
prepared for it. Jerusalem was becoming a house of descendants. The text does not
Israel’s spiritual center as well as its po- use the term “covenant,” but later bibli-
litical center. cal texts refer back to this event as a
covenant (2 Chr 21:7; Ps 89:3). God’s spe-
God makes a covenant with David cial covenant with David included the fol-
(chapter 7) lowing blessings:
David had established himself as king over
all Israel. He had defeated his enemies, ¢ God would provide a place for Israel
and they submitted to him. His kingdom to dwell securely forever (vv. 10-11).
enjoyed peace and security, and his bor- * God would raise up David’s son, who
ders stood secure. David knew one thing would build the temple (vv. 12-13).
for sure—God had really blessed him! * God would establish David’s dynas-
But David also realized something else. tic line forever (v. 13).
Hiram, king of Tyre, had built David an ¢ God would establish a father-son re-
214
David's United
Kingdom

Ruled by David and Solomon

Tributary to David

a
3
&
=ae
&
wv
8
N

s
Encountering the Historical Books

lationship with David’s descendants both efforts failed, he took drastic mea-
(v. 14). sures. He sent orders to Joab by Uriah’s
¢ God's lovingkindness would not de- own hand to place Uriah in the midst of
part from David's dynastic line as it the hottest fighting, then to withdraw from
had from Saul (vv. 14-15). him. The plan worked, and Uriah died in
battle. After Bathsheba’s period of mourn-
David responded with overwhelming ing, David married her and she bore a son.
gratitude and amazement. Who was he The king thought he had gotten away with
that God should do this great thing his sin, but forgot one thing: The Lord had
through him? David’s attitude serves as a seen the whole sinful episode!
model for all believers. The Bible declares Nathan the prophet came to David with
an astounding truth—God has chosen to a story. A rich man, who had plenty of
use ordinary people like us to fulfill his flocks and herds, was entertaining a guest.
grand purposes! Our response should not Instead of taking from the abundance of
be one of pride, but one of gratitude. his animals to feed his guest, he took a
David also understood God’s blessing poor man’s only lamb, a lamb that was re-
depended partly on the faith of David’s ally more of a family pet, and fed it to the
descendants (1 Kgs 2:4). But the ultimate guest.
fulfillment of God’s covenant lies in Jesus David’s anger exploded—that man
Christ, the son of David (Mt 1:1). David should die for his lack of compassion! But
ruled as king of Israel, but Jesus will re- Nathan's answer stopped him cold: “You
turn to rule as King of kings and Lord of are the man!” (12:7). God had blessed
lords (Rv 19:16). Until that day, we must David abundantly. He had rescued him
allow him to reign freely in our hearts. As from Saul and given him the kingdom
we do so, his Holy Spirit will mold us into with all its honors and privileges. Uriah,
the people he wants us to be. on the other hand, had only Bathsheba,
and David had taken even her from him.
David sins with Bathsheba Now the sword would not depart from
(chapters 11-12) David’s house—his family would experi-
David’s sin with Bathsheba led to dis- ence constant turmoil and tragedy.
aster. So much had gone right for him, David felt the sting of Nathan’s words
but when he strayed from God’s ways, and confessed his sin. Nathan assured
so much went wrong. The story sounds David of God’s forgiveness, but promised
a strong warning for today’s Christ- severe consequences. The child must die,
ians: Even forgiven sin can have lifelong because David's sin had caused God's en-
consequences. emies to blaspheme. We need to ask the
David's sin occurred after he sent Joab Lord to protect us from temptation. Un-
and the army to battle Ammon. Back in believers are always watching us, and any
Jerusalem, while walking atop his palace, sin they see gives them an excuse to mock
David looked down and saw a woman God.
bathing. He desired her, and inquired Amazingly, God’s grace touched
about her. His servants informed him who David's life again. David comforted
she was—Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah the Bathsheba over the child’s death, and soon
Hittite. she conceived again. She bore another
David’s interest in Bathsheba should son—Solomon. He would become Israel’s
have stopped when he discovered she was next king and build God’s temple, just as
married. Instead, he summoned her to the God had promised (7:13). As we turn to
palace and had sex with her. When the New Testament, we find God’s grace
Bathsheba later informed David she was extended even farther. Solomon appears
pregnant, David had a real problem. in the genealogy of Jesus Christ himself
Uriah, Bathsheba’s husband, had been (Mt 1:6)!
away a long time fighting the Ammonites. Before we leave this story, we want to
It would soon be obvious he was not the point out two important principles for
father of his wife’s baby! Christian living. First, all sin has conse-
David tried twice to make it appear quences. David's sin brought disastrous
Uriah had fathered the child. But when results on him and his house. Those fac-
216
 Second Samuel

The Kidron
Valley, outside
Jerusalem.
When Absalom
tried to take the
kingdom, his
father David
fled from the
capital across
the Kidron
Valley.

ALATA SAAN ing temptation should remember the high Absalom hated Amnon for what he had
coup price David paid for his evil. done. Two years later, when Amnon at-
Second, God's grace is sufficient to cover tended a party Absalom hosted, Absalom
the sins of all who call on him. David re- had him killed and fled to Geshur. After
pented of his sin, and God’s grace not only three years, largely through Joab’s efforts,
forgave him, but later produced a Absalom returned to Jerusalem, but an-
Solomon. It is important to remember this other two years elapsed before David in-
story does not condone sin in any way. We vited him to the palace.
should never rationalize our actions by The tension between the king and his
saying, “I'll ask forgiveness later.” At the son soon exploded into rebellion. Absa-
same time, God stands ready to forgive all lom prepared for his coup attempt by
who feel the shame of their sin and come winning the people’s hearts. He talked
to him in true repentance (1 Jn 1:9). with them at the city gate, declaring that
David experiences discontent within if he were king, they would receive jus-
his kingdom (chapters 13-20) tice. He also refused to let the people bow
Nathan the prophet had warned David to him, treating them more as friends than
the sword would not depart from the royal as subjects.
house. Second Samuel 13-20 describes the When Absalom decided the time was
subsequent discontent within David's right, he went to Hebron, the place of
kingdom. Three events shape the narra- David's anointing (2 Sm 5:3). He also sent
tive: Amnon’s rape of Tamar (chapters spies throughout the land, instructing
13-14), Absalom’s rebellion (chapters them that when they heard the trumpet,
15-19), and Sheba’s rebellion (chapter 20). they were to shout, “Absalom is king in
Amnon and Absalom were David's first Hebron!” The conspiracy quickly gained
and third sons, respectively (2 Sm 3:2).° momentum, and David and his followers
Tamar was Absalom’s sister; she and Ab- had to flee Jerusalem to escape Absalom’s
salom had Maacah, daughter of Talmai, forces.
king of Geshur, as their mother (2 Sm 3:3; As David fled Jerusalem, he sent back
13:4). Amnon failed to control his desires Hushai, a trusted servant, to feign loyalty
for Tamar, his half sister, and these un- to Absalom and keep David informed
controlled desires led to rape. The Scrip- about Absalom’s plans. Hushai returned
tures warn us against allowing our to find Absalom planning his next move.
passions to dominate us (Rom 13:13-14). One of Absalom’s counselors was

217
Encountering the Historical Books

tertribal dissension between Judah and

the rest of the tribes was clearly apparent
Key People/ (19:41-43), and came to a head when
Places Sheba, a Benjaminite, initiated a rebellion.
Sheba’s revolt, however, lacked the level
Joab of public support Absalom’s had enjoyed,
Abner
and soon ended with Sheba’s death.
Key Terms Ishbosheth
Uriah David finishes his reign
tribute (chapters 21-24)
Bathsheba
temple
Amnon Second Samuel concludes with accounts
covenant
Tamar of various other events from David’s
coup
Absalom reign: his dealings with the Gibeonites
Sheba (21:1-14), his wars with the Philistines
Araunah (21:15-22), his praise to God (22:1-23:7),
Mount Gilboa his mighty men (23:8-39), and his census
Jerusalem (chapter 24).
Valley
of Rephaim During the days of the conquest, Israel
Baal-perazim made a treaty with the Gibeonites (Jos 9).
Geba Saul’s misguided zeal against them broke
Gezer Israel’s covenant with Gibeon, so the Lord
Moab sent a three-year famine on the land.®
Edom David discovered the reason for the famine
Ammon when he inquired of the Lord.
Syria David offered to make restitution to the
Damascus Gibeonites, who requested to hang seven
spring of Gihon of Saul’s sons. David spared Jonathan’s
son Mephibosheth (2 Sm 9), but handed
over seven others. The Gibeonites hanged
Ahithophel, a man whose counsel was them, and God ended the famine. Never-
above reproach (16:23). Ahithophel ad- theless, David’s actions certainly must
vised an immediate attack to finish David. have hurt his relations with the tribe of
Hushai, on the other hand, urged a care- Benjamin.’
fully planned, delayed attack. He sug- The accounts of David’s wars with the
gested if Absalom’s group suffered any Philistines (21:15—-22) further highlight the
kind of setback, public opinion would struggles Israel had with these people.
swing quickly in David's direction. Absa- The Philistines almost killed David, and
lom took Hushai’s advice—a decision that some of their warriors towered over the
saved David's kingdom. smaller Israelites. Nevertheless, the Lord
Hushai relayed word to David, who brought victory. David subdued the
crossed the Jordan to prepare for battle. Philistines.
The king divided his forces into three David knew the Lord had made him
groups, and instructed them to deal gen- what he was, and expressed his praise in
tly with Absalom. 2 Samuel 22. David praised God for who
As the battle progressed, Absalom’s he was—David’s rock, refuge, shield, sav-
forces suffered heavy casualties. As Ab- ior, and more. God displayed his power
salom rode under an oak, his hair got in the heavens, yet chose someone like
caught in the thick branches, suspending David to lead Israel. And the same power
him in midair. When Joab discovered Ab- that enabled David to rule God’s people
salom’s plight, he and his men surrounded can enable us to live the lives God intends
him and killed him. Messengers brought forustoday.
the tragic news to David—the kingdom The stories of David’s mighty men
again lay in David’s hand, but David had (23:8-39) portray the soldiers’ dedication
lost another son. as they fought for David and for Israel.
As David regained control, new seeds Stories highlight the careers of some of
of discontent were already sprouting. In- these men, while others appear in name
218
 Second Samuel

only. These men demonstrated tremen- God’s hands. He knew he could expect lit-
dous loyalty and bravery as they accom- tle compassion from his enemies, but with
plished the things they did. Perhaps they God, he always had hope.
fought so valiantly because they recog- The plague ceased at the threshing floor
nized God’s hand on David. And, of of Araunah the Jebusite, and the prophet
course, God empowered them, too, for his Gad instructed David to build an altar
purposes. there. Araunah offered to donate every-
On another occasion, David determined thing David needed, but David refused,
he would conduct a census (chapter 24), saying, “I will not sacrifice to the Lorp my
an act that showed more faith in numbers God burnt offerings that cost me nothing”
than in God. Second Samuel 24:1 says the (24:24).
Lord was angry with Israel and enticed Again, David revealed his heart. God
David to number them. First Chronicles had abundantly blessed him, and David
21:1 clarifies that God allowed Satan to en- would not show his gratitude with an of-
tice David to make such a decision. As Joab fering that cost nothing. He paid Araunah
completed the census, God brought judg- full price, offered his offerings, and called
ment on Israel, and thousands died. on God’s Name. The Lord heard David's
The prophet Gad gave David his choice prayer, and ended the plague. Later, Arau-
for restitution. Would David choose nah’s threshing floor became the site of
famine, flight before his enemies, or pesti- God's temple (2 Chr 3:1).
lence? David chose to leave judgment in The Book of 2 Samuel records how God

| Summary

1. The themes of 2 Samuel are about 6. God made a covenant with David that
David and his rise to kingship, his se- included the promise that he would
lection of a capital city, God’s provide a place for Israel to dwell; that
covenant with him, and his great sin David's son would build the temple;
and its consequences. that God would establish David’s dy-
nastic line forever; that God would es-
. David was anointed king by the men
tablish a father-son relationship with
of Judah at Hebron, but Abner
David's descendants; and that God's
crowned Saul’s son, Ishbosheth, king
lovingkindness would not depart from
over Israel.
David's line.
. David's reign was the beginning of the
. From his sin with Bathsheba, David
Israelite empire.
learned that all sin has consequences,
. David moved the capital to Jerusalem but that God's grace is sufficient to
because it was better located, it would cover all sin when the sinner calls on
ease political problems because it was God in genuine repentance.
within Benjaminite territory, and it
. Three major events that aided the
had a good water supply.
growing discontent with David's king-
. While Jerusalem became Israel's politi- dom: Amnon’s rape of Tamar, Absa-
cal center, David also made it the spiri- lom’s rebellion, and Sheba’s rebellion.
tual center by bringing the ark of the
covenant from Kiriath-jearim and
placing it in a tent there.

219
Encountering the Historical Books

Study Questions

1. Identify the major themes of 2 4. Describe God’s special covenant with

Samuel. How is 2 Samuel different David.
? ; :
Hee 5. How did David's sin with Bathsheba
. Describe the events that led to David's lead to serious consequences in his life
ultimate victory over Saul’s house. and reign?
. Why was the conquest of Jerusalem
such a significant victory for David?

Further Reading

Baldwin, Joyce. 7 and 2 Samuel: An Introduction and Seminary-level history of Israel that combines
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament good scholarship and readability.
Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester: Wood, Leon J. Israel’s United Monarchy. Grand
InterVarsity, 1988. Good college-level commentary. Rapids: Baker, 1979. A thorough survey of the
Merrill, Eugene H. Kingdom of Priests: A History of period of Saul, David, and Solomon. Contains
Old Testament Israel. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987. much spiritual application.

placed David on Israel’s throne. David's his sin had terrible consequences. He saw
heart was right before God, and God made the lives of three of his children ruined,
a special covenant with David. David and later, as he lay dying (1 Kgs 1), two
sinned greatly, but confessed it when he more sons contended for his throne.
realized it and sought to make restitution. David’s story warns us to resist sin or live
Deep down inside, David always wanted to regret it. God’s power can give us vic-
to make things right. tory over temptation (1 Cor 10:13) and help
David received God’s forgiveness, but us live as God desires (Phil 2:13).

220
 First Kings
The Glory of Solomon
and the Beginning of the End
AA TTT

_ ¢ The Author and His Method

oe Retribution Theology
_Regnal Formula and Sources
_Historical Perspective from the Exile
* Contents of 1 Kings Objectives
Outline
After reading this chapter,
Overview
you should be able to
¢ Discuss the question of the authorship
of Kings
e Analyze the methods used by the author
of 1 Kings
e Apply the regnal content to 1 Kings
¢ Outline the content of 1 Kings
¢ List the Kings of the divided kingdom
¢ Trace how the office of prophet
developed

221
Encountering the Historical Books

AKOTA The first Book of Kings continues the re- theology of retribution based on the Sinai
historical
narrative ligious history begun in the Book of covenant, especially as expressed in
Joshua. First Kings tells of Solomon’s great Deuteronomy. Moses’ final discourse in
ANNAN
Deuteronomistic
kingdom and the early history of the di- Deuteronomy listed the blessings and
History vided monarchy. Together with 2 Kings, curses of the covenant (chapter 28). The
this narrative surveys over four centuries author of these books is convinced of the
KLAR
theology of ret- of history, outlining the Israelite monar- truth of this teaching. Obedience to God’s
ribution chy from Solomon to the end. It traces the commands brings blessing while disobe-
ANANTH
failure of the Israelite nation to maintain dience brings failure. For the author(s) of
Canaanite her covenant with God. The Books of Kings, history is the foundation on which
Baalism Kings tell the sad story of Israel’s tragic this theology is proved.
destruction because of her refusal to be The author evaluates each king based
faithful to God. on the monarch’s loyalty to the God of Is-
rael as worshiped in Jerusalem. He wrote
LSE a history of Israel’s monarchy in order to
illustrate the two paths in life between
The Author which all of us must choose. The one pur-
sues God in heart as well as in religious
and His Method forms, and so pleases him. The other fails
Who wrote the Books of Kings? How and to obey God because of a lack of devotion
why did the author write them? We can and is ultimately self-destructive.
only give partial answers to these ques-
tions. Ancient Jewish tradition identifies Regnal Formula and Sources
Jeremiah as the author of 1 and 2 Kings.! This overriding religious motivation an-
The books themselves provide no direct swers the question, “Why did the author
information about the author, and it is bet- write the Books of Kings?” But it also helps
ter to view the books as anonymous (see answer the question, “How did the author
the discussion of the Deuteronomistic His- compose these books?” Each king is dis-
tory in chapter 10). cussed in turn by means of a set intro-
The books contain mostly historical duction and conclusion formula. This for-
narrative. It may be argued that this is the mula contains an evaluation of each king,
earliest genuine historiography in world based on his faithfulness to the covenant
literature. For the first time in human his- and his willingness to walk in the ways of
tory, a nation produced a continuous nar- King David, the ideal Israelite king. Many
rative organizing documents in an orderly of the kings who failed to maintain the
presentation with a single overarching covenant with the Lord were compared to
purpose.? Jeroboam I of Israel, who epitomized re-
However, these books are much more bellion and disregard for God (15:33-34;
than history. The author tied the histori- 16:25-26).
cal narratives together with grand reli- The author’s primary concern is cov-
gious convictions. He presented Israel’s enant faithfulness and loyalty to God, not
past from a prophetic and theological political prowess. This means he gives lit-
point of view. The author rehearsed the tle attention to the important political
list of Israel’s kings carefully and system- achievements of Omri, Jeroboam II, and
atically, with the goal of critiquing each Uzziah. On the other hand, he is intensely
one’s faithfulness to God’s covenant. The interested in the religious apostasy of Jer-
books trace the consequences of sin as op- oboam I, Ahab, Ahaz, and Manasseh and
posed to the benefits of obedience. This in the religious reforms of Jehu, Hezekiah,
leads us to consider further the questions and Josiah. The author has little to say
of why and how the author wrote these about Omiri’s important reign in Israel. He
books. devotes long narratives to Omri’s son
Ahab, who was less significant politically.
Retribution Theology But the ideological conflict between the
As with the other books of the Deuteron- Hebrew faith and Canaanite Baalism took
omistic History (see chapter 10), the over- place during Ahab’s reign (16:29-33).
riding concern in the Books of Kings is the After the death of Solomon in chapter
222
 First Kings

Example of the
Regnal Formula
for 1 and 2 Kings

1. Introductory sentences
a) Synchronistic statement
“In the eighteenth year of
the reign of Jeroboam son of
Nebat, Abijah became king
of Judah.” (1 Kgs 15:1)

b) Age and/or length of reign

“He [Abijah] reigned in
Jerusalem three years.”
(1 Kgs 15:2a)
c) Matriarchal reference

“His mother’s name was

Maacah daughter of
Abishalom.” (1 Kgs 15:2b)
vy Evaluation sentence
“He committed all the sins his
father had done before him; his
heart was not fully devoted to
the Lorp his God, as the heart
of David his forefather had
been.” (1 Kgs 15:3).

i) Chronicles reference

“As for the other events of

Steps at the 11, the author presents the rulers of Israel Abijah’s reign, and all he did,
north gate,
and Judah in review. He dates each king are they not written in the
Megiddo.
Archaeologists by synchronizing that king’s accession book of the annals of the kings
have excavated year with the reign of the monarch in the of Judah?” (1 Kgs 15:7)
walls and other kingdom. The author alternates
gateways at
Megiddo, Hazor, kings of Israel and Judah, though not nec- > Death, burial,
and Gezer essarily in chronological order, resulting and successor accounts
dating from the ina few unusual historical sequences. For
time of “And Abijah rested with his
example, he discusses Baasha’s border
Solomon.
wars with Asa before formally introduc- fathers and was buried in the
ing Baasha (15:16-33). City of David. And Asa his son
The author used three primary sources. succeeded him as king.”
The “book of the annals of Solomon” (1 Kgs 15:8) Aa
ZZ=ZZZ
i
(11:41) appears to have contained royal
annals typical of other kingdoms of the Fe tenet
ancient Near East. The “book of the an-
LALA TAAL in the royal archives. By comparison with
royal annals nals of the kings of Israel” (14:19; 15:31,
etc.) and the “book of the annals of the numerous such documents found in royal
ANNONA RENAN or temple archives of ancient Near East-
archives kings of Judah” (14:29; 15:7, etc.) presum-
ably listed each king’s political activities ern nations, these would have included
and were official state records preserved king lists, annals and chronicles, royal in-

223
Encountering the Historical Books

AAA scriptions, historical epics, and _bio-

historical epics
graphical data.4
Comparison with other ancient Near
Contents of 1 Kings
The narrative running through 1 and
Eastern royal archives shows that the au-
2 Kings has three parts. The first unit cov-
thor of Kings used contemporary sources
similar to those royal inscriptions, espe- ers King Solomon (1 Kings 1-11). These
cially the neighboring ARAMEAN STATES in chapters describe his dramatic rise to
Syria.° The author of Kings appears to power (chapters 1-2), his great accom-
have had before him official royal docu- plishments (chapters 3-10), and his tragic
ments from the archives of ancient Israel end (chapter 11). The second unit treats
and Judah. The fact that these original the history of the divided kingdom, and
Hebrew royal inscriptions have not yet reveals the relationship of Israel and Judah
been discovered is an accident of mod- to each other (1 Kgs 12-2 Kgs 17). Some-
ern archaeology. times the relationship was peaceful, some-
times it was not. The third and final unit
Historical Perspective (2 Kgs 18-25) narrates the final years of
from the Exile the kingdom of Judah in the south after
the northern kingdom fell to the Assyri-
The author of these books witnessed the ans in 722.
fall of the southern kingdom and the fail-
ure of the Israelite nation to maintain its Outline
unique relationship to God. The Books of
Kings were completed after 561 B.c., since I. The United Kingdom under
this is the date of the last recorded event Solomon (1:1-11:43)
(2 Kgs 25:27-30). The author makes no ref- A. Beginning of Solomon’s
erence to CYRUS THE PERSIAN and his lib- Reign (1:1-2:46)
erating edict of 539, which officially B. Glory of Solomon’s Reign
brought the exile to an end (2 Chr
(3:1-10:29)
36:22-23). We assume the work was com- C. Tragic End of Solomon’s
pleted sometime during these last twenty- Reign (11:1-43)
two years of the Babylonian exile.
From his perspective in the exile, the II. The Divided Kingdom
author was able to review the kings of (12:1-22:53)
both Israel and Judah. From the point of A. Enmity between Israel and
view of human history, it was a period of Judah (12:1-16:28)
world empires. After Solomon’s impres- B. Peace and Friendship
sive kingdom, the Assyrians and Babylo- between Israel and Judah
nians imposed their might on the ancient (16:29-22:53)
world. Israel increased and became strong
again only when these greater Mesopo- Overview
tamian powers were in temporary peri-
ods of decline. The glory of Solomon (chapters 1-11)
This is one possible explanation. Those These chapters describe the height of Is-
same events were interpreted by the au- rael’s political and military power. Only
thor of Kings during the exile from a dif- during Solomon’s reign did Israel become
ferent perspective, a God-given perspec- a major player in the arena of interna-
tive. He looked back over the history of tional power politics. But Israel's brief
the Israelite monarchy and explained the period of strength and prestige was ru-
events theologically. The world empires ined by Solomon’s religious apostasy.
had been instruments in God’s hands to Solomon’s unfaithfulness to the covenant
punish his people. The Assyrians and erased all the great accomplishments of
Babylonians were able to do only what his reign. Shortly after his death, Israel's
they were permitted to in God’s timing, period of glory was over. Though it was
and indeed, at his bidding. The author the nation’s greatest moment politically,
traced the political and military failures it was remembered in the Bible as one of
of the Israelite kings to a lack of covenant its most tragic. This is a story of missed
loyalty. opportunities.

224
 First Kings

The Dome of the

Rock is built
over the site
where Solomon
erected the
temple. One of
the grand
moments of
Israel's history
was the
dedication of
Solomon's
temple.

Solomon was neither the crown prince Solomon was at GIBEON (chapter 3). God
nor David's oldest living son. He had no promised to grant Solomon whatever he
legitimate claim to be David's successor. requested (v. 5). Rather than asking for
So the narrative begins by relating how riches, long life, or victory over his ene-
Solomon became king (chapters 1-2). mies, Solomon asked for wisdom. God
Adonijah, David's fourth and oldest liv- was so pleased with this request that he
ing son, was in line to succeed his father granted riches, long life, and victory in ad-
on the throne. But like Amnon and Absa- dition to wisdom (vv. 12-13). All of these
lom, other sons of David who were ap- blessings, however, were conditioned on
parent heirs to the throne, Adonijah was continued obedience (v. 14). This last re-
unwilling to wait for God’s timing. He at- minder was an ominous warning.
tempted to take the kingdom in his own As soon as Solomon returned to Jeru-
strength and against God’s will. salem, two prostitutes in legal dispute pre-
The next unit of 1 Kings describes the sented him with an opportunity to demon-
magnificent reign of King Solomon (chap- strate his wisdom (vv. 16-28). The women
ters 3-11). With the exception of chapter lived in the same house and each had new-
11, this unit recounts the glorious side of born sons, three days apart in age. During
Solomon’s kingdom. The unit is marked the night, one baby tragically died. The
by his great building activities and two mother of the dead baby switched the ba-
appearances of God to Solomon. The early bies before the other woman woke. Now
stages of his reign were marked by love they both claimed the living child was
and obedience: “Solomon showed his love theirs, and there was no one to refute these
for the Lorp by walking according to the claims. In a famous decision, Solomon
statutes of his father David, except that he gave the order to cut the living baby in
offered sacrifices and burned incense on two and give half to each woman. While
the high places” (3:3). This single flaw the real mother pleaded to let the child
could be rectified when he built the new live, the lying woman said to let the child
temple in Jerusalem. die. Then Solomon proclaimed that the
The Bible states clearly why Solomon’s child should not be killed, but given to the
reign was so glorious. Israel flourished real mother, now known clearly by her
during his kingdom, not because of desperate plea. News of the verdict and
Solomon’s ingenuity or gifts, but because Solomon’s God-given wisdom quickly
of his God-given wisdom. The first ap- confirmed that Solomon was indeed God’s
pearance of God (or theophany) to chosen king for Israel (v. 28).

225
Encountering the Historical Books

Plan of Solomon's Temple

10 cubits
<———_Jachin

Ark of the
covenant
Altar of incense

oe
Vestibule
Bronze altar

20 x 20 cubits
20 cubits

Sea of cast bronze

Inner Sanctuary,
Sanctuary, The Holy Place
The Most Holy Place

Solomon’s administrative skills reflected emony, the glory of the Lord filled the new
his great wisdom (chapter 4). The organi- temple. God honored Solomon’s obedi-
zation of his cabinet (vv. 1-6), his regional ence by bestowing his holy presence
districts (vv. 7-19), and the extent of his (8:10-11), just as he honored Moses’ faith-
royal rations (vv. 20-28) illustrate the fulness when Moses constructed the taber-
splendor of his kingdom. This was one of nacle (Ex 40:34). In one of the great prayers
the few times in Israel’s history when all of the Bible, Solomon represented the na-
the territory promised to Abraham in the tion in his praise of God (8:23-24) and en-
patriarchal covenant was actually under treated God to fulfill his promises to David
her control (v. 21; and see Gn 15:18). The (vv. 25-26).
combination of peace and plenty provided Ina second theophany similar to the one
by Solomon for each Israelite (v. 25) be- at Gibeon, God appeared to Solomon and
came a symbol of the messianic age (Zec assured him he had answered the king’s
3:10). Solomon’s wisdom was unsur- prayer (9:2). He consecrated (“made holy,”
passed (4:29-34), Just as the law came from higdas) Solomon’s temple and placed his
Moses and the psalms from David, wis- name there forever (9:3). But God’s promises
dom was Solomon’s contribution to Is- did not guarantee the success of a rebellious
raelite religion. Israel (“If you walk before me in integrity
Solomon’s extensive building activities of heart . . . I will establish your royal
also demonstrated his God-given wisdom throne,” 9:4-5). His sovereign promises
(5:1-8:66). His diplomacy with Hiram king never abrogate human accountability.
of Tyre (chapter 5) provided the necessary The spectacular accomplishments of
artisans and material for the ambitious Solomon drew international attention. The
building plans. The prosperity and peace queen of Sheba’s visit was apparently a
of Solomon’s kingdom made possible the trade mission (10:10, 13). But the account
construction of the temple of the Lord, the in chapter 10 also demonstrates Solomon’s
royal palace, and the temple furnishings wisdom and wealth as they were viewed
(chapters 6-7). Though the biblical text by surrounding nations. God’s promises
gives many of the temple’s specifications to Solomon while he was at Gibeon (3:13)
and dimensions, it is impossible for mod- had been fulfilled (10:23). But the Bible is
ern reconstructions to represent its exact clear that material blessings, even spiri-
appearance.° tual blessings, are no guarantee of God’s
One of the grand moments of Israel's abiding favor. God requires covenant faith-
history was the dedication of Solomon’s fulness of all his children. Chapter 11 con-
temple (chapter 8). During the moving cer- cludes the narrative on Solomon by relat-
226
 First Kings

An artist's ing his personal moral failure. Though fected his faith. He slowly and gradually
impression of
Solomon's
God gave him every reason to succeed and drifted from an exclusive monotheism
temple, with the blessed him with every imaginable bless- and began incorporating the worship of
great golden ing, Solomon’s personal sin eventually led other gods (11:4). Religious compromise
laver in the
foreground.
to the division of his great empire into two is almost never swift and obvious, but
weaker kingdoms. happens gradually as one drifts slowly
Early in Solomon’s reign, he entered a away from God.
political alliance with Egypt, which in- Solomon’s personal moral failure re-
volved a royal wedding to the daughter sulted in national tragedy. God would not
of Pharaoh (3:1). This hinted at future permit the kingdom to remain a unified
trouble. Large royal harems were not un- whole after Solomon’s death, but would
common in those days. Solomon’s nu- give only a small portion to Solomon’s son
merous political marriages seemed an in- (11:9-13). Because Solomon failed to main-
nocent way to strengthen foreign tain the covenant, God raised up adver-
alliances (11:3). But God had specifically saries to afflict him in the south (Hadad
forbidden such intermarriages (11:2; Dt the Edomite, vv. 14-22), the north (Rezon
7:4; 17:17). Now, in Solomon's old age, of Damascus, vv. 23-25) and internally
ATTN
the religious apostasy his foreign wives (Jeroboam the Ephraimite, vv. 26-40).
monotheism brought into the royal court adversely af- Early in his reign, Solomon had been free

227
Encountering
the Historical Books

ALARA of military threat. Now he had trouble ilously close to blatant idolatry as prac-
regnal formula
within and without. ticed by the surrounding nations.
HATTA Chapter 11 is a pivotal point in the Books The author describes two prophets sent
Yahwism from God to renounce Jeroboam’s reli-
of Kings. All had gone well for Solomon,
who seemed to have fulfilled the promises gious apostasy. The first is an unnamed
to the patriarchs and accomplished all that “man of God” from Judah sent by the Lord
God wanted for his people. But from this to condemn Jeroboam (13:1).’ The king’s
point on, the narrative of 1 and 2 Kings is new religious practices in the north were
a tragic tale of destruction and loss. The nothing short of rejection of the Lord’s
tragedy of Solomons life is that he failed word (13:4-10). The second prophetic pro-
to remain faithful to God in spite of God’s nouncement was made by a prophet
obvious provisions for his kingdom. In- named Ahijah (14:1-18). The prophet an-
stead of Solomon, David is the Bible’s ideal nounced that Jeroboam had done more
king of Israel, though he never attained evil than all who preceded him and that
the political heights reached by his son. he had rejected God himself (v. 9). Future
God's word is more interested in faithful- generations would measure evil by com-
ness to the covenant than in international parison with Jeroboam’s great sin. Ahijah
prestige. predicted that Jeroboam’s dynasty would
be short-lived, among many other horri-
Divided kingdom begun ble consequences of the king’s sin (vv.
(chapters 12-22) 10-11).
The second main unit of 1 Kings contin- In the next unit, the author summarizes
ues through 2 Kings 17:41. This section the histories of individual reigns of Israel
begins by narrating the division of and Judah (14:21-16:28). In the evaluation
Solomon’s empire into two smaller king- of Rehoboam’s reign, the author’s concern
doms, Israel in the north and Judah in the is that Judah’s sins have become more
south. At first there were hostile relations widespread than at the time of Solomon
between the two (1 Kgs 12:1-16:28). This (14:22-24). As in Genesis 3-11, the author
was followed by a period of peace be- is aware that unchecked sin pervades and
tween the two nations (1 Kgs 16:29-2 Kgs decays like a disease.
8:29). Renewed hostilities dominated the The consistent theme of this unit is the
relationship prior to the fall of the north- enmity and war between Israel and Judah
ern kingdom (2 Kgs 9-17). during this time. Abijah of Judah and Jer-
The author concluded the account of oboam of Israel continued in warfare
Solomon’s life and reign with the regnal (15:7), as did Asa of Judah and Baasha of
formula (1 Kgs 11:41-43). Beginning with Israel (15:16). Asa and Baasha were in-
this unit, the author considered each ruler volved in a border dispute involving dis-
of the divided kingdom, using the regnal tricts in Benjamin (15:17-22). Under
formula as a structuring device. Baasha, Israel pressed south and claimed
The early divided kingdom is a story of Ramah, which was only five miles north
conflict between Jeroboam in the north of Jerusalem. Baasha fortified Ramah be-
and Rehoboam in the south (chapters cause of its strategic location on a main
12-14). The narrative relates the political north-south highway. From this vantage
intrigue and treachery involved (chapter point, Baasha could safeguard the new
12). But, as we have seen, the author is border and prohibit northern Israelites
more interested in tracing the conse- from worshiping in Jerusalem.
quences of religious unfaithfulness and Asa responded by enticing Ben-Hadad,
the role of the prophets. In Jeroboam’s at- king of Damascus, to invade Israel from
tempt to consolidate his new northern the northeast, which would relieve mili-
kingdom, he introduced religious inno- tary pressure on Jerusalem in the south.
vations that threatened the nature of gen- When Baasha withdrew to plan his de-
uine Yahwism (12:25-33). His golden fense against Ben-Hadad, Asa tore down
calves at Bethel and Dan may have been the Israelite fortifications in Ramah and
perceived as pedestals upon which the in- used the materials to fortify Geba and Miz-
visible Yahweh rode in victory. But this pah closer to the northern border of Ben-
was still forbidden by God and came per- jamin. There were no significant changes
228
Encountering the Historical Books

AANA
Mesha
Inscription
Kings of the Divided Monarchy’
AZZ

i Israel Judah

} Jeroboam | 930-909 Rehoboam 930-913 '

| Nadab 909-908 Abijah 913-910 i
| Baasha 908-886 Asa 910-869 a
| Elah 886-885
i Zimri 885
| Omri 885-874
| Ahab 874-853 Jehoshaphat 872-848
Ahaziah 853-852
(Joram 852-841 Jehoram 848-841
/ Jehu 841-814 Ahaziah 841
Athaliah 841-835
: Jehoahaz 814-798 Joash 835-796
: Jehoash 798-782 Amaziah 796-767
| Jeroboam Il 793-753 Uzziah 792-740
| Zechariah 753
| Shallum 752
_ Menahem 752-742 Jotham 750-732
Pekahiah 742-740
Pekah 752-732 Ahaz 735-715
Hoshea 732-722 Hezekiah 729-686
Manasseh 696-642
Amon 642-640
Josiah 640-60
Jehoahaz 609
Jehoiakim 608-598
Jehoiachin 598-597
Zedekiah 597-587
\ 1Edwin R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings: A Reconstruction of the Chronology of the
| Kingdoms ofIsrael and Judah, rev ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965), and Eugene H. Merrill, Kingdom of
\ Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987), 320. Dates in other sources will vary
widely depending on the chronological system used in those sources. For convenient summary of this complex
issue, see Donald J. Wiseman, 1 and2 Kings: An Introduction and Commentary, (Tyndale Old Testament
Commentary; Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 26-35.

Fe
a TTT EEE Eo

in this border until the northern kingdom capital to Samaria may have been to co-
fell in 722 B.c. erce his subjects to worship other deities
This unit on the histories of individual in addition to Yahweh.® This religious
rulers culminates in the brief treatment of apostasy was of more concern to the au-
Omri (16:21-28). Omri of Israel (885-874 thor of 1 Kings than his significant politi-
B.C.) forged such an impressive kingdom cal accomplishments. Omri’s alliance with
that Assyrian documents from a century the king of Sidon resulted in the marriage
later still referred to northern Israel as “the of Omri’s son Ahab to the princess of
house of Omri” (bit humri). He extended Sidon, Jezebel. This marriage was not un-
Israel's borders eastward into Moabite ter- like Solomon’s many marriages, both in
ritory, as the famous Mesha Inscription its motivation as a political move and in
testifies. its spiritual consequences.
Though Omri was a significant politi- The final unit of 1 Kings describes a pe-
cal force, this terse paragraph mentions riod of peace and friendship between Is-
only his unusual rise to power, his acqui- rael and Judah (16:29-22:53). This unit
sition of Samaria as a new capital city, and demonstrates further that the author is less
his unprecedented evil. His move of the concerned with political prowess (such as
230
 First Kings

the office of prophecy began to emerge

The Conflict based on the ministries of Elijah and El-
isha. Prophets became God’s instruments
ISRAEL
between of warning to the king and the nation.
Doom was imminent because of their sin.
Asa and The author included narratives on Elijah’s
ministry (chapters 17-19, 21 and 2 Kgs 1)
Baasha interwoven with the account of Ahab’s
wars with Damascus.
Elijah appears on the scene with no in-
troduction (17:1). He reminded Ahab that
Yahweh, not Baal, is God of Israel. His an-
nouncement that dew and rain would
cease was a direct challenge to Baal, the
Canaanite god of storm and rain—a chal-
lenge issued by Yahweh, the God of the
desert!
At the end of a drought lasting three
years and six months (18:1; Lk 4:25), Eli-
jah issued a challenge to the hundreds of
Baal prophets and the nation (18:19). They
would all meet at Mount Carmel and de-
termine once and for all who is the God
of heaven. Mount Carmel was believed to
be sacred to Baal, so Elijah challenged Baal
@ Gibeah
on his own turf.’ Because of the severe
drought, Elijah was in control and able to
force Ahab and the nation to make a
es Judah's army JUDAH choice. He soundly condemned their dou-
oe |srael’s army
ble-minded religion: “How long will you
== ==e= Border after Baasha’s death
waver between two opinions? If the Lorp
is God, follow him; but if Baal is God, fol-
Scale
low him” (18:21). Devotion to God requires
single-hearted commitment to his truth.
Any compromise is wavering “between
@ Jerusalem two opinions.”
The pagan prophets used all their mag-
ical arts to entice Baal to rain down fire
from heaven, all to no avail. Then Elijah
LAAT Omri) than with covenant breaking. The prayed a simple prayer, and the fire of the
office author interrupted the regnal formula Lord fell (18:36-38). The Lord won a great
of prophecy
used to introduce and conclude the reign battle through Elijah that day, but the war
of Ahab (16:29-34 and 22:39-40). Using was far from over. Queen Jezebel threat-
the formula as a sort of literary envelope, ened Elijah’s life (19:2). After the jubilant
the author incorporated events having to victory at Mount Carmel, Elijah was not
do with the crucial struggle between gen- prepared physically or emotionally to con-
uine Yahwism and Canaanite Baalism. It tinue the conflict. It was easier to run away
was one thing for Jeroboam to make idols and ask God to use some other servant to
for the worship of Yahweh. But Omri and continue the battle against Baalism (19:3-4).
Ahab tried to forge a new religion that Self-doubt, depression, even suicidal
struck at the very heart of Hebrew faith thoughts are possible after mountaintop
(16:31-33). The struggle described in these experiences. But God gave Elijah just what
chapters was over the future of Israel. Her he needed: rest and food (19:5-8) and a
very existence was threatened by religious fresh vision of God’s divine majesty tai-
compromise. lored especially for Elijah’s emotional
Out of this great ideological struggle, stress (19:9-18). It is not outside of God’s

234
Encountering the Historical Books

: ~ Excerpts from the Mesha Inscription!

In the mid-ninth century 8.c., Mesha, king of many years, because Chemosh was angry at his _
Moab, commemorated the accomplishments land. And his son followed him and he also
of his reign in a document containing thirty said, “I willsubdue Moab.” Buti have =
lines of text. The text was written in the triumphed over him and over his house, while
Moabite language on a basalt block three feet _—_/srae/ has perished forever! Omri occupied —
high and two feet wide. Medeba in Moab and dwelled there in his tir
and half the time of his son, forty years; but
| am Mesha, king of Moab. The god Chemosh dwelt there in my time.
Chemosh saved me from all the kings and
1Extracted and adapted from the MeshaIns
caused me to triumph over all my adversaries. é 1 Al
As for Omri, king of Israel, he subdued Moab

Israelite remains
at Samaria, the
city chosen by
Omri as his
capital for
strategic
reasons. Ahab
too had his
palace here.

character to appear in a strong wind, earth- Though there was a measure of success,
quake, or fire (19:11-12). But on this day, Ahab failed to embrace the prophetic word
Yahweh appeared to Elijah in “a gentle of the Lord (20:42-43). These episodes pre-
whisper.” After his retreat alone with God, pare for Ahab’s death recorded in the final
Elijah was ready to return to the battle and chapter of the book.
anoint his successor, Elisha. God is quick The famous episode of Naboth’s vine-
to pursue his servants lovingly through yard (chapter 21) illustrates the extent of
whatever means necessary. Ahab’s sin and seals his fate. Naboth was
The two battles between Ahab and Ben- a citizen whose property was adjacent to
Hadad II of Damascus (son of the Ben- the royal palace in Samaria. The king
Hadad of 15:18) provided Ahab with a wanted to annex Naboth’s vineyard to the
final opportunity to heed the words of Yah- royal holdings, but ancient Israelite law
weh through the prophet (20:1-43). prohibited the sale of one’s inheritance.
232
 First Kings

Summary

. In the Books of Kings, we find the ear- plishments of Solomon are overshad-
liest genuine historiography in world owed by his unfaithfulness to the
literature. covenant.
. The theology of retribution is the . When God first appeared to Solomon,
main topic of the Book of 1 Kings. Solomon requested wisdom, and that
. The method used to write the Book of pleased God because Solomon did not
1 Kings is regnal formula, in which request riches or a long life or victory
every king is evaluated in terms of his over enemies.
faithfulness to the covenant and his . Solomon's great wisdom is illustrative
willingness to follow the example of of how he solved legal disputes, how
King David. he administered the nation, and how
. The sources used by the author to his building program was conducted.
write 1 Kings are all annals from the . Through the influence of his foreign
royal archives—annals of the kings wives, Solomon compromised and
of Israel, annals of the kings of Judah, added the worship of other gods to
and annals of Solomon. monotheism.
. The major topics used to organize . Solomon's empire was divided into
Kings are: the history of King two smaller kingdoms—lsrael in the
Solomon, the history of the divided north and Judah in the south.
kingdom, and the history of the final . Prophets were introduced in 1 Kings
years of Judah. when Elijah became God's spokesman
. The great political and military accom- to warn the nations.

Study Questions

1. How much time is covered by . From a biblical standpoint, why is

1-2 Kings? the reign of Solomon seen as a tragic
2. What is the overall theme of
event?
this work? . What important biblical office began
3. Discuss the authorship of Kings. to emerge during the time of 1 Kings?

4. What is the overarching concern . Contrast and compare the office of

of this historical work? the professional prophets with those
of the true prophets. How do these
5. Define retribution theology. forms of prophecy relate to 1 Kings?
6. What is the regnal formula?
7. From what historical perspective
does the author of Kings write?
Encountering the Historical Books

in other countries. She took matters into

her own hands. Through treachery, deceit,
Key Terms and the murder of Naboth, she acquired
the vineyard for Ahab. But once again, the
Deuteronomistic History
prophet Elijah was there to announce judg-
historical narrative
ment (vv. 17-24). Ahab had “sold himself
theology of retribution
to do evil in the eyes of the Lorp” (v. 25;
Key Person/ regnal formula
and see v. 20). As a result, Elijah pro-
Places Canaanite Baalism
claimed that Ahab and Jezebel would die
royal annals
archives
violent deaths and that Ahab’s dynasty
Aramean states
chronicles
would be completely destroyed.
Cyrus the Persian
historical epics
But even an Ahab can repent! His gen-
Gibeon
theophany
uine remorse postponed the fulfillment of
monotheism
Elijah’s prophecy until the days of his
Yahwism
wicked son Joram (2 Kgs 9:22-26, 30-37).
Mesha Inscription
Chapter 22 relates Ahab’s final battle
with Damascus, a battle in which Ahab
office of prophecy
lost his life. Jehoshaphat of Judah was
paying Ahab a visit, illustrating the con-
genial relationship between Israel and
Judah at this time (vv. 2-4). In prepara-
tion for battle, Ahab and Jehoshaphat con-
sulted the professional prophets to dis-
The idea seemed appalling to Naboth cern the outcome.
(v.3). Ahab had enough respect for the law The point of the narrative is the contrast
to know he was unable to reverse Naboth’s between the professional prophets and
decision (v. 4). Micaiah, son of Imlah. For Ahab, prophecy
Jezebel, being the daughter of the king was a form of magic in which the prophet
of Sidon, assumed the Israelite king should manipulated God. The professional
be above the law, an absolute monarch as prophets merely repeated the king’s de-

Further Reading

DeVries, Simon J. 7 Kings. Word Biblical Commentary Walton, John H. Ancient Israelite Literature in Its
12. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1985. Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels between
Gray, John. | & Ii Kings:A Commentary. 2nd ed. Old Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Chapter 5:
Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, “Historical Literature,” 111-34. Grand Rapids:
1970. Useful, though technical and difficult Zondervan, 1989.
reading. Wiseman, Donald J. 7 and2 Kings: An Introduction
Howard, David M., Jr. An Introduction to the Old and Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament
Testament Historical Books. Chapter 6: "1 & 2 Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester:
Kings,” 169-204, and chapter 7: “Historical and InterVarsity, 1993. Best evangelical commentary
Cultural Context for 1 & 2 Kings,” 205-29. available.
Chicago: Moody, 1993.
Long, Burke O. 7 Kings: With an Introduction to
Historical Literature. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1984.
Long, V. Philips. The Art of Biblical History. Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 1994. Important theological
discussion of all the issues.

234
 First Kings

sire in the form of prophecy in an attempt gardless of the king’s desires (v. 8). Ahab’s
to ensure the desired outcome. But for Je- death vindicated Micaiah, the true prophet
hoshaphat, the prophet was a mouthpiece of the Lord, and proved the professional
for God. The word of the prophet made prophets wrong.
the will of God known to humans, re-

235
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 Second Kings
The End of National Israel
CO TET
EEE

_ Outline
* Contents of 2 Kings
Outline
Overview
¢ Themes of the Books of Kings

Objectives
After reading this chapter,
you should be able to
¢ Outline the basic content
of the Book of 2 Kings
¢ Compare the ministry
of Elisha with that of Elijah
e Relate at least ten episodes of Elisha’s life
e Present the author's purpose
for writing 2 Kings
¢ List the key figures in Judah and Israel
¢ State the cause for the fall of Israel
¢ Differentiate between the good
and bad kings of Judah
¢ Demonstrate how prophecy
was fulfilled in 2 Kings

237
Encountering the Historical Books

Second Kings describes the miserable end Overview

of the nations Israel and Judah. After the The book chronicles the history of first a
death of Solomon, 1 Kings describes the divided Israel and Judah, and then a soli-
slow unraveling of the many wonderful tary Judah. The first 17 chapters are given
accomplishments of the united monarchy to the more than 100 years from Ahaziah
reported earlier in that book. Second Kings to the destruction of Israel in 722 B.c.
continues the story of gradual decay, with (chapters 1-17). Then, eight chapters
only brief interludes of hope, until both (18-25) cover the 136 years of Judah’s sole
nations have finally tasted the conse- existence.
quences of rebellion against their covenant As with 1 Kings, the accounts do not at-
God. tempt to give a comprehensive record of
all events during the years covered. Rather,
OEE
EE ES
they provide a theological analysis of those
particular persons or events that had an
Contents of 2 Kings effect on the eventual outcome of the na-
Second Kings picks up the narrative at tions. The basis for that analysis is obedi-
Ahab’s death and carries it through the
ence or disobedience to God’s law
(17:13-23; 21:10-16), especially as seen in
destruction of Jerusalem and slightly be-
Deuteronomy.
yond. This covers a period of nearly three
hundred years. At the beginning of the Divided kingdom continued
book, both Israel and Judah are relatively (chapters 1-17)
secure. When it concludes, both have In the first main unit (1:1-17:41), the au-
been subjected to divine discipline. thor gives an account of the uneasy coex-
Through it all runs the thread of grow- istence of Israel and Judah. This unit be-
ing religious apostasy, first in Israel and gins in 1 Kings 12:1 and continues until
then in Judah. The author goes to great the fall of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs
lengths to show how this apostasy led di- 17:41).
rectly to destruction. Ahaziah was guilty of continuing both
the Canaanite fertility religion of Ahab and
Outline the idolatrous calf worship of Jeroboam I
(1 Kgs 22:52). His reign was cut short by
II. The Divided Kingdom—contin- an injury received in a fall (2 Kgs 1). Fear-
ued from 1 Kings (1:1-17:41) ful that the injury might be fatal, he sent
A. Peace and Friendship messengers to PHILISTIA to ask BAAL-ZEBUB
between Israel and Judah—
about his health. This deity was a form of
continued from 1 Kings
Baal worshiped by the Philistines at Ekron.
The messenger of God intercepted the
(1:1-9:37) messengers of the king. Elijah asked, “Is
B. Enmity between Israel and
it because there is no God in Israel that
Judah (10:1-17:41) you are going off to consult Baal-Zebub,
II. The Kingdom of Judah Alone the god of Ekron?” (1:3). Elijah’s message
(18:1-25:30) warned the king that the God of the uni-
verse, the only true God, was also the God
. Hezekiah’s Reign (18:1-20:21)
of Ahaziah.
Manasseh’s Reign (21:1-18)
When Ahaziah attempted to capture Eli-
. Amon’s Reign (21:19-26)
jah, God’s intervention killed one hundred
. Josiah’s Reign (22:1-23:30) men and two captains. Some may ques-
Jehoahaz’s Reign (23:31-35) tion the morality of this event, but it was
QosJehoiakim’s Reign
ad)
sal wrong for Ahaziah to attempt to control
(23:36-24:7) God’s prophet. Today’s readers should not
. Jehoiachin’s Reign (24:8-17) impose arbitrary modern standards on this
oo. Zedekiah’s Reign episode, which illustrates that rebellion
(24:18-25:26) against God results in judgment.' Once
— Jehoiachin’s Release Elijah was assured of his safety, he went
(25:27-30) to Ahaziah and announced that, in fact,

238
 Second Kings

A stretch of the
Jordan River
near Galilee.
Elijah parted the
waters of the
Jordan (2:8) as
Moses had
parted the sea.

the injury would be fatal, according to the his predecessor’s cloak to divide the Jor-
word of Yahweh. Ahaziah had rejected the dan River in the same way Elijah had
only One who could restore him to health. done. Elisha had become Elijah’s Joshua,
Chapter 2 is a transitional passage. It continuing the work begun by the second
closes the narrative on Elijah, and opens Moses (2:13-14).
the author’s presentation of the Elisha ma- As 1 Kings ended with the ministry of
terials. Elijah is one of two Old Testament Elijah, 2 Kings contains an early unit de-
characters (see also Enoch, Gn 5:22-24) voted to the ministry of his successor, El-
who ascended into heaven without expe- isha. Chapters 2-8 contain groups of sto-
riencing physical death. For this reason, ries dealing with the prophet Elisha
they were viewed as especially dear to interwoven with the events of Jehoram,
God. This is also an Old Testament fore- son of Ahab, king of Israel. Earlier, Elijah’s
shadowing of the idea that being out of ministry dealt chiefly with the king and
the body is to be with the Lord (Phil
had major political and national overtones.
1:21-24).
While Elisha’s ministry also had a national
This passage portrays Elijah as a second
scale, the events of these narratives cover
Moses. When Elijah parted the waters of
a wider area of topics, affecting nation, re-
the Jordan River (2:8) as Moses had parted
the sea, he initiated a new stage in Israel’s ligious groups, and individuals alike.
history. Elijah marks the beginning of a Episodes from the life of Elisha include
new role for prophets in ancient Israel. The the following:
cloak he used to strike the water repre-
sented his power and personality. ¢ Elisha receives a call, 1 Kings 19:19-21
Before Elijah’s ascension into heaven, ¢ Elisha succeeds Elijah, 2 Kings 2:1-18
he granted his assistant Elisha one request e Elisha heals the water, 2 Kings 2:19-22
(2:9). Elisha’s desire for a “double portion” ¢ Elisha judges his mockers, 2 Kings
of Elijah’s spirit refers to Old Testament 2:23-25
inheritance laws in which the firstborn son e Elisha prophesies concerning Moab,
received two shares of the estate (Dt 21:17). 2 Kings 3:1-27
Elisha was asking to become Elijah’s suc- e Elisha performs a miracle for a poor
cessor. After Elijah was gone, Elisha used widow, 2 Kings 4:1-7

239
Encountering the Historical Books

ATLANTA ¢ Elisha performs a miracle for the Shu- Failure and destruction resulted when the
city-states
nammite woman, 2 Kings 4:8-37 kings rejected the word of God offered
e Elisha ministers at Gilgal, 2 Kings through the prophets. These narratives
4:38—-44 about Elijah and Elisha relate many vic-
¢ Elisha heals Naaman, 2 Kings 5:1—-27 tories for the prophets of Yahweh. But the
e Elisha makes an axhead float, 2 Kings tide of religious apostasy was not easily
61-7 stemmed. Sadly, the book continues the
e Elisha plagues the Syrian army, tale of ruin for both kingdoms.
2 Kings 6:8-23 Jehu’s bloody purge of the royal house
e Elisha delivers the nation, 2 Kings of Omri was the judgment of God against
6:24-7:20 Canaanite Baalism (chapters 9-10). Elisha
e Elisha preserves the Shunammite commissioned an unnamed prophet to
woman’s family, 2 Kings 8:1-6 anoint Jehu, commander of the Israelite
e Elisha deals with affairs of state, army, to destroy Ahab’s house and to
2 Kings 8:7-15; 9:1-13; 13:14-19 avenge the blood of Yahweh’s prophets
e Elisha dies and a postmortem miracle killed by Jezebel. Jehu successfully termi-
occurs, 2 Kings 13:20-21 nated Ahab’s dynasty (prophesied by Eli-
jah, 1 Kgs 21:21), but he was unable to re-
Elisha’s ministry was instrumental in cover militarily. Hazael of Syria captured
the destruction of the dynasty of Omri, the much of his territory (10:32-33). Shal-
father of Ahab, in Israel (9:1-10:28) and of maneser III of Assyria compelled him to
Queen Athaliah, Ahab’s daughter, in pay tribute, and ironically called him
Judah (11:1-20). The events relating to El- “Jehu, son of Omri.”?
isha receive a disproportionate amount of King Jehoram of Judah had married
attention (about two-fifths of the whole Athaliah, daughter of Ahab of Israel, as a
book), especially since Elisha is not a king seal of the political alliance between north
ina book devoted to the history of Israelite and south (2 Kgs 8:18). Jehoram’s son,
kings. The amount of Elisha materials is Ahaziah, had been swayed by the religious
due to the author’s purpose. He wanted policies of Ahab’s dynasty, probably be-
to write not a survey of the events, but an cause of the influence of his evil mother
explanation for the destruction of both (8:26-27; cf. 2 Chr 22:3-5). As part of his
kingdoms. In the Books of Kings, the great- purge of the house of Ahab in the north,
est single cause for the failure of Israel was Jehu also killed Ahaziah of Judah due to
the policies of their kings and their lack of his commitments to the religious and po-
obedience to the prophetic word. In litical policies of Ahab (9:27).
2 Kings, the author praises only Hezekiah When the wicked queen mother,
and Josiah, because of their high regard Athaliah realized Jehu had killed her son,
for the word of God. All the other kings she attempted to exterminate the Davidic
were neglectful at best, and evil at worst. line in Jerusalem, in revenge for Jehu’s
The extended section on Elisha, there- slaughter of her family in the northern
fore, illustrates the author’s main concerns. kingdom (chapter 11). She nearly suc-
Because of the prophet’s ministry, and ceeded. But one of the king’s sons, one-
even the minimal cooperation of Jehu, king year-old Joash (contraction of Jehoash),
of Israel, the ideological conflict with was hidden by his aunt in the temple of
Canaanite Baalism begun with Ahab and the Lord. For six years Athaliah ruled
Elijah was over. The ministries of Elijah Judah while supporters of the Davidic dy-
and Elisha inspired a revolution against nasty kept Joash in hiding. In the seventh
the dynasty of Omri and his policy of year, Jehoiada, the chief priest, orches-
friendship with the Canaanite city-states, trated a revolt. He killed Athaliah, placed
such as Tyre and Sidon. Ahab his son had the seven-year-old Joash on the throne,
continued that policy, which also incor- and led the nation in a covenant renewal
porated the worst of Canaanite religion ceremony (11:4-21).
into the official national policy. As long as young king Joash had the
The point of the Elijah—Elisha narratives, powerful Jehoiada to guide and advise
then, is that the kingdom succeeded when him, he was faithful to the covenant (12:2).
it followed the leadership of the prophets. Joash even decided to repair the temple of
240
 Second Kings

Jehu of Israel
pays tribute to
Shalmaneser III
of Assyria; detail
from the Black
Obelisk.

the Lord because the people were still pathetic magic, but a symbolic act like oth-
using the pagan shrines at the high places ers in the Bible related to warfare (cf. Jos
for worship, even after Baal worship had 8:18).
been purged from Jerusalem (12:3-5). Un- Chapter 14 continues the history with
fortunately, after Jehoiada’s death, his the reign of Amaziah of Judah. Though
godly influence over Joash was soon for- he was a relatively good king (v. 3), he
gotten, and the nation fell into severe apos- provoked a war with Jehoash of Israel
tasy again (2 Chr 24:17-25). (vv. 8-14). Jehoash invaded Jerusalem,
With the rise of Jehu and his dynasty in plundered the temple, and took many
the north (chapters 9-10), the time of peace hostages.
between northern Israel and southern Chapter 14 concludes with a brief sum-
Judah had ended. The remaining chapters mary of the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel
of this unit (chapters 13-17) alternate be- (vv. 23-29). He was the fourth king in
tween kings of the two nations, culminat- Jehu’s dynasty and reigned an unprece-
ing in the fall of the northern kingdom. dented forty years (793-753 B.c.). Because
Chapter 13 summarizes the reigns of of Syria’s weakness during this period and
Jehu’s immediate successors in the north: Assyria’s preoccupation with other ene-
Jehoahaz and Jehoash. It also relates El- mies to the north, Jeroboam enjoyed a long
isha’s final prophecy and death (vv. 14-20). and prosperous rule. He restored Israel's
Ina test of Jehoash’s faith, Elisha instructed borders to those of the days of David
the king to shoot an arrow eastward, to- (14:25, 28).
ward Syria, and to strike the ground with However, prosperity and success do not
the other arrows. Elisha prophesied that always mean God is smiling on one’s eth-
Israel would be successful over Syria, but ical and moral character. Jeroboam’s Israel
not completely, because the king held back abused both power and wealth. The ear-
his zeal. Jehoash may have desired to liest writing prophets (Amos and Hosea)
maintain a weakened Syria as a buffer state condemned the nation’s oppression of the
against the rising power of Assyria. Elisha poor and the king’s exploitation of royal
would have certainly opposed this policy. privilege. Indeed, the growth of decadence
The use of bow and arrows was not sym- and greed in the northern kingdom dur-

241
Encountering the Historical Books

his attack on Israel’s apostasy. He gave

definition to the future prophets as Israel's
covenant prosecutors. One can use a river
metaphor to describe the rise of Old Testament
prophecy. Moses is like the fountainhead, —=—
ea wpeHee did not Samuel the rapids of the prophetic streanenel 2
i ecome apermanent element of Israelite Elijah the course of the classical prophets.'
The function of prophecy in Israel was t nique
among nations of the ancient Near East. Oth
narchy. When the nation requested
;, Samuel became a guardian of the
heocracy, to ensure that God was still the real
King. The human monarch was merely his
_ representative. Samuel defined the future role
_ of the prophet as the messenger from God who world could a reigning |
held the king in check. From Samuel and Saul CODEN, to such a
_ forward, many Israelite kings had their
prophetic counterpart: David and Nathan, Ahab
and Elijah, Hezekiah and Isaiah.
Elijah played a significant role in the
development of Israelite prophecy because of

ing the first half of the eighth century re- an alternate name for TIGLATH-PILESER III
sulted in a flurry of new prophetic activ- of Assyria (745-727 B.c.). This energetic As-
ity—all condemning the nation. syrian revived his nation’s might and ex-
Chapter 15 begins with the history of tended its empire to the west. Menahem
Azariah of Judah (vv. 1-7). Azariah is also was able to hold him off only by paying
known as Uzziah in Kings and especially enormous tribute, which he extracted from
in Chronicles and the Prophets. We may the wealthy class in Israel. But this was only
assume one of these names was his birth a temporary respite. Under Pekah, Tiglath-
name and the other was his throne or coro- Pileser began taking Israelite territories and
nation name. Counting coregencies at both deporting citizens (v. 29). The new Assyr-
ends of his reign, Azariah/Uzziah ruled ian presence in Syria-Palestine would even-
for fifty-two years. He enjoyed the peace tually lead to Israel’s destruction.
and stability in Judah that Jeroboam II en- Before describing Israel's fall, the author
joyed in Israel (2 Chr 26:1-23). switches back to Ahaz of Judah (chapter
After the brief overview of Azariah/ 16). Amazingly, Ahaz took Judah's apos-
Uzziah, chapter 15 switches to some of the tasy to new levels of perversion, just as Is-
last kings of northern Israel (Zechariah, rael was facing destruction for her own
Shallum, Menahem, Pekahiah, and Pekah, sins. For the first time in Judah’s history,
wv. 8-31), before switching back to Jotham a king in Jerusalem imitated the sins of
of Israel (vv. 32-38). The instability of the northern Israel (v. 3).
northern kingdom is obvious from the While Ahaz was king in Jerusalem, the
quick succession of kings, the number of last king of Syria (Rezin) and Pekah of Is-
assassinations, and the brevity of reigns. rael tried to force him to join them in de-
The author sounds an ominous note about fiance of Tiglath-Pileser of Assyria. Ahaz
the future of the kingdom in his discussion had to choose between political alliances
of Menahem’s reign. “PuL” (vv. 19-20) is with these weak kings to his north or sub-
242
 Second Kings

Assyrian relief mission to the Assyrians. This led to one Samaria, and deported many of its citi-
showing a
deportation
of the classic confrontations between zens (vv. 5-6).4
during Tiglath- prophet and king (read Is 7 along with this The author’s purpose for outlining Is-
Pileser Ill’s unit). Isaiah forced Ahaz to make an en- rael’s tragedy comes to the surface in
campaign. Ahaz
chose to trust
tirely different decision. His choice was 17:7-23. Here the author explicitly states
Tiglath-Pileser really between trust in God or trust in his the causes for Israel’s destruction in purely
rather than God. own ability to play the power games of in- theological terms. The nation did not fall
ternational politics. simply because it had a smaller army. Is-
Ahaz chose to trust Tiglath-Pileser rael broke the Lord’s statutes and com-
rather than God (note the expression, “I mandments (vv. 15-16). They “followed
am your servant and vassal,” v. 7). An As- worthless idols and themselves became
syrian vassal could expect protection from worthless” (v. 15). Ultimately it was Yah-
enemy attack. But the protection came at weh who was responsible for Israel's fall
a great price. The palace and temple re- (vv. 18, 20, 23).
sources were depleted in order to send a The Assyrians controlled conquered na-
“pribe,” which Tiglath-Pileser accepted as tions by deporting large portions of the
tribute (v. 8). From this time forward, citizenry and replacing them with inhab-
Judah would never really be free. itants from other conquered areas. The
Mesopotamian political power would concluding unit of chapter 17 (vv. 24-41)
dominate the rest of her history. describes the settlement of foreigners into
Chapter 17 opens with a brief survey of the area. The combination of foreign reli-
the last king of Israel, Hoshea (vv. 1-6). He gious beliefs with the already heretical
apparently sought an alliance with Egypt practices of northern Israel resulted in con-
for protection against the Assyrians. But tinued apostasy in Samaria (v. 29). The
this was viewed as treason to Tiglath- mixtures of peoples produced the Samar-
Pileser’s successor, Shalmaneser V itans, who would become future enemies
(727-722 b.c.). After a three-year siege, the of Judah. The Samaritans and their reli-
Assyrian king captured Israel’s capital, gion continued into New Testament times

243
Encountering the Historical Books

An artist's
impression of
Sennacherib’s
siege of the
stronghold of
Lachish, fortified
by Rehoboam.

(Jn 4:9, 19-20), and still endure today Hezekiah’s commitments to the Lord’s
among a tiny band of followers. covenant meant he refused to play the
power games so common in international
Judah alone (chapters 18-25)
politics of the day. His rebellion against
This final unit traces Judah’s fortunes after Assyria looked like suicide. Sennacherib’s
the fall of Israel. Judah’s royal leadership threat against Jerusalem is the subject of
in Jerusalem oscillated between genuine 2 Kings 18:13-19:37. When it seemed that
religious reform (Hezekiah and Josiah) defeat for Judah was inevitable, Hezekiah
and absolute apostasy (Manasseh and Je- went to the temple and prayed one of the
hoahaz). We know more about this period greatest prayers found in the Bible
of Israel’s history than any other because (19:15-19). He sought the welfare of God’s
of the amount of material available, both kingdom and asked deliverance for God’s
biblical and extrabiblical. This unit should sake. The Lord promised deliverance
be read along with the parallel sections in through the prophet Isaiah (19:20-34). In
2 Chronicles 29-32 and Isaiah 36-39. Also, three brief verses (19:35-37), the narrator
the Assyrian records corroborate the relates that Sennacherib’s great army was
events and portray them from another devastated by a miracle of God; Sen-
perspective. nacherib returned to Assyria and was as-
The Assyrian threat did not go away sassinated. The Assyrians underestimated
after the destruction of Israel in 722. SHAL- Hezekiah’s God.
MANESER’S successors continued the ag- Chapter 20 relates two other episodes
gressive military policies, and SEN- from the life of Hezekiah. His miraculous
NACHERIB (705-681) invaded Judah in 701, recovery from illness portrays Hezekiah
during Hezekiah’s reign (18:13-19:37). But as the recipient of divine favor (vv. 1-11).
by the turn of the next century, the Assyr- But Isaiah condemned his cordial recep-
ians were replaced by another equally bru- tion of the Babylonian envoys (vv. 12-19).
tal empire: Babylon. Second Kings ends Hezekiah normally prayed about major
with the destruction of Jerusalem and the concerns (see 19:15 and 20:2), but here he
beginning of the Babylonian exile at the seems to act alone, proudly displaying the
hands of Nebuchadnezzar. trappings of power and prestige as though
The largest unit in this section is devoted he had personally acquired them.
to good king Hezekiah (chapters 18-20). Hezekiah’s son and grandson were
Hezekiah led an unparalleled religious re- among Judah’s most wicked kings (Man-
form (18:4-6); revolted against Assyria, asseh, 21:1-18; Amon, 21:19-26). Manasseh
thus reversing the policy of Ahaz (18:7); had the longest reign of any king of Israel
and reconquered Philistia (18:8). or Judah (696-642). But this is not to imply
244
 Second Kings

Book that Manasseh was favored by God, since

of the Law his reign was the blackest period of Judah’s
history. The parallel account in Chronicles
(2 Chr 33:1-20) confirms the picture of
2 Kings. Manasseh’s Judah was more sin-
ful than the pagan nations driven out of
Canaan during the Israelite conquest (21:9).
His reign contrasts with that of the good
Hezekiah who preceded him and Josiah
who followed him. Ultimately, the author
of Kings blamed the fall of Jerusalem on
Manasseh’s reign (21:11-15; 24:2-4).
Josiah was the last godly king before the
Babylonian exile (22:1—23:30). He was a re-
ligious reformer of the highest order. While
he was still a young king, his high priest
found the “Book of the Law” in the tem-
ple of the Lord (22:8-10). This was prob-
ably all or part of Deuteronomy, which
had been deposited in the temple at
Solomon’s dedication (1 Kgs 8:1-4; Dt
31:26). This temple copy had been ne-
glected during the reigns of Manasseh and
Amon. The discovery of the law-book
greatly affected the young king (22:19). He
quickly purged pagan worship from the
country, reestablished the covenant with
the Lord, and reinstituted the Passover
Sennacherib’s feast which had been neglected since the
prism, which time of the judges (23:22). Genuine spiri-
eae We tual reforms, whether national or indi-
Judah. vidual, are always accompanied by a reaf-

Sennacherib’s Account
_ Of His Campaign in Judah (701 s.c.)
~ Sennacherib’s military campaign into Judah in by means of well-stamped earth-ramps, and
701 is well attested in the Assyrian sources. His battering-rams brought near the walls
own account of the event, adapted here from combined with the attack by foot soldiers. |
~ official Assyrian annals, agrees remarkably drove out of these cities and villages 200,150
~ well with the biblical account. The Assyrian people, young and old, male and female,
record, of course, omits the miraculous defeat horses, mules, donkeys, camels, big and small
of its army (2 Kgs 19:35). The statement that cattle beyond counting. Himself | made a
Sennacherib imprisoned Hezekiah in Jerusalem prisoner in Jerusalem, his royal residence, like
- “like a bird in a cage” is a tacit admission that a bird ina cage. ... Thus | reduced his country, —
the Assyrian was unable to capture Jerusalem. but | still increased the tribute due to me as his
overlord which | imposed upon him later.
As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit
to my yoke. | laid siege to 46 of his strong
cities, walled forts and to the countless small Abridged and adapted from the Prism of Sennacherib
of the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute (ANET, 288).
villages in their vicinity, and conquered them

245
Encountering the Historical Books

A relief showing
Assyrian soldiers
carrying off
booty from
Lachish.

firmation of the importance of God’s word Judah under the Babylonian puppet ruler,
remnant
(as in the Protestant Reformation). Gedaliah, would update readers in the
Assyria’s capital city, NINEVEH, fell to exile (25:22-26). More information on this
the Babylonians and Medes in 612 B.c. But period is available in Jeremiah 40:7-41:9.
a remnant of the Assyrian army was em- The second appendix (25:27-30) hints
bedded near the Euphrates River to the that even in those desperate times, God’s
northeast of Judah. Pharaoh Necho II of covenant love for his people was still at
Egypt supported the Assyrians in the work. In the spring of 561 B.c., Neb-
hopes of preventing Babylon from gain- uchadnezzar’s son, who followed him as
ing sole control of Mesopotamia and suc- king of Babylon, released Jehoiachin from
ceeding Assyria as the next great world captivity. The Books of Kings end on the
empire. When he went north in 609 B.c. to hopeful assertion that a son of David was
assist the Assyrians, Josiah met him at alive and well. Whatever the human mo-
MeEcippo to intervene. But Josiah lost his tivation behind Jehoiachin’s release, God’s
life in the effort, and the tragic event closed decree was that the family of David,
the books on Judah’s last, best hope for though severely chastened, would not be
genuine reform (23:29-30). exterminated (Mt 1:1-16). Though humans
Josiah was followed by a succession of break their covenant, God keeps his.
weak kings, none of whom was able to
slow Judah’s rapid march to destruction
(23:31-25:21). The author concluded his
sad story with brief summaries of the last Themes of the
four kings: Jehoahaz (23:31-35), Jehoiakim
(23:36-24:7), Jehoiachin (24:8-17), and Books of Kings
Zedekiah (24:18-25:21). The account of Of the many important theological themes
Zedekiah’s reign includes details of of Kings, we will highlight just two.° First,
Jerusalem’s fall and its destruction at the the entire Deuteronomistic History, espe-
hands of the Babylonians (25:1-21). The cially the Books of Kings, presents the his-
prophets, especially Jeremiah and tory of Israel from the viewpoint of the Mo-
Habakkuk, shed more light on this tragic saic covenant. During the exile, the author
event and its emotional consequences. of Kings was able to reflect on what had
The author attached two appendixes to occurred over four centuries of history. The
conclude the narrative. The history of books assume the disasters of 722 and 587
246
 Second Kings

Summary

. In the Book of 2 Kings, both Israel and . Shalmaneser V captured Samaria

Judah are secure at first, but because after a siege of three years.
of their apostasy, both are destroyed.
Israel was destroyed because the peo-
. The approach in 2 Kings is to present ple broke God’s statutes and com-
a theological analogy of the persons mandments, followed worthless idols,
or events that were influential in and became worthless themselves.
bringing destruction on Israel.
. When Jerusalem was destroyed, Judah
. Beginning with Elijah, prophets in Is- began a period of Babylonian exile.
rael played a new role, one that repre-
10. Two important theological themes
sented their power and authority.
are found in the Books of Kings. First,
. Elisha’s ministry helped bring the de- the books present the history of Israel
struction of the dynasty of Omri from the viewpoint of the Mosaic
in Israel. covenant. Second, prophecy has a sig-
nificant role.
. When the kingdom followed the lead-
ership of the prophets they succeeded.
6. In 2 Kings 15, the instability of Israel
is evident because there is a rapid suc-
cession of kings.

were due to the nation’s failure to main- would succeed in the promised land only
tain the covenant that God established at if she remained faithful to the covenant.
Mount Sinai. This is based on the so-called Disobedience meant the nation would lose
retribution theology of Deuteronomy (see the land. In a simple doctrine of retribu-
discussion in chapter 10). tion, Moses linked covenant faithfulness
Deuteronomy stated clearly that Israel to blessings and disobedience to future
curses (Dt 27-28). This idea became the
“Bible” for the authors of the historical
books. It provided the theological expla-
Key People/ nation for the nation’s fall and the loss of
Places the promised land. Northern Israel failed
because of the crimes of Jeroboam I, and
Pulte Judah because of the wicked reign of Man-
Tiglath-Pileser III asseh (1 Kgs 14:15-16; 2 Kgs 17:22-23;
Key Terms Shalmaneser V 21:11-15; 24:2-4).
Baal-Zebub
Sennacherib This retribution theology became the
Pharaoh Necho II basis for the author’s evaluation of each
city-states
Philistia king of Israel as good or bad. Each king
Book of the Law
remnant
Nineveh was evil like his fathers (especially Jer-
Megiddo oboam I), or good like David. The author
Torah
of Kings assumed the authority of the writ-
ten Torah of God, which became the foun-
dation document for his “either-or” eval-

247
Encountering the Historical Books

Study Questions

. How much time is covered by the . Describe the international political sit-
Book of 2 Kings? uation of 2 Kings. How does this tie in
with the author's purpose in writing
. What is the overall theme of this
this book?
book?
. What lasting effect did the Assyrian
. What is the theological purpose
policy of deportation have on God's
of 2 Kings?
people?
. What is the importance of Elisha’s
. Briefly list some of the positive aspects
ministry as portrayed in 2 Kings?
found in 2 Kings, especially in relation
. Briefly describe the ideological conflict to the good kings.
between Baalism and the worship of
. What are the main theological themes
God as found in 2 Kings.
of 2 Kings?

uation of each king.° The blessings and asad one. But it emphasizes over and over
curses of the Mosaic law (Dt 27-28) be- again the importance of godliness and
came the authoritative framework for the faithfulness in our commitment to God.
author’s interpretation of Israel’s history. Success in our lives is too often gauged by
Each king was either obedient and there- our external accomplishments, measured
fore blessed, or disobedient and therefore in purely human terms. The Books of
cursed. And this approach began with the Kings teach that personal covenant faith-
assumption that the Mosaic covenant was fulness and obedience to God is the only
the authoritative word of God. measure of successful living.
The story told in the Books of Kings is The second theological theme is the role

Further Reading

Cogan, Mordechai, and Hayim Tadmor. // Kings: Kings,” 169-204, and chapter 7: “Historical and
A New Translation with Introduction and Cultural Context for 1 & 2 Kings,” 205-29.
Commentary. Anchor Bible 11. Garden City, N.Y.: Chicago: Moody, 1993.
Doubleday, 1988. Most useful for cultural and Walton, John H. Ancient Israelite Literature in Its
historical context. Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels between
Gray, John. | & Ii Kings: ACommentary. 2nd ed. Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Chapter 5:
Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, “Historical Literature,” 111-34. Grand Rapids:
1970. Useful, though technical and difficult Zondervan, 1989.
reading. Wiseman, Donald J. 7 and 2 Kings: An Introduction
Hobbs, T. R. 2 Kings. Word Biblical Commentary 13. and Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament
Waco, Tex.: Word, 1985. Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester:
Howard, David M., Jr. An Introduction to the Old InterVarsity, 1993. Best evangelical commentary
Testament Historical Books. Chapter 6: “1 & 2 available.

248
 Second Kings

and significance of prophecy in the Books The prophetic perspective is most ap-
of Kings. This is truly a prophetic history, parent in the author’s theological expla-
interested in how the word of Yahweh nation for the fall of both kingdoms. Both
functions in history. As such, it contains had been justly warned by God’s “servants
a promise-fulfillment motif throughout.’ the prophets” (2 Kgs 17:23; 24:2). But the
For example, just before his death, Elisha nations persisted in sin, rejecting the
prophesied that Israel would defeat Syria prophetic message. The word of God was
three times (2 Kgs 13:19). In the closing at work in the nations to bring them to an
formula for King Jehoash of Israel, the au- end, just as certainly as it also works to
thor explicitly said Jehoash defeated Syria bring salvation. The Books of Kings teach
“three times,” making the fulfillment pat- the importance of hearing and obeying the
tern obvious (2 Kgs 13:25). This illustra- word of God.
tion could be repeated many times over.

249
‘f
 First and Second
Chronicles
A Look Back

| Outline
_ ¢ The Author and His Purpose
_ ¢ Chronicles and the Canon
Location in the Canon
Relationship to Samuel and Kings
¢ Contents of 1 and 2 Chronicles Objectives
Outline
After reading this chapter,
Overview
you should be able to
¢ Themes of the Books of Chronicles
¢ Identify the author’s purpose
David and His Dynasty for writing Chronicles
The Temple and the Worship of God e Explain the position of Chronicles
in the canon
¢ Outline the content of Chronicles
¢ Justify the genealogical lists
in 1 Chronicles 1-9
¢ Explain why only Saul’s sin and
punishment are recorded in Chronicles
¢ Tell the meaning of Chronicles
for contemporary Christians
¢ Show how the time in which Chronicles
was written affected the way
the author wrote
¢ Point out the role of the temple
in Chronicles
Encountering the Historical Books

Acentury or more after the Books of Kings Chronicles as the work of an author other
were written, the circumstances for God’s than Ezra.? This view is supported by
people had improved little. It is true the Chronicles’ location in the Jewish canon
exile had ended and many faithful Jews after Ezra-Nehemiah (see below). Chron-
had returned to Jerusalem from Babylon ological order would dictate Chronicles
and other parts of the world. But the coming before Ezra-Nehemiah. We may
Messiah had not come as some had hoped. assume a single author would have
The small population in Jerusalem felt dis- grouped the two works together in se-
couraged and lost. Had God forsaken his quence. Another interesting problem is the
people? Had the promises to David failed? common material tying the two works to-
The author of Chronicles looked back gether (2 Chr 36:22-23 and Ezr 1:1-3). Some
across the centuries of Israel’s history in assume this means Chronicles and Ezra—
order to trace God’s covenant promises Nehemiah were written together and that
through the broken circumstances of a de- the decree was repeated when the two doc-
feated nation all the way down to his own uments were separated. But the reverse
day. His look back is intended as a mes- may be true. The repetition of the decree
sage of reassurance and hope, and is per- could equally well reflect an intentional ef-
tinent for every generation of believers. fort to join together two separate and orig-
inally independent documents.* Recent
NANNY
scholarship considers Chronicles the work
of an anonymous author in the postexilic
period, someone other than the author of
and His Purpose Ezra—Nehemiah (see discussion in chapter
10).
Early Jewish tradition named Ezra as the On the basis of the genealogies, we may
author of these books.' Scholars have assume the author wrote these books dur-
agreed for many years that the author of ing the second or third generation after
An Arab castle
Ezra—Nehemiah, probably Ezra himself, the exile ended. Many scholars have
at Palmyra, also wrote the Books of Chronicles.* The dated Chronicles to between 450 and 400
Syria. Solomon text itself, however, makes no specific B.C. This date is supported by Chronicles’
specially
fortified this
statement about authorship. position as the last book of the Hebrew
town. Recent scholarship has tended to view canon.

252
 First and Second Chronicles

thor’s purpose, which was to trace the his-

tory of faith and salvation.
The chronicler’s readers knew the Books
of Samuel and Kings, and were all too fa-
miliar with the failures of the past. They
did not need to be reminded of the sin and
punishment of their ancestors. The author
of Chronicles desired, instead, to follow a
straight line of trust in God, with no de-
tours. He avoided all avenues that might
detract from his main objective, which was
to remind his readers of the victories of
their heritage and to assure them of tri-
umphs in the future.
This was not an attempt to rewrite his-
tory or gloss over the failures of the past.
Chronicles is a statement of faith that
God’s promises are true. Despite the cir-
cumstances of the postexilic period, God
still had plans for Israel's future. Jerusalem
appeared to be full of nothing but poverty
and strife. But appearances can be de-
ceiving. The Books of Chronicles boldly
proclaimed that God’s covenant and its
promises were still valid. All was not lost!
So the author, in a sense, produced the
first “Bible commentary.” He used the bib-
lical sources (especially Samuel and Kings)
to show that God was still at work among
The Israelite The chronicler produced what we may his people. Since the author was aware of
citadel at Hazor.
This stronghold
call the first commentary on the Scriptures. these biblical books and used them in his
was also Some of his information comes from own composition, we will now explore the
fortified by sources that are unknown and unavail- relationship between Chronicles and other
Solomon.
able to us. This includes, for example, books in the canon. The author’s distinc-
David’s elaborate plans for Solomon’s con- tive purpose means the Books of
struction of the temple (1 Chr 22:15). But Chronicles have a direct relationship with
the majority of the author’s material comes other books in the Old Testament.
from the Books of Samuel and Kings. His
purpose is apparent from his inclusion of
OAT
certain episodes from these older biblical
books and his omission of others. For ex- Chronicles
ample, when the chronicler discusses
David, he discreetly chooses to omit any and the Canon
reference to the Bathsheba incident (2 Sm Coming as they do at the close of the Old
11) and fails to mention the details of Testament period, the Books of Chronicles
Adonijah’s attempt to usurp the throne contain traces of nearly every theological
(1 Kgs 1:5-2:24). concept expressed in the rest of the Old
The author’s use of his sources is like- Testament canon. Since the author was de-
wise apparent in his discussion of pendent on other books of the canon, it
Solomon’s magnificent reign. Often he will be helpful for us to examine the rela-
quotes almost verbatim from 1 Kings, but tionship between Chronicles and those
omits entirely any reference to one of the other books, especially Samuel and Kings.
most important ideas in the Kings narra- The situation is all the more intriguing be-
tive—Solomon’s great apostasy in 1 Kings cause Chronicles has a different placement
11:9-13. This selectivity was due to the au- in the Christian and Jewish canons.

253
Encountering the Historical Books

Location in the Canon gave the history of the early monarchy,

In our English Bibles, the Books of showing the rise and fall of Saul and the
Chronicles immediately follow the Books rise of David. That account legitimized
of Kings and precede Ezra-Nehemiah. In Israelite kingship and showed the condi-
this location, they are chronologically placed tions under which God would bless the
in the Old Testament historical books, the king. The Books of Kings continued and
second part of the Christian canon. This is concluded the account of the monarchy.
not the case in the Hebrew Bible (see chap- The theological purpose there was to trace
ter 1). There, Chronicles comes at the end the consequences of sin as opposed to the
of the entire collection of biblical books, after benefits of obedience.
Ezra—Nehemiah. This location is surprising The author of Chronicles did not con-
since it reverses the natural sequence of tradict the earlier histories or refute their
Ezra—Nehemiah and Chronicles. truthfulness. On the contrary, the chroni-
Various attempts have been made to ex- cler appears to have given the biblical
plain the reverse order of the Hebrew sources greater authority than other
canon.° Perhaps the Jews recognized a sources available to him. Yet he was not
later date of authorship for Chronicles, or bound to them rigidly. He employed the
Ezra—Nehemiah was accepted as canoni- earlier biblical accounts creatively to write
cal earlier than Chronicles. But there may a history of God’s work in Israel that spoke
also be a theological message here. The re- to the needs of his postexilic audience. In
verse order may have been deliberate, in this way, the chronicler stands early in the
order to end the Old Testament on a pos- tradition of interpretation. The author of
itive note (the exile-ending edict of Cyrus, Chronicles was “the last example of Israel’s
2 Chr 36:22-23). The canonizers of the genius for retelling her sacred history.’”°
Hebrew Bible may have been encourag-
ing the readers to experience freedom from
their personal exile.

Relationship to Samuel and Kings

Contents of
As we have said, the chronicler had a dif- 1 and 2 Chronicles
ferent purpose from his primary sources, The fifth century B.c. was a dreary period
the Books of Samuel and Kings. Samuel in Israel’s history. The great empire of

Bedouin near
the biblical ports
of Elath and
Ezion-geber.
Jehoshaphat
built a fleet at
Ezion-geber, on
the Gulf of
Aqaba, but the
ships were
wrecked before
they could sail.

254
 First and Second Chronicles

An Assyrian
relief depicting
the Israelites
bringing tribute
to Assyria.

David and Solomon had long since crum- Outline

bled. The Assyrians had destroyed north-
ern Israel and the Babylonians left little of I. Genealogies (1 Chr 1-9)
Jerusalem. During the fifth century, the A. The Patriarchs (1 Chr 1:1-2:2)
powerful Persian Empire reached its B. The Tribe of Judah (1 Chr
zenith. All that remained of national Israel 2:3-4:23)
was the tiny province of Judah, a small C. The Eleven Tribes (1 Chr
portion of Persia’s vast domain. Solomon’s 4:24-8:40)
magnificent temple had been replaced by D. Postexilic Family Heads in
one of much less splendor during the time Jerusalem (1 Chr 9)
of Haggai and Zechariah (516 B.c., Ezr
6:14-15). The once great Davidic monar- II. The Reign of David (1 Chr
chy had been reduced to a provincial gov- 10-29)
ernorship subject to Persian authority. A. David’s Predecessor: Saul
To make matters worse, the initial free- Chr 10)
dom of the release from exile in 539 B.c. B. David’s Assumption of
had raised the hopes and expectations of Power (1 Chr 11-12)
the Jewish people. [t was a time of high . David’s Accomplishments
anticipation. Soon, many thought, the @Chr13}22)
Messiah would come and usher Judah into . David’s
iS Legacy to Solomon
a new age of greatness. But those hopes (1 Chr 23:1-29:20)
were quickly disappointed. Those who re- ea Solomon’s Accession to the
turned to Jerusalem found the city in Throne (1 Chr 29:21-30)
shambles. The population was small and
lacking in material wealth. It was soon ap- III. The Reign of Solomon (2 Chr
parent that the messianic age had not ar- 1-9)
rived. Against this gloomy backdrop, the A. Solomon Stabilizes the
chronicler offered profound encourage- Kingdom (2 Chr 1)
ment to his readers. Despite the circum- B. Building and Dedication of
stances, God’s purpose for Israel was still the Temple (2 Chr 2-7)
in effect through his promises to David C. The Greatness of Solomon
(1 Chr 17:7-14). (2 Chr 8-9)

255
Encountering the Historical Books

IV. The Kingdom of Judah (2 Chr The reign of King David (1 Chr 10-29)
10-36) The author was mainly interested in what
A. Decline: Rehoboam and he perceived to be God’s chosen instru-
Abijah (2 Chr 10-13) ments of salvation: the Davidic line of
B. Revival: Asa and Jehoshaphat kings, the city of Jerusalem, and the tem-
(2 Chr 14:1-21:3) ple. Consequently, he passed over Saul’s
C. Decline: Jehoram, Ahaziah, life and recorded only Saul’s ignominious
and Athaliah (2 Chr death as background information to
21:4-22:12) David's rise to power.
D. Revival: Joash to Jotham On the other hand, the brief narrative on
(2 Chr 23-27) Saul presented one of the chronicler’s most
E. Decline: Ahaz (2 Chr 28) important theological concepts. The author
F. The Remaining Kings of repeated the terms used to describe Saul’s
Judah (2 Chr 29-36) sin and punishment in 1 Chronicles
10:13-14: Saul died because of his unfaith-
AAACN Overview fulness to the Lord; he failed to keep the
restoration word of the Lord and did not inquire of the
The Books of Chronicles center around Lord, so the Lord put him to death. Saul’s
the reigns of David and Solomon. As back- life and death became for the author a pro-
ground to those two kings, 1 Chronicles totype or pattern of the exile situation. It
opens with several genealogical lists, with painted a picture that kept recurring
historical statements interspersed among throughout Israel’s history. It was a pattern
them (1 Chr 1-9). The reign of David is with which the readers of Chronicles could
the topic of the rest of 1 Chronicles (chap- identify—it was an “exilic” archetype. But
ters 10-29). Second Chronicles begins with the author balanced this prototype with the
the reign of King Solomon (chapters 1-9). theme of “restoration” in the following
The remainder of 2 Chronicles (chapters chapters. For the chronicler, David fulfilled
10-36) relates the history of the Davidic in part a savior role.’
dynasty. The author first described how David
became king, and his military exploits and
The genealogies (1 Chr 1-9)
successes (chapters 10-20). Then the
The genealogical lists trace history from chronicler went into great detail about
the first man, Adam, through the central David's preparations for building the tem-
figure of the narrative, David, to the au- ple (chapters 21-29). Since the author
thor’s own day. These chapters may ap- viewed the temple as central to God’s plan
pear uninteresting and unnecessary to of salvation, these elaborate plans for its
modern readers. But they were of para- construction revealed David's true char-
mount importance to the readers of the acter as Israel’s leader in the faith.
postexilic period. By means of these ge-
The reign of King Solomon
nealogical lists, the author of Chronicles
(2 Chr 1-9)
demonstrated a national identity reach-
ing back across the tragedy of the exile. These chapters relate the grandeur of
Solomon’s kingdom, as did the author’s
The lists demonstrated a continuity be-
sources in 1 Kings. But the chronicler is more
tween generations. The first readers could
interested in the temple’s construction and
believe that the promises God gave their dedication. His account of Solomon’s reign
ancestors before the exile were also for is shorter than the parallel passages in
them. Similar lists provide important back- 1 Kings 1-11. This unit includes only events
ground for other historical books of the that reflected the author’s concern for the
Bible: Genesis 5, Matthew 1:1-17, and temple. More specifically, the chronicler fo-
Luke 3:23-38. cused on the religious institutions and wor-
The list of the tribe and family of Saul ship connected with the temple, so he even
(chapter 8) serves as a transition to the first abbreviated the 1 Kings account of the ac-
narrative section of Chronicles: the death tual construction of the temple (chapters 3
of Saul and the coronation of David and 4).
(10:1-11:3). The familiar verse in 2 Chronicles 7:14
256
 First and Second Chronicles

is a key verse for the work of the chroni- The kingdom of Judah (2 Chr 10-36)
cler: “If my people, who are called by my Soon after Solomon’s death, the kingdom
name, will humble themselves and pray crumbled in two, partly due to the inep-
and seek my face and turn from their titude of his son Rehoboam. The history
wicked ways, then will I hear from heaven of the northern kingdom lay outside the
and will forgive their sin and will heal their scope of the author’s purpose. In this sec-
land.” This program for repentance estab- tion, he was interested in tracing the kings
lished the prototype of salvation from the of Judah from Rehoboam to the Babylon-
exilic situation first described in the death ian exile. His purpose was not to demon-
of Saul (see above on 1 Chr 10:13-14).° strate the failure of God’s promise to David
Hezekiah’s Saul’s life and death became the pattern of (1 Chr 17). On the contrary, he wanted to
tunnel,
Jerusalem.
the exilic situation, which was repeated in show that salvation (which was certain for
When the Israel's history. But 2 Chronicles 7:14 is the the future) was still linked to the Davidic
Assyrians pattern for restoration. The chronicler pre- dynasty and the Jerusalem temple. God
threatened
Jerusalem,
sented these two models (restoration and had not abandoned his basic institutions
Hezekiah cut a exile), and called his readers to assess their of salvation.
special tunnel to own situation in the light of these arche- The author of 2 Kings covered Hezekiah’s
channel water
into his capital
types, or patterns.’ The Books of Chronicles religious reforms in one brief verse (18:4)
city. still call us to humility and repentance. and devoted three chapters to his political
achievements. By contrast, the chronicler
detailed the reforms in 2 Chronicles 29-31.
His purpose was to illustrate that when the
son of David cared for God’s house and pro-
vided for genuine worship, God brought
peace to the kingdom (chapter 32).
The chronicler told of Manasseh’s cap-
ture, exile in Babylon, repentance, and
restoration, none of which is included in
the Kings’ account. The author of Kings
desired to highlight only the severity of
Manasseh’s crime. But the chronicler por-
trayed the mercy of God to the people in
exile. Just as the king who was most re-
sponsible for the Babylonian exile (2 Kgs
23:26) could turn from his sin and find
grace, so could the people.
The chronicler’s work ends with the
edict of Cyrus of Persia (2 Chr 36:22-23).
The edict signals the end of the exile, the
release of the Jews, and Cyrus’s support
for rebuilding the temple. By ending on
this note, the author shed a ray of hope
across the Books of Chronicles. The tem-
ple lay in ruins, but God had begun to
“hear from heaven” and to “heal their
land” (2 Chr 7:14). If the returnees would
follow the good examples of David,
Solomon, Asa, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah,
and Josiah, God would bless them again.
The paragraph is paralleled by Ezra
1:2-3. It serves as a tag at the conclusion,
marking the beginning of the restoration
period and directing the reader to con-
tinue reading in the Book of Ezra.
257
Encountering the Historical Books

nealogies emphasize David and his line.

Themes of the Books
Dar Sranomiete
The rest of 1 Chronicles is devoted to
History
David's reign. Second Chronicles begins
of Chronicles with nine chapters on David's son and suc-
The chronicler had the benefit of writing his cessor. The remainder of 2 Chronicles cen-
history after many of the Old Testament ters on the Davidic line of kings in
books were already considered authorita- Jerusalem, the heirs of the covenant
tive. He inherited a tradition rich in already promises to David.
familiar theological concepts. As a result, The Davidic covenant was established
the chronicler felt little need to make explicit in 2 Samuel 7. This became one of Israel's
statements regarding such widely accepted most important theological concepts, tak-
truths as monotheism, the sovereignty of ing a position alongside the Abrahamic
God, and other basic theological concepts. and Mosaic covenants. It provided the
On occasion, the chronicler developed basis for concepts regarding the Messiah,
a theological concept of biblical faith be- the ideal son of David. The chronicler fol-
yond its expression in the earlier biblical lowed 2 Samuel 7 closely in his presenta-
books. For example, he took the retribu- tion of the Davidic covenant in 1 Chronicles
tion theology of the Deuteronomistic 17, emphasizing the eternal aspect of the
History for granted. He only added to the divine decree. The author of Chronicles
concept slightly by emphasizing the im- viewed David and Solomon together, es-
mediacy of punishment or blessing (1 Chr tablishing an eternal dynasty. This con-
The Cyrus
Cylinder,
28:9). Each separate generation of believ- tributed to Israel’s messianic expectation,
describing the ers is blessed for obedience or cursed for since the chronicler was clearly longing for
Persian capture unfaithfulness. This immediacy assumes the day when a son of David would once
of the city of
Babylon. The
the truth of the original deuteronomistic again rule over all Israel.!*
text also talks of emphasis, but goes a step beyond it, © The chronicler’s views of David related
Cyrus's policy of Of the Old Testament’s theological her- to his perception of Israelite kingship. The
allowing
conquered
itage accepted by the chronicler, there were Israelite monarchy was meant to be rep-
peoples to two themes that were particularly dear to resentative from the beginning. God would
return and to him: (1) David and his dynasty and (2) the continue to function as the true King; Saul
rebuild their
temple and the proper worship of God. was the human representative or agent of
homelands
(ANET 316). This government. But Saul became the pattern
is the decree David and His Dynasty of the exilic situation in Chronicles. The
referred to in 2
Chr 36:22-23
The figure of David casts a long shadow beauty of the Davidic dynasty lies in the
and Ezra 1:2-4. across the Books of Chronicles.'! The ge- divine promise that the transfer of royal

pies MELE dpe oi,

are PTwk Se

258
 First and Second Chronicles

Summary

. There is some discussion about who . The author of Chronicles was most in-
wrote 1 and 2 Chronicles, but recent terested in the Davidic list of kings,
scholarship attributes it to an anony- the city of Jerusalem, and the temple
mous postexilic author. as God's instruments of salvation.
. Chronicles constituted what may be . The chronicler was more interested in
called the first biblical commentary, the construction and dedication of the
with the primary sources being the temple than he was in the details of
Books of Samuel and Kings. the grandeur of Solomon's kingdom.
. The location of Chronicles is at the . The author of Chronicles calls the
end of the biblical books in the readers to assess their own situations
Hebrew canon, but in the English in light of the two models—restora-
Bible it follows the Books of Kings and tion and exile—which he presents.
comes before Ezra and Nehemiah.
. The themes that appear to be espe-
. The focus of the Book of Chronicles is cially important to the chronicler are:
on the reigns of David and Solomon. (1) David and his dynasty, and (2) the
temple and the proper worship of
. The genealogical lists demonstrate a
God.
national identity going back before
the exile and provide a continuity be-
tween generations.

power would never be broken again (1 Chr which is in the hands of David’s descen-
17:13). From the time of King David, dants” (2 Chr 13:8).
Israelite kingship was placed forever into David and Solomon are also central in
the hands of the sons of David. the Books of Chronicles because of their
The chronicler also believed in an equa- roles in building the temple and estab-
tion between the kingdom of God and the lishing true and valid religious practices
kingship of Israel.!° Though the Books of in Jerusalem.
Chronicles contain many references to il-
lustrate this, the best example is Abijah’s The Temple
reference to “the kingdom of the Lorp, and the Worship of God
The temple plays a central role in the
Books of Chronicles.'* During an age when
God’s people were struggling to identify
themselves, the temple provided an im-
portant symbol of God’s abiding presence
with his chosen people. The second tem-
ple, built under Haggai and Zechariah, es-
tablished a powerful link between preex-
ilic Judah and the postexilic restoration
community. As such, the temple formed
restoration a bridge for the postexilic community,
Deuteronomistic History reaching back to their ancestors in the faith.
The Davidic dynasty was temporarily lost,
259
Encountering the Historical Books

. Briefly describe the relationship be-

thor of 1-2 Chronicles? tween Chronicles and the other books
in the canon.
. In what time period were these books
composed? How do we know? . How is the location of 1-2 Chronicles
. How are 1-2 Chronicles the “first com-
in the Hebrew Bible important?
mentary on the Scriptures”? . Why are the genealogies important to
. What was the author's purpose in the purpose of this writing?
writing 1-2 Chronicles? . What role does the Davidic royal line
. What message of hope do these two play in Chronicles?
books contain? . What are some of the major themes of
Chronicles?

but the temple was in Jerusalem again. It tribes in the wilderness, so God was once
supplied continuity to believers who felt again dwelling with his people.
insecure and uncertain of their future. The assessment of subsequent kings in
But the temple was more than a link to the Davidic dynasty (2 Chr 10-36) was
the Davidic and Solomonic period. It rep- usually based on their faithfulness and al-
resented God’s presence in the midst of legiance to the temple and to the proper
his people in its most fundamental form. forms of religious practice. Thus the chron-
As such, the temple also provided conti- icler’s emphasis on the temple ties all his
nuity to the Mosaic period and the major themes together. The centrality of
Pentateuch. Just as the tabernacle was David and Solomon is related to their
God’s dwelling place in the midst of the building of the temple and establishing

Further Reading

Braun, Roddy. 7 Chronicles. Word Biblical Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester:

Commentary 14. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1986. Discusses InterVarsity, 1994. Helpful introduction with rich
theological contributions of Chronicles. theological insights.
Dillard, Raymond B. 2 Chronicles. Word Biblical . 2 Chronicles: An Introduction and
Commentary 15. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1987. Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament
Howard, David M., Jr. An Introduction to the Old Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester:
Testament Historical Books. Chapter 8: “1 and 2 InterVarsity, 1994. Helpful introduction with rich
Chronicles,” 231-72. Chicago: Moody, 1993. theological insights.
Japhet, Sara. | and II Chronicles: A Commentary. Old Williamson, H. G. M. 7 and 2 Chronicles. New
Testament Library. Louisville: Westminster/John Century Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids/London:
Knox, 1993. Exhaustive and thorough treatment, Eerdmans/ Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1982.
though not light reading. Together with Japhet, builds new consensus on
Selman, Martin J. 7 Chronicles: An Introduction and authorship.
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament

260
 First and Second Chronicles

the acceptable forms of Yahweh worship. was God-given, but was conditioned on
The success of the Davidic dynasty was covenant faithfulness. In this way, the au-
dependent on continued care and atten- thor of Chronicles stands squarely at the
tion to the temple and right worship of center of biblical thought.
God. For the chronicler, royal authority

261
Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Esther
A Time to Rebuild

eZ

TA

ZZ

AIT TN ITI II Za
mi

Objectives
After reading this chapter,
you should be able to
¢ Explain the benefits of studying Ezra,
Nehemiah, and Esther together
¢ Outline the basic content
of the Book of Ezra
¢ Outline the basic content
of the Book of Nehemiah |
¢ Outline the basic content
of the Book of Esther
¢ Compare the literary styles used in
iEzra,
Nehemiah, and Esther cast ak
e Discuss the question of the authorship :
of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther ;
e Explain the chronology
of Ezra and Nehemiah |
¢ Identify the theological ise
in Ezra, aM al wag .
Encountering the Historical Books

Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther conclude the Ezra-Nehemiah’s piety. Ezra-Nehemiah’s

Old Testament section of the canon known historical details offset Esther’s entertain-
as the historical books. They continue the ing story line. Esther’s view from the exile
history of God’s people during the pos- in Persia counters Ezra—Nehemiah’s loyal
texilic period. Ezra and Nehemiah devotion to the Jewish homeland. Though
recorded the events of the return from exile written with drastically different styles
and the restoration of Judah. Esther illus- and purposes, these books share a com-
trated how the faithfulness and courage mon perspective. They are interested in
of a single Jew made a difference in the God’s continued blessings on the covenant
world in which she lived. These books community.
have a common origin in the Persian pe-
riod. They share a postexilic perspective
on God’s relationship with his people and
a hope of future blessings. The Books of Ezra
These books are different in many ways.
Ezra—Nehemiah (as one volume) is an-
and Nehemiah
chored in historical fact. The author used These books are almost always studied to-
lists, records, royal edicts, memoirs, and gether for a number of reasons. First, they
the like, to present his history of the appear to come from a single author or ed-
restoration period. Esther, on the other itor. Second, they deal with the same gen-
hand, is an artfully written narrative that eral time period and are roughly sequen-
communicates through the skillful use of tial. Third, they are combined as one book
dialogue, intricate plot, and elaborate char- in the Jewish canon.
acterization. Esther is no less historical,
but the author does not intend to record a Contents
documented historical treatise. Rather, the The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah trace the
Book of Esther engages the reader in the history of the Jews from their first return
subtlety of relationships and faithfulness from exile (538 B.c.), through a second re-
to God. turn led by Ezra himself (458 B.c.), to their
In this way, these books from the Per- rebuilding activities and religious reforms
sian period complement each other.’ in the mid-fifth century, led by both Ezra
Esther’s secular atmosphere balances and Nehemiah.
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264
 Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther

Outline V. Spiritual Renewal (8:1-10:39)

A. The Law (8:1-9)
EZRA
B. Celebration (8:10-18)
I. First Emigration (1:1-2:70) C. Confession (9:1-37)
A. Cyrus’s Proclamation (1:1-4) D. Covenant Renewal
B. Treasures for the Temple (9:38-10:39)
(1:5-11)
C. The Emigrants (2:1-70) VI. Residents, Priests, and Levites
(11:1-12:26)
II. Restoration of the Temple A. New Residents for Jerusalem
(3:1-6:22) (11:1-36)
A. Rebuilding the Altar (3:1-6) B. Priests and Levites (12:1-26)
B. Rebuilding the Temple
(3:7-13) VIL. Dedication of the Wall
. Opposition (4:1-5) (12:27-47)
. Later Opposition (4:6-24)
VIII. Final Reforms (13:1-31)
God’s Encouragement (5:1-2)
Official Inquiry (5:3-17) Overview
@ . Completion
OTST and Dedication The Book of Ezra opens with six chapters
of the Temple (6:1-22) detailing the first return after Cyrus’s de-
cree in 538 B.c. Zerubbabel, grandson of
III. Second Emigration (7:1-8:36) King Jehoiachin, provided the political
A. Ezra (7:1-10) leadership during this time, and the
B. Official Recognition (7:11-26) prophets Haggai and Zechariah supplied
C. Ezra’s Praise (7:27-28) the spiritual inspiration. Ezra 7-10 de-
D. The Emigrants (8:1-14) scribes Ezra’s return to Jerusalem, his ef-
E. A Search for Levites (8:15-20) fective ministry, and his confrontation with
FE. The Journey (8:21-36) those who had married unbelievers.
The Book of Nehemiah opens with six
IV. Intermarriage (9:1-15)
chapters based on Nehemiah’s own mem-
V. Confession and Separation oirs. After introducing the reader to Ne-
(10:1--44) hemiah, this unit relates how he journeyed
The Confession (10:1-17) to Jerusalem from Persia and successfully
Those Guilty of Intermarriage rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem against con-
(10:18-44) siderable odds. The rest of Nehemiah
(chapters 7-13) deals with the religious
NEHEMIAH
and social reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah.
I. A Pathetic Report (1:1-11) First RETURN AND THE REBUILDING
A. The Report (1:1-3) OF THE TEMPLE (Ezr 1-6)
B. Nehemiah’s Prayer (1:4-11) After King Cyrus of Persia captured Baby-
II. Nehemiah’s Commissioning lon, he issued a decree releasing the Jews
and permitting them to return to their
(2:1-20)
homeland (1:2-4, see illustration 17.1). In
III. Jerusalem’s Wall and Gates 538 B.c., the first group of Jews returned
(3:1-7:3) to Jerusalem under the leadership of
A. The Builders (3:1-32) Zerubbabel (2:2). The relationship of
B. Opposition from Without Zerubbabel to Sheshbazzar, who is also
(4:1-23) called the governor of Judah (1:8), is un-
C. Opposition from Within certain. While some scholars have con-
(5:1-19) cluded they were the same individual with
D. Further Opposition from two names, it is better to assume Shesh-
Without (6:1-14) bazzar was the first Persian governor of
E. Completion of the Wall Judah and began the work on the temple’s
foundation. At some later unknown date,
(6:15-19)
Zerubbabel replaced him as governor and
IV. The Exiles (7:1-73) finished the work.
265
Encountering the Historical Books

The very presence of Zerubbabel gave that occurred fifty years later, when the
hope to this first group of returning Jews. Samaritans stopped the Jews from re-
Because he was in the direct line of King building the walls of Jerusalem. The men-
David and had been placed in a position tion of their opposition to rebuilding the
of leadership by the Persians, he was the temple reminded the author of later sim-
object of messianic hopes (Hg 2:23; Zec ilar trouble. He inserted 4:6-23 paren-
4:14). As such, Zerubbabel played an im- thetically in order to present the total pic-
portant role in the early restoration period. ture of conflict between Jews and
But for reasons that the biblical authors Samaritans during this general time pe-
fail to explain, he simply disappeared from riod. Verse 24 pulls the reader back to the
the record after the temple was rebuilt. difficulties of rebuilding the temple, a topic
Under the leadership of Zerubbabel and left off in 4:1-5.4 The author has included
Jeshua the high priest (variant spelling of the accounts of Samaritan opposition in
Joshua), the returnees quickly began chapter 4 ina literary fashion rather than
restoring Jerusalem. First, they dedicated a chronological one.
themselves to reestablishing their God- Chapters 5 and 6 conclude the narrative
given forms of worship (3:16). Next, they on the temple’s reconstruction. After lay-
began rebuilding the temple, the most im- ing its foundation in 536 B.c., the Jews had
portant element of their national identity failed to finish the building due to oppo-
(3:7-6:22). They were able to lay the foun- sition and hardship. Sixteen years later,
dation for the new temple with great the Spirit of God moved the prophets Hag-
pomp and ceremony (3:10-11). But many gai and Zechariah to inspire the people
were old enough to remember the former (see chapter 34). Haggai urged the Jews to
glory of Solomon’s original temple. They pay as much attention to God’s house as
could see this new structure was going to they did to their own. Zechariah encour-
be plain by comparison. Many cried in dis- aged the people with his visions and ser-
couragement during the praise ceremony. mons of future blessings if they would
The cries of praise and thanksgiving obey God’s will. Their ministries moti-
blended with the cries of disappointment vated Zerubbabel, Jeshua, and the people
and loss (3:12-13). God’s work demands to continue the work. Despite ongoing op-
all that we have, and sometimes challenges position from their neighbors, the Jews
us to go beyond what we think we are ca- completed the temple in 516 B.c. and
pable of doing. But ultimately, life in his reestablished the religious personnel with
service is always rewarding and fulfilling. joyful celebration (6:14-18).
The Jews were unable to finish the tem-
ple. Their resources were insufficient and SECOND RETURN UNDER Ezra (Ezr 7-10)
the work was hard. In addition, they ex- The second unit of the Book of Ezra re-
perienced fierce opposition at every hand. counts Ezra’s return to Jerusalem and his
The Samaritans in the north were descen- ministry there. The author has skipped ap-
dants of the mixed marriages between Is- proximately fifty-eight years from the con-
raelites and various groups moved into struction of the second temple to Ezra’s
Samaria by the Assyrians after Israel fell return in 458 B.c. We know almost noth-
in 722 B.c. (2 Kgs 17:24). They initially of- ing about the restoration community dur-
fered to assist in the rebuilding efforts. But ing this interval. Although this author was
Zerubbabel, Jeshua, and the Jews proba- intensely interested in history, his main
bly detected subversive motives behind concern was not to write a thorough his-
the offer. They used Cyrus’s decree (1:24) tory of the postexilic community, but to
as an excuse to exclude the Samaritans trace the important religious and theo-
from participating in the work. Snubbed logical ideas that shaped that community.
by this rejection, the Samaritans proved Ezra was the towering figure of the
themselves to be true “enemies of Judah restoration community. His genealogy
and Benjamin” by opposing the work of traced his lineage back to Aaron, brother
the Jews (4:1-5).$ of Moses and first high priest (7:1-5). Such
The account of Samaritan opposition to an impressive heritage validated Ezra’s
the Jews in 4:6-23 is out of chronological right to function as scribe (7:6), which
sequence. This section details the conflict meant he was a student and teacher of the
266
 Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther

law, not just a copyist. He was a guardian grow in our obedience, and, like Ezra,
of the tora of Moses, implying he contin- teach others by word and example.
ued the traditions of the Pentateuch, the In 458 B.c., Ezra led a second group of
law of God (see p. 62). The “gracious Jews back from exile in Babylon, some
hand” of God was upon Ezra (7:6, 9), be- eighty years after Zerubbabel’s first return
cause he had devoted himself (literally, (Ezr 7-8). Again, God’s hand was upon
“fixed his heart’) to the law of the Lord the returnees, so that they made the trip
(7:10). He was a blessed scholar, because quickly and safely (8:31-32).
he sought to do more than study. Ezra The all-consuming question for the
strove also to live and teach God’s ways restoration community during this period
(7:10). Likewise, as we grow in our un- was how to maintain a distinctive iden-
derstanding of God’s word, we must also tity ina changing world. With the loss of

cr npire
eturn to Jerusalem

Aleppo

Tadmor

Jerusalem
Persepolis

Lo Persian Empire

Nehemiah’s route to Nippur

=————=_ Likely route of Nehemiah and Ezra

Likely route of Zerubbabel

267
Encountering the Historical Books

) _ Excerpts from the Cyrus Cylinder

~The “Cyrus Cylinder,” discovered in Babylon in placing them in Babylon. But | resettled them
1879, illustrates the religious tolerance and peacefully in their former chapels where they
pluralism of the Persian period. are happy.
May all the gods whom | have resettled in
/ returned the divine statues from many their former sanctuaries intercede dailyonmy
sacred cities to their sanctuaries, which had behalf to Marduk and his son Nabu. May they
been in ruins for a long period of time. | ask for me to have a long life and may they
reestablished permanent sanctuaries for them. say to Marduk, my lord, “May Cyrus the king
At the command of Marduk, Great God of who worships you and Cambyses his son, .
Babylon, | restored the gods taken by
1Edwin M. Yamauchi, Persi<
Nabonidus. He had angered Marduk by taking
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990), 87-8: ind A
captive the gods of Sumer and Akkad and

KAY
Davidic kingship and national indepen- and Ahab). Ezra led the people in a pub-
syncretism
dence, the Jews had lost all tangible signs lic prayer of repentance (9:5-15). The
of God’s blessings. How could little Judah mixed marriages were not simply a mat-
maintain a national identity as the people ter of racial purity, nor was this legalism.
of God in the vast Persian Empire? They were “sins” that resulted in “guilt”
Moreover, the principal theological ideal (9:6). Ezra’s prayer makes it clear that such
that held sway throughout the Persian Em- marriages were tantamount to repeating
pire was religious syncretism, or the merg- the great sins of their ancestors. These mar-
ing of differing religious beliefs into one riages would have to end or the exile
system. The whole world seemed to be- would never really be over. The Jews of
lieve all roads led to heaven and no single the restoration community were in dan-
group had the right to claim an exclusive ger of melding into the Persian Empire.
handle on truth. Yet ancient Israelite Yah- Doing nothing would have meant the end
wism was by definition exclusivistic. And of God’s people (9:14).
Israel’s sacred Scripture claimed God had Moved by Ezra’s deep contrition, the
uniquely revealed himself to Israel. Na- people consented to radical measures
tional Israel had in fact failed because of (10:1-4). Ezra had not exercised his legal
her unwillingness to worship Yahweh and authority to dissolve the marriages with-
Yahweh alone. Would it be possible for
out the consent of the people, for this was
later Judah to resist the same impulses and
more than a legal matter. These marriages
to withstand the universal pressure to com-
jeopardized the covenant community and
promise her religious distinctiveness?
the revelation of God himself. Extreme and
This is the background to Ezra’s dismay
drastic measures were required to prevent
at the news that many in Judah, including
the leadership, had intermarried with
Yahwism from dissolving and blending
neighboring peoples who practiced pagan into the amalgam of religious practices of
religions (9:14). Marriage to foreigners the Persian period. Over a three-month
had not been categorically forbidden in period, the mixed marriages were sys-
the law, nor was this simply a prescription tematically dissolved (10:12-44).
against interracial marriage. Rather, this NEHEMIAH REBUILDS JERUSALEM'S WALLS
was consistently a religious problem.° Is- (NEH 1-6)
rael’s history illustrated graphically how The opening paragraph of the book im-
quickly Israelite religion deteriorated due plies that some recent catastrophe had be-
to interfaith marriages (examples are Jgs fallen the city. The inhabitants of Jerusalem
3:5-6 and the royal marriages of Solomon were in distress and its walls lay in ruins
268
 Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther

my requests,” 2:8). Though Jerusalem was

surrounded by fierce opponents (2:10, 19),
Nehemiah inspired the people to begin re-
building (2:17-18).
Nehemiah 3 is a remarkable list of in-
dividuals who shared the responsibilities
of the work. Priests led the way, but peo-
ple from all walks of life joined in, truly
making this a joint effort. Archaeological
evidence has verified some of the details
of this chapter, and suggests Nehemiah’s
Jerusalem was smaller than the preexilic
city.”
The rest of this unit (4:1-6:19) recounts
the difficulties the Jews encountered when
they began rebuilding the city walls. The
problems were both external and internal.
The Samaritans under Sanballat and other
adversaries from among the Ammonites,
Arabs, and Ashdodites opposed the work
(4:7). In short, Nehemiah had enemies all
around him. But he constantly encouraged
the people to keep working and praying.
Half his crew worked construction, while
the other half stayed armed and ready to
defend the city (4:16). His method of deal-
ing with opposition was prayer followed
by suitable action (4:9) and he always gave
God credit for successes (4:15).
Nehemiah was concerned with more
than Jerusalem’s physical structures. The
A model of the (1:3). It seems likely that the crisis de- city’s social ills also threatened to undo
Second Temple.
The first concern
scribed in Ezra 4:23-24 had left the city God’s work among the Jews (chapter 5).
of Ezra and the without sufficient defenses.° By 445 B.c., An economic crisis had led some Jews into
returning Jewish Jerusalem's future was at risk and God’s slavery and others had mortgaged their
exiles was to people were in danger. The first six chap- property. Social injustice would turn the
rebuild the
temple. ters of the Book of Nehemiah narrate the physical rebuilding into a futile activity.
events of Nehemiah’s arrival in Jerusalem Nehemiah called for clemency from the
and his leadership in rebuilding the walls. leaders. Debts were forgiven and eco-
Nehemiah was an exiled Jew who had nomic stability restored. Nehemiah’s re-
risen to high office in the Persian Empire markable leadership is exemplary in chap-
(like the exiles Daniel and Esther). His title ter 5. His ability to lead the people to make
as the “cupbearer” to King Artaxerxes I of hard moral decisions was undoubtedly
Persia does not mean Nehemiah was a because of his leadership by example. He
royal butler, but more like a personal ad- refused to accept the governor’s expense
visor to the emperor of the world (1:11). account, which other governors before him
Upon hearing the news that his people in had used (vv. 14-19). These monies came
Jerusalem were still in disgrace, Nehemiah from the taxes that had caused much of
prayed that God would grant him success the hardship among the people in the first
before his master (1:11). Ina turn of events place. In many ways, Nehemiah provides
Nehemiah believed was miraculous, Ar- a beautiful example of Christian stew-
taxerxes permitted him to move to ardship. It was legal for Nehemiah to take
Jerusalem and provided the means and the governor’s wages, but not just. Some
protection necessary to rebuild the city’s things are legal, but not right for the Chris-
defenses (“because the gracious hand of tian. The closer we draw to God, the less
my God was upon me, the king granted we ask what is permissible (“What can I
269
Encountering the Historical Books

get away with and still be a Christian?”) the people in confession of their national
and the more we think about what pleases guilt (chapter 9). And the covenant of God
him. with Israel was reestablished, as pre-
In Nehemiah 6, the external opponents scribed in the Pentateuch (9:38-10:39). All
to Nehemiah’s work tried one more ap- genuine revivals throughout history have
proach. In chapter 4, they began by mock- been rooted in a renewed interest in God’s
ing and deriding the plans to rebuild the word.
walls (vv. 2-3). Then they tried to intimi- The rest of the book recounts Ne-
date the builders (vv. 7-8). Here they at- hemiah’s other measures to strengthen the
tack Nehemiah personally. But Ne- people of Jerusalem. The restored city was
hemiah’s resolve and devotion prevailed, able to hold more population. Nehemiah
and the walls were completed in only fifty- 11 describes how more citizens were
two days (6:15). brought to live there and gives a list of the
Ezra’s AND NEHEMIAH’S REFORMS city’s expanded population. The list of
(NEH 7-13) priests (12:1-26) stressed continuity with
After construction of the city walls, this last the past, which was vital for the psycho-
logical well-being of the nation. Nehemiah
unit of Nehemiah details the social and re-
ligious reforms undertaken by Ezra and Ne- 12:27-47 is the climax of Nehemiah’s ca-
reer. With great joy and celebration, the
hemiah. Indeed, it is possible to view this
people dedicated Jerusalem’s restored
as the second and last section of a two-part
walls. This great “dedication” (hanukka,
volume. Part 1 narrates three great returns
12:27) parallels the dedication of the tem-
led by Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah
ple in Ezra 6:17. Nehemiah 13 concludes
(Ezr and Neh 1-4). Part 2 relates the renewal
with other social and religious reforms led
and reform of the congregation.®
by Nehemiah.
Nearly a hundred years after Zerubba-
bel’s first return, the population of Problems of Interpretation
Jerusalem was still small (Neh 7:4). In
order to encourage them, Nehemiah felt The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah raise
inspired to register the people by ge- several questions that have been answered
nealogies (7:5). Though reading chapter 7 in diverse ways over the years. Of these,
may seem tedious today, these lists of authorship and chronology are the most
names were an important source of com- pressing.
fort in that day. The list elaborated on Authorship
Ezra’s original list (Ezr 2) and demon- The scholarly consensus for many years
strated continuity with the past. When all was that the same author was responsible
seemed lost and hopeless, these details for Chronicles and Ezra-—Nehemiah, and
proved God's blessings extended across that this single author was probably Ezra
the centuries. himself. But as we have said, that con-
With God’s help, the people had rebuilt sensus has crumbled (chapter 10, and es-
the temple and the walls of Jerusalem. The pecially chapter 17, note 3). In recent
spiritual and political leaders (Ezra and decades, scholars have garnered impres-
Nehemiah) recognized that the time was sive evidence in favor of separate authors
right to renew the covenant. The unit in for Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah.?
Nehemiah 8-10 records Ezra’s ministry of Unlike most Old Testament narratives,
the word and details one of the most vivid these books often use first-person accounts,
covenant ceremonies in the Bible. Ina dra- giving insight into the ultimate origins of
matic public reading of the law of Moses the material. For example, the use of first-
(8:1-12), the people learned of God’s great person narration beginning in Ezra 7:28
love and commitment to them. makes it unlikely anyone but Ezra wrote
Ezra’s ministry of the word of God had Ezra 7-10. Much the same can be said
several profound effects on the people. about large sections of Nehemiah and his
They responded quickly in reverence and so-called memoirs. As a result, it is likely
true worship (8:6; 9:3). They revived the that these books developed in three stages.
ancient customs for celebrating the Feast First, anonymous historians compiled sev-
of Tabernacles (8:13-18). The Levites led eral primary sources roughly contempo-
270
 Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther

raneous with the events they relate. Sec- the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah is cor-
ond, the memoirs written by Ezra and Ne- rect. But if the reference is to Artaxerxes II,
hemiah themselves were compiled around Ezra’s return would be 398 B.c.
400 p.c. These make up the sections con- Scholars who contend for this reverse
taining the first-person accounts. Finally, sequence argue this explains why Ne-
an editor around 300 B.c. composed Ezra hemiah never mentions Ezra in his mem-
1-6 and added these chapters as an intro- oirs (Neh 1-7 and most of 12-13). Ezra’s
duction to the whole composition.!” ministry, they believe, would not have
begun until several decades later. How-
Chronology
ever, the isolation of Nehemiah’s memoirs
The second difficulty in Ezra-Nehemiah from the rest of the book is a subjective
is the sequence of the events described. matter, and Nehemiah’s failure to men-
According to the internal evidence of the tion Ezra by name in his first-person ac-
books, the chronology seems quite counts is an argument from silence. The
straightforward. alternative date for Ezra’s return raises
more questions than it answers. The bib-
538 Cyrus’s decree lical evidence in favor of the traditional
520 Work on the temple renewed sequence of events is impressive, and the
515 Completion of the temple difficulties it raises are not insurmount-
458 Ezra’s return to Jerusalem able. It is far better to accept the traditional
445 Nehemiah’s journey to Jerusalem chronology as presented in the books
themselves. !!
Part of the But for several complex reasons, many
Western Wall, scholars have reversed the order of Ezra’s
Jerusalem. Some
and Nehemiah’s trips to Jerusalem. The
of the oldest
masonry in the date for Ezra’s return is given as the sev- The Book of Esther.
Temple Mount enth year of Artaxerxes in Ezra 7:7-8. As- The Old Testament historical books close
dates to the
suming this is Artaxerxes I, the date is fixed with this romantic drama written as a short
time of
Zerubbabel. at 458 B.c., and the sequence presented in story, yet having all the marks of authentic

271
Encountering the Historical Books

history. The events described in the Book Outline

monotheism
of Esther began in 483 B.c. (1:3). This means
I. Vashti’s Refusal (1:1—22)
these things happened between the first re-
turn under Zerubbabel (538 B.c.) and the II. Esther’s Accession (2:1-18)
second return led by Ezra (458 B.c.). The ac-
tion takes place in and around Susa, the III. Mordecai’s Service (2:19-23)
capital of the Persian Empire (see map on
p. 255). IV. Haman’s Plot (3:1-15)
The author nowhere refers to God in this V. Mordecai’s Request (4:1-17)
book, nor does he mention Abraham, the
covenant, prayer, or Davidic kingship. Es- VI. Esther’s Request (5:1-14)
ther is never quoted in the New Testament
and is the only Old Testament book not VII. Mordecai’s Reward (6:1-14)
represented in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Over
the centuries, many have discounted the VIII. Haman’s Punishment (7:1-10)
book as hopelessly secular and wondered IX. The King’s Edict (8:1-17)
how it came to be included in the canon.
However, the power of the message lies X. The Jews’ Triumph (9:1-10:3)
partly in its subtlety. Indeed, the author
Overview
seems to entice his reader into a web of
subtleties too ironic and interconnected to The author structured the Book of Esther
be mere happenstance. A larger power is around a problem-solution format. After
at work here, and in this context, it becomes a two-chapter introduction giving the nec-
clear that God is the main character of the essary historical background, the prob-
book. The author wants to demonstrate lem—Haman’s evil plot—is introduced in
that even where God is not apparent, he is chapter 3. The rest of the book presents
at work on behalf of his people. the solution gradually.
EsTHER BECOMES QUEEN (CHAPTERS 1—2)
Contents The book’s opening chapters introduce the
As we saw in the discussion of Ezra and reader to the main characters, Esther and
Nehemiah, the question of Jewish dis- Mordecai, and explain how they came to
tinctiveness and the exclusive worship of occupy such exalted positions in the Per-
Yahweh was the critical question for God’s sian Empire. When Queen Vashti refused
people in Jerusalem during the rule of the a whimsical and foolish request of King
Persian Empire. Those Jews who still lived Ahasuerus (Xerxes I, 486-465 B.c.), he im-
in exile, like Esther and Mordecai, strug- mediately deposed her (chapter 1). In the
gled with the same issue. The worship of search to find a suitable replacement for
Yahweh could never be one religion the queen, the king’s representatives
among many, as the Persians insisted. Ex- searched throughout the kingdom for the
clusive monotheism was not compatible most attractive young virgins from whom
with Persian pluralism. To the Persians, the king could choose a new queen (2:1-4).
who valued inclusiveness, the Jews Among these young women, one stood
seemed unreasonably intolerant, which out above the rest. Esther was the niece
led to hostility. and adopted daughter of Mordecai the
The Book of Esther demonstrates how Jew (her own parents were dead, Est 2:7).
God's people should respond to a plural- The lovely Esther was well liked by all
istic and multireligious society. In the who knew her at the palace. The king
worst of circumstances, God is looking for loved Esther more than all the other can-
people who will trust him and him alone. didates, and he made her his new queen
The book tells the story of a beautiful (2:17). All the while, according to Morde-
woman and her uncle who risked their cai’s instructions, Esther chose not to re-
lives to save the Jews from destruction. veal her identity as a Jew, in order not to
The story is one of danger, intrigue, and arouse suspicion of disloyalty to the em-
suspense. The book also explains the his- pire. This last point is stated in 2:10 and
torical origins of the Jewish Feast of Purim again in 2:20 to arouse suspense and
(see below). heighten the drama.
272
 Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther

An artist's
rendering of a
griffin, froma
glazed-block
relief at Susa,
capital of the
Persian Empire.

At the end of the introduction, the au- identity as a Jew and to plead for the life
thor includes one last bit of background of her people (chapter 4). But no one was
that becomes important later. Mordecai allowed to approach the king unsum-
secretly learned of a plot to assassinate moned at the risk of execution (4:11). Es-
King Ahasuerus (2:21—23). He told Esther, ther was finally convinced to risk her life
who warned the king and prevented the for her fellow Jews by Mordecai’s pene-
coup from taking place. The plotters were trating question, which is the theme of the
executed and Mordecai’s deed was book: “Who knows but that you have come
recorded in official Persian documents. to royal position for such a time as this?”
Haman’s Evit PLot To Destroy (4:14). God’s favor is never meant to be
THE JEws (CHAPTER 3) squandered in selfish indulgence. Achiev-
ing God’s purpose for our existence is more
Sometime later, Mordecai’s devotion as a
important than personal comfort. Esther
Jew led to trouble. Palace officials of the
agreed to risk her life in an attempt to in-
king’s prime minister, Haman, noted that
tercede. But first she instructed all Jews in
Mordecai refused to bow down to Haman,
Susa to fast for three days. Her resolve rings
as all royal officials had to do. Mordecai
in the words, “If I perish, I perish” (4:16).
refused to pay to any human the adora-
Three days later, Esther approached
tion and worship due only to God. En-
King Ahasuerus, who fortunately received
raged, Haman convinced the king to issue her without hesitation. Surprisingly, she
an official Persian edict, commanding the
requested only a private dinner with the
slaughter of the Jewish people, who were king and Haman for that evening. At the
obstacles to Haman’s personal ambitions. dinner, she requested they meet again for
By casting purim, or lots, they determined dinner the next evening. Haman’s joy at
that all Jews would be killed on the thir- being included in these private banquets
teenth day of the month Adar (3:7, 13). As with the royal couple quickly changed to
an official Persian decree, the order was rage when he saw Mordecai again refus-
irrevocable (1:19; 8:8; cf. Dn 6:8, 12, 15). ing to bow down to him (5:9). In anger, he
MorDEcA! AND EsTHER ACT ordered the construction of a seventy-five-
TO SAVE THE Jews (CHAPTERS 4-10) foot gallows just outside his home, where
Only one hope remained for saving the he intended to hang Mordecai (5:14).
Jewish people. Only Esther had the per- Ina manner that can only be explained
sonal influence with the king necessary to in God’s sovereign providence, the king
prevent the tragedy from becoming a re- was unable to sleep that night (6:1). He
ality. Mordecai urged Esther to reveal her asked for his journal to be read aloud, and

273
Encountering the Historical Books

Summary

. The Books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Es- 7. The author of Ezra and Nehemiah was
ther have a common origin in the Per- unique in that he used first-person
sian period of Jewish history. accounts.

. King Cyrus of Persia captured Babylon . The Book of Esther-is a romantic novel
and issued a decree that released the that is written as a short story.
Jews.
. The exclusive worship of God was a
. The Jews were able to rebuild the tem- critical matter for the Jews during the
ple in Jerusalem, but because of nu- rule of the Persian Empire. The Book of
merous problems, it was not completed Esther shows how God's people should
until 516 B.c. respond in a pluralistic society.
. Ezra was an important scribe in the 10. The Jewish Feast of Purim originated
community of Jews that returned from because of the way God saved Morde-
Babylon. cai from Haman.
5. Nehemiah was concerned that the
walls of Jerusalem were in ruins, and
he was the person who was able to
motivate the people to rebuild them.
6. Ezra and Nehemiah led the people in
the renewal of the covenant.

was thus reminded of how Mordecai had had in mind, the king asked Haman what
saved his life. When he learned that special rewards he could bestow ona man
Mordecai had never been properly re- he wanted especially to honor. Haman,
warded, he summoned Haman, who had unable to imagine anyone more deserv-
just arrived. Without disclosing whom he ing than himself, assumed the king
wanted to honor him. He suggested what
he deemed a suitable reward. The king
should give that man a royal robe and
horse, and a noble prince to march before
him through the city, crying, “This is what
is done for the man the king delights to
honor!” (6:7-9). King Ahasuerus thought
that sounded fine. The reward went to
Mordecai, and in an amazing twist of
Key Terms irony, Haman was the noble prince who
escorted him through the city (6:11).
syncretism After such a humiliating experience,
monotheism Haman must have hoped for better things
from the dinner with the king and queen
later that evening. But at dinner Esther re-
vealed Haman’s evil intentions and
pleaded for mercy for her people (7:3-6).
274
 Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther

Appalled at Haman’s behavior, the king enemies (9:1-19). The next day, the four-
ordered that he be hanged on the very gal- teenth, became a day of great celebration,
lows he had intended for Mordecai except in Susa, where more battles oc-
(7:9-10). But there is even more irony. The curred. The Jews of Susa celebrated their
king gave Haman’s estate to Esther, who victory on the fifteenth of Adar (9:16-19).
gave it to Mordecai. The king also made Mordecai and Esther wrote to all the
Mordecai the successor to Haman (8:1-2). Jews of the empire, establishing the feast
The matter of Haman’s decree still of Purim as an annual time of celebration
posed a problem. It could not be revoked, on the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar
but the king allowed Mordecai to issue an- (9:20-28). The holiday was called Purim
other official decree in an effort to counter because of the pur, or “lot,” which Haman
its effects. The second order allowed the cast to determine the date of his proposed
Jews in every city of the Persian Empire extermination of the Jews. These two days
to defend themselves from any attack on in the month of Adar became permanent
the thirteenth day of the month of Adar reminders of how their sorrow turned to
(8:3-17). On the dreaded day, the Jews suc- joy and their mourning into celebration
cessfully defended themselves from their (9:22). The book closes with a brief note on

Study Questions

r)«fl
P\P\

Ezra-Nehemiah 9. What social problems are found

among the Israelites at this time?
as What period of time is covered in the
Books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther? 10. Discuss the problems of authorship
and chronology connected to Ezra and
. Discuss some of the important differ-
Nehemiah.
ences among these books. How do
these differences make the books AL: What are some of the theological
complement each other? themes of Ezra and Nehemiah?
. Why are Ezra and Nehemiah often Esther
studied as one continuous work?
ile What unusual feature does the Book
. What role did Ezra play among the re- of Esther have?
turning exiles?
. What is the theme of this book?
. What is the all-consuming question
. Discuss the subtleties of this book and
faced by the people at this time?
how they affect the story being told.
. Discuss the concept of Israelite Yah-
. Who is the main character of Esther?
wism as exCclusivistic.
. What does the Book of Esther teach
. Why were the mixed marriages found
about life in a pluralistic and multi-
in the Book of Ezra a threat to God's
religious society?
people at this time?
. With what events is the Book of Ne-
hemiah concerned?

275
Encountering the Historical Books

Further Reading

Baldwin, Joyce G. Esther: An Introduction and McConville, J. Gordon. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther.
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament Daily Study Bible. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985.
Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1984. Moore, Carey A. Esther: Introduction, Translation,
Baldwin is always useful reading. and Notes. Anchor Bible 7B. Garden City, N.Y.:
Clines, David J. A. Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. New Doubleday, 1971. Excellent, though critical
Century Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids/London: commentary.
Eerdmans/Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1984. Williamson, H. G. M. Ezra, Nehemiah. Word Biblical
Carefully written and containing many helpful Commentary 16. Waco, Tex.: Word, 1985. Lucid
insights. and original, this is easily the best commentary
Fensham, F. Charles. The Books of Ezra and available.
Nehemiah. New International Commentary on the . Ezra and Nehemiah. Old Testament Guides.
Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982. Sheffield: JSOT, 1987.
Helpful and thoroughly evangelical.
Howard, David M., Jr. An Introduction to the Old
Testament Historical Books. Chapter 9: “Ezra-
Nehemiah,” 273-313. Chicago: Moody, 1993.
Kidner, Derek. Ezra and Nehemiah: An Introduction
and Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament
Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1979.

the successes of King Ahasuerus and his torical events together is the author’s as-
second in command, Mordecai (10:1-3). sumption that they are “divinely related
steps in what may properly be regarded
as a history of salvation.”!* The direct in-
tervention of God is less visible here than
in the exodus and conquest narratives that
are so commonly referred to as salvation-
Ezra and Nehemiah
history. But this author has tied many di-
The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah take for verse types of historical material together
granted the truth of many elements of an- with the assumption that together they
cient Israel’s faith. They build on the great portray God’s handiwork.
principles of Old Testament theology in- The way in which Ezra and Nehemiah
stituted in earlier books, but with new em-
are most obviously indebted to what pre-
phases. For example, this author, like ear-
ceded is the emphasis on “the law of the
lier biblical authors, gives pride of place to
Lorp” or “the law of Moses” (Ezr 7:10;
history in ancient Israel's religion. He de-
Neh 8:1; etc.). The author refers to other
scribes events separated by a century or
more, often with large gaps of silence be- sections of sacred Scripture as well, such
tween the events. The author groups sto- as Jeremiah (Ezr 1:1) and the Psalms (Ezr
ries of opposition literarily in Ezra 4, though 3:11). The Old Testament attached special
these historical events were separated by significance to God’s word from the be-
five decades. Or he moves easily from the ginning. But with Ezra and Nehemiah,
construction of the temple (516 B.c.) to the Scripture was elevated to a new level of
arrival of Ezra (458 B.c.), with no discus- authority and power. This dominant role
sion of the intervening decades (Ezr 6-7). of Scripture continued in both Judaism
The overarching theme tying these his- and Christianity.

276
 Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther

Esther tain the report of Mordecai’s good deed.

Some would suggest it is futile to speak These “coincidences” are not limited to
of theological ideas in Esther, since God is the realm of God’s people. Persian kings
nowhere mentioned in the book. But the and royal officials also move and act under
story contains a remarkable series of “co- the unseen hand of the great Sovereign
incidences.” Esther happened to be selected Lord. Though God is not mentioned, he
as Vashti’s successor; Mordecai happened is the central character of the book, more
to uncover the plan to assassinate the king; so than Esther or Mordecai. This makes
Ahasuerus happened to have insomnia on the Book of Esther extremely relevant for
the night before Haman planned to kill our day, for God is still sovereignly at work
Mordecai; the selection of royal chronicles to save his people.
read to the king that night happened to con-

207
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Encountering th
Poetical Books
ANNONA AON OS
19 Introduction
to the Poetical Books
The Literature of God's People

What
Are the Poetical Books?
© Common Characteristics
of Hebrew Poetry
ns Meter
~ Parallelism
-Chiasm
Acrostics
_¢ Ugaritic Parallels i 4
e ah Poetical Books Themselves Objectives
After reading this chapter,
you should be able to
¢ Name the poetical books
of the Old Testament
e Illustrate the four common characteristics
of Hebrew poetry
¢ Define the types of parallelism
° Give an example of chiasm
e Explain how an acrostic is used
as a literary device in poetry
* Explain how the discovery of the Ugaritic —
language has enhanced our
understanding of Hebrew poetry
* State the basic contribution made _
by each poetical book

281
Encountering the Poetical Books

AMUN SUNUY LESTE

as SNOW,” “The LAMB was SURE to
meter

AAA AEG
What Are the GO.” The second and,fourth lines also
have last words (“snow,” “go”) that
rhyme
Poetical Books? rhyme.
AAA NN
When we use the expression “poetical Hebrew poetry relies much more on
parallelism
books,” we are referring to the Books of meter than on rhyme, though rhyme
ALLAN
Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and sometimes does occur. Some commenta-
synonymous
parallelism Song of Songs. Poetry also occurs in many tors have suggested ancient writers used
other Old Testament books, but these five metric patterns to convey certain moods
AAA or ideas.” These scholars do not agree com-
antithetic books contain a large portion of it. Fur-
parallelism thermore, in every poetical book except pletely, but they do concur that Hebrew
Ecclesiastes, poetry provides the pre- poetry clearly uses a variety of metric
ATALANTA
synthetic dominant literary form. Ecclesiastes nev- styles.
parallelism ertheless became associated with the po-
etical books at some early time, probably Parallelism
because of its affinities with Hebrew wis- Parallelism is the most important feature
dom literature. of Hebrew poetry.? When we use the
This chapter highlights some of the basic term, we mean we have at least two par-
characteristics of Hebrew poetry and also allel lines of verse, that is, each comple-
briefly compares Hebrew poetry with the ments the other(s) in some way. Typically,
poetry of its ancient Near Eastern neigh- the lines display parallelism of thought
bors. Doing so will help clarify the special rather than parallelism of rhyme or
contribution the poetical books have made sound. Three primary types of paral-
to the Bible and to our Christian faith. lelism occur in Hebrew poetry: synony-
mous parallelism, antithetic parallelism,
A TT IN and synthetic parallelism. .

Common Synonymous parallelism

Synonymous parallelism involves a rep-
Characteristics of etition of the same thought or a similar
Hebrew Poetry thought. The two parts basically reflect the
same idea. For example, consider Psalm
Hebrew scholars disagree over what ex- 19d:
actly constitutes Hebrew poetry.' Never-
theless, they agree that Hebrew poetry typ- The heavens declare the glory of God;
ically displays certain characteristics. The the skies proclaim the work of his hands.
most common are discussed below.
The two lines repeat the same basic
Meter
thought. “Heavens” and “skies” are par-
In most modern poetry, meter and rhyme allel, as are “declare” and “proclaim.” “The
play important roles. Each line follows a work of his hands” parallels “the glory of
certain meter or accent pattern and the last God.” Another well-known example is
words of lines often rhyme. Consider the Proverbs 9:10:
following nursery rhyme:
The fear of the Lorn is the beginning of
Mary had a little lamb, wisdom,
Its fleece was white as snow. and knowledge of the Holy One is under-
And everywhere that Mary went standing.
The lamb was sure to go.
For other examples, see Proverbs 16:18,
Notice the meter and rhyme of this verse. 28; 18:6-7.
The first and third lines have four basic Synonymous parallelism can also occur
accents—“MA-ry HAD a LIT-tle LAMB,” using questions. Note Psalm 15:1:
“And EV-ry-WHERE that MA-ry WENT.”
The second and fourth lines have three Lorp, who may dwell in your sanctuary?
basic accents—“Its FLEECE was WHITE Who may live on your holy hill?

282
 Introduction to the Poetical Books

The psalms
would
sometimes have
been
accompanied by
musical
instruments such
as these.

Again, the two lines complement each provides a clue. Psalm 1:6 gives us a good
other, reflecting the same idea. Each pre- example:
sents a question, and “sanctuary” parallels
“holy hill,” the place of God’s sanctuary. For the Lorp watches over the way of the
righteous,
Sometimes in synonymous parallelism
But the way of the wicked will perish.
the second line will not totally parallel the
first line. In such a case we have incom- The psalmist contrasted the Lord’s prov-
plete parallelism. Psalm 24:1 provides a idential care of his people with the de-
good example: struction the wicked would someday ex-
perience. The parallel elements likewise
The earth is the Lorp’s, contrast with each other. “Way of the right-
and everything in it, eous” contrasts with “way of the wicked.”
The world, and all who live in it.
“Watches over” contrasts with “perish.”
The Book of Proverbs also yields many
The expression “is the Lorp’s” is missing good examples of antithetic parallelism.
from the second line, but the reader clearly Note how in each example below, the first
understands the thought from the previ- and second lines express opposite ideas:
ous line. Proverbs 19:29 provides another
example: Ill-gotten treasures are of no value,
but righteousness delivers from death
Penalties are prepared for mockers, (10:2).
and beatings for the backs of fools.
Lazy hands make a man poor,
but diligent hands bring wealth (10:4).
In this verse, the verbal idea—"are pre-
pared” —carries over from the first line The memory of the righteous
into the second line. will be a blessing,
Antithetic parallelism but the name of the wicked will rot (10:7).

Antithetic parallelism is easy to recognize. Synthetic parallelism

The two lines stand in sharp contrast to In synthetic parallelism, the second line
each other; usually the conjunction “but” normally completes a thought the first line

283
Encountering the Poetical Books

An Assyrian
relief showing
captive
musicians.

chiasm
left incomplete. The two lines stand in re- thetic parallelism or not, the poetical books
lationship to each other, but that relation- do feature many verses of this type where
ship is not as clearly defined as in syn- the second line completes the thought
onymous or antithetic parallelism. begun in the first.
Some interpreters have questioned
whether synthetic parallelism is really par- Chiasm
allelism at all. They suggest the term Chiasm is another literary feature of He-
merely provides a catch-all category for brew poetry.’ The word “chiasm’” comes
verses that do not display characteristics from the Greek letter “chi,” which is writ-
of synonymous or antithetic parallelism. ten like the letter “X.” Chiasm occurs when
Look at the following examples as you two successive lines of poetry reverse the
consider the question: order in which parallel themes appear,
“criss-crossing” each other. Consider the
Psalm 1:3 He is like a tree planted example below:
by streams of water,
Which yields its fruit in O Lord, forgive me;
season and whose leaf Blot out my sin, O God of my salvation.
does not wither.
Psalm 2:6 Thave installed my King
On Zion, my holy Here we have an example of synonymous
mountain. parallelism; The bold elements parallel
Ecclesiastes 11:1 Cast your bread upon each other and the italic elements parallel
the waters, each other. But notice how the two parts
for after many days you reverse themselves in the second line. “O
will find it again. Lorb” (part A) parallels “O God of my sal-
vation” in the second line, while “forgive
In Psalm 1:3, the second line adds to the me” (part B) parallels “blot out my sin.”
thought of line 1 by further describing the We call this an A-B-B-A pattern because
tree by the water. The second line of Psalm parts A and B switch their order in the sec-
2:6 adds to the thought of the first line by ond line. More complex arrangements also
explaining where God has installed his occur, such as A-B-C-C-B-A.
king—on Zion. The second line of Eccle- Sometimes an extended passage fea-
siastes 11:1 gives the reason for the com- tures chiastic structure. Psalm 8 provides
mand of the first line. such an example. Verses 1 and 9 describe
Whether we call this phenomenon syn- God's majesty. Verses 2-3 describe God’s
284
 Introduction to the Poetical Books

contains an A-B-C-C-B-A pattern. It con-

The Chiastic Structure of Psalm 81 trasts God’s rule and humanity’s, hu-
manity’s smallness and greatness, and
wraps all these thoughts with praise to
A GOD'S EXCELLENT NAME: (1a) O Lord, our Lord, how
God—“O Lorp our Lorb, how majestic is
majestic is your name in all the earth!
your name in all the earth.”°
B GOD'S RULE: (1) You have set your glory above the
heavens. (2) From the lips of children and infants you Acrostics
have ordained praise because of your enemies, to
Acrostics are alphabetic poems. Imagine
silence the foe and the avenger. (3) When | consider
your heavens, the work of your fingers, the moon and
that you wrote a twenty-six-line hymn of
the stars, which you have set in place, praise to God. In an acrostic, the first line
would begin with the letter “A.” The sec-
HUMANITY’S SMALLNESS: (4) what is man that ond line would begin with the letter “B,”
you are mindful of him, the son of man that you the third with “C,” the fourth with “D,” and
care for him?
so on throughout the alphabet. Imagine try-
HUMANITY’S GREATNESS: (5) You made him a ing to stay on the same topic and trying to
little lower than the heavenly beings and crowned fit it all together! (You might even want to
him with glory and honor. try it if you have the time.) This technique
HUMANITY’S RULE: (6) You made him ruler over the
worked the same in biblical Hebrew except
works of your hands; you put everything under his the Hebrew alphabet contained twenty-two
feet: (7) all flocks and herds, and the beasts of the letters instead of twenty-six.
field, (8) the birds of the air, and the fish of the sea, all The poetical books feature many acros-
that swim the paths of the seas. tics. Psalm 119 is probably one of the most
A' GOD'S EXCELLENT NAME: (9) O Lord, our Lord, how
famous examples. The first eight verses
majestic is your name in all the earth!
begin with aleph, the first letter of the He-
brew alphabet. Verses 9-16 begin with beth,
1Adapted from Robert L. Alden, Psalms: Songs of Devotion
(Chicago: Moody, 1974), 24.
the second letter, and so on throughout
the psalm. And each verse emphasizes
something special about the Word of God!
Proverbs 31:10-31, a poem describing the
rule, whereas verses 6-8 describe hu- virtuous woman, also employs acrostic
manity’s rule. Verse 4 describes human- style.
ity’s smallness contrasted with human- Acrostics are one of the many creative
ity’s greatness in verse 5. Thus, the psalm styles human authors used in the writing

ce Excerpts from the Baal Cycle

The following excerpt from a Baal epic from Baal rebukes them: ‘Why, O gods, have
_ Ugarit will help you get a better under- you dropped your heads down on your
_ standing of Baal and his power among the knees and on your princely thrones? | see
Canaanite pantheon: the gods are cowed with terror of Yamm’s
“Now the gods were sitting to eat, the messengers, the envoys of Judge Nahar.
holy ones to dine, Baal attending upon El. Lift up your heads, O gods, from on your
As soon as the gods spy them, spy Yamm’s knees, from on your princely thrones, and
messengers, the envoys of Judge Nahar, I'll answer Yamm’'s messengers, the envoys
the gods drop their heads down on their of Judge Nahar!”
knees and on their princely thrones. Translation adapted from James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near
Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed. (Princeton
N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1969), 130.

285
Encountering the Poetical Books

Shamra) on the Mediterranean coast of

chiasm what is now modern Syria. Archaeologists
acrostics began to excavate Ugarit in 1929, and the
Ugaritic site has proven invaluable for the study
Akkadian of the Bible and of the ancient world from
cuneiform which it came.°
Key Terms polytheistic Ugarit was especially prominent in Syria
Baal from 1500 to 1200 B.c. Archaeologists dis-
meter Asherah covered many texts written in the Akka-
rhyme dian language, but other cuneiform texts
parallelism appeared alongside them. Scholars soon
realized the language was alphabetic and
synonymous parallelism
antithetic parallelism
Key Place contained thirty signs in contrast to the
synthetic parallelism Ras Shamra/Ugarit hundreds of signs in Akkadian. They
named the language Ugaritic.
Ugaritic is very similar to biblical He-
brew even though it uses a different script.
AAACN of God’s word. The Holy Spirit inspired the Hundreds of words appear in both lan-
Upanitc writers to express themselves in ways that guages with basically the same meaning.
TTA would challenge our creative energies today. This fact helps us understand the biblical
Akkadian
text better in at least three ways.
ANNIE Eo TT TRAN First, certain rare Hebrew words occur
cuneiform more commonly in Ugaritic, so we can be
Ugaritic Parallels more certain of the meaning of the bibli-
The term “Ugaritic” denotes the language cal words. Perhaps a rare Hebrew word
spoken at ancient Ugarit (modern Ras occurs in a difficult context, but in Ugaritic

Summary

. The poetical books are Job, Psalms, . Ugaritic contributes to a better under-
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of standing of the Hebrew text in that it
Solomon. adds clarity to rare Hebrew words; it
uses the same style of parallelism; and
. Meter, parallelism, chiasm, and acros-
it provides background about the
tics all play a role in Hebrew poetry.
polytheism of ancient Israel's time.
. Hebrew poetry has three types of par-
. Job is important because it looks at
allelism—synonymous, antithetic, and
the question about why good people
synthetic.
sometimes suffer.
. Chiasm is a literary device in which the
. The Book of Psalms has given us many
content of two parallel lines of poetry
songs from ancient Israel.
is reversed.
. Proverbs provides us with practical
. Acrostic Poetry is written with the first
guidelines for living.
word of every line in alphabetic order.
11. The meaning of life is explored in
. The cuneiform language spoken in an-
Ecclesiastes.
cient Ugarit is called Ugaritic.
This is an alphabetic language made 12: Song of Solomon focuses on the joy
up of thirty signs. of romantic love.

286
 Introduction to the Poetical Books

Study Questions

1. What are some of the common char- 3. Describe the significance of the
acteristics of Hebrew poetry? How Ugaritic tablets to the study of the
does biblical poetry differ from much Bible, particularly to Hebrew poetry.
of our modern poetry?
2. How would you explain parallelism to
someone who had never heard of it?

ATA TANNA
the word occurs a dozen times in clear con- Third, Ugaritic poetry helps us under-
Bags custle texts. We then can try the meaning of the stand the polytheistic world that sur-
ST Ugaritic word for the Hebrew word inthe rounded the Hebrews. The texts reveal
biblical text to see if the Ugaritic meaning muchabout Baaland his consort Asherah,
= fits. In this way, Ugaritic texts have some- whose worship the prophets thoroughly
times clarified the meaning of difficult He- denounced. We now know from the testi-
brew words or passages. mony of the people who worshiped Baal
Second, Ugaritic poetry contains many and Asherah what the people believed
similarities to Hebrew poetry. For exam- these gods were like.
ple, parallelism also occurs in Ugaritic po-
etry. The biblical writers thus used a po- OT TTT
etic style common to some other people
of their time. However, whereas the peo- The Poetical Books
ple of Ugarit used this poetic style to write
the stories of their gods and goddesses, Themselves
the biblical writers used it to praise and The poetical books have an important con-
worship the one true God of heaven. tribution to make to our Christian faith

Further Reading

Alter, Robert. The Art of Biblical Poetry. New York: Craigie, Peter C. Ugarit and the Old Testament.
Basic, 1985. Explores the many features biblical Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983. A classic survey of
writers used in their poetic writings. the information from Ugarit that sheds light on
Berry, Donald K. An Introduction to Wisdom and the Old Testament.
Poetry of the Old Testament. Nashville: Broadman Petersen, David L. and Kent Harold Richards.
& Holman, 1995. A detailed discussion of biblical Interpreting Hebrew Poetry. Guides to Biblical
wisdom literature, its parallels in the biblical Scholarship. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992. A short,
world, and its use by Jews and Christians over the more technical discussion.
centuries.
Bullock, C. Hassell. An Introduction to the Old
Testament Poetic Books. Rev. ed. Chicago: Moody,
1988. An upper-level college or basic seminary-
level survey. Covers the basic interpretational
issues well.

287
Encountering the Poetical Books

today. Job addresses the problem of why ways. Ecclesiastes explores the meaning
righteous people sometimes suffer terrible of life and concludes that only a personal
trials. Psalms provides many songs of Is- relationship with God gives life real mean-
rael and invites us to join the ancient voices ing. And Song of Songs celebrates the joy
in singing to God. Proverbs offers us time- of love in a romantic love poem.
less principles expressed in catchy, creative

288
 Job

AZZ

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BABA?

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introduction to Wisdom Literature

Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom Literature CANIS NSS OOS LOTT GTN

Old Testament Wisdom Literature

_ © Contents of the Book of Job Objectives
s Outline. .
After reading this chapter,
Overview you should be able to
_ ¢ The Author and His Times ¢ Identify the two major classifications
¢ Theological Themes of wisdom literature of the ancient
Near East
¢ Describe the key characters of the wisdom
literature of Egypt
¢ Contrast the wisdom literature of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and the Old Testament
¢ Outline the basic content
of the Book of Job
¢ Give examples of the approaches used
by Job’s three friends in their attempts
to help him
¢ Define theodicy
¢ Evaluate all of the speeches made
before Job
¢ Compare Job and his speakers’ view
of retribution with God's view

289
Encountering the Poetical Books

The Book of Job is one of three in the Old iah, etc.), and the teachings of Jesus have
wisdom
literature Testament in the collection known as wis- many examples of wisdom concepts.
dom literature. After a brief discussion
of the meaning of this phrase, attention Ancient Near Eastern
will turn to the details of this fascinating Wisdom Literature
dialogues book. Old Testament wisdom literature had an
international backdrop. The author of
NC
monologues SESS SIS Sy ATA 1 Kings compared the wisest of Israel’s
wise men, Solomon, to the wise men of
ANNAN
retribution
Introduction to Mesopotamia, Canaan, and Egypt, the
Wisdom Literature known world of that time (1 Kgs 4:29-34).
Each nation apparently had wisdom teach-
The expression “wisdom literature” does ers who reflected their own particular na-
not occur in the Old Testament. This is a tionalistic wisdom traditions. Archaeolo-
designation modern scholars use for three gists have discovered examples of wisdom
books that share “wisdom” features: Job, literature from all parts of the ancient Near
Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. In addition to East.
these three, selected Psalms are also part The wisdom literature of the ancient
of the collection (Pss 1, 37, 49, 73, etc.), and Near East may be categorized in two gen-
Song of Songs is similar to wisdom liter- eral groups. First, there are brief prover-
ature in its didactic function and literary bial maxims stating observations about
form. So all the books included in the sec- life in general. These tend to be instruc-
tion of the canon called “poetic” are re- tional or didactic in nature and are usu-
lated to wisdom literature (chapter 19 ally optimistic about life. Second, sages
above). But wisdom ideas also reach be- of the ancient Near East produced docu-
yond the poetical books of the Bible. Sev- ments containing lengthy discourses or
eral of the prophets use wisdom sayings essays grappling with life’s most difficult
and parables in their sermons (Hosea, Isa- problems. These dialogues or mono-

Wisdom
literature
touches on all
issues that
explore the
meaning of life.

290
 Job

dentis “child?*or™son (asin Prv 1:8).

This reflects the concept that the family
m therecthings was the most important educational unit
of the ancient world, as was also true of
pe noree" ancient Israel (Dt 6:6-7).
The earliest of these collections claims
to originate with PTAHHOTEP, VIZIER Of KING
Izez1 of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2450 B.c.).
The Instruction ofPtahhotep contains thirty-
seven maxims given by Ptahhotep to his
0 not become arrogant because of your son and designated successor. The collec-
nowledge, nor confident because you are wise. tion seeks to train the son in human rela-
advice from the simple as well as the wise. tions, preparing him for the actions and
| You never reach your full potential, always having attitudes that will make him a successful
| more to learn. Good speech is hidden like an official of the state. A much later collec-
emerald, but may be found as women grinding tion, the Instruction of Amenemope from
ae (Prv 2:1-5) around 1200 B.c., contains thirty chapters
of instructions for well-being, many of
_ If you are fortunate enough to sit at table with which closely parallel certain Old Testa-
someone greater than yourself, take graciously ment proverbs.
what is offered to you. Do not become envious and
greedy, always wanting more. (Prv 23:1-3) Mesopotamian discoursive wisdom
If you become a messenger for important The second type of wisdom literature from
individuals, be completely reliable in every the ancient Near East came primarily from
assignment you receive. Carry out your errand Mesopotamia. These documents contain
precisely. (Prv 25:13) discourses, or extended speeches, about
the problems of justice in the world. The
If you are a visitor in a house, under any discourses may be soliloquies, dialogues
circumstances—whether you visit as master, brother = with the deity, or the speeches of many
or friend—stay away from the women ofthe = participants.
house! A thousand men have been dieaaedars As was true of Egyptian instructional
their duties by pretty faces, to their disadvant 196 literature, the Mesopotamian authors had
One is easily made a fool by shapeliness an no word for wisdom that included the
beauty. It is a dream world, and pursuing high morality and piety of Israelite wis-
deadly. Avoid lust and sickness oftk dom literature. For this reason, the ex-
will prosper. (Prv 6: 23-29) pression “wisdom literature” is not strictly
‘Extracted and eco fromtheoe
appropriate for the Mesopotamian dis-
coursive material. “Wisdom” and the ad-
jectives for “wise” in the Mesopotamian
documents rarely have moral content, and
generally refer to skill in magical prac-
tices.° This is a subtle distinction from Is-
logues are frequently, but not always, raelite wisdom literature, where the
pessimistic. “wise” person is one who fears the Lord.
On the other hand, the content of these
Egyptian instructional wisdom
documents invites comparison with Job
A few ancient Near Eastern examples of and Ecclesiastes. The Mesopotamian dia-
instructional wisdom have come from logue material accepts the doctrine of ret-
Mesopotamia, but most are from Egypt- ribution—goodness results in prosperity
ian literature.' Though Egyptian does not and wickedness leads to suffering. The
have a word for “wisdom” per se, the problem arises when good people suffer.
Egyptians delighted in collections of wise The Mesopotamian authors sought to ex-
sayings that helped one lead a successful plain the problem by asserting that the
life. This type of literature they called “in- righteous person does not exist. The per-
struction.”? In these documents the teacher son who suffers does so because of crimes
is often “father” or “mother” and the stu- he has committed. Ultimately, the

291
Encountering the Poetical Books

of wisdom”) is a lengthy monologue in

Excerpts. Adapted which a noble Babylonian recounts how
he met with every sort of disaster before
fromthe | the god Marduk eventually restored him
:Babylonian Theodicy! to his position. This text comes from the
Kassite period of Mesopotamian history
: Thecen Theodicy iis a dialogue between a (fourteenth to twelfth centuries B.c.). The
| suffererand his comforting friend. Babylonian Theodicy is an elaborate dia-
logue between a sufferer and his friend.
sufferer tohis friend: Your opinion is like the In the friend’s speeches, he seeks to de-
- north-wind, a pleasant breeze for everyone. Pure fend the retribution doctrine against the
and choice is your advice. But | have one problem sufferer’s complaints.°
for you: those who neglect the god prosper, while
those who devoutly pray become poor and weak. Old Testament Wisdom Literature
(Jb 21:7-16)
Ancient Near Eastern literature has many
obvious parallels in both form and con-
Friend to the sufferer: Unless you seek the will of
tent to the Old Testament wisdom books.®
the god, what hope have you? Whoever serves his
In fact, the Book of Proverbs contains more
god faithfully never lacks food, even when food is
direct parallels with ancient Near Eastern
hard to come by. So seek the calming breath of the
gods, and this year’s losses will be recovered in a
literature than any other book of the Bible.
moment.
Some points of contact with the parallels
are more direct than others, such as
Friend to the sufferer: O wise one, O scholar, who
Proverbs 22-24 and the Instruction ofAmen-
has mastered knowledge, your heart is wrong emope (see discussion in chapter 22 below).
when you accuse the god unjustly. The mind of the Others are parallel in matters of theme and
gods is like the center of the heavens, far removed emphasis, such as Job and Ludlul bél
from you. Its knowledge is difficult and beyond nemeql.
human comprehension. (Jb 11:7; 15:2-4) By comparing Job, Proverbs, and Ec-
clesiastes to the literature of the ancient
Sufferer to his friend: Listen carefully, my friend, to Near East, we learn a great deal about how
what | say. Heed the choice oe of y words the ancient Israelites interacted with the
(Jb 21:2-3) literature and worldview of their neigh-
bors. They were comfortable incorporat-
Friend to the sufferer: When. the great prim Ja ing materials from other cultures, as long
creator gods of the universe created humankin as they eliminated polytheistic elements.
they gave him twisted speech. They endowed th As such, the wisdom literature provides
forever with lies and notaoe mee Ub 15: a wonderful example of cross-cultural
communication of faith.? Sometimes the
Israelites adapted ancient Near Eastern
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1960
where it is called material with little or no alterations, such
as Proverbs and the Egyptian wisdom ma-
terials. At other times, the Israelite authors
used pagan literature in which they made
AAA
Kassite period Mesopotamian solution to the problem of theological modifications. Other parallels
suffering is to place the blame on the suf- appear to have been so thoroughly
UCT
monotheistic
ferer, who can only accept the fate hurled changed by Israelite theological alterations
upon him or her by the unfathomable as to be hardly recognizable.®
gods. As we shall see, the problems posed Wisdom literature touches on all issues
by Job and Ecclesiastes are similar, though that explore the meaning of life. In ancient
their solutions are very different. Israel, that exploration was unique in the
Of the several examples of the ancient world, because it had a thoroughly
Mesopotamian dialogue literature, we will monotheistic perspective. In the Old Tes-
only mention two of the most important tament, the foundation of wisdom is the
here. The text known by its opening phrase fear of the Lord expressed in genuine faith
Ludlul bél némeqi (“1 will praise the Lord (Prv 1:7).
Z92
 Job

Job was a C. Second Cycle of Speeches

wealthy man
until he lost his Contents (1521-2134)
D. Third Cycle of Speeches
donkeys, sheep,
and camels. of the Book of Job (22:1-27:23)
The book opens with a two-chapter prose II. Hymn on Wisdom (28:1-28)
introduction giving the reader the neces-
sary background for what follows (chap- IV. Job’s Oration (29:1-31:40)
ters 1-2). The main body of the book is in A. The Way It Was (29:1-25)
poetry and contains the speeches of Job, B. The Way It Is (30:1-31)
his advisors, and, finally, God (3:1-42:6). C. Job’s Claim to Innocence
The book closes with a brief epilogue, (31:1-40)
again in prose (42:7-17). The prose PRo- V. Elihu’s Speeches (32:1-37:24)
LOGUE and epilogue create a literary frame A. Introduction (32:1-5)
for the poetic speeches. B. First Speech (32:6-33:33)
C. Second Speech (34:1-37)
Outline D. Third Speech (35:1-16)
I. Prologue (1:1-2:13) E. Fourth Speech (36:1-37:24)
A. The Hero Job (1:1-5) VI. The Lord’s Speeches (38:1-42:6)
B. The First Divine Council me Pirst speech (38: 1=39:30)
Meeting (1:6-12) B. Second Speech (40:1-42:6)
. The First Disasters (1:13-19)
. Job’s Reaction (1:20-22) VIL. Epilogue (42:7-17)
@)
Pa. The Second Divine Council
Overview
Meeting (2:1-5)
Job’s Illness (2:6-8) The Book of Job reads like a play, the main
. Job’s Reaction (2:9-10) characters of which are introduced in the
A . The Comforters (2:11-13)
@)
my prose prologue (chapters 1-2). The author
of this prologue assumes an omniscient
II. Dialogue (3:1-27:23) point of view, that is, he seems to know
A. Job’s Opening Statement everything. He can evaluate Job’s inner
(3:1-26) thoughts, and he relates the dialogue be-
B. First Cycle of Speeches tween God and Satan.
(4:1-14:22) The speeches at the center of the book

293
Encountering the Poetical Books

The speeches at “feared God and shunned evil.” Such in-

the center of
the book
tegrity led God to ask Satan the terse ques-
wrestle with tion, “Have you considered my servant
some of life's Job?” (1:8). Satan’s accusatory reply
most difficult (1:9-11) marked the beginning of a series
questions.
of events that resulted in the loss of Job’s
children and his substantial wealth. But
even in the wake of total ruin, Job re-
mained faithful to God (1:22).
Satan challenged Job’s credibility again
by asserting that extreme physical suffer-
ing in addition to the loss of possessions
and family would cause him to curse God
(2:4-5). So God allowed Satan to afflict Job
with painful boils all over his body. Job sat
destitute and alone on a heap of ashes,
scraping his diseased skin with a piece of
broken pottery (2:8). Just when we feel
Job’s situation could not possibly get
worse, his wife advises him to abandon
his faith and to die cursing God (2:9). But
even in these dire circumstances, Job did
not sin (2:10b).
The prologue also introduces Job’s three
AANA wrestle with some of life’s most difficult friends: Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar (2:11).
theodicy The Hebrew term “friends” has a wide
questions. Specifically, the speakers deal
with undeserved suffering and the atten- range of meanings, including “intimate
dant problem of theodicy. Theodicy is the counselor” and “close friend.”!° Despite
attempt to justify God’s ways in the world. their harsh rhetoric at times, these three
If God is both all-powerful and all-loving, were motivated by their love and com-
as the Bible everywhere claims, then how mitment to Job. Moved by the noblest in-
can evil exist in the world? How can the tentions, Job’s friends arrived to “sympa-
wicked prosper if God is just? Why do thize with him and comfort him” (2:11).
good people suffer, and how could God His suffering was so severe they hardly
let it happen? recognized him. They sat silently with Job
for a week, mourning his losses. Job’s
Ancient Israel’s monotheism raised this
question. Since the only true God is both lament in chapter 3 breaks the silence and
all-powerful and all-good, the presence of begins the dialogue.
evil in the world creates a philosophical Dialogue between Job and his three
quandary. If God were perfectly good, he friends (chapters 3-31)
would not allow evil to exist in any of its The second unit of the book is composed
various forms (wars, famine, crime). of the speeches of Job’s three friends and
Therefore, there must be some limit to his his reaction to each.
ability to control the circumstances of the Jos’s COMPLAINT (CHAPTER 3)
world, and he is not all-powerful. On the
Job begins the colloquy by cursing the day
other hand, if God were all-powerful, the
of his birth and wondering why he did not
fact that evil events and circumstances
die at birth. He is convinced that his has
occur must mean he sees nothing wrong
been a fate worse than death.
with them. Therefore, he is not all-loving.’
The Book of Job is one man’s search and THE SPEECHES OF JoB’s FRIENDS AND
discovery for the answer to this dilemma. His RESPONSE TO EACH (CHAPTERS 4-27)
This unit contains three cycles of six
The prologue (chapters 1-2) speeches each. Each cycle includes a
The opening verse of the book describes speech by Job’s three friends, answered in
Job as a “blameless and upright” man who turn by a speech from Job. The final cycle
294
 Job

is incomplete (chapters 22-26) since it (6:24, 30), implying that God’s reproof was
omits the final speech by Zophar. out of proportion to his sin. Death ap-
Each of these three individuals had his peared to be the only resolution for his
own characteristic approach to Job’s prob- problems (7:16—21).
lems. Eliphaz emphasized God’s justice Bildad considered Job’s answer as so
and purity, and taught that people (in- much wind (8:2). He supported Eliphaz’s
cluding Job) bring trouble on themselves. statement that God is just (8:3) and that
Bildad typically appealed to tradition and surely God would not reject a blameless
considered himself a defender of ortho- man (8:20), implying that Job, by reason
dox doctrine. He explained that an indi- of his great suffering, must be guilty of sin.
vidual who pursues wickedness (like Job) He suggested that Job should “look to
should not be surprised by divine pun- God” and expect to be restored to his for-
ishment. Zophar considered himself a Ra- mer life (8:3-7). Job admitted that a man
TIONALIST, and reasoned that Job’s pun- cannot be “righteous before God” (9:2).
ishment was no less than can be But, after all, the issue is power rather than
reasonably expected. Though Job’s friends Justice. God is the Creator, who commands
were approaching the problem from the the sun and the mountains and does things
perspective of Israelite monotheism, their beyond understanding (9:10). He destroys
solutions failed to transcend the Mesopo- the innocent along with the guilty, and who
tamian solutions (see above). They con- is to argue (9:22)? Life is brief and fruitless
tinued to place the blame on Job. (9:25-31). Job again wondered why he was
Eliphaz began the first cycle by re- even born and longed for the peace of the
minding Job of God’s justice and hu- grave (10:18-22).
mankind's inability to live up to God’s In Zophar’s speech, he rebuked Job for
holy standard (4:17). He encouraged Job his theological outlook, which he termed
to find comfort in the Lord’s chastening “babble” (NRSV, 11:3). He summarized
(5:17) and to expect a restoration of his lost Job’s attitude in the quote “My beliefs are
estate (5:18-27). In chapters 6 and 7, Job flawless and I am pure in your [God’s]
answered that his so-called friends were sight” (11:4). But Zophar warned that, in
not helping his situation. He challenged fact, the opposite was true. God’s pun-
his associates to be specific about his guilt ishment was actually less than Job’s guilt

The foothills of
Mount Hermon,
northern Israel.
Eliphaz asks:
“Were you there
when God made
the mountains?”
GI5#7):

Pde|
Encountering the Poetical Books

called for (11:6b). Thus Zophar concluded innocence and longed again to defend
that Job should put his iniquity and himself before God (23:4, 10-12). Job’s
wickedness “far away” (NKJV, 11:14) and main contention was not that he was in-
surely his life will once again be “brighter nocent of any wrongdoing, but that his
than noonday” (11:17). Job concluded this punishment and suffering far exceeded
first cycle of speeches by asserting that his his guilt.
understanding was not inferior to that of Bildad’s brief speech in chapter 25 em-
his three friends (12:3; 13:2). All the uni- phasized the impossibility of living a right-
verse, including beasts, birds, plants, and eous life before God. Job maintained his
fish, know that God is in control of all that integrity and innocence (27:16), and ex-
happens (12:7—-10). All Job desired was the pressed his exasperation with his friends’
opportunity to defend himself personally flawed application of the retribution prin-
before God (13:13-19). Instead, God per- ciple to his situation.
sisted in persecuting Job (13:24—27). Job Jos’s SUMMARIZING SPEECHES
once again longed for death (14:13). (CHAPTERS 28-31)
Eliphaz began the second cycle of Chapters 28-31 are various speeches of
speeches by accusing Job of abandoning Job in which he praised the virtues of wis-
prayer and the fear of God with his windy dom (28), reminisced about his life before
discourses (15:2-4). He reminded Job that the tragic events of the prologue (29),
his three friends had great wisdom too lamented his present miserable condition
(15:7-8), and they stood in an ancient tra- (30), and denied he was ever guilty of lust,
dition when they insisted that severe sin greed, adultery, mistreating slaves, trust-
in Job’s life had caused his suffering ing in riches, idolatry, or unfair business
(15:17-35). Job answered that he had heard practices (31). Finally, Job affixed his sig-
all this nonsense before (16:3-4). He longed nature (31:35) and waited for justice to be
instead for a witness in heaven to medi- done.
ate for him with God (16:19). The central message of the book is im-
Bildad resented being considered “stu- plied in the hymn to wisdom (chapter 28).
pid” in Job’s sight and he presented a Wisdom belongs ultimately to God (vv.
dreary picture of the wicked (18:3), im- 20-28), and all human attempts to grasp
plying the serious extent of Job’s sin. But it or contain it are doomed to failure. This
Job rejected such a harsh, unjust pro- is Job’s confession and ultimately his sal-
nouncement. With a warning to his com- vation. Rather than assume false guilt and
forters, Job looked to the future when he livea lie, Job waited on God’s vindication.
would be vindicated before God
(19:25-27). Elihu joins the dialogue
Next, Zophar used virulent language to (chapters 32-37)
condemn the wealthy, who presumably In the next unit of the book, a new char-
acquired their possessions through greed acter is introduced. Elihu was a young
and oppressing the poor (20:19). After man who had grown angry while listen-
vividly describing the punishment of such ing to Job justify himself rather than God
individuals, Zophar stated this is the por- (32:2). But he was also upset with Job’s
tion from God for a wicked man, sug- friends because they had found no answer
gesting that greed was Job’s problem and yet had condemned Job (32:3). It is
(20:29). But in response, Job pointed out true that Job’s situation has not improved.
how the wicked continued to prosper and God appears to have become an enemy,
go to their graves fat and satisfied and without just cause. And perhaps the
(21:23-26). In desperation, he concluded most perplexing aspect of the situation is
that the comfort of his three friends was God’s complete silence and unrespon-
worthless and their answers false (21:34). siveness to Job’s prayers. Indeed, the com-
Eliphaz opened the third cycle by try- fort of Job’s three counselors seems to have
ing to identify specific sins Job had com- hindered his understanding of his rela-
mitted, most of them sins of omission tionship to God.
(22:4—7). He pleaded with Job to put away Elihu, hoping to rectify the situation,
his unrighteousness and return to God began with a long apology for his youth
(22:23). Job, however, was certain of his and a plea for them to pay careful atten-
296
 Job

Scene from the

wall paintings in
the tomb of the
Egyptian
Nebamun.
Ancient Egypt
created most
examples of
instructional
wisdom.

tion since wisdom is a gift of God rather silenced all debate (40:35), the Lord him-
than a consequence of age. He addressed self answered Job from the midst of a fierce
Job directly and recapitulated the prob- windstorm (or whirlwind, 38:1 and 40:6).
lem as one of unanswered prayer (33:13). He began by rebuking Job for speaking in
Elihu contended that God used suffering ignorance and reminded him of his mor-
and chastisement to correct humankind tality (38:3). Then he challenged Job to an-
(33:19). And prayer is man’s method of ac- swer a series of questions centering on the
knowledging and submitting to God’s cor- awesome strength and power of God as
rection (33:26-30). In chapter 34, Elihu em- Creator and Sustainer of the universe.
barked upon a second speech, in which he What did Job know and understand of
reproached Job for questioning God's jus- such things as the founding of the earth
tice. God is just, and by denying this, Job (38:4), the confining of the sea (38:8), the
had added rebellion to his sin (v. 37). courses of the constellations (38:31), and
Ina third discourse, Elihu informed Job more? The Lord challenged Job to answer
that God was unaffected by events on (40:1-2), but Job was speechless (40:3-5).
earth. If God has been silent, it was be- He simply acknowledged his inadequacy
cause he recognized insincerity in Job’s re- and agreed to keep silent before God.
quests (35:13-16). Finally, Elihu spoke on Then the Lord challenged Job to com-
God’s behalf (36:2). He informed Job and pare his own strengths with that of God’s
his counselors that God is just in his treat- (“Do you have an arm like God’s?” 40:9).
ment of king and slave alike, and in any This is followed by poems about two of
situation, repentance is the key (36:10-12). God’s creatures, BEHEMOTH (i.e., the hip-
As in other cases, Job’s afflictions and suf- popotamus) and LEVIATHAN (probably the
fering may be the means of deliverance. crocodile), in which God underscored their
strength, resilience, and apparent inde-
The Lord finally speaks (38:1-42:6) structibility (40:15-41:34). Job immediately
All along, the book has been crying out acknowledged God’s omnipotence (“I
for God to answer. Finally, the Lord broke know that you can do all things,” 42:2) and
his silence and answered all objections. his own ignorance (“I spoke of things I did
Weare not told how much effect Elihu’s not understand,” 42:3). The Lord’s
speeches had on Job and his friends. But speeches had stripped Job of his pride and
his emphasis on God’s omnipotence and self-sufficiency, and all that remained was
justice and humanity’s ultimate need for a debasing need to repent. Job concluded:
genuine repentance, set the stage for God “My ears had heard of you but now my
himself to burst on the scene. In a way that eyes have seen you. Therefore I despise

297.
Encountering the Poetical Books

myself and repent in dust and ashes” clusive. The book contains both very old
(42:5-6). and relatively late Hebrew terms. This in-
dicates Job has had a long history of trans-
The epilogue (42:7-17) mission, being copied and recopied many
The epilogue consists of two concluding times. In addition, the main character of
events. First, the Lord reprimanded Job’s the book may not even have been Israelite.
three friends for not speaking rightly on Besides the Edomite geographical refer-
his behalf. Second, he restored the fortunes ences, the book contains no reference to
of Job to the extent that Job’s latter days Mosaic law or the covenant, and God is
were better than his former days (v. 12). seldom identified as Yahweh. The reader
Thus, Job’s faithfulness was vindicated is forced to accept this book as detailing
and God’s was illustrated. events “about a famous man who lived a
long time ago in a land faraway.”
ITT ES Scholarly debate about the time of com-
position ranges from the early eighth cen-
The Author tury B.c. (contemporary with Isaiah) to the
and His Times third century B.c. (second-temple Judah).
Recent literary comparisons between Job
The origins of Job are shrouded in mys- and Isaiah have led some to accept the
tery. The author of the book is anonymous. eighth-century date as the most likely time
Nor does the book indicate precisely when for the date of Job’s composition.”
or where the events it describes took place.
Job’s home in the land of Uz was proba- TO SS
bly between Epom and northern Arabia,
and his friends came from the vicinity of Theological Themes
Edom." Details about when these events The Book of Job makes an important con-
took place are even more vague. Many of tribution to the Old Testament collection
the circumstances seem patriarchal: Job of theological ideas. The Sinai covenant
offers sacrifices without the benefit of a between Yahweh and Israel established
priest, his wealth is measured in terms of one of Israel's most lasting theological con-
flocks and servants, and his long life-span cepts—retribution theology. The curses
(140 years) harkens back to Genesis. Be- and blessings of Deuteronomy (Dt 28, see
cause of these observations, many have p. 147) became the starting point for much
assumed a pre-Mosaic origin for the book. of biblical theology. Stated simply, you
The linguistic evidence of Job is incon- reap what you sow (Gal 6:7; 1 Pt 3:12). This
is how God governs the world. The very
rightness of right leads to blessings, and
the wrongness of wrong leads naturally
Key Terms to disaster.!
But this doctrine of retribution is a gen-
wisdom literature eral moral principle of God’s administra-
sages tion of justice, not a hard and fast rule to
dialogues be applied to every individual case. Job’s
Key People/ monologues friends failed to understand this. Job’s case
Places retribution was exceptional. He needed compassion,
Kassite period not advice. But Job’s friends are not the
Ptahhotep theodicy only ones who failed to understand the
Uz monotheistic limits to retribution theology, for Job him-
Edom prologue self was also committed to it as the ortho-
rationalist dox approach to suffering.
Behemoth The conflict in the book of Job may be
Leviathan illustrated by an equilateral triangle. '* At
the top corner of the triangle stands God,
who turns his face to humans and is ac-
cessible to them. At another corner is Job,
the blameless and upright man. The last
298
 Job

\ ‘an |
) One of these treasured ideas must be aban-
ZB
=
doned, for they cannot all be maintained.
The friends cancel out Job, maintaining
God and retribution theology. Job all but
CAAZ_ gives up God, while he vigorously main-
27-ZZAZZZZZZ
AZZ tains retribution theology and his inno-

ZZ
cence. But in the end, God eliminates their
JOB RETRIBUTION © understanding and application of retri-
; THEOLOGY 4 bution theology.
AT TN
) The New Testament also deals with the
problem of undeserved sin. When Jesus
corner stands for the doctrine of retribu- was asked, “Who sinned, this man or his
tion, held to by all speakers of the book, parents, that he was born blind?” his an-
including Job. The Book of Job attempts swer was surprising: “Neither this man
to hold all three ideas simultaneously. All nor his parents sinned, . . . but this hap-
three are concepts held dearly by the char- pened so that the work of God might be
acters of the drama. But Job is a good man displayed in his life” (Jn 9:2-3). In short,
who suffers intensely. His experience puts nobody sinned. There is a vast area of
something—or someone—in jeopardy. human misery and suffering that is nei-

Summary

1. Modern scholars have classified the as The Book of Job considers some of the
Books of Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesi- most difficult questions of life, fore-
astes as “wisdom literature,” but the most among which is the problem of
sharing of wisdom is also found in theodicy.
Sather cole Use sdetails 8. Job's three friends tried to help him
2. Throughout the ancient Near East, the through this difficult time in his life,
nations had wisdom teachers. In the and each had his own methodology.
Old Testament, the wise men of
9. The general message of the Book of
Mesopotamia, Canaan, and Egypt
Job is that wisdom belongs to God
were compared with Solomon.
and resolute faith in him will be
3. Near Eastern wisdom literature can be vindicated.
divided into brief proverbial maxims
10. When God finally spoke, Job acknowl-
intended to teach about life, and
edged God's omnipotence as well as
longer discussions dealing with the
his own ignorance and he repented.
problems of life.
11. Retribution theology is the theology
4. Ancient Egypt created most examples
of Job and all of the speakers of the
of instructional wisdom, which fo-
Book of Job, but God eliminated their
cused on successful living.
understanding and application of ret-
. Mesopotamia produced documents ribution theology.
containing lengthy speeches about
12. There is no conclusive information that
the problems of justice in the world.
identifies who the author of Job was.
. Mesopotamian culture accepted the
doctrine of retribution.

2993
Encountering the Poetical Books

Study Questions

. What biblical books do modern schol- . How does Elihu characterize Job’s
ars designate as “wisdom literature”? problem? To what does he attribute
Differentiate between Mesopotamian God's silence? What does he see as the
discoursive material and Israelite wis- key to alleviating Job’s suffering?
dom literature. How did the Israelites
. How does the Lord rebuke Job in
interact with the literature and world-
38:1-42:6? What is Job’s response?
view of their ancient Near Eastern
neighbors? What is the Old Testament . How does God respond to Eliphaz, Bil-
foundation of wisdom? What topic is dad, and Zophar? What is the final
explored in wisdom literature? outcome for Job?
. What are the difficult questions of life . What is known about the writing of
addressed in Job? What aspects of Job and the geographical setting of
God's character are challenged by the the book?
presence of evil in the world?
. How does Job contribute to an under-
. What is the central message of the standing of retribution theology?
book? How does the book answer the prob-
lem of theodicy?
. Describe the points of view of Eliphaz,
Bildad, and Zophar. Where did they
place the blame for Job’s suffering?
What was Job’s response?

Further Reading

Andersen, Francis |. Job: An Introduction and Hartley, John E. The Book of Job. New International
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids:
Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester: Eerdmans, 1988. One of the best recent
InterVarsity, 1976 Insightful exposition from an commentaries available.
evangelical perspective. Pope, Marvin H. Job: Introduction, Translation, and
Bullock, C. Hassell. An Introduction to the Old Notes. 3rd ed. Anchor Bible 15. Garden City, N.Y.:
Testament Poetic Books. Rev. ed. Chicago: Moody, Doubleday, 1973. Excellent background
1988. Helpful introduction to all the poetical information presented by a leading Near Eastern
books. scholar.
Clines, David J. A. Job 1-20. Word Biblical Rad, Gerhard von. Wisdom in Israel. Trans. James
Commentary 17. Dallas: Word, 1989. D. Martin. Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity Press
Dhorme, Edouard. A Commentary on The Book International, 1993 (1972). Thought-provoking
of Job. Trans. Harold Knight. Nashville: Thomas introduction.
Nelson, 1984.

300
 Job

ther punitive nor redemptive. It is just all things—even evil things—together for
meaningless. Like Job, the believer who good (Rom 8:28), and those who are faith-
suffers must realize that “nothing but the ful to him to the end will benefit from the
Voice lof God] from the tempest can meet evil they must suffer. But this answer in
his case.”!° With Job, we wait and long Job is incomplete without the rest of bib-
for that day, and remain faithful to the lical revelation. For it is in Jesus Christ that
Voice. the greatest evils the world can offer—be-
Job provides the biblical answer to the trayal and crucifixion—meet with the ul-
problem of theodicy. God is able to work timate good—forgiveness, and cleansing.

301
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 Psalms
The Songbook of Ancient Israel

Outline
Background
to the Psalms
oe The Name “Psalms”
_ Authorshipofthe Psalms
Hes
- £

COTTON
SNRHN TRONS ARN ESE

“f_ The Unique Place of the Psalms

~ in God’s Word
_ ¢ The Division of the Psalms Objectives
_ The Basic Arrangement After reading this chapter,
_ Theories on the Psalms’ Arrangement you should be able to
¢ Psalm Titles ¢ Define the word “psalm”
- e Classification of the Psalms ¢ Name the writers of the psalms
Hymns e Explain how the psalms make a unique
Penitential Psalms contribution to the Bible
Wisdom Psalms ¢ Describe the arrangement of the five
divisions of the Book of Psalms
Royal Psalms
e List the various types of psalms
Messianic Psalms
e Suggest how the psalms can help
Imprecatory Psalms
the contemporary Christian
Lament Psalms
¢ The Psalms and the Christian

303
Encountering the Poetical Books

How do people praise God through music begin with the expression a “Psalm of
in your church? Do they sing out of song- David.” Some people have suggested
books or hymnals? Does the congregation David may not have written all seventy-
read words to songs on transparencies three. Perhaps some were written to David
beamed to screens at the front of the sanc- or in honor of him; indeed, one could un-
tuary? Perhaps you sing with piano and derstand the Hebrew that way. In general,
organ accompaniment, or maybe you have we probably should assume David wrote
other instruments. Some congregations all or most of those with this title.
may sing without any instruments. One David wrote many different kinds of
thing is certain—Christians use many dif- psalms—praises, laments, penitential
ferent styles of music to praise the Lord! psalms, imprecatory psalms, royal psalms,
But no matter what the worship style, messianic psalms. (We will discuss each
you probably use the psalms as part of of these psalm types below.) First Samuel
your worship. The Book of Psalms has 16 recounts David’s musical talent as he
contributed the words to many of our fa- played before King Saul. First Chronicles
vorite hymns and choruses. Even many 15-16 also describes David's great inter-
modern songs and choruses get their est in establishing music for public wor-
words from the psalms. As we study this ship. And as king, he would have had the
songbook from ancient Israel, we will un- leisure time to reflect and compose his
derstand more about the great truths music, much of which he dedicated to
God’s people believed and expressed God.
through their worship. We also will see Many of David's psalms describe spe-
how much these ancient songs have cific times in his life. He wrote Psalm 3
shaped Christian worship today. when he fled from his son Absalom. He
wrote Psalm 51 after Nathan confronted
LOS SEEMS SSSA
him about his sin with Bathsheba. He
Background wrote Psalm 57 as he hid from Saul in a
cave. Key moments in David's life moved
to the Psalms him to write these psalms that have spo-
ken to so many over the generations.
The Name “Psalms”
The word “psalm” comes from the Greek Asaph
word psalmos, which means a song or a Asaph played an important musical role
hymn. The Hebrew word for the book is in the public worship David established
tehillim and means “praises.” The book in Jerusalem (1 Chr 15-16). In fact, David
contains a collection of 150 songs from He- appointed Asaph as chief musician (1 Chr
brew religious life and worship—songs 15:4-5). Psalms 50 and 73-83 are attrib-
dear to the people’s hearts and reflective uted to him. Like David, Asaph wrote a
of their personal experiences. One could variety of psalm types.
say the psalms represent an ancient song- The sons of Korah
book of God’s people.
The name “Korah’ first appears in Num-
Authorship of the Psalms bers 16-17, where it refers to a man who
contended with Aaron for the right to the
Who wrote the psalms? Asking that ques-
priesthood. God judged Korah and his fol-
tion is like asking who wrote our modern
lowers and put them to death and vindi-
hymnals today. The answer would be—
cated Aaron’s line.
lots of people! Many composers con-
tributed to the collection of songs and Do the psalms that mention “the sons
poems we now know as the Book of of Korah” refer to this Korah’s children?
Psalms. Sometime after the Babylonian Scholars disagree.' The name also appears
exile, someone compiled these psalms into in 2 Chronicles 20:19, where it refers to a
one volume. guild of temple singers. Perhaps the name
“Korah” was common enough that it re-
David ferred to two or more different families.
King David exerted a major influence on Certain psalms credited to the sons of
the Book of Psalms. Seventy-three psalms Korah reflect the time of the Babylonian
304
 The Psalms

The Hebrew title

of Psalm 23,
probably the
best-loved of all,
says it is by
David, the king
who once
looked after his
father’s sheep in
the hills around
Bethlehem.

exile or later (Pss 44, 85). Others may have worship leader would read a line and the
come from an earlier time. people would respond, “His love endures
Other authors
forever.”
Other psalms relate an individual's per-
Who else contributed to the Book of
sonal experience. Psalm 3 describes
Psalms? Psalm 90 is ascribed to Moses,
David's intense feelings as he fled from
who led God’s people from slavery in
his son Absalom. David felt as though all
Egypt to freedom in the promised land.
Psalms 72 and 127 are credited to Solomon. his friends had deserted him, but he clung
The Bible tells us Solomon wrote many to his faith in the Lord. Many other
proverbs and songs (1 Kgs 4:32), but ap- psalms also reveal individual worship
parently only two made their way into the experiences.
Second, the psalms have a unique place
Book of Psalms. About fifty psalms have
no heading, and their authorship remains in God’s word because they deal with all
a mystery. Maybe some of the authors al- aspects of Hebrew life. People praised God
ready mentioned wrote them, but we do for his mighty deeds and for special bless-
not know for sure. ings. They also asked his forgiveness for
their sin. Sometimes they lamented life’s
The Unique Place difficult circumstances or implored God
of the Psalms in God’s Word to curse enemies of the faith. The psalms
The psalms have a unique place in God’s touch virtually every area of life.
Word. First, they give us insight into Is- Because the psalms concern almost
raelite worship. What were the songs the every aspect of life, many people find them
people sang? What was dear to their valuable for counseling. The words of this
hearts? What themes commonly recurred book strike a sympathetic chord with
as they praised God? We can study the many people because they see how the
Book of Psalms and begin to find answers writers of Scripture went through the same
to such questions. struggles they are going through. No mat-
The psalms describe Israel’s corporate ter what the situation in which we find
and personal worship. Certain psalms ourselves, probably at least one psalm
served the entire body of believers. For ex- speaks to the issue at hand. The psalms
ample, the congregation clearly used state God’s truth in a beautiful style that
Psalm 136 as a responsive reading. The speaks to both our minds and our hearts.

305
Encountering the Poetical Books

to “tie off” that part of the Book of Psalms.

The one exception is Psalm 150, a grand
psalm of praise that fittingly concludes the
entire collection.

Theories on the Psalms’

Arrangement
Apparently these five books circulated in-
dependently at one time. But how and
when did someone compile them into the
book we know as Psalms? And what cri-
teria originally resulted in their division
into five books?
Bible interpreters have come to no real
conclusions in addressing these issues.’
Some have suggested authorship as a pos-
sible factor, but this appears doubtful.
David’s psalms, for example, are scattered
throughout. Others have suggested the
psalms may have been grouped accord-
ing to the particular name(s) of God the
authors used. This view has some merit,
as different books tend to prefer one name
over another, but many exceptions exist.
It seems the final answer regarding the
arrangement of the Book of Psalms must
remain a mystery.

LETT Sy

Psalm Titles
Many psalms have titles. Some of these ti-
tles are as simple as the statement “A
psalm of X,” where X represents the name
of a person (Ps 15). Usually that person is
the psalm’s author, though the possibility
remains that someone else wrote the psalm
An artist's TTTTA AANA OO
impression of an
in honor of that person. Sometimes titles
Israelite The Division describe the setting in which the author
musician playing wrote the psalm (Ps 3) or give a dedica-
the nebel, a
stringed
of the Psalms tion of some sort (Ps 4).
instrument with The Book of Psalms is divided into five Psalm titles have an ancient origin and
up to ten strings books. The divisions apparently reflect an may go back as far as the original manu-
(Ps 71:22). old tradition but no one really knows why scripts. All ancient copies of the psalms
the psalms are divided the way they are. contain these headings, so we should treat
The section below presents some basic them as reliable unless further evidence
thoughts on the issue. reveals they were added later.
Psalm titles also sometimes feature mu-
The Basic Arrangement sical notations. We do not know what
The five basic divisions of the Book of many of these. mean, though theories
Psalms are Psalms 1-41, 42-72, 73-89, abound.’ Some psalms have the notation
90-106, and 107-150. The closing verses “To the Choir Master,” which suggests the
of the last psalm in each collection typi- people sang them in public worship. Other
cally contain some kind of doxology or as- terms like selah, miskal, shiggaion, and maskil
cription of praise to the Lord that serves remain a mystery.

306
 The Psalms

TOTO Oo
\
@acciiearion Psalm Type _ Basic Characteristic(s)

of the Psalms HYMNS Songs of praise and

thanksgiving to God for
hymn The German scholar HERMANN GUNKEL laid who he is and what he
the foundation for the study of psalm clas- has done
EA TM
penitential
sification.* Gunkel, a student of form crit-
PENITENTIAL Confess sorrow for sin,
psalms icism, noted that psalm writers commonly
appeal to God for grace
used certain poetic forms and styles to ex- and forgiveness
press similar ideas. For example, hymns of
praise typically followed a certain pattern, WISDOM General observations on
life, especially God and
as did community laments, psalms of
our relationship to him.
thanksgiving, and more. Other scholars
have built on Gunkel’s foundation.° ROYAL Focus on the king as son
Our discussion below presents various of David and as God's
psalm types (or genres). Though some special instrument to rule
his people
parallel Gunkel’s classifications, others re-
flect basic distinctions in theme or content. MESSIANIC Describe some aspect of
the Messiah’s person or
Hymns ministry

IMPRECATORY Call for God's judgment

Basic characteristics of hymns
against God's enemies
Some psalms are hymns of praise. Writ- A
and/or his people's
ers praised the Lord and offered him enemies
thanksgiving for who he was and what he
LAMENT Lament one’s condition;
had done. The hymns they wrote some-
usually include statement
times featured individual praise and at of lament, statement of
other times corporate praise. trust in God, and
Examples of hymns affirmation of praise
to him.
Psalm 8 provides a good example of a
hymn of praise. Perhaps David walked out- LTO
a GS aE
side one night, looked up at the vast ex-
panse of heaven, and wrote this psalm. He ther called them to praise God with a
marveled at God’s greatness, his own small- number of instruments—trumpet, harp,
ness, and the wonder that God should love lyre, tambourine, flute, and cymbals. Fi-
and choose humanity to accomplish his nally, he called on all flesh to praise the
purposes. The psalm thus reflects David's Lord. What a powerful way to end the
own experience with the Lord. Book of Psalms!
Psalm 136 provides another example of
a hymn of praise. This psalm was used in Penitential Psalms
Israel’s corporate worship as a responsive
reading. The worship leader or first group Basic characteristics
would read the first half of each verse, and of penitential psalms
the rest of the people would answer with Penitential psalms express sorrow for sin.
the second part of each verse—“His love Basically, the psalmist says, “O God, I’m
endures forever.” The psalm calls God’s sorry for my sin. Please forgive me.” As
people to praise him for his majesty, his with hymns, penitential psalms may re-
creative power, his saving power, his sus- flect the repentance of one person or of the
taining power, and his faithfulness. community of worshipers. They confess
Psalm 150 is also an example of a hymn. sorrow for sin and appeal to God’s grace
The command to praise the Lord occurs for restoration.
thirteen times in six verses! The writer
called worshipers to praise the Lord in his Examples of penitential psalms
sanctuary and in the heavens, and to praise Psalm 38 is an example of a penitential
him for his power and greatness. He fur- psalm. In this psalm, David described the

307
Encountering the Poetical Books

CAAA guilt that overwhelmed him as he dealt them. But the wicked find no such favor.
wisdom psalms
with his sin. He suffered greatly and his They pursue evil and run from God's
AEA friends and companions deserted him. His word. Therefore, God’s day of judgment
royal psalms
pain never left him. As he struggled, David will overtake them and they will perish.
asked the Lord to stay near him, and called But God knows the way of those who truly
Him his Savior. follow him.
Psalm 51 provides perhaps the most fa- Psalm 14 is another example. David de-
mous example of a penitential psalm. The scribed the fool, who said God did not
heading provides the historical context: exist. Those who followed the fool also fol-
“A psalm of David, when the prophet lowed wickedness. They lived immoral
Nathan came to him after David had com- lives because they did not believe God’s
mitted adultery with Bathsheba.” David judgment would ever come. But David as-
committed adultery with Bathsheba; she sured his readers that one day God would
became pregnant with his child; David restore the fortunes of the righteous. Liv-
arranged the death of Uriah her husband ing for the Lord was worth the effort!
in battle; Nathan the prophet confronted Asaph, one of David’s musicians, wrote
him with his sin; and David poured out Psalm 73. In it, he offered his personal
his repentant heart to the Lord in the testimony. Asaph felt discouraged be-
words of Psalm 51. cause even though he followed the Lord
David began by appealing to God to faithfully, he suffered, while the wicked
forgive him. David didn’t deserve God's practiced evil and lived better than he
favor, for sin enveloped him. He agreed did. In fact, Asaph testified that he almost
with the Lord’s indictment—he needed decided serving the Lord was pointless!
cleansing from his evil. He needed God But one day, as he stood in God’s sanc-
to purify his heart. If God would forgive tuary, he realized the priceless heritage
him and restore him, perhaps God could he had. God was his portion forever, and
again use David to further his purpose. nothing else on earth really mattered.
People today often feel like God can never Asaph encouraged his hearers to learn
use them effectively because of their past, from his example.
but the words of this psalm give hope.
God’s grace can overcome the most ter- Royal Psalms
rible sin!
Basic characteristics of royal psalms
Wisdom Psalms Royal psalms focus on Israel's king. They
usually describe him as God's special rep-
Basic characteristics of wisdom psalms resentative to rule Israel. The Lord would
Wisdom psalms represent a third psalm accomplish his purpose through his
type. These psalms relate general obser- anointed servant. They also sometimes
vations about life. The writers typically portray him as heir to God’s covenant with
make little effort to defend the truths they David (2 Sm 7). His faithfulness would
expound. Rather, they simply present bring God's blessing forever.
them as self-evident descriptions of the
Examples of royal psalms
way God has intended life to be. They usu-
ally describe God and our relationship Psalm 2 provides a good example of a
with him in one or more of its facets (see royal psalm. It begins by describing the
chapter 20 above on wisdom literature in nations’ haughty attitude toward the Lord
general). and his anointed—Israel’s king. But God
would deal with them in his fury. He had
Examples of wisdom psalms installed his king on Mount Zion and es-
Psalm 1 provides a good example of a wis- tablished a father-son relationship with
dom psalm—direct, to-the-point obser- him. Many interpreters believe this psalm
vations on life. Blessed are those who was a coronation psalm that Israel recited
avoid sin in all its forms and delight in as she crowned a new king.
God’s word! They will become like trees Psalm 45 is a second example of a royal
planted by streams of life-giving water; psalm. Verse 1 mentions a dedication to
they fulfill God’s highest purpose for the king, and verses 3-5 challenge him to
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 The Psalms

The old city of

Jerusalem
viewed from the
summit of the
Mount of Olives.
Several psalms
were written for
pilgrims as they
approached the
holy city of
Jerusalem.

TN ANAT
Messiah
march victoriously in battle. Following lish everlasting salvation. The messianic
praise to God in verse 6, verses 7—9 extol psalms depict one or more aspects of his
the king’s love of righteousness and af- coming.
firm God's anointing of him. The rest of Examples of messianic psalms
the psalm praises the king for his splen-
We have already labeled Psalm 2 a royal
dor as he prepares for his wedding.
psalm because it dealt with Israel’s king.
Psalm 110 is yet another example of a
But Psalm 2 described the king as the
royal psalm. The word “king” does not
Lord’s anointed (messiah) and as his son.
occur until verse 5, but David referred to
Psalm 2:7—“You are my son; today I
himself in the word “my” in verse 1—’The
have become your Father” —is cited sev-
Lorb says to my Lord: ‘Sit at my right hand
eral times in the New Testament in ref-
until Imake your enemies a footstool for
erence to Jesus Christ. Israel’s king be-
your feet.’” The Lord would shatter other
came God's “son” on the day he became
kings and extend David's scepter. He also king, but God proved Jesus Christ his
ordained David a special kind of priest. eternal Son by raising him from the dead
The Lord’s presence with David would re- (Acts 13:33). Psalm 2 thus describes the
sult in God’s people winning ultimate vic- Messiah as God's Son.
tory. Those kings who opposed Him Psalm 16 provides another example
would fall to His fury. of a messianic psalm. In the midst of
his trouble, David affirmed God would
Messianic Psalms never abandon him. In fact, he had
great hope even beyond the grave. In
Basic characteristics Acts 2:24-34, Peter proclaimed how
of messianic psalms Jesus, David’s descendant, ultimately
MESSIANIC PSALMS, as their name implies, fulfilled David’s words. David’s body
describe the Messiah, God’s anointed one. still lay in a Jerusalem grave, but Jesus
The term “messiah” comes from the He- sat at the Father’s right hand! Psalm 16
brew word masiah (ma-SHE-ach), which thus describes the Messiah as risen and
means “anointed one.” Prophets, priests, glorified.
and kings all experienced God’s anoint- Psalm 22, another messianic psalm, is
ing, sO anyone serving in one of these also a lament psalm. It begins with words
three offices could be called an anointed Jesus uttered from the cross—“My God,
one. But the Messiah, the anointed one, my God, why have you forsaken me?”
would one day restore Israel and estab- (cf. Mt 27:46). David originally spoke

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Encountering the Poetical Books

ZZ these words in deep despair. He felt God from the dead, King of kings and Lord of
Pee aee had abandoned him. In fact, he described lords. And all this was written centuries
his pathetic situation in verses 14-18. But before his birth!
the Holy Spirit so guided his words in
these verses that one thousand years Imprecatory Psalms
later, they graphically portrayed Jesus as
Basic characteristics
he hung on the cross. of imprecatory psalms
By the sovereign leading of the Holy
Spirit, David’s psychological and emo- Imprecatory psalms call for God’s judg-
ment on the psalmist’s enemies. Like many
tional suffering foreshadowed Christ's
other psalm types, they can be individual
physical suffering. Psalm 22 describes the
or corporate in nature. An individual may
Lord’s agony on the cross as he died as
ask God to judge his enemies, or a psalm
God's perfect offering for sin.
may describe the feelings of all Israel as
Other psalms also fall into the category
the people call for God to bring his wrath
of messianic psalms. Psalm 45 describes
against an oppressive nation. Because of
Christ’s kingship (Heb 1:8), while Psalm their angry content, imprecatory psalms
110 denotes Christ’s role as Lord of David have provoked much theological discus-
and our great High Priest (Mt 22:41—46;
sion. How could such words have become
Heb 5:6). The Book of Psalms thus graph- part of Scripture?
ically portrays Jesus as Son of God, sacri-
fice for sin, our great High Priest, risen Examples of imprecatory psalms
Psalms 35 and 69 provide two examples
of imprecatory psalms from the pen of
Study Questions David. In them, David asked God to take
his side against those who contended with
him. They plotted against him, planning
his downfall. David asked the Lord to in-
tervene and judge them. He asked for
1. Name the major contributors to the Book God's judgment not only to rescue him,
of Psalms. What makes the book such a but to rescue his people. How dare God’s
unique book in God's word? enemies try to attack his chosen nation?
They would pay a dear price if God an-
. Identify the various psalm types and de- swered David's prayer!
scribe their general characteristics. What Psalm 137 is an emotionally stirring
kinds of expressions would you expect to psalm. It comes from the days immedi-
find in each type? Try to write a psalm that ately following the exile to Babylon. In it,
fits each style. the writer, himself a captive, asked God
to avenge his people. The Babylonians had
mocked them, and the Edomites had
turned traitor on them at the last minute.
The psalmist lashed out—how blessed
would be the one who destroyed Baby-
Key Terms lonian infants by dashing them against
rocks!
doxology Many Bible readers find the impreca-
genres tory psalms troubling. How could some-
hymn one write such words under the inspira-
Key Person penitential psalms tion of the Holy Spirit? Such psalms
wisdom psalms certainly help us see the human side of
Hermann Gunkel royal psalms Scripture. The psalmists cried out in
Messiah anger and frustration, and in their pain,
messianic psalms
they realized their own weakness. Noth-
imprecatory psalms
ing they could do could change their hor-
lament psalms rible situation.
But imprecatory psalms also leave
310
 The Psalms

LALLA
lament psalms
judgment in God’s hands. The psalmist trials. Third, the psalmist usually ends
called for God’s judgment, but he called with some kind of praise. God has heard
for God to do it. Though he might not his prayer and will eventually intervene
separate the sin from the sinner, he rec- for him!
ognized that only God held absolute
Examples of lament psalms
right to judge. And he asked that God
might do it soon. Psalm 3 is an example of a lament psalm.
According to the title, David wrote it when
he fled from Absalom his son. During this
Lament Psalms time of personal struggle and despair,
David called out to his God.
Basic characteristics of lament psalms David began by bemoaning his situa-
Lament psalms comprise the last psalm tion—“O Lorp, how many are my foes!
type in our study of the Book of Psalms. How many rise up against me!” Many
They typically contain three elements, even believed God had abandoned him!
though these elements do not always come Nevertheless, David affirmed his trust in
in the same order. the Lord. The Lord stood as a shield
First, they bemoan one’s condition—“O around him. He had answered David's
Lord, what a miserable state I am in.” Sec- prayers before, and he would answer them
ond, the psalmist states his trust in God. again.
Somehow God will bring him through his By the time David reached the end of

Summary

1. The Book of Psalms essentially repre- penitential psalms, wisdom psalms,

sents an ancient songbook of Israel. royal psalms, messianic psalms, impre-
catory psalms, lament psalms.
2. There are many writers who con-
tributed to the Book of Psalms— rh Hymns focus on individual or corpo-
David, Asaph, the sons of Korah, rate praise to God.
Moses, Solomon, and a number of
8. Confession and repentance are found
anonymous writers.
in psalms classified as penitential.
3. The psalms make a special contribu-
9. Wisdom psalms provide general obser-
tion to the Bible because they provide
vations about life.
us with an understanding of Israelite
worship, and they give information 10. The focus in royal psalms is on the
about all aspects of Hebrew life. king of Israel.
4. There are five basic divisions of the ile Messianic psalms describe the Messiah.
Book of Psalms: 1-41, 42-72, 73-89,
12. When a psalm calls on God to judge
98-106, and 107-150.
enemies, the psalm is classified as an
5. The German scholar, Hermann Gunkel, imprecatory psalm.
laid the foundation for a classification
13. Lament psalms bemoan one’s condi-
of the psalms.
tion, state trust in God, and end with
6. The basic classification of the psalms praise.
includes the following types: hymns,

Sit
Encountering the Poetical Books

Further Reading

Kidner, Derek. Psalms 1-72: An Introduction and Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1975.
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament Solid college-level commentary.
Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1973. Longman, Tremper, Ill. How to Read the Psalms.
Solid college-level commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1988. A good
. Psalms 73-150: An Introduction and college-level treatment of the various psalm types
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament and how to interpret them.

the psalm, he was praising God—’From

the Lorp comes deliverance. May your The Psalms
blessing be on your people.” Taking our
deepest concerns to the Lord and trusting an d t h e G h r |st |an
him with them often results in such a The psalms remaina treasury of spiritual
change of attitude. Suddenly, the troubles help for all believers. Their words speak
don’t appear so big anymore! to our hearts as surely as they have spo-
Other lament psalms include Psalms 4 ken to others since the days they were writ-
and 6. In each, David expresses his an- ten. Whatever our mood, whatever our
guish to the Lord and asks how long he condition, the ancient voices call us to hear
must wait before God delivers him. But them. They, too, have experienced the joy,
through his distress, he places his trust _the sadness, the mourning, the sin, the
squarely in the Lord. In the end, he can anger, the confession, the forgiveness, and
sleep in peace (4:8), because the Lord pro- _ other experiences that touch our lives so
vides all the security he needs. God has __ deeply. They call us to learn from them as
heard David's prayer, and willdeliverhim the Holy Spirit uses their words to draw
from his enemies. us closer to the Lord.

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 Proverbs
Advice on Living in God's World

Contents
of the Book of Proverbs
Outline | UTES TNA STOTT

| Overview
_Authorship Objectives
| ¢ Theological Themes
After reading this chapter,
you should be able to
¢ Define “proverb”
¢ List the two types of wisdom literature
¢ Outline the basic content
of the Book of Proverbs
¢ Present the purpose of Proverbs
¢ Identify the proverbs of each contribution
of sayings
¢ Discuss the theological themes of the
Book of Proverbs and their importance
to successful living

a3
Encountering the Poetical Books

The Book of PROVERBS is the second book operates. Over time, these statements were
proverb
in the collection known as “wisdom liter- collected and related to each other. The re-
ature” (see introduction to wisdom liter- sult is a collection of timeless truths or
ature in chapter 20). The book has some- basic values proven by previous genera-
thing to say about nearly every aspect of tions. The unifying purpose of the collec-
faith and life. Other portions of the Bible tion is to encourage the reader to live right-
present God’s law, narrate historical events eously and justly before God.
involving his people, or record hymns of We may also state what a proverb is not.
praise. But the Book of Proverbs consoli- First, proverbs are not promises. Christ-
dates ancient Israel’s truths based on ex- ian parents would love to claim Proverbs
perience and offers believers of every gen- 22:6 as a promise from God: “Train chil-
eration practical advice on holy living. dren in the right way, and when old, they
The Book of Proverbs is a collection of
will not stray” (NRSv). But unfortunately,
short sayings instructing the reader how
this is not a guarantee that Christians will
to live well. Like the Book of Psalms, the
raise only Christian children. Sometimes
Book of Proverbs is a collection of collec-
tions. It contains proverbs and wisdom
young people reject the Christian training
sayings from different authors and sources they received as children and refuse to ac-
compiled ina library of wisdom teachings cept the leadership of godly parents. In-
on how to “fear the Lorp and shun evil” stead, this proverb is a general principle
(Biv 3:7): that godly training will stay with children,
and in most cases, children raised in right-
CT TE TAN
eous families will accept the direction of
their parents. Again, proverbs are state-
What Is a “Proverb”? ments of general truth, not hard-and-fast
Generally speaking, a proverb is a suc- promises.
cinct and persuasive saying proven true Second, proverbs are not commands.
by experience. The topics addressed cover Many proverbs begin with imperatives,
everything in God’s universe and how it or instructions given in the second person.

A young man at
his bar mitzvah
at the Western
Wall, Jerusalem.
Proverbs is a
collection of
down-to-earth
sayings designed
to teach
practical
wisdom. Much
of the advice is
addressed to
young men.

314
 Proverbs

when choosing your friends, because your

+ 3 Excerpts Adapted friends affect your character. If you asso-
ciate with quarrelsome people, you will
’ from the tend to become quarrelsome. Or take, for
Teachings of Ahigar' example, the proverb in 24:27:

Ahigar was advisor to Sennacherib, king of Assyria Finish your outdoor work and get your
(704-681 B.c.). His “teachings” were preserved in fields ready;
Aramaic from the fifth century 8.c. on eleven sheets after that, build your house.
of palimpsest papyrus, or recycled paper. German
archaeologists discovered the document in Some well-meaning Christian might argue
southern Egypt in 1906 and 1907. from this verse that one should not live in
The sayings of Ahigar selected here were for his a house until learning an outdoor skill. But
nephew and adopted son, Nadin, whom Ahigar surely this proverb is a general statement
was grooming to replace him. Parallels with Old against personal consumption before hav-
Testament proverbs are suggested in the ing a means of income. This is a time-hon-
parentheses. ored concept about producing before con-
suming, or, as the apostle Paul said,
Do not withhold your son from the rod, or else you “Anyone unwilling to work should not
will not be able to save him. (Prv 13:24) eat” (NRSV, 2 Thes 3:10).
My son, do not chatter too much so that you wind Rather than promises or commands to
up speaking every word that comes into your mind. be applied in every case, the proverbs are
People’s eyes and ears are always watching your general principles of life. Here is the wis-
mouth, so beware lest it be your downfall. More dom of the ages, tried and true, compelling
than everything else, watch your mouth. (Prv in its presentation and uplifting in its
4:23-24). ethics. Because of their terse style, proverbs
are not to be skimmed or read quickly.
Do not take the word of a king lightly: let it be Their condensed language makes it nec-
healing for your flesh. (Prv 16:24). essary to read them slowly and contem-
platively. These time-honored truths take
If a man be small, but becomes great, his words
time to fathom.
soar above him. For the opening of his mouth is a
Their general quality also means you
statement of the gods and if the gods love him
should always be looking for the under-
they will put something good in his mouth to say.
lying principle of the statement. For ex-
(Prv 16:1).
ample, the English proverb “Look before
Whoever fails to take pride in the names of his you leap” is memorable because of the sin-
father and mother, may the sun not shine on him. gle-syllable words and the recurrence of
(Prv 20:20). the letter /.' Though it means the same
thing, it would be much more difficult to
James M. Lindenberger, The Aramaic Proverbs of Ahiqar (Baltimore: ioe remember the following statement: “In ad-
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), and ANET, 427-30.
vance of committing yourself to a course
of action, consider your circumstances and
options.” The longer, more elaborate say-
ing is certainly more precise, but it is ad-
Yet they must be interpreted carefully for
mittedly harder to remember. The catchy
our day.
and memorable “Look before you leap”
Make no friends with those given to anger, is more compelling and forceful, simply
and do not associate with hotheads, because of its proverbial nature. But it
or you may learn their ways could also be misunderstood. It does not
and entangle yourself in a snare. say what to look for or where one should
(NRSV, Prv 22:24—25) look before jumping. Nor does it say how
long one should wait to jump after look-
Someone might innocently take this ing. In fact, the proverb is not really about
proverb to mean they should not befriend jumping at all.
anyone with a temper. But the general Likewise, when reading the Bible’s
principle here is that you should take care proverbs, you should remember their

315
Encountering the Poetical Books

broad, general nature. Take them on their V. Solomonic Proverbs from

own terms, as general observations about Hezekiah’s Collection
how life works. (25:1-29:27)
VI. Sayings of Agur (30:1-33)
VII. Sayings of Lemuel (31:1-9)
Gonten of the
Book of Proverbs VIII. Postscript: The Excellent Wife
(31:10-31)
Wisdom literature in general is of two
types (see chapter 20). The first is dis- Overview
coursive wisdom, which grapples with the The book contains seven collections of
difficult issues of life and is usually pes- proverbs from various authors. A seven-
simistic. The Book of Job is an example of verse introduction (1:1-7) states the book’s
this type of wisdom literature. The second purpose.
type of wisdom literature is instructional
Title and introduction (1:1-7)
or didactic in nature and is usually opti-
mistic about life. The Book of Proverbs is The opening verse associates the Book of
Proverbs with Solomon, Israel’s greatest
an example of this second type. Old Tes-
wiseman and the catalyst of her wisdom
tament instructional wisdom, such as
literature. The book’s purpose is clear by
Proverbs, has its closest parallels with
the repetition of “for” in verses 2-6:
Egyptian instructional wisdom, though
Mesopotamia has examples as well. 2) for attaining wisdom
The Book of Proverbs continues the and discipline;
themes of other portions of the Old Testa- for understanding words
ment by contrasting two ways of living life. of insight;
On the one hand, there are those who reject 3) for acquiring a disciplined
God’s laws and refuse to keep his covenant. and prudent life,
Proverbs designates these individuals as doing what is right and just
“fools” and their life choices as “folly.” On and fair;
the other hand, those who carefully main- 4) for giving prudence
tain their relationship with God and adhere to the simple,
to his ways are called “wise” and their lives knowledge and discretion
are characterized by “wisdom.” to the young—
5) let the wise listen and add
Outline to their learning,
and let the discerning get
I. Title and Prologue (1:1-7) guidance—
6) for understanding proverbs
II. Wisdom and Some Opponents and parables,
(1:8-9:18) the sayings and riddles
. Criminals (1:8-19) of the wise.
Wisdom’s Call (1:20-33)
. Wisdom’s Rewards (2:1—4:27) The book's goal is instruction, particularly
. Adultery (5:1-23) for the young (v. 4), but it is also helpful
Business and Society (6:1-19) to those who already have wisdom (v. 5).
Adultery (6:20-7:27) Much more than intellectual informa-
. Wisdom Praised (8:1-36) tion or head-knowledge, the instruction
©
GSES
2 Human Choices (9:1-18) found in this book is based on the rever-
ence and worship of Yahweh: “the fear of
III. The Proverbs of Solomon the Lorn is the beginning of knowledge”
GOHE22Al6) (v. 7a). As its “beginning,” the fear of God
is the first and controlling principle of wis-
IV. Sayings of the Wise Men dom ‘ ‘rather than a stage which one leaves
(22:17-24:34) behind.” So the knowledge offered here
316
 Proverbs

to the father’s instruction and the mother’s

teaching. These sayings often contrast sex-
ual immorality with devotion to wisdom,
which involves sexual purity. The total pic-
ture is one of wisdom’s great value.
The unit begins with an introduction
that highlights the two ways of 1:7, the
way of wisdom and the way of folly. The
way of wisdom follows that path laid out
before the young man by his parents
open ee women in that society and culture, (1:8-9). The wise young man will adorn
shich leads toa definite masculine inclination in himself in his father’s instruction and his
mother’s teaching, which prepare him for
Je: nation for the student. life. But the way of folly is the path sug-
Yet the book holds womanhood in the highest gested by the young man’s peer group,
egard. The instruction of the mother is on a par which pressures him into a life of sin, ul-
% with that of the father (1:8; 10:1), and the joy of a timately resulting in an early grave
B? good wife is valued above all else (12:4). In this (1:10-19).
light, it is interesting that the book concludes with Several paragraphs in this unit praise
the magnificent poem to the excellent woman the virtue of wisdom and enumerate the
— (31:10-31). rewards of pursuing God’s knowledge.
Reading the Book of Proverbs in our day requires _ 1. 1:20-33. This is the first of several pas-
several adjustments. Politically, we do not live e da ga sages in which wisdom is personified as
under a monarchy whose leadership roles are —
a woman. Here she pleads urgently and
limited to men. Se we are not allGiiKeGe
emotionally to all who pass by the gates
(the public gathering place in ancient
cities). Rejecting her advice is tantamount
to hating knowledge and rejecting the fear
of Yahweh. This is ultimately self-de-
structive (vv. 28-32). But her invitation is
to life and security (v. 33).
2. 2:1-22. This paragraph assures the
youth that wisdom is attainable if one
searches for it “as for silver” (v. 4). Wis-
dom, knowledge, and understanding are
gifts from the Lord, which come from his
own mouth (v. 6). This is more than mere
human insight, but the truths of God’s
is a relationship with the covenant God
and dependent on his self-revelation. The eternal ways.
contrasting line of verse 7 (“but fools de- 3. 3:1-35. Further benefits of wisdom are
a lifetime of serenity and victory. The cen-
spise wisdom and discipline”) warns the
tral themes of this unit are poignantly
student that on the path to wisdom he will
stated in two important verses that sum-
meet those who will oppose his journey
marize the biblical approach to life:
and encourage him to join them in other
pursuits. Trust in the Lorp with all your heart
In praise of wisdom (1:8-9:18) and lean not on your own
understanding;
The material in these chapters consists of
in all your ways acknowledge him,
longer, well-crafted discourses, whereas and he will make your paths straight.
most of the other collections in the book (vv. 5-6)
have shorter, tightly written sayings | with
little obvious editorial arrangement. *The 4. 4:1-27. This chapter contains the ur-
sayings in 1:8-9:18 are a series of “fatherly gent teachings of a father for his son in
talks,” in light of the recurrence of the which he again offers two paths. These
words “my son” and the several references time-honored truths have been handed
317
Encountering the Poetical Books

HANNA ANTE down from generation to generation (vv. opening paragraph (vv. 1-5) illustrates the
distichs
3-4). The contrast between two ways in importance of making careful decisions.
life culminates in “the path of the right- The warnings against sexual sin must take
eous,” who walk in the safe light of day, root in the heart before the moment of
and “the way of the wicked,” who stum- temptation. The best advice possible for a
ble about in deep darkness (vv. 18-19).” young person, as presented here in the
5. 5:15-23. The joy of marital faithful- wisdom of God, is to guard these words
ness is another benefit of wisdom. In ex- and commands as the pupil (“apple”) of
plicit language, the paragraph explains one’s eye. The rest of the chapter describes
that sexual delight is God’s gift to a mar- what happens to the simple-minded
ried couple. Faithfulness to one’s wife is young man who gives in to the temptress
a source of joy and satisfaction. But break- (vv. 6-27). His first mistake is going to the
ing the marriage vows is calamitous. wrong place at the wrong time, where he
6. 8:1-36. The praise of wisdom has risen is seemingly defenseless before her ad-
ina great crescendo to this point. Proverbs vances (vv. 8-9). When he surrenders to
8 is the pinnacle of the Bible’s view of wis- her, he follows her “like an ox going to the
dom, and strikes a remarkable contrast slaughter” (v. 22). The concluding para-
with preceding sections that warn against graph begs the reader to look past her
sexual infidelity, especially chapter 7. Wis- beauty to the heap of corpses who are her
dom is personified as a woman who iis to victims (vv. 24-27).
be cherished, adored, and honored.’ Thus
the contrast between Lady Wisdom and Proverbs of Solomon (10:1-22:16)
the adulteress of chapter 7 is profound, After the parental discourses of the first
and would provide the young man with unit, the youth is now ready for the many
clear choices between a life of wisdom and specific proverbs of this larger section. The
a life of sin. title (“The proverbs of Solomon,” 10:1) sets
Lady Wisdom was the first of the Lord’s the preceding collection of discourses off
created order and stood at his side as he from this unit of individual proverbs. The
fashioned the universe (vv. 22-31). But by unit consists largely of a collection of
God's grace, she also takes her stand in proverbial sayings in poetry of two lines
the marketplace, in the soiled streets of each (distichs). The parallelism is almost
everyday human commerce, to offer life always antithetical, as in the first apho-
and understanding to the simplest and rism: “A wise child makes a glad father,
slowest of the human race (vv. 1-21). Like but a foolish child is a mother’s grief”
the temptress of chapter 7, Lady Wisdom (Rsv 10:1).
aggressively seeks to be found by hu- These proverbs cover topics as diverse
mankind. But in contrast, those who em- and wide-ranging as life itself: poverty
brace wisdom find life itself (vv. 35-36). and wealth, slander, self-discipline, speech
Proverbs 1:8-9:18 contains several sec- and silence, work and laziness, rash
tions warning against adultery and the promises, discipline in education, sickness
dangers of immoral women. and grief, old age, and more.’ There does
1. 5:1-14. This paragraph has two dis- not appear to be an organizing principle
courses warning against sexual sins. No or structure in this collection. The seem-
matter how alluring a seductress may be, ingly haphazard order of these proverbs
her surface beauty only covers the decay reflects the random manner in which we
and ruin at the heart of her motives (vv. deal with the life-issues they address.”
3-5). The second discourse lists the dire
consequences of sexual impurity (vv. Sayings of the wise men
7-14). (22:17-24:34)
2. 6:20-35. The effects of sexual sin are This separate collection is marked by the
so great that they destroy whoever sub- opening paragraph (22:17-21). These are
mits to them. “Can a man scoop fire into “sayings of the wise” to which the student
his lap without his clothes being burned” should affix his heart and pay close at-
(v. 27)? tention. Careful observance of these say-
3. 7:1-27. This is the most powerful unit ings will result in trust in the Lord and a
on the dangers of sexual impurity. The solid foundation in the truth.
318
 Proverbs

gued that the Egyptian text was translated

from an older Hebrew version. But most
agree that the Hebrew proverbs were
modeled on an Egyptian original. Indeed,
the Hebrew text tends to clarify its Egypt-
ian counterpart in places.” Any doubt
about the direction of borrowing was re-
solved by recent findings that require a
new date of composition for the Egyptian
text. It is now virtually certain that the In-
nasant,
ee educate. Guard yourself from struction of Amenemope came from around
bing the poor, from being violent to the weak. 1200 B.c., over two hundred years before
not associate with the rash man nor approach Solomon. ~
him in conversation ... when he makes a It is not surprising that biblical authors
a statement to snare you and you may be released by felt free to draw on material from sur-
| your answer. As for the scribe who is experienced rounding cultures. The title of this section
in his office, he will find himself worthy of being a (“sayings of the wise”) may imply foreign
| courtier. origins, and chapter 30 as well as part of
chapter 31 were probably contributions of
Do not eat food in the presence of a noble or cram non-Israelites. And we have already seen
your mouth in front of him. If you are satisfied that Job may have foreign origins. The idea
pretend to chew. It is pleasant in your saliva. Look of Israelite borrowing is especially not sur-
at the cup in front of you and let it serve your prising of proverbs, which after all, are
need. based on life-experiences and observations
about the universe. Ancient Israelites rec-
Do not strain to seek excess when your possessions ognized and respected the value and truth-
are secure. If riches are brought to you by robbery, fulness of some of the Egyptian observa-
they will not stay the night in your possession. tions about life, though they condemned
all forms of polytheism. So the borrowing
Do not covet the property of a poor man lest you here was not rigid, but creative. The au-
hunger for his bread. As for the property of a poor thor of this section felt free to adapt the
man it obstructs the throat and wounds the gullet. material for Israel’s unique worship of
Do not pour out your heart to everybody so that _ Yahweh.
you diminish respect for yourself. Do not remove _ It should also be remembered that
the boundary stone on the boundaries of the proverbs, though based on human expe-
cultivated land nor throw down the boundary of . | riences, are not merely humankind’s ob-
the widow lest a dread thing carry you off. servations about the world. The instruc-
iExtracted from the Instruction of Amenemope (ANET, 4 tions are also part of God’s revelation to
J. Ruffle, “The Teaching of Amenemope andIts Connection wit! Israel and to modern believers. This sec-
Book of Proverbs,” Tyndale Bulletin 28 (1977): 2 tion’s dependence on an Egyptian set of
A Survey of Parallels between Biblical and Ancient I proverbs does not undermine the role of
(Gren hee Zonder God’s inspiration in the composition of
the Book of Proverbs.
Solomonic sayings from Hezekiah’s
collection (25:1-29:27)
These “thirty sayings” (22:20) have
According to the introduction of this sec-
much in common with the Egyptian doc- tion, scribes in Hezekiah’s court copied
ument known as the Instruction of AMEN- and compiled this collection of “more
EMOPE, Which has a prologue and thirty proverbs of Solomon” (25:1). As in other
chapters of “instructions for well-being” sections of Solomon’s proverbs, these are
(see introduction in chapter 20 above). The marked by their short, forceful style. But
relationship between the Egyptian Hezekiah’s scribes have organized certain
proverbs and this section of the biblical proverbs into small, topical collections (as
book (especially 22:17—23:14) is too close in 1:8-9:18).
to be coincidental. Some scholars have ar- Many of these proverbs would have

319
Encountering the Poetical Books

A market trader
weighs out his
produce in
Bethlehem. The
Lord wants
weights and
measures to be
honest (11:11).

HAKAN ANY been of great interest to Hezekiah, the re- etition of numerical sayings, such as
acrostic
ligious reformer (see 2 Chr 29-31). They “There are three things that are too amaz-
frequently deal with topics of leadership ing for me, four that I do not understand”
and those who associate with leaders. (30:18). The chapter opens with the au-
Kings are noted for their thirst for the truth thor’s candid confession that he does not
(25:2-3), and they grow weary of boastful have great wisdom and understanding
subjects who are motivated by vain pride (30:1-9). His numerical statements demon-
(25:6-8). strate his need for more learning and in-
sight. As elsewhere in the Book of
Sayings of Agur (30:1-33) Proverbs, Agur’s collection illustrates that
The proverbs of Agur, son of Jakeh, and pride is the enemy of wisdom and is there-
those of King Lemuel (31:1-9) appear to fore no friend of God.
have existed independently before they
became part of the biblical book." Most Sayings of Lemuel (31:1-9)
commentators assume they were of Ara- King Lemuel’s proverbs, learned at his
bian descent, a theory supported by a mother’s knee, warn about royal respon-
slight textual variant (see Niv’s note “of sibility. Kings should take care not to in-
Massa” at 30:1 and 31:1). Neither Agur nor dulge their appetites at the expense of their
Lemuel is known outside these biblical people. Specifically, Lemuel’s mother
references, and their origins remain in warns him about drunkenness, which will
doubt. lead to neglect of the law and persecution
Agur’s collection is marked by the rep- of the oppressed.
The wisdom of finding
an excellent wife (31:10-31)
These verses are an acrostic, meaning that
7
y
\ Key Terms the first letter of each line of poetry is the
id . next successive letter of the Hebrew al-
proverb phabet. Hence, there are twenty-two lines,
distichs one for each of the twenty-two letters of
acrostic the alphabet. This is a favorite technique
Key Person of the talented Old Testament poets (see
Amenemope
for example, Ps 119 and Lam 3).
It is fitting that the Book of Proverbs
should end on the importance of finding
a good wife. It has warned against sexual

320
 Proverbs

impurity all along the way. The book has opening verse of the book associates the
also exalted the role of women, and even whole collection with Solomon.
personified wisdom as a woman worthy Indeed, biblical testimony in general
of marriage. The young man, beginning supports the idea that Solomon stood at
his life of service to God, can be ruined or the fountainhead of Israel’s wisdom tra-
made successful by his decision of a life ditions (1 Kgs 4:29-34; Pss 72:1; 127:1; Song
partner (31:23). His choice of a wife is the 1:1). Though many modern biblical schol-
first test of his character, and his success ars reject this possibility, a study of the for-
depends partly on her character as well. mal structure of the Book of Proverbs sug-
In these closing paragraphs, the book gests an early first millennium date for its
seems to be emphasizing the role of the composition, which supports the biblical
virtuous wife and mother as the one most witness.” The evidence implies that
able to build up a character of wisdom in Solomon composed much of the material
her family. This great womans family will in the Book of Proverbs. Contributions of
rise up and call her blessed (31:28-31). other wisdom teachers were attached to
Solomon’s collection, because he was the
impetus and patron of the Israelite wis-
dom tradition.

The book contains several references to AL LT

A A A

Solomon’s role in the proverb traditions

of Israel. The proverbs in 10:1-22:16 are Theological Themes
called “the proverbs of Solomon” (10:1), The Old Testament gives few details about
and those of chapters 25-29 are “more how ancient Israelites educated their chil-
proverbs of Solomon, copied by the men dren. Apparently, education took place in
of Hezekiah king of Judah” (25:1). The the home (Dt 6:4-9; Prv 23:22—25). What

Summary

1. A proverb is a short saying about prin- . The thirty sayings of Proverbs 22-28
ciples of living that have been proven are similar to those found in the
by life experience, but a proverb is not Egyptian document, The Instruction of
a promise or a command. Amenemope.

. There are two types of wisdom litera- . The Book of Proverbs contains sayings
ture: discoursive wisdom as found in of Solomon, Agur, and Lemuel.
Job and instructional literature as
. The collection of sayings of Agur em-
found in Proverbs.
phasizes how the enemy of wisdom is
. The major objective of the Book of pride.
Proverbs is instruction for all.
. The acrostic is the literary device used
. Proverbs 1-9 are basically parental dis- in Proverbs 31.
courses to children.
. Education is addressed in the Book of
. The proverbs in chapters 10-22 are Proverbs, where the contents of Is-
specific proverbs for youth, covering a raelite education are described. This
variety of subjects. includes education for living in a
proper relationship with God and his
created world.

321
Encountering the Poetical Books

Study Questions

. What is the focus of this book of short . Which unit may have been based on
sayings? Define a “proverb.” How an Egyptian text?
does a proverb differ from a promise . Why would the sayings of 25:1-29:27
or a command?
have been of interest to Hezekiah?
. How does the “wisdom” of Proverbs
. What is known about the origin of the
differ from that of the Book of Job?
sayings of Agur (30:1-33)?
What two things are contrasted in the
Book of Proverbs? . Why is the unit on finding an excellent
wife (31:10-31) a fitting end to the
. What is the goal of the book? Who is
Book of Proverbs?
the target audience? What is the first
and controlling principle of wisdom? . What place did Proverbs hold in Is-
raelite education? How did the Is-
. How is the first collection of sayings
raelites view faith and knowledge?
(1:8-9:18) different from most of the
What is the underlying essence of
other collections in the book? Where
knowledge or wisdom as presented in
does one find the pinnacle of the
Proverbs?
Bible’s view of wisdom? What is the
most powerful unit on the dangers of
sexual impurity?

is clear is that the Book of Proverbs pre- tremendous insight about the world, even
sents the contents of Israelite education. about God, and still not know him. The
Though the book obviously deals with wisdom offered in the Book of Proverbs
knowledge and secular education, this is is wisdom rooted in a personal knowledge
not the limit of its concern. of God.
Proverbs intends to present wisdom This kind of wisdom has more to do
needed for successful living. It provides with character than intellect. Intellect is
instruction for living in relationship with obviously important in grasping the truths
God and his created world. Ancient Is- of God. But his truths are ones to which
raelites did not compartmentalize their we are called to commit our lives. With-
faith as moderns do. For them, there was out such commitment, we have missed
only one world of experience, in which ra- true wisdom, which has its beginning in
tional perceptions and religion were not relationship to him.
differentiated.’ Experiences of Yahweh This relational knowledge has an impact
were experiences of the world, and the Is- on our human relationships. The Book of
raelites made no attempt to separate faith Proverbs has much to say about our rela-
from knowledge. Thus the “fear of the tionships with parents, spouses, and fam-
Lorp is the beginning of knowledge/wis- ilies. A key element of wisdom in human
dom” (1:7; 9:10). relationships is sexuality, an important
Knowledge (at least this kind of knowl- issue in this book. Proverbs acknowledges
edge) is primarily relational, not proposi- the power of sex in our relationships. That
tional. In other words, there is much more power translates into potential for the most
to knowing truth than learning its propo- fulfilling relationship possible, the beauty
sitions, its proven assertions. The bright- of love within marriage. On the other hand,
est people in the world may acquire the power of sex presents a dangerous
322
 Proverbs

Further Reading

Alden, Robert L. Proverbs: A Commentary on an treatment that is more scholarly than most
Ancient Book of Timeless Advice. Grand Rapids: commentaries in this series.
Baker, 1983. Easy, commentary-like treatment of Kidner, Derek. The Proverbs: An Introduction and
the book. Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament
Bullock, C. Hassell. An Introduction to the Old Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester:
Testament Poetic Books. Rev. ed. Chicago: Moody, InterVarsity, 1964. Valuable insights, though
1988. Helpful introduction to all the poetical concise. Includes concise discussions of key topics:
books. marriage, family, children, etc. Excellent for
Garrett, Duane A. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of beginners.
Songs. New American Commentary 14. Nashville: Mouser, William E., Jr. Walking in Wisdom: Studying
Broadman, 1993. Best comprehensive commentary the Proverbs of Solomon. Downers Grove:
available. Contains thorough scholarly InterVarsity, 1983. Introduction to the unique
presentation, yet sensitive to theological issues as literary features of Proverbs. Helpful discussion of
well. poetry.
Hubbard, David A. Proverbs. Communicator’s
Commentary 15A. Dallas: Word, 1989. A useful

opening for wreckage. Those who abuse phasizing the two ways of living between
this powerful and precious gift of God out- which all of us must choose: the way of
side his will are on a collision course with wisdom or the way of folly. The way of
disaster. wisdom is a way of living in relationship
As we saw in chapter 20 (pp. 275-87), with God, and seeks to learn more about
the retribution theology of the Pentateuch his ways in the world. The way of folly
has an important role to play in wisdom lives without regard for God or his in-
literature. The Book of Proverbs illus- struction. To choose the second alterna-
trates the retribution principle by em- tive is self-destructive.

323
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 Ecclesiastes
and Song of Songs
Israelite Faith in Everyday Life

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- Outline 7

‘NANOTECH MST
‘35 a The Book of Ecclesi astes

Contents : = “
Authorship Objectives
¢ The Song of Songs After reading this chapter,
Contents you should be able to
Authorship ¢ State the themes of Ecclesiastes
and Song of Songs
¢ Theological Themes
¢ Outline the basic content
Ecclesiastes
of the Book of Ecclesiastes
Song of Songs
e Discuss the themes of Ecclesiastes
and Song of Songs
e Relate the key issues surrounding
the authorship of Ecclesiastes
¢ Outline the basic content
of the Song of Songs
e Find ancient Near Eastern metaphors
in Song of Songs

325
Encountering the Poetical Books

AEN
Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs conclude translated “vanity” (hebel) has many con-
Vulgate
the Old Testament section of the canon notations: absurdity, frustration, futility,
known as the poetical books. They depict nonsense, emptiness, and vapor. The Niv
important aspects of life in ancient Israel has “Meaningless! Meaningless! Every-
that relate to universal human experiences. thing is meaningless!” The term can refer
Everyone around the world can relate to to a passing vapor, emphasizing its in-
the struggle of faith in Ecclesiastes and the substantial and transitory nature. Qohelet
need for human love in Song of Songs. Ec- warns against a life caught in the pursuit
clesiastes demonstrates how faith can tri- of absurd and empty pleasures that have
umph over doubt; Song of Songs cele- no lasting value.” Life without God at the
brates the love shared between husband center is meaningless.
and wife.
Outline

I. Title and Theme (1:1-11)

The Book of A. Title (1:1)
B. Theme (1:2-11)
Ecclesiastes
II. Wisdom Reflections (1:12-4:16)
The book reflects a time of despair. The
A. The Search for Satisfaction
promises of the covenant seem far distant,
(1:12-2:26)
the glories of national Israel forgotten, and
A Catalog of Times (3:1-15)
the shining hope of the prophets lost. But
. A Question of Justice
even in the midst of such desperation, the
(3:16-22)
poet discovers the rich truths proclaimed
SP. A Matter of Oppression
AGed
in the other wisdom books of the Old Tes-
tament (Job and Proverbs). The “fear of (4:1-3)
God” is the only sure foundation for build- . A Critique of Work (4:4-12)
tH The Transience of Fame
ing one’s life (Jb 28:28; Prv 1:7). Ecclesi-
astes teaches that the only hope of endur- (4:13-16)
ing the present is to fear and obey God III. Admonitions and Observations
(12:13-14). (5:1-12:8)
A. Religious Practice (5:1-7)
Contents
B. A Matter of Political
The term “ecclesiastes” has a long history. Corruption (5:8-9)
It came into English through the Latin and C. The Vanity of Wealth
Greek translations of the Old Testament (5:10-6:9)
(Vulgate and Septuagint). It translates the D. Man’s Helplessness and
Hebrew word gohelet in 1:1: “The words Ignorance (6:10-12)
of QOHELET, son of David, king in sa “Better Than” Proverbs
Jerusalem.” The Hebrew term occurs (7:1-14)
nowhere else in the Old Testament except ™ An Avoidance of Extremes
in this book (seven times) and its mean- (7:15—-24)
ing is uncertain. It appears to refer to one . The Search for Wisdom
leading an assembly, and therefore “ec- (7:25-8:1)
clesiastes” was understood as the leader . Court Protocol (8:2-8)
or speaker for the assembly. Some trans- Failure of Retribution (8:9-17)
lations use “preacher” (kjv, NKJV), but the A Common Destiny (9:1-6)
term is used as a proper noun in the book . Enjoyment of Life (9:7-10)
and Qohelet is more of a philosopher than yea
BeeThe Inadequacy of Wisdom
a preacher.’ Many of the newer transla- (9:11-18)
tions use “teacher” (NIV, NLT, NRSV). M. Assorted Practical Sayings
Qohelet’s purpose is clear in the motto, (10:1—20)
stated at the outset and repeated at the N. A Call to Action (11:1-6)
conclusion to forma literary envelope for O. Youth and Age (11:7-12:8)
the whole book: “Vanity of vanities! All is
vanity” (1:2; 12:8 nrsv). The Hebrew term IV. Conclusion (12:9-14)

326
 Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs

There are many

Jewish tombs on
the slopes of the
Mount of Olives,
Jerusalem. The
writer of
Ecclesiastes
speaks of a time
to be born anda
time to die (3:2).

Overview 5-6). And so it has been from the begin-

Just as Job is a collection of speeches, ning. The more human beings pride them-
Psalms a collection of songs, and Proverbs selves in their achievements and devel-
a collection of short wisdom sayings, so opment, the more things remain the same:
Ecclesiastes is a collection. This book con- “there is nothing new under the sun” (vv.
tains a variety of literary types, all mak- 9-10).
ing the same point, such as poetry, narra- Wispom Rertections (1:12-4:16)
tive, proverbial sayings, and_ brief Using King Solomon as an example, the
meditations. These types, in spite of their book teaches that even fame is no guar-
variety, share a common theme: Life, and antee of a meaningful life. Assuming the
our preoccupation with material and tem- unlimited riches and resources of the great
poral things, is meaningless. The teacher king, the teacher searches for significance
believes that when all the trivial layers of in life through Solomon’s royal accom-
life are stripped away, all we have left is plishments. But even the accomplishments
to “fear God” and “enjoy life.” of King Solomon were disappointing: wis-
TITLE AND THEME (1:1—-11) dom (1:13-18; 2:12-16), pleasure (2:1-3),
The book’s thesis is that everything is building projects and riches (2:4-11). In
meaningless: “Vanity of vanities! All is despair, the great king summarizes all his
vanity” (1:2; 12:8 NRsv). The Hebrew lit- pursuits as total vanity, a “chasing after
erary form “X of X” indicates the su- the wind” (a phrase that recurs in this unit,
perlative and intensifies an idea. For ex- 1:14, 17; 2:11, 17, 26). Ultimately, we mor-
ample, the “Holy of Holies” is the most tals can do nothing better than eat, drink,
holy place, the “king of kings” is the great- and find satisfaction in our work. But even
est king, and the “Song of Songs” is the this is not of our own, but a gift of God
best of songs. The vanity and meaning- (2:24-25).
lessness in this book’s motto is intense and The catalog of times (3:1—15) affirms that
all-encompassing: “Everything is utterly the variety of times and seasons of life are
meaningless.” set by God. All our hard work can never
Nor does our work produce accom- change the way God has established these
plishments that make life meaningful (vv. cyclic patterns of life (v. 9). All we can do
3-11). As the sun rises and sets, and as the is “be happy and do good” while we are
wind blows around in its endless courses, alive (v. 12). It is God’s gift for us to “eat
so our labors are repetitious and futile (vv. and drink, and find satisfaction” in our

327
Encountering the Poetical Books

An elderly
Orthodox Jew
prays at
Jerusalem’s
Western wall.
Chapter 12 of
Ecclesiastes
contains a
moving poem
about old age
(vv. 1-8).

on SRE

work (v. 13). We must simply enjoy God’s cludes there is no justice to be had in this
wonderful creation and understand that life, he declares there is nothing “better for
everything he has done is intended to lead people under the sun than to eat, and
us to revere and serve him (v. 14). drink, and enjoy themselves” (8:15, NRSV).
The prospect of death is also undeni- The future holds no guarantees, and it
able. In this sense, humans are no better is useless to hope for better. The stillborn
off than the animals; all breathe the same child is better off than someone who lives
air and all can expect one day to die a life of disappointment (6:3-6), and the
(3:19-20). Again, the only consolation is day of death is better than the day of birth
enjoyment of our labor (3:22). (7:1). Wisdom is helpful for the one who
The teacher considered all the oppres- has it, but righteousness does not save
sion “under the sun,” and despaired of (7:5-14). The teacher has witnessed a right-
hope. He concluded that those who have eous man perishing in his righteousness,
already died are better off than the living. and a wicked man living long in his
Better still are those who have not been wickedness (7:15). Human power is arbi-
born at all (4:2-3). Achievements, wealth, trary and unpredictable, so those who
companionship, and the glory of rising serve in the royal court must learn to live
from poverty to kingship—all are “mean- with the inevitable abuse of power (8:2-8).
ingless, a chasing after the wind” (4:4, 6, The theme of 8:9-9:10 is summarized in
7,16). 9:2: “All share a common destiny—the
ADMONITIONS AND OBSERVATIONS righteous and the wicked, the good and
(5:1-12:8) the bad, the clean and the unclean, those
The teacher continues his assessment of who offer sacrifices and those who do not.”
life’s activities, which he views as all mean- As elsewhere, the Teacher laments that
ingless. Religion (5:1-7) and wealth death is inevitable and we must all face
(5:8-17) fail to add meaning to life. The that fact. All we can do is enjoy the life
best advice the teacher can offer is to eat God has given in spite of our unanswered
and drink and be satisfied with work “dur- questions (9:7-10).
ing the few days of life God has given” The next unit (9:11-12:8) begins with an
(5:18). This was a theme first sounded in assertion about the uncertainties of life:
2:24-25, and emerges as the teacher’s phi- “The race is not to the swift or the battle
losophy of life, giving a glimpse of hope to the strong ... but time and chance hap-
in an otherwise gloomy book. After he con- pen to them all” (9:11). Even wisdom does
328
 Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs

that God’s word contains graphic re-

Excerpts Adapted minders of our mortality.
_ from the ConcLusion (12:9-14)
_ Epic of Gilgamesh’ The teacher arrives at his conclusion in
this brief epilogue. After disparaging the
condition of humankind throughout the
[his passage from the Epic of Gilgamesh parallels
book, he declares that the whole of hu-
Ecclesiastes 9:7-9. The disparaging words of Siduri
manity is dependent on God: “Here is the
| remind Gilgamesh that we all must face death, and
conclusion of the matter: Fear God and
that he must learn to enjoy this fleeting life as
keep his commandments” (12:13). Mean-
- much as possible.
ingfulness and significance in life are fleet-
ing, and may even seem impossible. But
Gilgamesh, where do you think your roaming will
we are placed here to live in relationship
get you?
with God, regardless of our circumstances.
You will not find the eternal life you are seeking.
This is our only goal in life, and if we miss
_ Remember that when the gods created
humankind,
it, we miss meaning.
they set death aside for us, reserving life for
The “fear of God” is defined as keeping
themselves. his commandments. Walking in his ways
But you, O Gilgamesh, let your stomach be full and obeying his will are the only human
and satisfied. endeavors with meaning. Many transla-
Make merry day and night, tions take the last phrase of 12:13 as “for
and make every day a celebration feast, with that is the whole duty of everyone” (NRSV;
dancing and play. see also Niv and NLT). But the Hebrew lit-
Let your clothes be sparkling fresh, erally means “for this is the whole of hu-
and your head washed in sweet, refreshing mankind.” To obey him is to be truly
waters. human and to reach our greatest poten-
Cherish the little ones who hold your hand. tial as part of his creation.?
Rejoice in the love of your wife.
This is the best we humans can hope for. Authorship
The question of authorship of Ecclesiastes
Adapted from the Old Babylonia usually centers around the book’s unique
version of tablet 10, column 3, ANE
language. The Hebrew of Qohelet is un-
like any other of the Old Testament. Schol-
ars have long believed the book’s language
was affected by later Aramaic influences,
not necessarily make life meaningful, be- and that this, along with other linguistic
cause it goes unnoticed (9:13-18). Chap- peculiarities, gives evidence of a very late
ter 10 contains practical sayings about the date.* Most scholars date the work to the
futility of human endeavors. Yet the third century B.c.
teacher calls us to take action, even though However, recent research on Qohelet’s
our understanding is limited: “Cast your language has thrown this analysis into
bread upon the waters .. .” (11:1). Igno- question. The grammar and vocabulary
rance or confusion is no excuse for stand- of Ecclesiastes do not appear to be pos-
ing still (11:1-6). texilic, but in fact completely consonant
This unit ends with a moving poem with preexilic Hebrew.” Though the pre-
about old age (12:18). Youth is wonder- cise question of authorship must be left
ful, but “the days of trouble come” for us open, it is no longer possible to hold toa
all (v. 1). No matter how invincible we feel late, postexilic date for the Book of Eccle-
when we are young, age and death await siastes on the basis of linguistic evidence.
us all. The light grows dim, clouds fill the The phrase “son of David, king in
sky, sorrow arrives, and birdsongs grow Jerusalem” and certain passages like
faint. Each of us must go to our “eternal 1:16-17 are clearly meant to remind the
home” (v. 5), while “the dust returns to the reader of Solomon: “I thought to myself,
ground it came from” (v. 7, referring to the ‘Look, I have grown and increased in wis-
curse of Gn 3:19). We should all take note dom more than anyone who has ruled

825
Encountering the Poetical Books

An artist's over Jerusalem before me; I have experi- EEE

impression of an
Eastern wedding
party, with the
enced much of wisdom and knowledge.’
Then I applied myself to the understand-
The Song of Songs
Just as Qohelet’s motto “vanity of vani-
bride and ing of wisdom.” Yet the boast that he had
groom seated ties” is a Hebrew superlative meaning
surpassed all who preceded him on the
beneath a “everything is utterly meaningless,” so
special canopy. throne is rather weak if his father David
with the expression “song of songs.” This
was his only predecessor. Since the book is the most beautiful of all songs, the best
nowhere claims Solomon is its author, it
or number one song. This song tops the
is better to leave the matter unsettled. charts!
Yet the book clearly has some connec-
tions with Solomon. He was the human Contents
stimulus for much of the wisdom litera- The structure of the book has been hotly
ture according to the Bible, and it is cer- debated among Old Testament scholars.
tainly possible to see some kind of histor- The obvious lack of unity has led many
ical connection between King Solomon scholars to conclude the book is not a sin-
and the Book of Ecclesiastes. He was in gle song, but a collection or anthology of
fact, the author of some of the wisdom lit- many different poems woven together.
erature (Prv 1:1; 10:1), and as such he be- Though the Song appears to be an an-
came the fountainhead, the model for all thology, it is not totally without unity. Itis
Israel’s wisdom writings.® highly repetitious, and its consistent char-
330
 Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs

ways throughout the centuries, too often

Excerpts Adapted in an attempt to suppress the obviously
sexual nature of the poems.®
rom Egyptian Love Song of Songs is a simply stated cele-
bration of love shared between young
lovers created in God’s image. They bask
_Egyp han love songs contain lists of in each other’s beauty and in their ability
utiful bodily features, much like the Song of to satisfy their need for physical love. Song
| Songs (4:1-7; 5:9-16; 7:1-5). Notice how the of Songs pays homage to the wonder and
| beloved is called “sister” as in the Song of Songs. majesty of monogamous sexual love,
when that love is intensely pursued with
_ One alone is (my) sister, having no peer: honor and faithfulness.
_ more gracious than all other women. Many interpreters throughout history
Behold her, like the star rising have been uncomfortable with such ex-
at the beginning of a good year: plicit material. Some, both Jewish and
shining, precious, white of skin, Christian, have taken either a typological
lovely of eyes when gazing. or allegorical approach. In the typological
Sweet her lips when speaking: model, the Old Testament events de-
she has no excess of words. scribed are thought to be historical, but a
Long of neck, white of breast, corresponding New Testament parallel is
her hair true lapis lazuli. primary in meaning. So this book is said
Her arms surpass gold, to illustrate God’s intimate, covenant bond
her fingers are like lotuses.' with his people. In the allegorical model
the text relates a hidden meaning. It as-
Some of the Egyptian love songs exhibit the same sumes the book is also about God’s inti-
pattern as the individual poems in the Song of mate relationship with his people, though
Songs: description of beauty followed by a wish. it does not accept a historical basis for the
book. Many Jewish interpreters have taken
Your love is mixed throughout my body the Song as an allegory of the love between
like honey mixed with water, Yahweh and Israel, while Christian schol-
like medicine in which gum is mixed, ars have often accepted the book as prais-
like the blending of dough and water. ing the love between Christ and the
So hasten to see your sister, church. But it is doubtful whether this is
like a stallion dashing onto a battlefield.? the intended message of Song of Songs. It
seems best to take the book at face value,
1Papyrus Chester Beatty |, group A, no. 31. Michael V. Fox, The sone
Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs (Madison: University : inasmuch as no evidence indicates the
Wisconsin Press, 1985), 5 book is symbolic. The book celebrates sex-
2Papyrus Harris 500, group. A, no.2
ual love between husband and wife.
Outline

I. Love’s Strong Desire (1:1-2:7)

ATA ATTA
acter portrayal and common themes in- II. Love Lost and Found (2:8-3:5)
Miegory
dicate a certain unity, though not a con-
III. Celebration and Consummation
sistent narrative plot.” (:6—521))
The powerful ancient Near Eastern
metaphors used in the song seem dis- IV. Love’s Anxiety and
tasteful or confusing to some modern read- Consummation (5:2-8:4)
ers (e.g., “your teeth are like a flock of
V. Love’s Affirmation and
sheep,” 4:2). But these are part of the cul-
Consummation (8:5-14)
tural heritage of the ancient Oriental world
and should not detract from the amorous Overview
nature of the material. Nor should we The use of the personal pronouns in Song
overspiritualize the song. Song of Songs of Songs (“you,” “1,” “me,” “he,” “his,” .. .)
has been interpreted in radically different often makes it difficult to know who is

331
Encountering the Poetical Books

Part of the
Garden of
Gethsemane,
Jerusalem. The
writer of the
Song of Songs
employs the
imagery of the
garden in his
song of longing.

speaking. Some scholars who have taken man’s and the woman’s, with choral re-
the Song as a drama see three parties ina sponses sprinkled throughout. The indi-
sort of love triangle. In this interpretation, vidual poems of the Song appear to have
Solomon was trying to seduce a simple shared a similar structure, with several
but beautiful girl away from her shepherd variations. The woman (or occasionally
boyfriend. Others have assumed a two- the man) is described as beautiful and de-
character drama, taking the shepherd and sirable. Then the speaker expresses a wish
the king as the same character. However, to be with her (or him)." For example,
no indications in the text suggest that the Song 4:1-5 is a descriptive section followed
Song was intended as a drama, and we by the expression of will and determina-
have no evidence such literature was pro- tion in 4:6.
duced in ancient Syria-Palestine. Rather
than a drama, it is better to take the Song 4:1 How beautiful you are, my darling!
as a collection of love songs with no par- Oh, how beautiful!
ticular plot or story line. The pronouns Your eyes behind your veil are doves.
switch back and forth because the indi- Your hair is like a flock of goats
vidual units were originally independent. descending from Mount Gilead.
4:2 Your teeth are like a flock of sheep
In order to account for unity in the Song,
just shorn,
some scholars have attempted to find a coming up from the washing.
chiastic structure for the whole.’ But these Each has its twin;
attempts have not successfully demon- not one of them is alone.
strated an overall formal structure. In- 4:3 Your lips are like a scarlet ribbon;
stead, the Song of Songs appears to have your mouth is lovely.
been preceded by smaller collections of Your temples behind your veil
love poetry, just as the Books of Psalms are like the halves of a pomegranate.
and Proverbs were preceded by smaller 4:4 Your neck is like the tower of David,
collections of praise hymns and wisdom built with elegance;
sayings. The collector or editor of the Song on it hang a thousand shields,
all of them shields of warriors.
appears to have drawn together poems 4:5 Your two breasts are like two fawns,
with similar themes and arranged them like twin fawns of a gazelle
on the basis of catchwords and content.!° that browse among the lilies.
The book is a song about awakening 4:6 Until the day breaks
love, written (or sung) in two parts, the and the shadows flee,

332
 Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs

I will go to the mountain of myrrh to authorship. The words themselves may

and to the hill of incense. indicate the song was written about
Solomon, was dedicated to Solomon, or
Sometimes the descriptive section of a unit was placed in a collection of Solomon-like
stands alone and the wish for love is only songs.'? Many of the references to Solomon
suggested. are in the third person, and it is more likely
that the compiler of the Song was an ad-
4:9 You have stolen my heart, my sister,
mirer of the great king’s successes and sup-
my bride;
you have stolen my heart
porter of the wisdom literary traditions.
with one glance of your eyes, The most logical conclusion is that the
with one jewel of your necklace. Song is an expression of two young lovers
4:10 How delightful is your love, my sister, rejoicing in the splendor of their own
my bride! “royal” occasion. Part of this expression
How much more pleasing is your may have been written originally in honor
love than wine, of one of King Solomon’s weddings, and
and the fragrance of your perfume later became part of the standard musical
than any spice! celebration of every wedding."
4:11 Your lips drop sweetness as the
honeycomb, my bride;
milk and honey are under your
tongue.
The fragrance of your garments is like
Theological Themes
that of Lebanon.
Ecclesiastes
Occasionally the order is reversed alto- Christian faith never attempts to suppress
gether. In 1:2, the desire is expressed first, the questioning mind. Genuine faith in
followed by the descriptive statement. No- God is not afraid to bring the rising doubt
tice in this example that the pronouns into the light of his revelation for exam-
switch from the third person in the ex- ination. The very presence of a book like
pressed wish (1:2a) to the second person Ecclesiastes in the biblical canon is evi-
in the descriptive statement (1:2b).! dence that our faith welcomes closer
scrutiny. This book acknowledges the fact
Authorship that the circumstances of life sometimes
The opening reference of the book is to make faith difficult. But its inclusion
“Solomon’s Song of Songs” (1:1). But the among the wisdom books of the Old Tes-
language here is not necessarily referring tament teaches that questions, or even

. The central idea in Ecclesiastes is that 4. The Song of Songs means that this is
humankind’s only hope of surviving the best of all songs.
the trials of this life is to fear and obey
5. Song of Songs is a song about the sex-
God.
ual love of a husband and wife.
. The term “ecclesiastes” may mean
6. Ancient Near Eastern metaphors like
leader or speaker of an assembly,
“your hair is descending like a flock of
preacher, or teacher.
goats” abound in the Song of Songs.
. The author of the Book of Ecclesiastes
is anonymous.

333
Encountering the Poetical Books

dant living (Proverbs). But things do not

always work out so well. Bad things can
Key Terms and sometimes do happen to good peo-
Vulgate ple! Should we abandon our faith in God
Septuagint when bad things happen to us? Certainly
allegory not, according to Qohelet. Life without
Key People trust in God becomes truly meaningless.
Our task is to enjoy life as he grants it and
Qohelet to continue trusting in him who gives
Gilgamesh meaning to our existence.

Song of Songs
Our world today is enamored with sexual
doubts, need to be grappled with hon- pleasure. Modern culture tends to com-
estly. Over time, such honest grapplings partmentalize such pleasure and disassoci-
stretch our faith and lead to deeper faith ate our sexuality from our faith in God. But
commitments. this best of songs provides a point of con-
Together with the other wisdom books tact between human sexuality and biblical
(Job and Proverbs), Ecclesiastes balances faith.!° The Israelites recognized the sensual
the wisdom view of life. Yes, there are cer- side of human nature as part of God’s won-
tain discernible principles of life that, when derful creation. God created us “male and
closely followed, will lead one into abun- female,” and most of us are quite happy

Study Questions

u
Ri”
Ecclesiastes Song of Songs
it What type of outlook on life does he What is the meaning of the title
Ecclesiastes reflect? “Song of Songs”?
. How did the book get the name Eccle- . With what subject does Song of Songs
siastes? What other names does the deal?
book have?
3. What is the book’s intended message?
. What is the purpose of the author in
. What is the overall structure of Song
writing this book?
of Songs?
. How is this purpose accomplished?
. Discuss the authorship issues of the
. According to the author, what is the book.
whole duty of humanity? What practi-
. What does Song of Songs teach about
cal meaning does this have?
erotic, heterosexual love within the
. Discuss the date and authorship issues bonds of marriage?
of the book of Ecclesiastes. What is
the only sure conclusion concerning
authorship?
. What theological themes are found in
the book?

334
 Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs

Further Reading

SIMA

Bullock, C. Hassell. An Introduction to the Old Keel, Othmar. The Song of Songs: A Continental
Testament Poetic Books. Rev. ed. Chicago: Moody, Commentary. Trans. Frederick J. Gaiser.
1988. Helpful introduction to all the poetical Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994. Excellent exposition
books. and richly illustrated with ancient Near Eastern
Carr, G. Lloyd. The Song of Solomon: An sources.
Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old Kidner, Derek. A Time to Mourn, and a Time to
Testament Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester: Dance: Ecclesiastes and the Way of the World. The
InterVarsity, 1984. Bible Speaks Today. Downers Grove: InterVarsity,
Garrett, Duane A. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of 1976.
Songs. New American Commentary 14. Nashville: Murphy, Roland E. Ecclesiastes. Word Biblical
Broadman, 1993. Best comprehensive commentary Commentary 23A. Dallas: Word, 1992.
available. Contains thorough scholarly Scott, R. B. Y. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes: Introduction,
presentation, yet sensitive to theological issues as Translation, and Notes. Anchor Bible 18; Garden
well. City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965.

about that! In this most intimate of human den of Eden, where husband and wife enjoy
relationships we somehow reflect God’s each other with no inhibitions.
image (Gn 1:27). Furthermore, the marriage This book testifies to the mutual com-
bond provides the closest possible unity in plementarity of man and woman. It af-
human relations (Gn 2:24), and one in which firms the sanctity of marriage and ap-
there need be no shame or disgrace (Gn proves erotic, heterosexual love within the
2:25). In this sense, Song of Songs transports marital bonds.
the marital relationship to the pre-fall Gar-

330
 Part

Encountering
the Prophets
 The Prophets
Voices of God's Servants
MAAN

W theProphets Fit
: nto God's Unfolding Purpose?
‘Who Were Prophecy’ S Objectives
“Founding Fathers”?
eSao The Nature of Prophecy After reading this chapter,
_ The Hebrew Terms for “Prophet” you should be able to
cSWhat Are Some Common Wrong Ideas e Explain the circumstances surrounding
the dividing of Israel into northern
about the Prophets?
and southern kingdoms
How Are All the Prophets Alike?
* Trace the development of the Hebrew
Did Other Nations Have Prophets?
nation from Egyptian captivity
Did All Prophets Write Down to the age of the prophets
Their Messages?
e Summarize the basic content of the
How Was Prophecy Passed Down to Us? message of the classical prophets
¢ What are Some Common Themes ¢ Tell what the prophets were
of the Prophets’ Writings? and what they weren't
¢ The Historical Setting ¢ Compare the Hebrew prophets’ work
of the Classical Prophets with similar activities in other
The Assyrians Near Eastern nations
The Babylonians ¢ Explain how the messages
The Persians of the prophets were recorded
¢ Relate the common themes
of the prophets
¢ Identify the prophets who prophesied
during the Assyrian domination
¢ Identify the prophets who prophesied
during the Babylonian domination
¢ Identify the prophets who prophesied
during the Persian domination

339
Encountering the Prophets

What comes to mind when you think of the people conquered the land God had
prophets? Do you picture wild fanatics promised to their ancestors.
dressed in strange clothes? Do you envi- But despite the fact that Israel controlled
sion them gazing into their crystal balls the land, the trouble was far from over. Is-
and describing the future? Do you view rael’s neighbors often attacked her bor-
the prophets as a somewhat bizarre group ders. Within Israel, pockets of foreign peo-
of individuals, who somehow served God ples still struggled for independence. After
in very strange ways we don’t understand many years of battling such enemies, the
very well? Israelites decided they wanted a king.
None of these understandings really fits Under Saul, Israel's first king, Israel won
the biblical evidence. The Bible asserts that a few battles and strengthened her posi-
God prepared his prophets for a very spe- tion in the land. But Saul did not fully fol-
cial ministry. They brought the divine low the Lord, and finally, he met his death
word toa people who desperately needed in battle with the Philistines. David, Saul’s
to hear it. The prophets’ voices rang with successor and one of Israel’s greatest kings,
an authority that still rings today if we will conquered the neighboring peoples and
only listen. secured Israel’s borders. What David con-
quered his son and successor Solomon ex-
OC OCU eSES ESS SS ploited economically.
After Solomon’s death, the kingdom di-
Prophecy’s Biblical vided into north and south—Israel and
Heritage Judah, respectively. Both Israel and Judah
faced serious spiritual challenges. Idola-
try and other foreign religious practices
How Do the Prophets Fit crept into the people’s faith. Many of these
into God's Unfolding Purpose? temptations had appeared earlier in the
Before we discuss the prophets and their Hebrews’ history, during the wilderness
contribution to biblical history, we will and the judges periods, and now God's
briefly review Israel’s history. Doing so people were paying the spiritual price of
will provide us a framework for studying their failures.
the prophet’s lives and words. The Pen- Religious compromise increased as un-
tateuch describes how God began to carve godly religious practices began enjoying
out a people for his name, a people who royal sanction. Solomon accommodated
would become the nation of Israel. God his foreign wives’ desires to worship their
established his covenant with Abraham, own gods, and gradually, he began to fol-
brought him to the land of Canaan, and low other gods. Jeroboam, the first king of
gave him Isaac, through whom the bless- the northern kingdom, took deliberate
ings of the covenant continued. Isaac fa- steps to ensure Israel would remain dis-
thered Esau and Jacob, and God chose tinct from Judah. He altered the dates of
Jacob to carry on his covenant purposes. the Hebrew festivals, appointed his own
Jacob fathered twelve sons who became priests, and established other worship sites
the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel. in place of Jerusalem. Under Ahab a few
The patriarchal family eventually set- generations later, Israel sank to her low-
tled in Egypt and became a numerous peo- est spiritual depths. Although Judah gen-
ple. The Egyptians enslaved them, but erally fared better, the south also suffered
after the people spent 430 years in spiritually during the reigns of many of
bondage, God sent Moses to deliver the her rulers.
Hebrews from the Egyptians. The Lord By 750 B.c., major foreign powers began
led his people out of Egypt to the foot of to arise in the ancient Near East. These
Mount Sinai, where he gave them his laws powers formed a threat to smaller nations
and instructions for holy living. such as Israel, Judah, and their neighbors.
The Hebrews’ persistent rebellion During the following two centuries, As-
against God led to forty years of wander- syria, Babylon, and Egypt would all take
ing in the wilderness, but God protected their turns pushing into Syria and Pales-
them every step of the way. Finally, after tine. Ultimately, they would bring about
Moses died and Joshua assumed control, the downfall of Israel and Judah.

340
 The Prophets

In the midst of all these factors, a cru- violated God’s commands, Samuel con-
AN
ANN AOA NY

classica
prophets cial question appeared on the horizon: fronted him, for the king was not above
Would Israel and Judah return to their God the law (1 Sm 13:8-14; 15:10-31). Samuel’s
and their spiritual heritage, or would they life was a life of godliness; at the end of
prophecy continue to embrace false religious faith? his life, all Israel acknowledged his per-
At this key turning point in Israel’s and sonal integrity (1 Sm 12:1-5).
Judah’s history, God sent his servants the About 870-860 B.c., the prophet Elijah
prophets. appeared in Israel and began his ministry
(1 Kgs 17:1). He challenged Israel to for-
Who Were Prophecy’s sake Baal worship and turn back to the
“Founding Fathers”? Lord. Elijah’s biggest opposition came
When we say “The Prophets,” we usually from Israel’s royal house—Ahab and his
mean those individuals who lived from queen Jezebel. When Elijah tried to block
about 800 to 450 B.c. and served as God’s Jezebel’s plans to exalt Baal worship in Is-
special messengers to his people by the rael, she took steps to kill him. First Kings
power of the Holy Spirit. Bible scholars 18 records Elijah’s dramatic contest with
often refer to these prophets as the classi- the prophets of Baal on MOUNT CARMEL, a
cal prophets and their writings as classi- contest in which God demonstrated that
cal prophecy because their messages tend he, not Baal, was Lord in Israel.
to have certain similar features. As a gen- Moses, Samuel, and Elijah thus helped
eral rule, the classical prophets address all set the stage for the classical prophets. As
the people, inform them of God’s wrath these three faithfully served the Lord in
against their sin, warn them of approach- what he had called them to do, the Lord
ing judgment, call them to repentance, and used them to lay the foundation for his fu-
proclaim God’s salvation for those who ture prophetic work.!
will turn to him. The Old Testament books
Isaiah—Malachi fit the category of classi-
cal prophecy.
Long before classical prophecy ap-
peared in Israel and Judah, however, God
had called others to prophetic ministries.
of Prophecy
Three men especially helped lay classical
The Hebrew Terms for “Prophet”
prophecy’s foundation: Moses, Samuel,
and Elijah. The Hebrew language used three differ-
As we have already seen, Moses, the son ent words to refer to a prophet: hozeh, 10’eh,
of Hebrew slaves, grew to manhood in the and nabi’. Although the biblical writers
royal court of Egypt, but later fled Egypt clearly used these terms interchangeably,
after he killed an Egyptian. With Moses as the words do seem to connote different as-
his instrument, God brought the Hebrews pects of the prophetic office. The first two
out of Egypt to the land he had promised terms come from verbal roots that mean
to their ancestors. God spoke with Moses “to see, gaze, or look at.” These words thus
face to face (Ex 33:11; Nm 12:8), and on suggest that the ozeh or ro’eh was some-
Mount Sinai, Moses received God’s Law, one who saw the very things of God; he
the foundational revelation on which the had special insight (and usually a special
prophets would later build. message) that God gave him directly. The
Moses realized that God would send various English translations often trans-
other prophets after him (Dt 18:15). The late these two terms as “seer.”
classical prophets built on the foundation The term nabi occurs most frequently
Moses had laid, appealing constantly to in the Hebrew Old Testament—over three
the Mosaic law and calling the people to hundred times! One common interpreta-
heed its commands. tion of the word relates it to the Akkadian
About 1100 B.c., Samuel began his verb nabii, “to call.” The term nabi’, then,
prophetic-priestly ministry in Israel. He might refer to a “called one,” someone
traveled from town to town, proclaiming whom God had especially called to bring
God’s word to the people and judging his divine message to his people. Indeed,
their important cases. When Israel’s king the prophets certainly possessed a strong

341
Encountering the Prophets

ay, men were babbling out of control, and

‘TF ‘ ryee

en
if 1 Samuel 19:23-24 refers only to a special
judgment against Saul to prevent him from
catching David.
Second, the prophets were not fortune
tellers. They did not tell people their per-
sonal futures, as a psychic, palm reader,
:‘ei
Hiss
ol 7 or horoscope might claim to do today. As
_ someone Gieatto khongin God's Name, but God revealed his future plans to the
iis eally_didn’t? How would the people know a true prophets, they revealed them to the peo-
ie rophet from a false one? ple to motivate their hearers to holiness
Deuteronomy 13:1-5 and 18:21-22 provided the and godliness. The prophets had no in-
people with two tests to discern true prophets from terest in entertaining people with fanciful
_false prophets. First, a prophet’s message had to be notions about the future.
consistent with earlier revelation. For example, if a Third, the prophets were not “religious
prophet counseled the people to worship other fanatics.” They were not cantankerous in-
gods, he was a false prophet, for the Law of Moses _ dividuals who were always looking for
had already commanded worship of God alone (Ex the opportunity to have a spiritual argu-
20:3). God would not contradict himself. ment with someone. To portray them in
Second, a prophet’s predictions must always sucha way would seriously misrepresent
come true. If a prophet prophesied some sign or — the prophets. The prophets were servants
wonder, and the sign or wonder did not occur, the of God who saw God’s will for his people
people were not to listen to him. and grieved deeply that his people fell so
God ordered the death penalty for fale far short of it. They possessed strong con-
prophets. This punishment might sound severe,5 bu victions about religious truth, and longed
we must remember the incredible spiritual har for the day when their hearers would pos-
false prophet could do. If the people believed sess them, too.
false pronnee s words, the whole nation could
How Are All the Prophets Alike?
The prophets came from many different
backgrounds. The prophet Amos, for ex-
ample, tended flocks and cared for
sycamore trees before the Lord called him
to the prophetic ministry (Am 7:14). Isa-
iah often spoke directly to Judah’s royal
sense of calling. God had personally cho- house (Is 7:3-9; 37:6-7, 21-35; 38:1-8;
sen them to proclaim his message to a peo- 39:3-8); Jewish tradition suggests he may
ple who desperately needed to hear it. even have been a relative of King Uzziah,
though this is uncertain. Jeremiah grew
What Are Some Common Wrong up among the priests of the village of
Ideas about the Prophets? Anathoth (Jer 1:1). In each case, God used
Before we explain who the prophets were, the prophet’s prior experiences to shape
we should explain who they were not. the prophet’s ministry.
Many Bible readers have come to false un- But despite the vast differences in their
derstandings of the prophetic office be- backgrounds, the prophets shared many
cause they have studied only part of the characteristics. First, the prophets pos-
biblical evidence. sessed hearts devoted to God. They loved
First, the prophets were not hysterical the Lord, and therefore, they loved his
babblers. Some scholars have portrayed word and ways. They placed their com-
the prophets (especially earlier prophets) mitment to him above all else, even when
as men who often went into frenzied doing so brought trouble and persecution.
trances and babbled uncontrollably until The prophets knew that if God’s people
the Spirit of God left them. These writers could somehow come to realize what he
cite two instances from Saul’s life (1 Sm expected of them, they might repent of
10:10; 19:23-24) to support this theory. their sins and turn back to him.
However, 1 Samuel 10:10 does not say the Second, the prophets possessed a strong
342
 The Prophets

Relief of the
Assyrian camp.
The background
to many of the
prophets was
invasion and
war.

sense of calling. They had not chosen the telling forth God’s truth to their own gen-
foriitellers
prophetic role for themselves; rather, God eration. They pointed out the evils of their
had called them to this ministry and com- day and called the people to repent. They
foretellers missioned them for his service. The knowl- warned them that while the covenant
edge that God had called them and em- brought many privileges, it also brought
powered them for their tasks gave them many responsibilities, including justice,
strength to continue, even in the face of righteousness, and holiness. They focused
the most serious opposition. Sometimes primarily on their own generations,
God's calling came early in the prophet’s though their messages contain many time-
life Jer 1:4-5). At other times, the Lord less principles. Since God never changes,
took his servant from an established pro- the prophets’ words continue to challenge
fession (Am 7:14-15). But each prophet his people and our society today.
knew that his ministry was not his own. Fifth, the prophets were foretellers.
He must live the life God had called him God revealed to them the future—some-
to live. times the near future, sometimes the dis-
Third, the prophets were messengers. tant future—and the prophets declared it
The expression “This is what the Lorp to their own generations. They spoke of
says” or “thus says the Lorp” occurs over judgment and of restoration, of bad news
350 times in the prophetic books. The and good news. They did so primarily to
prophets were not trying to sell their own motivate God's people to faithful living
ideas. Rather, they were delivering mes- in the present.
sages—urgent messages—that God had Sixth, the prophets were creative indi-
revealed to them. Sometimes Israel or viduals who used a variety of literary and
Judah persecuted the prophets because oral techniques to communicate their mes-
the prophets declared stern words of judg- sages. Some employed parables, while
ment against the people and the nation. others sang songs or chanted laments in
The people failed to understand that their which they denounced the people’s sad
real argument was with God, for it was his spiritual state. They sometimes used sar-
word the prophets spoke. casm to make their points. They employed
Fourth, the prophets were forthtellers, rhetorical questions to challenge their lis-

343
Encountering the Prophets

KATANA TTT teners to reflect, and they appealed to his- lical accounts, while similar in some re-
omen texts
tory and God’s covenant. Through all spects, display a very different theologi-
these devices, the prophets called the peo- cal perspective.
Mani prophecy
ple to return to their spiritual heritage. What about prophecy? Did other civi-
Ee
UAT a lizations of the biblical world have
Akkadian Did Other Nations prophets who claimed to speak in the
prophecies
Have Prophets? name of a god? Did they have people who
As we have already noted, the Hebrews predicted the future? If so, what is their
had many neighbors in the ancient world, relationship to the biblical prophets? Did
and these nations and peoples had much the Hebrews obtain the whole idea of
in common with the Hebrews. Many of prophecy from their neighbors? In order
these peoples shared a common linguis- to answer these questions, we must look
tic background with the Hebrews and thus at the ancient Near Eastern evidence.
spoke languages related to Hebrew. Most Three basic categories of evidence exist:
countries had a king to rule them. Many omen texts, Mari prophecy, and Akka-
countries had similar laws regarding how dian prophecies.
people should treat each other. During the early second millennium
In our study of Genesis, we saw how B.c., during what historians call the Old
other ancient peoples had their own ideas BABYLONIAN PERIOD (2000-1595 B.c.) , the
about creation. We also compared the He- Babylonians began to compile what we
brew flood story with other ancient flood now call omen texts. The Babylonians
stories. In each case, we saw how the bib- probably would have thought of these
texts as science, though the texts would
not seem very scientific to us. According
to these ancient people, the world was a
complex web of cause-and-effect rela-
tionships. Certain events happened be-
cause other events caused them. In addi-
tion, a supernatural intention often lay
behind an event. The people believed the
gods used unusual or unnatural occur-
eres to Jesus Christ as a prophet, for he
rences to reveal their will. People familiar
displayed these same qualities.
with these unusual occurrences could in-
terpret them and predict the future. Thus,
the omen texts preserved a written record
ene ere possessed a heart devoted to God, and al-
of these events and their consequences; if
ways sought his Father's will (Jn 5:30).
certain events happened again, that meant
e Jesus displayed a strong sense of calling; God had
the gods were about to do the same thing
sent him for a specific purpose
they had done before.
(Mt 16:21-23).
The Babylonians examined all types of
e Jesus was a messenger, bringing God's ultimate events and recorded their observations in
will to the earth (Heb 1:1-2).
the omen texts. For example, if a certain
e Jesus was a “forthteller,” challenging his contem- bird appeared during a certain month, that
poraries to repent and by faith to live the lives might indicate a famine was coming. If a
God expected of them, instead of trusting in dese es sacrificial animal had a red spot on its liver,
traditions (Mt 15:1-7; 23:16-28). Thies that might indicate a military victory for
e Jesus was a foreteller, and predicted the future on . the king. Some of the omen texts dealt with
several occasions (Mk 13:3-27; Lk 23:34, 54-62) medicine, while others dealt with the econ-
¢ Jesus used a variety of techniques to communica omy, war, or everyday life.
his message, including sae hs Le Even a casual reading of the omen texts
reveals they have little in common with
biblical prophecy. The omen texts lack any
sort of moral basis. The gods simply re-
11:15-17). vealed their will through interrelated
events in nature. The prophets, on the
other hand, took their stand on God, his

344
 The Prophets

A mythical beast
depicted on
glazed tiles,
Babylon. The
Babylonians
examined many
events and
recorded their
observations in
omen texts.

ecstatics
word, and the covenant he had made with closely at the texts. The Old Testament
his people. They called people to surren- prophets asserted that God’s covenant
OTA
TE AN

vaticinium
der their lives to God and his ways. They with his people had implications for daily
ex eventu placed moral demands on their hearers living. A proper relationship with God
because such qualities as holiness, right- should result in just and ethical treatment
eousness, and justice reflected God’s na- of other people. Certain actions and be-
ture, and God expected his children’s lives liefs were true and right because God had
to display the same qualities. so ordained them. Furthermore, the
The ancient city of Mart, located on the prophets spoke to all society, not just the
Euphrates River, was an important city in royal household. These differences sharply
Old Babylonian times, and presents us distinguish the biblical prophets from the
with a second possible parallel to biblical muhhti at Mari.
prophecy. Under its king Zimri-Lim, Mari Certain Akkadian texts of the first mil-
became a leading city that controlled much lennium B.c. furnish us with a third pos-
of upper Mesopotamia until the Babylon- sible parallel to biblical prophecy. These
ian king Hammurapi (1792-1750 B.c.) con- texts simply list various political events of
quered Mari and added its territory to his a particular historical period. The follow-
own. People known as ecstatics (Akka- ing is an excerpt from one of these texts:
dian muhhii) resided in and around Mari,
and many scholars have noted parallels A ruler will arise, he will rule for thirteen
between the muhliti and the biblical years. There will be an attack of Elam
against Akkad, and the booty of Akkad
prophets. The muh delivered messages
will be carried off. The temples of the
they received through dreams, visions, or great gods will be destroyed, the defeat of
trances. The muliliti could be male or fe- Akkad will be decreed (by the gods). . ..
male, and each served a particular god or A ruler will arise, his days will be few,
goddess. In their utterances, the muhhti and he will not rule the land.*
might warn the king of rebellion, counsel
him regarding expeditions, promise him The texts are somewhat vague as to their
victory over his enemies, or encourage him intention, and scholars do not agree ex-
to serve the deity more faithfully. actly what they are. Some have argued
Although similarities between Mari that they are examples of vaticinium ex
prophecy and biblical prophecy do exist, eventu, or “prophecy written after the
striking differences appear when we look event.” The scholars have suggested the

345
Encountering the Prophets

i
CAAA ARRON
writers wrote the texts to make them look Old Testament historical books. We call
apocalyptic
literature like prophecy. This view seems likely, al- these prophets “nonliterary prophets.”
though other scholars have suggested the We have already noted the prophet Eli-
KATANA jah’s significant role as a predecessor of
nonliterary
texts are more closely related to apoca-
prophets lyptic literature or omen texts. Clearly, the classical prophecy. Elijah’s successor El-
Akkadian prophecies differ significantly isha carried on the prophetic ministry his
from classic biblical prophecy. master had begun (2 Kgs 1:1-13:21). He
In conclusion, although biblical performed many miracles on the people’s
prophecy shares a few features with other behalf as God used him to strengthen the
types of ancient Near Eastern literature, it faith of many Israelites. Elisha, by God’s
remains unique in at least four respects. power, purified poisonous stew, caused
First, biblical prophecy distinguishes it- an axe head to float, healed a leper, and
self by addressing the whole nation, not even raised a widow’s son from the dead.
just the rulers. The prophets speak to Elijah and Elisha both had very signifi-
young and old, rich and poor, common cant callings, yet neither apparently ever
people and priests, kings and princes. committed his words to writing. In addi-
Every person has a responsibility to yield tion to these two men, many other
to God’s word. prophets did not write down their words.
Second, biblical prophecy focuses on Unnamed prophets appeared in Saul’s day
people’s attitudes, not just their rituals. If (1 Sm 10:10-12; 19:20-21) and later during
the people’s hearts did not change, God the divided kingdom (1 Kgs 13). Ahijah
counted all their sacrifices as worthless. prophesied that God would tear the king-
The prophets sought an inner moral dom from Solomon (1 Kgs 11:29-39). Mi-
change of the heart, not simple adherence caiah prophesied to Ahab and Jehoshaphat
to a sacrificial system. Sacrifices had their before Ahab died at the hand of the Syri-
value only in connection with genuine re- ans (1 Kgs 22:7-28). Aman designated only
pentance and faith. as “a man of God” spoke words of judg-
Third, biblical prophecy contains a ment to Jeroboam I when the king began
moral imperative. The prophets did not to turn Israel away from the Lord (1 Kgs
call people to offer sacrifices; rather, they 13:1-10). And a woman named Huldah
called them to be holy, for God was holy prophesied for Josiah, aiding his religious
(Mi 6:6-8). God’s people must live in a reforms (2 Kgs 22:14—20).
manner that reflects their Father. As a general observation, we may say
Fourth, biblical prophecy looks at the that the nonliterary prophets tended to
far-reaching implications of people’s ac- focus on the king and his court. They ad-
tions, not just the immediate. The prophets vised the king on various matters and
looked to the present, but they also looked sometimes warned him about the conse-
to the future. God was guiding history, quences of his sin. They displayed the
and the prophets knew the deeds of the same courage and convictions the writing
present generation would affect coming prophets did, though they left to others
generations. They therefore called people the task of recording their words and
to live lives pleasing to God, not only for deeds.
themselves, but for the sake of all who
would come after them.° How Was Prophecy
Passed Down to Us?
Did All Prophets The prophets first communicated their
Write Down Their Messages? messages orally, not in written form. Isa-
When we study the prophets, we are deal- iah and Jeremiah, for example, sometimes
ing with material that has come to us in spoke directly with the kings of Judah (Is
written form. But not all the prophets of 7:1-14; Jer 37:17-20). At other times,
the Old Testament committed their words prophets spoke to the general population
to writing. The Old Testament mentions (Jon 3:4; Jer 7:1-15). These facts raise an
many prophets whom God called to important question. What is the relation-
prophesy, but who never wrote down their ship between the spoken word and the
messages. We know about their ministries written word? In other words, who wrote
only through the accounts of them in the down the prophets’ words, and when?

346
 The Prophets

Three answers are possible, and proba- ployer, neighbor—they were to live them
bly all have some truth to them. First, some in light of their relationship to God.
prophets wrote down their own words. A This theme of covenant obligations con-
prophet may have spoken them first in tained several facets. First, covenant oblig-
public before recording them, or perhaps ations included a call to return to God and
he wrote them down first and then pro- his word. Israel and Judah’s world con-
claimed them to the people as a herald tained many temptations to compromise
would. Sometimes God instructed a spiritually and morally, just as our world
prophet to write down his message as a does today. At Sinai, the people had af-
testimony, so when the day of judgment firmed God’s covenant, but later genera-
came, people would see that God had tions had changed their attitude. They
warned them through his prophet (e.g., Is slowly drifted away from the God who
8:16; Jer 36:2; Dn 12:4). had made them what they were, and as
Second, some prophets used scribes to they did, they became less and less like
record their words. Baruch, Jeremiah’s what God wanted them to be. The
scribe, recorded Jeremiah’s words and prophets called God’s people to return to
sometimes even passed along the prophet’s their heritage, a heritage rooted in God
words for him (Jer 36:46). Other prophets and his word.
may also have used assistants who care- Second, covenant obligations contained
fully copied down their words. The prac- a call to personal holiness. God had acted
tice of using a scribe also appears in the in history to redeem his people, but he
New Testament (Rom 16:22; 1 Pt 5:12). wanted more than redemption for them.
Third, some prophets may have had dis- God wanted his people to experience ho-
ciples who collected their words and or- liness—not just the absence of sin, but a
ganized them into the books we have positive goodness and righteousness that
today. This suggestion is really a combi- would shine as a light to those in spiritual
nation of the first two. A prophet may have darkness around them. In the Garden of
written down his words by himself or Eden, man and woman had lost the holi-
through a scribe, but never arranged them ness God gave them. Now, through his
into a book. Toward the end of his life or law and his prophets, God showed his
shortly after his death, his disciples or close people their sin and continued his work
followers put them into writing and/or to restore his holiness in humankind.
collected them. In this way, the prophet’s Third, covenant obligations called God’s
ministry could continue even after his people to be at peace with each other. The
death. Hebrew word shalom (Ssalém, often trans-
lated “peace”) literally means “complete-
What Are Some Common Themes ness” or “wholeness.” God desired that
of the Prophets’ Writings? his divine qualities such as love, mercy,
As we have already mentioned, the compassion, holiness, and justice also ex-
prophets varied greatly in their back- press themselves through the lives of his
grounds, audiences, and styles. Never- people. As the Hebrews by faith con-
theless, the prophetic writings possess a formed to the teachings of Torah, every
common thrust and push toward a com- aspect of their society would come into
mon goal. The prophets emphasize cer- line with God's highest will. The people
tain themes again and again. would then experience true shalom in their
One common prophetic theme is nation.
covenant obligations. The prophets called A second common prophetic theme is
the Hebrews to remember that something the Day of the Lord. Often this concept
very significant had happened at Mount refers to a time of immediate judgment,
Sinai. God had revealed his Torah, his whereas in other passages it refers to God’s
manual for faithful living. He had con- eschatological judgment at the end of the
firmed his covenant, a covenant with far- age. The Day of the Lord includes three
reaching implications. True worship of aspects: God’s judgment on unbelievers,
God affected every aspect of life. What- the cleansing and purging of God’s peo-
ever roles people might have—father, ple, and the salvation of God’s people. The
mother, son, daughter, employee, em- prophets warned that God would judge

347
Encountering the Prophets

all sin wherever he found it, in the lives of tions faced the choice of submission or
unbelievers as well as in the lives of be- destruction.
lievers. But he also desired that his peo- The prophets saw God’s hand at work
ple would conform to his image, and he in these historical events. They explained
promised to refine their lives even if he that he was raising up and bringing down
had to use extreme measures. As for those the earth’s kingdoms in accordance with
who were following the Lord faithfully, his higher purpose. He could and would
the Lord assured them he would not for- judge one nation—even Israel or Judah!—
get them. The Day of the Lord would by means of another nation. The prophets
come, but for the faithful, it would be a proclaimed that Israel and Judah’s only
blessed day indeed. hope lay in their willingness to stand firm
A third important prophetic theme is on their spiritual heritage. They called
the concept of Messiah. The term “Mes- God’s people to repent of their sin and to
siah” comes from the Hebrew word masiah, live faithfully under God's covenant.
which means “anointed one.” (In the New Three major powers most directly af-
Testament, the Greek parallel is the word fected Israel and Judah’s history: Assyria,
Christos, “Christ.”) Anointing someone Babylon, and Persia. Briefly sketching the
with oil symbolized God’s setting him history of these empires will help us un-
apart for special service to Him and plac- derstand what the prophets faced as they
ing His Spirit upon him to empower him preached their messages to their people.
for that service.
The Assyrians
The Scriptures testify that kings, priests,
and prophets might receive this anoint- Archaeologists have discovered evidence
ing. In the Old Testament, the term masiah that the Assyrians were present in the an-
usually refers to kings, who were “the cient Near East as early as about 2000 B.c.°
Lord’s anointed” (e.g., 1 Sm 24:6; 2 Sm 1:14). Most of the early evidence comes from
But by the time of the New Testament, the Asia Minor, though an early king,
term had gained a new sense. The Mes- SHAMSHI-ADDU (1815-1782 B.c.), pushed
siah was God’s chosen instrument who eastward and controlled most of upper
would come one day to establish God’s Mesopotamia, including Mari, the city of
kingdom and to rule in power and glory. which we spoke earlier.
The Lord had anointed others to his ser- For the rest of the second millennium,
vice, but this one would surpass them all. the Assyrians remained a separate people
The prophets do not always use the term in upper Mesopotamia, struggling against
“Messiah” when they speak of this com- other powers of the ancient world. With
ing one, but they do speak of him and the beginning of the first millennium, how-
point with anticipation to his coming. The ever, Assyrian kings began pushing west-
New Testament proclaims that we have ward into Syria. One of the most noted
seen his coming in the person of Jesus kings was SHALMANESER III (859-824 B.c.),
Christ, and we will one day see his com- who in 853 B.c. at the city of QARQAR bat-
ing again in power and glory. tled a coalition of small nations whose
leaders included Ben-Hadad II of Dam-
ascus and Ahab of Israel. Although Shal-
maneser was unsuccessful at Qarqar, later
The Historical Setting battles won him control of many of these
western nations, including Israel, whose
of the Classical King Jehu paid him homage.
Prophets The rise of TIGLATH-PILESER III (745-727
B.C.) to the throne of Assyria marked the
The prophetic books of the Old Testament beginning of a period of Assyrian expan-
reflect the ministries of individuals who sion. In the west, Israel and Judah were at
prophesied some time during the period the end of a long period of prosperity
of 800-450 B.c. This period witnessed great under the reigns of Jeroboam II (793-753
shifts of power in the ancient Near East. B.c.) and Azariah/Uzziah (792-740 B.c.),
When major kingdoms and powers began respectively. Spiritual decay had crept in
to appear on the scene, many smaller na- as the people increasingly blended
348
 The Prophets

Relief of Tiglath-
Pileser Ill
(745-727 B.c.).
This monarch’s
rise to the
throne marked
the start of a
period of
Assyrian
expansion.

Canaanite religious practices with the wor- tine led to Tiglath-Pileser’s western cam-
ship patterns Moses had given them in the paigns; Damascus eventually fell in 732
law. Revolts and unrest in Syria and Pales- B.c., while Israel and Judah became vas-
SEA sad sal states. When Hoshea, Israel's last king,
revolted, Shalmaneser V (726-722 B.c.) and
| his successor SARGON II (722-705 B.c.) con-
Key People/ | quered Samaria and led Israel into exile.
Places | A later king, Sennacherib (705-681 B.c.),
came against Hezekiah, king of Judah, but
Zimri-Lim God's special intervention prevented As-
Shalmaneser III syria from enjoying victory.
Key Terms Shamshi-Addu Constant warfare in the seventh century,
Tiglath-Pileser III especially with Babylon, led to Assyria’s
classical prophets
Sargon Il decline. In 626 B.c., Nabopolassar assumed
classical prophecy
Merodach-baladan II control in Babylon, and in 612 B.c., with the
forthtellers
Nabopolassar help of the Medes and others, he defeated
foretellers
Nebuchadnezzar II Nineveh, Assyria’s capital. Within a few
omen texts
Astyages years all Assyrian resistance was gone.’
Mari prophecy
Artaxerxes The prophets who prophesied during
Akkadian prophecies
Cambyses the period of Assyrian domination include
Babylonian period
Darius Isaiah, Hosea, Amos, Jonah, Micah,
ecstatics
Xerxes Nahum, and Zephaniah. Jonah, Hosea,
vaticinium ex eventu
Alexander the Great
apocalyptic literature and Amos spoke to a generation that was
Mount Carmel
nonliterary prophets beginning to feel Assyria’s renewed
Mari
eschatological strength. Isaiah and Micah addressed a
Qarqar
people that had seen Assyria expand west-
Armenia
ward and begin to dominate political
Cappadocia
events in Palestine. And Zephaniah and
Nahum prophesied at a time when As-

349
 Encountering the Prophets

] Summary
if

ZEEE
ARMANI ANE oan

. The classical prophets addressed all tudes, it contained a moral imperative,

people, informed them of God's wrath and it looked at far-reaching implica-
against their sin, warned of approach- tions of people’s actions.
ing judgment, called people to repen-
. Nonliterary prophets—those who did
tance, and proclaimed God's salvation
not write down their messages—
to all who would turn to him.
focused on the king and his court.
. Prophets were not hysterical babblers,
. Prophets’ messages were recorded by
fortune tellers, or religious extremists.
themselves, scribes, or disciples.
. Prophets were alike in that their
. Common prophetic themes included
hearts were devoted to God, they had
covenant obligation, the day of the
a strong sense of calling, they were
Lord, and the Messiah.
God's messengers, they proclaimed
God's truth, they revealed the future, 10. The prophets Isaiah, Hosea, Amos,
and they used a variety of literary and Jonah, Micah, Nahum, and Zephaniah
oral methods to communicate their all prophesied during the period of
messages. Assyrian domination.
. Babylonian omen texts have little in th Hammurapi of Babylon is best known
common with biblical prophecy; they for his law code.
have no moral basis.
12. The prophets who prophesied during
. The ecstatics of Mari spoke only to the the domination by the Babylonians
royal household, while the Hebrew were Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel,
prophets spoke to all the people. Obadiah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and
Zephaniah.
. Biblical prophecy differed from other
prophetic types of activity in the Near 13: Joel, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi
East because it addressed the whole ministered during the period of Per-
nation, it focused on people's atti- sian domination.

syria’s empire was crumbling before the In the eleventh and tenth centuries, new
onslaught of Babylon and her allies. peoples entered Mesopotamia. Some
moved to the south, organized themselves
The Babylonians into strict tribal groupings called “houses,”
The Babylonians, like the Assyrians, first and settled along the lower Tigris and Eu-
appear in ancient Near Eastern records phrates Rivers. The Babylonians called
around 2000 B.c. Babylon became the cen- these people the “Chaldeans,” and by the
ter of an empire when Hammurapi eighth century the Chaldeans were con-
(1792-1750 B.c.), best known for his famous tending for the kingship of Babylonia. One
law code, took control and extended his Chaldean, MERODACH-BALADAN II (see Is
influence from the Persian Gulf to Syria. 39:1), challenged Assyrian power from 721
Later Babylonian kings could not maintain to 710 B.c. and briefly in 703 B.c. before
the territory Hammurapi had won, and in meeting defeat. In 626 B.c., with Assyria
1595 B.c. Babylon fell to invaders. declining, NABOPOLASSAR (626-605 B.C.) es-
350
 The Prophets

tablished a Chaldean dynasty at Babylon, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah. Jere-

and with the help of the Medes and oth- miah received his call about the same time
ers, defeated Nineveh in 612 B.c.. His son, Nabopolassar rose to power, and
NEBUCHADNEZZAR II (605-562 B.c.), firmly Habakkuk soon followed. Daniel and
established Babylon as the dominant em- Ezekiel ministered as exiles in Babylon,
pire in the ancient Near East. while Obadiah prophesied right after
Meanwhile in Judah, spiritual trouble Jerusalem’s fall. Nahum and Zephaniah
was brewing. Although the Judeans had also prophesied in the late seventh cen-
seen God use the Assyrians to judge Israel, tury, though their books speak of Assyria
most persisted in their evil ways. Manasseh and mention nothing of Babylon.
(697-642 B.c.), one of Judah’s most wicked
kings, led the nation into spiritual decline. The Persians
The people added Canaanite religious By the middle of the sixth century, Baby-
practices to their own faith and believed
lon and Media existed as the two great
that no matter what their lifestyles, God
powers in Mesopotamia. In 550 B.c.,
had bound himself to bless Judah and
ASTYAGES was king of Media. Cyrus, his
Jerusalem forever. Although Josiah’s reign
son-in-law, led a revolt against him and
(640-609 B.c.) brought revival and renewal,
defeated him, thus inheriting northern
after his death the kingdom quickly faded.
Mesopotamia, Syria, ARMENIA, and Cap-
Jehoiakim (609-597 B.c.) rebelled against
Nebuchadnezzar and Jehoiakim’s son Je- PADOCIA. In 539 B.c., Cyrus marched on
hoiachin paid the price of exile. Neb- Babylon and took the city without a fight.
uchadnezzar placed Zedekiah (597-586 In contrast to the Assyrians, the Persians
B.c.) on the throne and gave Judah one maintained very tolerant policies toward
more chance, but when Zedekiah revolted, cooperative subject peoples. Cyrus
the king of Babylon returned, defeated showed favor to the various people’s so-
Judah, destroyed Jerusalem and its tem- cial and religious customs, and issued a
ple, and led the people into exile. decree in the first year of his reign that all
The four Babylonian kings who fol- Jews who wished to return to Judah could
lowed Nebuchadnezzar could not control go. Almost fifty thousand Jews accepted
the empire he had established. Finally, in Cyrus’s offer!
539 B.c., less than twenty-five years after The Jewish people returned home and
Nebuchadnezzar’s death, Babylon fell to laid the foundation of the temple, but op-
Cyrus, king of Persia.® position from neighboring peoples quickly
The prophets whose prophecy reflects brought the work to a halt until the reign
the period of Babylonian domination in- of Darius I (522-486 B.c.). Under Haggai
clude Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Obadiah, and Zechariah’s influence, the people fin-

Study Questions

1. Describe the historical and spiritual cir- | 3. What parallels to biblical prophecy did
cumstances that led to the rise of clas- other nations have? How is biblical
sical prophecy. Why were the prophets prophecy unique?
an essential part of God's plan for his
4. What are some common themes of
people?
biblical prophecy?
2. What are some characteristics that all
prophets shared? 5. What three major empires formed the
historical backdrop for the classical
prophets?
Encountering the Prophets

Further Reading

Bullock, C. Hassell. An /ntroduction to the Old VanGemeren, Willem A. interpreting the Prophetic
Testament Prophetic Books. Chicago: Moody, Word. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990. A rich
1986. Graduate-level survey of the prophetic volume with excellent insights for the more
books. Provides good discussion of pertinent serious student.
issues, good documentation, and rich Walton, John H. Ancient Israelite Literature in Its
bibliography. Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels between
Smith, Gary V. The Prophets as Preachers: An Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Grand
Introduction to the Hebrew Prophets. Nashville: Rapids: Zondervan, 1989. Surveys and provides
Broadman & Holman, 1994. An advanced study of analysis of Ancient Near Eastern literary parallels
the prophets, their approaches to preaching, and to Old Testament texts. Valuable for students and
their value for today’s Christian expositor. teachers alike.

ished the temple in 516 B.c. Ezra and Ne- ever, did not last, for ALEXANDER THE GREAT
hemiah came to Judah later during the defeated Darius III (335-331 B.c.) in 331 B.c.,
reign of ARTAXERXES (464-423 B.c.), re- bringing an end to the Persian Empire.’
building the walls and establishing fur- The prophets who ministered during
ther religious reforms. Many Jews, how- the period of Persian domination include
ever, stayed behind in Babylon, remaining Joel, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.
part of Babylonian society. Haggai and Zechariah urged the people
Under Campyses (530-522 B.c.), Persia’s to complete the temple and look ahead to
second ruler, Persia extended its influence what God would do with his people.
into Egypt, and Darius and XERXES Malachi challenged the people to give God
(486-464 B.c—the “Ahasuerus” of the their best in everything, and Joel used a
Book of Esther) fought extensively with locust plague of his day to warn people of
Greece. Persian victory over Greece, how- the Day of the Lord.

B52
 Isaiah 1-39
Prophet of Judah’s Royal Court
Se EEE Sy

Outline ©
- ¢ Outline
| © Background of the Book of Isaiah
Isaiah the Man
Isaiah’s Times
Authorship and Date
Objectives
Themes of the Book of Isaiah
¢ Message of the Book of Isaiah After reading this chapter,
Opening Words to Judah (1:1-31) you should be able to
God's Judgment Revealed (2:1-5:30) ¢ Outline the content of chapters 1-39
of Isaiah
Isaiah's Call (6:1-13)
e Explain the themes of chapters 1-39
The Sign of Immanuel (7:1-17)
of Isaiah
The Coming Assyrian Invasion (7:18-8:22)
¢ List the key features of the kingdom
Description of the Messianic Era (9:1-7) of God
Judgment Against Israel and Assyria e Present the elements of Isaiah’s call
(9:8-10:34)
¢ Discuss possible interpretation
Further Description of the Messianic Era of the sign Isaiah offered to Ahaz
(11:1-12:6)
¢ Demonstrate the fulfillment of Isaiah’s
Oracles Against the Nations (13:1-23:18) prophecy in the messianic era
The “Little Apocalypse” (24:1-27:13) ¢ Show how Isaiah’s prophecies illustrate
Oracles of Woe (28:1-33:24) that God is Lord of all
Eschatological Summation (34:1-35:10)
Historical Interlude: Highlights and
Lowlights from Hezekiah’s Reign
(36:1-39:8)

353
Encountering the Prophets

Isaiah is one of the most famous Old Tes- E. Damascus and Israel
tament prophets. Even many people who (17:1-14)
know little about the Bible recognize his F. Cush and Egypt (18:1-20:6)
name. More than one interpreter has called G. Babylon, Edom, and Arabia
the Book of Isaiah “the Gospel of the Old (21:1-17)
Testament” because of the prophet’s em- H. Jerusalem (22:1-25)
phasis on God’s grace and love. As we I. Tyre (23:1-18)
study Isaiah, we'll see God’s love dis-
XI. The “Little Apocalypse”
played in dramatic fashion. (24:1-27:13)
A. The Earth’s Destruction
(24:1-23)
B. God’s Victory over His
Enemies (25:1-12)
I. Opening Words to Judah C. Judah’s Song of Deliverance
(26:1-21)
(1:1-31) D. Israel’s Coming Salvation
II. God’s Judgment Revealed (27:1-13)
(2:1-5:30) XII. Oracles of Woe (28:1-33:24)
A. The Coming Blessing (2:1-4) > . Woe against Ephraim
B. Judgment Speeches (2:5-4:6) (28:1-29)
C. Parable of the Vineyard B. Woe against Ariel (29:1-24)
(5:1-7) C. Woe against Foreign
D. Six Woes against the Nation Alliances (30:1-31:9)
(5:8-30) D. Woe Mixed with Hope
Ill. Isaiah’s Call (6:1-13) (32:1=20)
E. Woe against Assyria (33:1-24)
A. The Vision (6:1-8)
B. The Prophecy (6:9-13) XIII. Eschatological Summation
(34:1-35:10)
IV. The Sign of Immanuel (7:1-17)
A. God’s Vengeance against the
A. The Historical Setting (7:1-9) Nations (34:1-17)
B. The Sign Offered, Refused, B. The Salvation of the
and Given (7:10-17) Redeemed (35:1-10)
C. Possible Interpretations
XIV. Historical Interlude: Highlights
V. The Coming Assyrian Invasion and Lowlights from Hezekiah’s
(7:18-8:22) Reign (36:1-39:8)
A. Sennacherib’s Threat and
VI. Description of the Messianic
God’s Deliverance
Era (9:1-7)
(36:1-37:38)
VII. Judgment against Israel B. Hezekiah’s Illness and
(9:8-10:4) Recovery (38:1—22)
C. Hezekiah’s Visit with
VII. Judgment against Assyria ~ Merodach-baladan (39:1-8)
(10:5-34)
IX. Further Description of the
Messianic Era (11:1-12:6)
X. Oracles Against the Nations of the Book of Isaiah
(13:1-23:18)
A. Babylon (13:1-14:23) Isaiah the Man
B. Assyria (14:24-27) Isaiah’s name means “The Lord has saved,”
C. Philistia (14:28-32) and is related to the names “Joshua” and
D. Moab (15:1-16:14) “Jesus” in their Hebrew forms. Isaiah 1:1

354
 Isaiah 1-39

A watchman’s
hut in fields
near Shechem.
Isaiah said that
God's people
had rebelled,
and Jerusalem
was to be left as
defenseless as a
watchman’s hut
in a vineyard
(1:8).

NK
states that Isaiah was the son of Amoz. Un- faced an important test. Would Judah
remnant
fortunately, we know nothing about Amoz learn from Israel’s tragic example, or
except that he was Isaiah’s father! would Judah follow in Israel’s evil foot-
Isaiah had two sons—Shear-jashub (7:3), steps?
whose name means “a remnant shall re- As Isaiah began his ministry, Assyria
turn,” and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (8:3), was beginning to flex its muscles under
whose name means “swift is the booty and the leadership of TIGLATH-PILEsER III
speedy is the prey.” By giving his sons (745-727 B.c.). Smaller kingdoms such as
these names, Isaiah showed his faith in Judah certainly must have seen this po-
God's plan for Israel’s future. The name tential danger on the horizon. Neverthe-
“Shear-jashub” pointed to God’s preserv- less, God had promised his people he
ing a faithful remnant. The name “Maher- would protect them from anything and
shalal-hash-baz” announced God’s swift anyone if they stood strong in their faith.
judgment against Judah’s enemies. The Lord sent the prophet Isaiah to en-
Isaiah served as a prophet in Judah’s courage them to do so.
royal court. He thus prophesied mainly to
Judah, though he also had words for Is- Authorship and Date
rael and other nations. The Book of Isaiah
recounts several contacts he had with The book itself names Isaiah as the prophet
Judah’s kings, particularly Ahaz and behind its message (1:1; 2:1; 7:3; 20:2; 37:2,
Hezekiah. Ahaz showed little regard for 21; 38:1, 4; 39:3). We may assume Isaiah ei-
Isaiah’s word (7:3-13), but Hezekiah ther recorded his own words or commit-
placed great faith in him (37:2-7, 21-35; ted them to others—perhaps his disciples.
38:1-8; 39:3-8). As we study Isaiah's Many evangelical scholars date the Book
words, we will see he also has much to of Isaiah to the early seventh century B.c.
teach us. Other scholars (including some evan-
gelicals) believe the prophet Isaiah was
Isaiah’s Times basically responsible only for the mater-
Most scholars date Isaiah’s prophetic min- ial in Isaiah 1-39. They cite certain differ-
istry around 740-690 B.c. When Isaiah re- ences between chapters 1-39 and chapters
sponded to God's call, the northern king- 40-66 that suggest someone besides Isa-
dom of Israel had less than twenty years iah wrote the last part of the book. We will
left before it would fall to Assyria. Mean- deal with this question in our discussion
while, the southern kingdom of Judah of Isaiah 40-66.

355
Encountering the Prophets

Themes of the Book of Isaiah his people. His glorious reign would bring
blessing to all the earth (11:1-16) and light
Remnant to those who lived in spiritual darkness
Isaiah described a remnant whom God (9:1-2). Cyrus might receive the title “mes-
had preserved (1:9). In fact, he even named siah” (45:1), but he would never accom-
one of his sons “a remnant shall return” plish God’s purpose in the way Jesus,
(Shear-jashub, 7:3). Exile might come, but God’s Son, would. Messiah one day would
God one day would lead his remnant come to reign in glory, but he first would
home (10:20-21). This people had a deep show himself worthy through suffering
faith relationship with the Lord that dis- (53:10-12).
tinguished them from other Israelites.
Many people descended from Jacob’s
twelve sons, but the remnant lived faith-
ful to the covenant God established with
Jacob and the other patriarchs. of the Book of
The sovereignty of God Isaiah
Isaiah's view of God's sovereignty dra- Opening Words to Judah (1:1-31)
matically shaped his ministry. He knew Isaiah’s opening words to Judah intro-
God controlled the nations, and therefore duce many ideas the prophet develops in
he prophesied boldly that God would deal the rest of the book. Chapter 1 thus lays
with those nations (chapters 13-23). God a firm foundation for the next sixty-five
had a right to rule his creation and he did. chapters.
Isaiah 40-66 especially develops the idea God brought a scathing indictment
that God has proven his sovereignty, first against his people (vv. 2-15). They acted
through sending his people into exile and like rebellious children! God’s initial judg-
then by delivering them from it. ment against them had little effect; in fact,
Servant their behavior reminded him of Sodom
The servant theme appears in several and Gomorrah (v. 10)! Their sacrifices
places in Isaiah, and the servant carries a
came from impure motives, and their
number of identities. The word “servant” hands committed deeds of social injustice.
may denote an individual Israelite (22:20), The Lord would honor their prayers no
the nation of Israel (41:8), the remnant
longer (v. 15).
(49:3), or the Messiah (52:13). The servant Isaiah called the people to repentance,
works diligently to accomplish God's pur- forgiveness, and blessing (vv. 16-20). God
pose despite numerous challenges and could and would cleanse the people’s sin.
difficulties. But wickedness pervaded the society, be-
ginning with the leadership and working
Holy One of Israel its way on down (vv. 21-23). Isaiah laid
Isaiah used the expression “Holy One of the choice squarely at Judah’s feet: God
Israel” twenty-nine times to describe the would redeem those who repented, but
Lord; only seven other occurrences are the persistently rebellious would die (vv.
found in the rest of the Old Testament. Isa- 2/-31).
iah faced God's holiness when the Lord
called him into prophetic service (6:1-8), God's Judgment Revealed
and he never forgot it. The people had for- (2:1-5:30)
saken the Holy One of Israel who had
The coming blessing (2:1—-4)
struck them (1:4). But the Holy One of Is-
rael might strike any enemy nation who God’s future kingdom would include
challenged his people (37:23)! He would three features—God’s people, God’s tem-
act in holiness to judge sin wherever he ple, and God’s peace. God’s people would
found it. include people from all nations. They
would stream in from everywhere to
Messiah Jerusalem, the site of the temple and cen-
Isaiah described the Messiah, God’s terpiece of God’s purpose. The instruction
anointed one, who would come to redeem people would receive from God’s word
356
 Isaiah 1-39

chy would result as the people looked in

vain for leaders to replace them.
Third, Isaiah declared God's judgment
against Judah’s women, who proudly dis-
played themselves with elaborate orna-
mentation (3:16—4:1). God promised to re-
move the dignity in which they so firmly
trusted. Isaiah’s words foreshadow those
of Paul, who reminded women that god-
liness and good works are much more im-
diana examples; the more accurate descriptions portant than fancy external adornment
followin parentheses. (1 Tm 2:9-10).
Affair (fornication, adultery, illicit sex) Isaiah closed this section with a word
Alternate lifestyle (homosexuality) about God’s coming Branch (4:2-6). The
Abortion (killing of unborn babies) branch, part of David's line, serves as
Becoming a man or becoming a woman God’s instrument to bring in his kingdom.
(giving away one’s virginity) We will see this concept again in Isaiah 11,
Sexually active (promiscuous, sexually immoral) as well as in Jeremiah and Zechariah.
Pro-choice (pro-abortion) Parable of the vineyard (5:1-7)
Adult entertainment (pornography, strip joints)
Isaiah portrayed God's people as a vine-
Adult videos (pornographic videos)
yard. God had cared for his vineyard dili-
New Age philosophy (old lies of Eastern
gently, but it produced worthless grapes!
philosophy)
God called to Judah to bear witness—he
Many also have tried to put down Christians while had done everything he should to care for
justifying their own sinful behavior by giving less his vineyard. The problem lay in them and
attractive names to practices the Bible calls good. their unwillingness to respond to his care.
Again, the more accurate expression fous in’
Six woes against the nation (5:8-30)
parentheses.
Isaiah pronounced six woe oracles against
Chicken (afraid; usually used to
‘eela various segments of Judah’s population.
A woe oracle is a judgment speech that
typically begins with the word “woe.”
First, Isaiah denounced oppressors
who selfishly increased their estates at
the expense of others (vv. 8-10). God
of sexual morality) ; would judge them by reducing their crop
Rigid, ipnestblse int yields, thus rendering the increased land
meaningless.
Second, Isaiah condemned drunkards
who lived only to pursue strong drink and
would bring lasting peace everywhere. merrymaking (vv. 11-17). They often par-
woe oracles
Most interpreters believe Jesus Christ will tied late into the night, unaware that spir-
fulfill this prophecy when he returns. itual ruin lay all around them. God's peo-
ple would suffer exile for their lack of
Judgment speeches (2:5-4:6) knowledge.
Isaiah presented three judgment speeches. Third, Isaiah rebuked those who put
First, he called the people to recognize God to the test (vv. 18-19). They assumed
God’s ways (2:5-21). False religion, riches, God was doing nothing only because they
and pride had corrupted the nation. Isa- could not discern his purpose. Meanwhile,
iah warned that a terrible day of reckon- they persisted in their evil.
ing was coming soon. Fourth, Isaiah reprimanded the morally
Second, Isaiah announced God’s judg- twisted, who called good evil and evil
ment against Judah’s leaders (2:22-3:15). good (v. 20). They did so in order to jus-
He would cut off the leaders who used tify their sin. They could continue in it
their positions for dishonest gain. Anar- without feeling guilty.

B5y/,
Encountering the Prophets

oS Fifth, Isaiah pronounced woe against to join forces with Ahaz to stop Assyria,
sign
the self-exalted (v. 21). They believed but when Ahaz refused to join the alliance,
themselves wise, but others held quite a Rezin and Pekah marched against him
different opinion! God was sure to hum- (7:1-2). Isaiah encouraged Ahaz to trust
ble them. in the Lord (7:4-9), for God would protect
Sixth, Isaiah admonished immoral op- David's line if David’s descendant would
portunists (vv. 22-23). These people place his trust in God.
caroused together and took away the The sign offered, refused, and given
rights of the defenseless. They took bribes (7:10-17)
and rejected God’s standards.
Isaiah offered Ahaz a sign from God to
These six groups thought they had got-
ten away with their behavior, but God had
strengthen the king’s faith. Ahaz masked
his lack of faith with false piety (7:10-12),
seen it all. In his anger, he would call an-
for he already was thinking of trusting As-
other nation to consume them and carry
syria instead (2 Kgs 16:7-8). Isaiah con-
them away.
demned him for his lack of faith and said
Isaiah’s Call (6:1-13) God himself would provide a sign. A vir-
gin would conceive, bear a son, and name
The vision (6:1-8) him Immanuel, which means “God is with
Isaiah’s reference to King Uzziah’s death us” (7:14). Before the child could choose
places his prophetic call in the year 739 between good and evil, the kings of Syria
B.c. Isaiah saw a vision of God that ab- and Israel would be gone.
solutely overwhelmed him. Most of all, he Possible interpretations
saw two things: God’s utter majesty and As we deal with this prophecy, we need
his own sinfulness. to determine the relationship of Isaiah 7:14
The seraph’s touching of Isaiah’s mouth to Matthew 1:23, which says Jesus’ virgin
symbolically represented God cleansing birth fulfilled Isaiah’s words. Below are
him from sin. Isaiah now stood clean be- two common interpretations scholars have
fore his holy God, so when God issued his
given:
call, he responded quickly (v. 8)—”Here
am I. Send me!” ¢ The sign Isaiah offered was the virgin
The prophecy (6:9-13) birth of Christ. The prophet under-
God’s initial message through Isaiah pro- stood he was making such a prophecy,
claimed the people’s lack of understand- and it came true. By the time Jesus
ing. They would persist in their sin, not could distinguish right from wrong,
really seeing, hearing, or understanding the kings of Syria and Israel were gone.
God’s purpose for them. The proclama- Isaiah 8 records an unrelated incident.!
tion of God’s word would only make the Many Christians over the centuries
people harder against him. Yet, God have understood the prophecy in this
promised to raise up a righteous remnant way. Some, however, have suggested
after his judgment. His purposes for his the long time gap between Isaiah's
people would continue. words and Jesus’ birth weakens the
meaning of the sign.
The Sign of Immanuel (7:1-17) The prophecies of Immanuel and
Maher-shalal-hash-baz describe the
The historical setting (7:1-9) same birth. The woman, Isaiah’s wife
The years 735-732 B.c. witnessed what his- (the “prophetess,” 8:3), was a virgin
torians call the Syro-Ephraimite War. The at the time, but he then married her
major issue was how small countries like and she conceived the child in the
Syria, Israel, and Judah would deal with usual way. The sign in Isaiah’s day was
Assyria’s impending westward expansion that she named the child “God is with
under Tiglath-Pileser III. us” when all events suggested God
The major players included Rezin, king was far from his people. Jesus’ birth
of Syria, Pekah, king of Israel, and Ahaz, then fulfilled Isaiah’s words on an
king of Judah. Rezin and Pekah wanted even higher level. The text records that
358
 Campaigns of the Tyre @

Syro-Ephraimite War

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=a Philistines
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Encountering the Prophets

Mary remained a virgin until Jesus’ Description of the Messianic Era

birth (Mt 1:24—25).° But some scholars (9:1-7)
have difficulty with this interpretation Isaiah provided his audience another
because the sons have different names glimpse into the messianic age. These
and different criteria exist for when prophetic words also find their fulfillment
the kings will disappear. in Jesus Christ.
Isaiah described how the northern tribal
Both interpretations have tried to do jus- territories of Zebulun and Naphtali, for-
tice to the text of Isaiah, and both main- merly a place of great spiritual darkness,
tain the deity of Jesus. The virgin birth of would see great light. Jesus provided these
Jesus continues to point to his supernat- regions great spiritual light because he car-
ural origin and divine sonship in either ried out much of his earthly ministry there
case.° (Mt 4:15-16).
Isaiah also described the Messiah's great
The Coming Assyrian Invasion names—” Wonderful Counselor,” “Mighty
(7:18-8:22) God,” “Father of Eternity,” and “Prince of
Ahaz chose instead to trust in Assyria. He Peace.” Such names can only describe one
sent a large gift to Tiglath-pileser and en- who is more than human! The prophet fur-
listed his help (2 Kgs 16:7-8). The Assyr- ther described Messiah’s ministry. He
ian king responded swiftly, moving west- would assume his father David’s throne
ward, conquering Damascus in 732 B.c.,
and rule righteously forever. Notice how
Isaiah brought together Jesus’ first and sec-
and killing Rezin (2 Kgs 16:9). He also
ond comings in two adjacent verses. Verse
overran Israel and allowed Hoshea, who
6 describes Jesus’ first coming, whereas
had killed Pekah, to rule as a vassal (2 Kgs
verse 7 describes his second coming.
15:29-30). The people of the land paid an
Prophets sometimes wrote in this way as
incredible price for Ahaz’s lack of trust in
they spoke of God’s plans for the distant
God. future.°
Isaiah warned the people about As-
syria’s incredible power (7:18-25). The Judgment Against Israel
land would experience devastation, and and Assyria (9:8-10:34)
fertile areas would become desolate, fit
Israel hardened itself to God’s judgments
only for thorns and briars.
(9:8-10:4). The people ignored God’s dis-
The Syro-Ephraimite war also provided cipline and continued their evil ways. The
the context for the prophecy of 8:1-4. In expression “His anger does not turn away,
this prophecy, Isaiah fathered a son named and his hand is still stretched out” (9:12,
Maher-shalal-hash-baz. Isaiah predicted 17, 21; 10:4) reveals how God repeatedly
the boy’s birth in the presence of witnesses. punished his people without seeing any
He said that before the child could cry out, repentance. Israel’s bad leadership and
“Mommy! Daddy!” Syria and Israel pride angered the Lord the most.
would no longer comprise a threat to Assyria would also receive judgment
Judah. (We already have discussed this (10:5-34). God used Assyria as an instru-
prophecy’s possible connection with 7:14; ment of correction against his ungodly
see above.) people (10:5). But the Assyrians never re-
Isaiah further described Judah’s com- alized the role they played in his grand
ing judgment (8:5-22). The people had re- purpose. Instead, they became proud and
jected God's continual, gentle protection, arrogant. God promised to judge Assyria
instead turning to the king of Assyria, who and to restore a faithful remnant of his peo-
would overflow the land with his fury. ple to Israel (10:12-23).
Their lack of spiritual light led them to for-
sake the law and trust in mediums and Further Description of the
spiritists. Many in today’s world also seek Messianic Era (11:1-12:6)
substitutes for God’s word, but only in the Isaiah described a branch (see 4:2) who
Bible do we find the answers to life’s deep- would come from the line of Jesse, David's
est questions. father. The Spirit of the Lord would em-
360
 Isaiah 1-39

An orthodox
Jew with a ram's
horn trumpet, or
shofar, at the
Western Wall,
Jerusalem. Isaiah
said a trumpet
would summon
God's people
from exile (ch.
27):

AANA power him to lead the nations. He would Oracles Against the Nations
oracles against (13:1-23:18)
the nations
bring peace to all people. Even wild ani-
mals would experience harmony again! Isaiah's “oracles against the nations” de-
God’s people would sing for joy and cel- scribed God's plans to deal with the other
ebrate God’s goodness and salvation. nations of the ancient world. These
Those who have placed their faith in the prophecies illustrate an important truth
Lord Jesus Christ anticipate that day with for us to remember: God is Lord of all na-
great excitement! tions and peoples.
361
Encountering the Prophets

Babylon (13:1-14:23) Damascus and Israel (17:1-14)

Babylon topped Isaiah’s list of kingdoms Isaiah probably described Damascus and
God would judge. This fact should sur- Israel together because his words dated
prise us somewhat because Assyria, not from the time of the Syro-Ephraimite coali-
Babylon, ruled the world during Isaiah’s tion (735-734 B.c.). He warned that God
day. But Isaiah looked ahead to a day would level Damascus, and God did
Babylon would rule the world, and he an- through Tiglath-Pileser III in 732 B.c. He
nounced her condemnation. also promised to judge Israel, though he
God often used human instruments to said he would provide a remnant who
accomplish his purposes. He would use would follow him (vv. 6-8).
the Medes to judge Babylon (13:17). In- Cush and Egypt (18:1-20:6)
deed, many Medes formed part of the The Lord also promised to humble Cusu
forces that King Cyrus of Persia led (Ethiopia) and Egypt. Cushites would one
against Babylon in 539 B.c. Isaiah com- day bring gifts to Zion (18:7). Moreover,
pared Babylon’s destruction to the de- God would judge Egypt and her idols.
struction of Sodom and Gomorrah Centuries earlier, Egypt had enslaved
(13:19-20). God's people, but now he would turn the
Isaiah described the taunt God’s peo- tables and enslave her (19:4). He would
ple would sing in the day of Babylon’s dry up the Nile, Egypt’s source of water,
defeat (14:3-21). Babylon’s ruler had thus devastating the country (19:58). Isa-
made godlike claims (14:13-14), but God iah even walked around naked and bare-
would humble him. Some Bible inter- foot for three years as a sign of Egypt's
preters have seen in 14:12-15 a secondary and Cush’s coming destruction by Assyria
description of Satan’s fall from heaven, (20:1-6).
though the text only specifically identi- But Isaiah also announced exciting news
fies the king (14:4). God would destroy for Egypt. One day Egypt would swear al-
Babylon’s pride and arrogance. legiance to the Lord! The Lord would bring
healing to Egypt, and even bring peace be-
Assyria (14:24-27) tween them and the Assyrians. In that day,
God soon would use Assyria to humble Egypt, Assyria, and Israel would become
the northern kingdom of Israel (2 Kgs a united blessing to all the world. As we
17:1-6). But even the mighty Assyrians look at today’s world, such words seem
could not frustrate God’s plans. His pur- impossible, but we must remember that
pose would overtake them. nothing lies beyond the reach of our all-
powerful God.
Philistia (14:28-32)
Babylon, Edom, and Arabia (21:1-17)
The Philistines rejoiced when King Ahaz
died, presumably because they thought Isaiah announced further words of judg-
they could shake off Judah’s domination. ment against Babylon (vv. 1-10). Elam and
But Isaiah assured the Philistines God Media would work together to bring Baby-
would still protect his people. lon down. The prophet also included a
brief word concerning Ebom and ARABIA.
Moab (15:1-16:14) Judgment would sweep them away within
The Moabites, Judah’s southeastern a year.
neighbors, descended from Lot, Abra- Jerusalem (22:1-25)
ham’s nephew (Gn 19:37). Isaiah de- Isaiah then declared the day of Jerusalem's
scribed how God's judgment affected all judgment. The people had lived there in
Moab’s major cities (15:1-9). He warned security for many years, and had come to
that within three years God would greatly believe God would protect them forever,
reduce Moab’s status (16:14). Unfortu- no matter how they lived. The day of judg-
nately we do not know precisely when ment would dash those beliefs (vv. 1-14).
the Lord fulfilled this prophecy. Both As- Isaiah presented two pictures of lead-
syrian kings Sargon II (721-705 B.c.) and ership—Shebna (vv. 15-19) and Eliakim
SENNACHERIB (704-681 B.c.) claim victo- (vv. 20-25). Shebna used his office for dis-
ries over Moab.’ honest gain; God would bring him to noth-

362
 Isaiah 1-39

i
&
AX

S
‘:
@® Damascus

ISRAEL
PHRAI
2m @ AMMON

MOAB

ARABIA 100 200 mi

St oe
100 200 300 km

Little ing. But Eliakim would serve his people The “Little Apocalypse”
Apocalypse
as a father. Unfortunately, Eliakim pro- (24:1-27:13)
vided one of only a few examples of qual-
Many interpreters have named Isaiah
ity leadership in his generation.
apocalyptic 24-27 “the Little Apocalypse” because
literature
Tyre (23:1-18) these chapters read like a miniature Book
Tyre, a Phoenician port city, had used its of Revelation. (See the discussion of “apoc-
strategic location to accumulate great alyptic literature” in chapter 31.) They
riches. But Tyre soon would experience serve as a grand conclusion to Isaiah’s or-
the heartache of bankruptcy. God would acles of chapters 13-23. In the previous
destroy the city’s pride and give her pos- section, the prophet showed how God was
sessions to another. Tyre would at last sub- Lord over many different kingdoms. And
mit to God’s sovereign purposes. if he ruled all those nations and peoples,

363
Encountering the Prophets

he also controlled the entire world. Isaiah from him and asked for forgiveness (v. 9).
24-27 announces God’s final judgment of He vowed to gather them for a grand re-
the world and the ultimate salvation of his union one day (vv. 12-13).
people.
Oracles of Woe (28:1-33:24)
The earth's destruction (24:1-23)
Isaiah 28-33 contains five woe oracles.
Isaiah announced the earth’s destruction These oracles pronounced doom on vari-
with strong language (vv. 1-6). The Lord ous peoples and nations. Isaiah 34-35 pro-
would show no partiality in judgment. vides a climax to chapters 28-33, much as
One’s status in society did not matter. chapters 24-27 (the “Little Apocalypse”)
But in the midst of the violent upheaval do for chapters 13-23 (“Oracles against
that would bring the end of history, God’s
the Nations”).
people praised him anyway! They gave
him glory, for the time of salvation was Woe against Ephraim (28:1-29)
drawing near (vv. 14-16). His people Isaiah denounced Ephraim’s pride and ar-
would see him in all his splendor (v. 23). rogance. The people thought they had
found a way to cheat death and escape
God's victory over his enemies
God’s judgment (v. 15). Instead, their im-
(25:1—-12)
mature leadership rendered them unable
God’s people sang to him—he had to understand God’s teaching (vv. 9-13).
brought them victory! Isaiah foretold a They did not realize what a desperate sit-
lavish banquet the Lord would prepare uation they faced!
(vv. 6-9). He would abolish death forever God vowed to bring justice and right-
and establish personal, intimate fellow- eousness to the land (vv. 16-22). His
ship with those he loved. Today, God of- “tested cornerstone” would provide a key
fers to all of us a personal relationship with part of Zion’s new foundation. The New
him through faith in Jesus Christ (Rom Testament revealed that Jesus Christ is this
3:21-22). Those who trust in him have the cornerstone (Rom 9:33). Jesus is the foun-
promise that one day they will see him dation of the church, a structure he is
face to face (1 Jn 3:1-3). building with believers, who are “living
Judah's song of deliverance (26:1-21) stones” (1 Pt 2:6).
God’s people would sing another song cel- Woe against Ariel (29:1-24)
ebrating God’s deliverance. God had The term “Ariel” refers to Jerusalem (v. 1).
brought the victory, and he deserved their Many scholars suggest it means “hearth
trust (vv. 1-6). As Isaiah pondered this of God,” a description that would fit the
great day, he offered the Lord a prayer (vv. context.’ The people of Jerusalem thought
11-18). God’s people stood defenseless be- they were the center of worship of the one
fore their enemies. Did they really have true God. But God was not pleased. Isa-
any hope? God answered with a re- iah proclaimed judgment against the city
sounding yes! He promised to deliver them and its people. He vowed to lay them low
and to destroy their enemies in his perfect like the dust (v. 4).
timing. Isaiah described the spiritual stupor that
Israel's coming salvation (27:1-13) gripped the people (vv. 9-16). They spoke
as though they knew the Lord, but had
Bible interpreters have wrestled with the
closed their hearts to following him. They
identity of Leviathan (v. 1). Some have at-
thought no one knew about their sin, but
tempted to connect Leviathan with a par-
God had seen it all. Yet the Lord promised
ticular Canaanite deity. But all such at-
restoration (vv. 17-24). The people even-
tempts have their problems. Probably we
tually would return to him.
should understand Isaiah as using the
image of Leviathan to describe God’s ul- Woe against foreign alliances
timate destruction of evil.® (80:1=31;9)
God intended his judgment as a means Isaiah condemned Judah's attempt at for-
of turning people back to him. He antici- eign alliances (30:15; 31:1-3). Treaties with
pated the tender care of his own (vv. 2-6) foreign powers courted disaster. How
as they realized their helplessness apart could other kingdoms provide more se-
364
 Isaiah 1-39

would hear, and stammering tongues

would speak clearly (vv. 3-4)! God’s Spirit
would bring this day, an everlasting day
- Account of His of peace and security. Christians look for
_ Battle with Hezekiah Jesus Christ to fulfill these words when he
returns. The Bible calls people everywhere
As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my to prepare for that day by yielding their
yoke, | laid siege to 46 of his strong cities, walled lives to him.
| forts and to the countless small villages in their
Woe against Assyria (33:1-24)
_ vicinity, and conquered (them) by means of well-
stamped (earth-)ramps, and battering rams Isaiah pronounced Assyria’s coming de-
brought (thus) near (to the walls) (combined with) struction. The Assyrians thought they
the attack by foot soldiers, (using) mines, breeches ruled the world, but they merely served
as well as sapper work... . Himself [Hezekiah] | as God's instruments. After they had com-
made a prisoner in Jerusalem, his royal residence, pleted God's purpose for them, he would
like a bird in a cage. | surrounded him with bring them down (vv. 1-2).
earthwork in order to molest those who were How could God’s people prepare for
leaving his city’s gate. His towns which | had that day? By turning back to him! Who
plundered | took away from his country and gave could escape God’s holy wrath? Only
them (over) to Mitinti, king of Ashdod, Padi, king those whose lives reflected their faithful-
of Ekron, and Sillibel, king of Gaza. .... Hezekiah ness to him (vv. 14-16). They would see a
himself, whom the terror-inspiring splendor of my new Jerusalem in all its splendor, but most
lordship had overwhelmed ... did send me, later, of all, they would see their God in all his
to Nineveh, my lordly city, together with 30 talents splendor. The New Testament also speaks
of gold, 800 talents of silver, precious stones, of a day when believers will see him face
antimony, large cuts of red stone, couches (inlaid) to face (1 Jn 3:2-3).
with ivory, ... all kinds of valuable treasures, his
(own) daughters, concubines, male and female — Eschatological Summation
musicians. In order to deliver the tribute andtodo (34:1-35:10)
obeisance as a slave he sent his (personal) Isaiah brought his pronouncements con-
messenger. cerning God's coming judgment and king-
ANET 288 dom to a climax in chapters 34-35. Chap-
ter 34 describes God’s ultimate vengeance
against the nations. Chapter 35 announces
the joy that will come to those who know
him.
curity than the Lord God?" Furthermore, God’s vengeance against the nations
concluding foreign treaties often included (34:1-17)
formally recognizing the other nation’s The prophet described God as a powerful
gods. No king devoted to the Lord could Warrior who executed vengeance on his
ever participate in such a ceremony. foes. But the judgment went far beyond
Isaiah also heralded the folly of trust- earthly nations. Even heaven itself felt the
ing in Egypt. Egypt had developed a rep- impact (v. 4). The Lord singled out Edom
utation for promising its allies assistance for special attention, perhaps because of
and then failing to provide it (36:6). God its persistent enmity against God’s peo-
vowed to judge Egypt and those who ple (cf. Obadiah). He would bring ruin on
trusted in her. Edom forever. All God’s enemies would
Woe mixed with hope (32:1-20) suffer the same fate. God had decreed it
and it would be so (vv. 16-17).
Isaiah announced hope in the midst of
woe. The Lord would one day raise up a The salvation of the redeemed
righteous king whose coming would (35: 1-10)
renew society! Other leaders would fol- The wilderness and desert normally be-
low his example and bring blessing to all came dry and parched during the sum-
the land. Isaiah also promised other won- mer months, and did not flourish even at
ders—blind eyes would see, deaf ears other times of the year. But the day Isaiah

365
Encountering the Prophets

Summary

. Isaiah was the prophet who served in would be influenced by the Messiah,
the royal court of Judah, but he did describes the Messiah by different
have some words for Israel as well as names, tells about the Messiah's min-
other nations. istry, and describes Messiah's first and
second comings.
. The major themes of chapters 1-39
include the remnant, the sovereignty . In Isaiah's “Oracles Against All Na-
of God, the servant, the Holy One of tions” God’s judgment was declared
Israel, and the Messiah. on Babylon, Assyria, Philistia, Moab,
Damascus, Israel, Cush, Edom, Arabia,
. Isaiah's prophetic call came in 739 B.c.
Jerusalem, and Tyre.
when he had a vision in which he saw
the majesty of God as well as his own . Chapters 24-27 have been designated
sinfulness. by many scholars as the “Little Apoca-
lypse.”
. Isaiah offered Ahaz a sign from God
but Ahaz declined it because he . The woe oracles of chapters 28-33 in-
trusted more in the power of Assyria cluded woes against foreign alliances.
than he did in God.
. Hezekiah demonstrated his foolish-
. Isaiah's prophecies about the mes- ness in showing the delegation from
sianic era told how the northern tribes Babylon all of his nation’s treasures.

heralded would witness lush growth com-

parable to that of Carmel and Sharon, two
Key People/ of Israel’s richest areas. The Lord would
Places bring this wonderful blessing.
Society also would experience great re-
Tiglath-Pileser III juvenation. God would prepare his peo-
Sennacherib
Key Terms ple in three ways to receive his blessing.
Merodach-baladan II
First, he would heal their infirmities (vv.
Cush
remnant 4-6). Second, he would make water abun-
Edom
woe oracles dant in dry areas (v. 7). Third, he would
Arabia
sign
Tyre
prepare a highway of holiness, a special
vassal
Babylon
road on which his people could return to
oracles against the worship him (vv. 8-10). They would come
Assyria
nations safe and secure, and with great joy.
Syria
Little Apocalypse
Israel
apocalyptic literature Historical Interlude:
Judah
Moab
Highlights and Lowlights
from Hezekiah’s Reign (36:1-39:8)
Egypt
Four chapters link the first part of the Book
of Isaiah (chapters 1-39) with the second
part (chapters 40-66). Scholars have noted
that the events of chapters 38-39 chrono-

366
 Isaiah 1-39

logically precede the events of chapters tion and his people from exile! He had de-
36-37. But Isaiah was not giving a chrono- fended his city for David’s sake (37:35).
logical account. Chapters 36-37 deal with Interestingly, archaeologists discovered
Assyria and serve to “tie off” the first part Sennacherib’s royal annals when they ex-
of the book, during which Assyria ap- cavated Nineveh. The annals proudly de-
peared as the dominant force in the an- scribe his siege of Jerusalem, but mention
cient world. Chapters 38-39 focus on no conquest.
Babylon, whose empire formed the back-
Hezekiah’s illness and recovery
drop for Isaiah 40-66."
(38:1-22)
Sennacherib’s threat Around 711 B.c.'8 Hezekiah became mor-
and God's deliverance (36:1-37:38) tally ill. When Isaiah warned him he
Sennacherib (704-681 B.c.), king of Assyria, would not recover, Hezekiah wept bitterly
came against Hezekiah (727-698 B.c.), king and prayed for God’s mercy. God re-
of Judah, when Hezekiah refused to pay sponded by giving the king another fif-
tribute (2 Kgs 18:7). Scholars debate teen years of life. He even provided
whether Sennacherib invaded Judah in Hezekiah a sign to bolster the king’s
701 B.c. or 714 B.c. because we do not know faith—the shadow on the king’s stairway
exactly when Hezekiah reigned.” After receded!
Sennacherib defeated Judah's fortified Three years later, the king had a son—
cities, Hezekiah offered to surrender and Manasseh—who eventually succeeded
pay whatever penalty Sennacherib im- him as king (2 Kgs 21:1). Manasseh’s birth
posed (2 Kgs 18:13-16). But Sennacherib proved to be a mixed blessing. On the one
decided he would push to take Jerusalem hand, the king now had an heir. On the
itself. other hand, Manasseh (698-642 B.c.) be-
With mocking scorn Sennacherib’s rep- came one of Judah’s most wicked kings,
resentative taunted Jerusalem’s populace and effectually undid all the reforms his
and urged them to surrender (Is 36:4—20; father had established. His evil led to a
37:8-13). But Hezekiah sought the face of spiritual decline from which Judah never
his God, who sent Isaiah with a message recovered (Jer 15:4).
of deliverance (37:14-29). And God ful-
filled his word, sending his angel to dec- Hezekiah’s visit with
imate the Assyrian army. Merodach-baladan (39:1-8)
From a human perspective, the battle Merodach-baladan II ruled as Babylon’s
ended and Sennacherib returned home king from 721 B.c. to 710 B.c. and again
with what he already had taken from briefly in 703 B.c. He seized the opportu-
Hezekiah. But from a theological per- nity that Assyria’s decline provided. When
spective, the Lord brought dramatic de- the Assyrians became stronger, they re-
liverance, saving Jerusalem from destruc- moved him from power.!4

Study Questions

; 1. What do we know about Isaiah from Why did he take the time to deal with
the details in his book? What themes each one?
7,
ee an ee 4. Identify the main details of chapters
2. If you only had Isaiah 1-12, what 36-39. What function do these chap-
could you learn about God's Messiah? ters serve in the Book of Isaiah?

3. Against which nations did Isaiah pro-

nounce judgment in chapters 13-23?

367
Encountering the Prophets

Further Reading

Machen, J. Gresham. The Virgin Birth of Christ. 2nd thorough research, with abundant footnotes and
ed. New York: Harper, 1932. The classic treatment documentation.
of the Virgin birth and its implications for the Webb, Barry G. The Message ofIsaiah: On Eagle's
Christian faith. Wings. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1996. A
Motyer, J. Alec. The Prophecy ofIsaiah: An shorter survey, but rich in application.
Introduction and Commentary. Downers Grove: Wolf, Herbert M. Interpreting Isaiah: The Suffering
InterVarsity, 1993. A thorough commentary for and Glory of the Messiah. Grand Rapids:
the advanced student. Zondervan, 1985. A college-level textbook that
Oswalt, John N. The Book ofIsaiah: Chapters 1-39. combines good scholarship and readability.
New International Commentary on the Old Youngblood, Ronald F. The Book of Isaiah:
Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. An Introductory Commentary. 2nd ed. Grand
A commentary for the student who desires Rapids: Baker, 1993. A shorter survey.

Merodach-baladan sent a delegation to the foolishness of showing the Babyloni-

Hezekiah to congratulate him on his re- ans everything. He assured him the Baby-
covery. He also probably hoped to try to lonians would remember the treasures
establish an ally to the west against Assyria. they had seen, and one day they would
At any rate, Hezekiah proudly gave the return to take it. In 587 B.c., Isaiah’s words
Babylonian delegation a thorough tour and proved true. Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562
showed them all his splendor and treasures. B.c.), king of Babylon, defeated Jerusalem
Later, Isaiah confronted Hezekiah over and led the people into exile.

368
 Isaiah 40-66
Great Days Are Coming!
oe Sy

ZZ

ZZ
i
——=

zz

_ ©Who Wrote Isaiah 40-66?

§ = Multiple-Author View TOTNES ANDOU NENG NAAN

~ ~ One-Author View
__ ¢ The Servant Passages in Isaiah 40-66 Objectives
Comfort, O Comfort My People (40:1-31) After reading this chapter,
The Coming Deliverance (41:1-29) you should be able to
The Role of the Lord’s Servant (42:1-25) ¢ Describe the contents and major themes
Israel’s Redemption from Babylon of Isaiah 40-66
(43:1-45:25) ¢ Evaluate the multiple-author view
Judgment Against Babylon (46:1-47:15) of Isaiah
Israel’s Release and Exaltation ¢ Compare the three interpretations
(48:1-52:12) of the Suffering Servant passages
The Suffering Servant (52:13-53:12) in chapters 52 and 53
Celebrating the Return (54:1-59:21) ¢ Summarize what Isaiah prophesies about
The Climax of God's Restoration Judah's return from Babylonian exile
(60:1-66:24)

369
Encountering the Prophets

ANCTATNNNRRRENUNNONNAN
Deutero-Isaiah
Do you know people who speak nega- A. Jerusalem’s Rebirth (54:1-17)
tively almost all the time? They adopt a . Call to Trust in God (55:1-13)
pessimistic view toward life and assume . Foreigners Join God’s Family
circumstances will turn out for the worst. (56:1-8)
[have known people like that and find it . Summary of Israel’s Sin
OSs
D2
hard to stay around them for long. If I do, (56:9-57:21)
I start to get depressed! tH .
Call to True Righteousness
Isaiah proclaimed many strong words (58:1-14)
to Judah. He called the people to confess F. Israel's Sin and God’s
their sin, humble themselves before God, Deliverance (59:1-21)
and turn back to God. Most probably did
not want to hear those words, but they XXIII. The Climax of God’s
needed to hear them. Restoration (60:1-66:24)
But not all Isaiah’s words were nega- . Zion’s Glorification (60:1-22)
tive. Isaiah prophesied God’s judgment God’s Further Restoration
against his people, but he also proclaimed (61:1-11)
a day when God would restore his people . Zion’s Marriage to God
and bless them again. Isaiah 40-66 espe- (62:1-12)
cially focuses on these days of blessing. . Judgment of the Nations
(63:1-6)
STSCI
. Prayer for God’s
Oy
Oo
nm
ae
Intervention (63:7-64:12)
Outline 7 Blessing for God’s Servants
(65:1-25)
XV. Comfort, Comfort My People G. The Ultimate Conclusion
(40:1-31) (66:1—24)
XVI. The Coming Deliverance
EEE
EEE
(41:1-29)

XVII. The Role of the Lord’s Servant

Who Wrote
(42:1—25) Isaiah 40-66?
XVIII. Israel’s Redemption from Over the centuries most Jews and Chris-
Babylon (43:1-45:25) tians have believed the prophet Isaiah
wrote the entire book that bears his name.
XIX. Judgment against Babylon However, some Bible scholars have sug-
(46:1-47:15) gested other writers—perhaps Isaiah's dis-
ciples—wrote chapters 40-66. In recent
XX. Israel’s Release and Exaltation years even many evangelicals have
(48:1-52:12) adopted this position. The evidence for
A. Israel’s Stubbornness and the multiple-author view and one-author
God’s Even More Stubborn view appears below.
Grace (48:1—22)
The Lord’s Servant (49:1-7) Multiple-Author View
. Israel’s Return (49:8—26)
The multiple-author view has taken nu-
. God and His Servant
merous forms over the years. ! Basically,
(50:1-11)
this view suggests the prophet Isaiah more
22) Encouragement to the
Bel
ASN
or less produced the material in chapters
Righteous (51:1-16)
1-39 while another author or authors pro-
F. Good News for Jerusalem
(51517-52312)
duced chapters 40-66. Proponents of this
view refer to the author of chapters 40-66
XXI. The Suffering Servant as “Deutero-Isaiah,” which simply means
(52:13-53:12) “second Isaiah.”
Other scholars have suggested yet an-
XXII. Celebrating the Return other division within chapters 40-66. They
(54:1-59:21) believe Deutero-Isaiah wrote Isaiah 40-55,

370
 Isaiah 40-66

Assyrian relief while another person or school of disci- 1-39, but God’s redemption and salvation
showing officials
weighing tribute
ples (Trito-Isaiah, “Third Isaiah”) wrote lead the way in chapters 40-66. Such sharp
in the balance. Isaiah 56-66 somewhat later. Some have differences suggest the involvement of
argued the section came from many hands, more than one author.
perhaps a school of Isaiah’s disciples. The different vocabulary
Tirifo-Isaiah Those who hold that more than one per- and style of 1-39 and 40-66
son wrote the Book of Isaiah generally
have argued along four lines: time span This point follows naturally on the previ-
of the book, different subject matter of 1-39
ous one, since different subject matter nor-
and 40-66, different vocabulary and style mally requires different vocabulary. But
of 1-39 and 40-66, and the mention of King multiple-author advocates also stress how
the different poetic style of chapters 40-66
Cyrus by name.
suggests it came from a hand other than
The time span of the book Isaiah’s. They cite this poetry as among
Some who hold a multiple-author view the best in all the Old Testament while con-
suggest the time span of the book rules trasting it with the poetic style of chapters
out a single author. They see no way Isa- 1-39.
iah could have known about the circum- The mention of King Cyrus by name
stances in chapters 40-66. Isaiah prophe-
Isaiah 44:28 and 45:1 mention Cyrus, the
sied from about 740 to 690 B.c., but much
Persian Empire’s first king, by name. Mul-
of Isaiah 40-66 describes the period of re-
tiple-author supporters cite these verses
turn from Babylonian exile that began
as examples of specific information only
about 538 B.c.
someone living at that time could know.
The different subject matter Since Isaiah's ministry concluded long be-
of 1-39 and 40-66 fore the time of Cyrus, they argue that
Multiple-author proponents highlight the someone else must have written the ref-
different subject matter of Isaiah 1-39 and erences to Cyrus as well as the surround-
Isaiah 40-66. Chapters 1-39 focus on As- ing material.
syria, whereas chapters 40-66 focus on
Babylon. Chapters 1-39 deal primarily One-Author View
with Isaiah’s generation, whereas chap- In spite of the above evidence, many Bible
ters 40-66 look to the future. God’s judg- scholars continue to support the view that
ment forms a major theme of chapters Isaiah wrote the entire book that bears his
371
Encountering the Prophets

name.* Some of their arguments counter other biblical example of such a prophecy
the assumptions of multiple-author pro- does seem to occur (1 Kgs 13:2). Second,
ponents, while others present positive rea- some suggest Isaiah originally gave the
sons why we should consider this view. prophecy without specifically mention-
ing Cyrus, and a scribe later filled in the
The time span of the book name when the fulfillment became clear.
The Bible says God knows the future and Either explanation removes the necessity
sometimes reveals it to his servants the of seeing a distinct author for chapters
prophets (Am 3:7; Rv 1:1-2, 19). If God in- 40-66.
formed Isaiah about the future, then Isa-
iah could have described events without Textual evidence
actually seeing them himself. The one-au- for single authorship
thor view thus accounts for the book’s time Old Testament manuscripts are not as
span according to the guidelines the Bible plentiful as New Testament manuscripts.
establishes for itself regarding predictive Nevertheless, no textual evidence suggests
prophecy. Isaiah 1-39 and Isaiah 40-66 ever existed
as separate documents. For example, the
The different subject matter
Isaiah text from Qumran, part of the Dead
of 1-39 and 40-66
Sea Scrolls and the earliest known copy of
One-author advocates simply argue that Isaiah, has no break between chapters 39
an author may write on many different and 40. Those who hold to a multiple-au-
subjects, just as many do today. Different thor view do so against the existing tex-
subject matter does not form an adequate tual evidence.
basis for discerning the work of a distinct
author. Evidence from the New Testament
At the same time, many common Evidence from the New Testament also
themes do occur in both parts of Isaiah. suggests the Book of Isaiah came entirely
Passages about Messiah appear in both from Isaiah. New Testament writers ap-
parts (9:6-7; 11:1-16; 42:14; 52:13-53:12). pear to attribute both sections of Isaiah to
So also do terms like servant, remnant, the the prophet (Mt 3:3; Acts 28:25; Rom
nations, and the Holy One of Israel. These 9:27-29; 10:16, 20). This fact suggests they
common themes do not necessarily prove understood the entire work as coming
the one-author view, but they do show the from him.
two parts of the book may not be as radi- Summary of the authorship issue
cally different as multiple-author propo-
nents sometimes suggest. The cumulative evidence suggests the one-
author view has much to commend it. The
The different vocabulary and style time span of the book and issues of sub-
of 1-39 and 40-66 ject matter, vocabulary, and style do not
Again, one-author proponents assert that present difficulties if we allow God to re-
human writers have the capability to use veal the future to his prophets and if we
different vocabulary and styles in accor- grant that one author can write in more
dance with their topics and purposes. For than one style. Textual evidence and the
example, a college student today may witness of the New Testament writers also
write a research paper according to a set appear to support the one-author view.
of detailed specifications and then write a Bible scholars no doubt will continue to
letter to loved ones at home. Each docu- study and debate this issue.
ment has a unique style and vocabulary,
yet each one clearly comes from the same
author. Ancient biblical writers certainly
had the same gifts and abilities! The Servant Passages
The mention of King Cyrus by name In Isaiah 40-66
One-author supporters generally have re- The servant theme appears in several
sponded in one of two ways to this issue. places in Isaiah and the servant carries a
First, some suggest we should assume number of identities. The word “servant”
God revealed the name to Isaiah. One may denote an individual Israelite (22:20),
372
 Isaiah 40-66

unifying focus. The servant is God’s in-

strument, fully yielded to his purpose.
He accomplishes the Lord’s will because
he gives himself totally into his hands.
Are you willing to make such a complete
surrender? Just think of how the Lord
might use you!

Isaiah's Message
Continues
Comfort, O Comfort My People
(40:1-31)
Verses 1-11 serve as a prologue to chap-
ters 40-66, laying a foundation for the rest
of the book. Isaiah announced God’s com-
ing glory and contrasted it with the peo-
ple’s helplessness. But the prophet en-
couraged the disheartened—they could
count on God’s promise! The Lord would
comfort and care for them as a shepherd
cared for his sheep.
The rest of chapter 40 answers the ques-
tion, “Can God really do all he says?” The
Lord marked off the heavens with his
hands and stretched them out like a cur-
tain. He raised rulers to glory and reduced
them to nothing. He even called all the
Spybysinesaeat stars by name! In light of his majesty, how
TAU nes WIR HHT could God’s people think he would for-
get them? He would certainly accomplish
his purpose for them and renew their
strength day by day. Isaiah’s words also
provide us with comfort and assurance
when we face difficult challenges.

The Coming Deliverance (41:1-29)

Isaiah 41 introduces a threefold theme or
motif that runs throughout chapters 40-66.
Part of the the nation of Israel (41:8), the remnant First, God’s people are in captivity for their
Isaiah Scroll, the
longest and
(49:3), and even the Messiah (52:13). The sins. Second, this captivity proves God is
oldest of the servant works diligently to accomplish God, for he alone predicted it. Third, he
Dead Sea Scrolls God’s purpose despite numerous chal- now will restore and redeem them.
from Qumran.
There is no
lenges and difficulties. Isaiah 40-66 fea- The prophet stated God’s case against
break between tures four passages in which the servant false gods. The Lord had called a ruler
chapters 39 and theme receives special attention (42:1-9; (Cyrus) to fulfill his purposes. But idols
40 in the scroll.
49:1—7; 50:4—11; 52:13-53:12). had no power to do sucha work. God chal-
The servant's identity in the Book of lenged the idols directly. Had they pre-
Isaiah remains somewhat fluid: the ser- dicted the future? In fact, had they said
vant is alternately Israel, the remnant, anything at all? No! All stood speechless
the Messiah, and perhaps even Isaiah and powerless before him. Isaiah told Is-
himself. But in every passage, and par- rael not to fear, for Israel was God’s cho-
ticularly in the servant songs, we see a sen servant.

373
Encountering the Prophets

ALAANAAATONANORRNNUNRSTUNAND The Role of the Lord’s Servant the gods of Babylon (46:1-13). Every year,
Akitu festival
(42:1-25) the Babylonians celebrated an annual fes-
The first servant passage presented a ser- tival (the Akitu festival) at which they pa-
vant whom God chose for a special pur- raded the statues of their gods through
pose. God’s Spirit rested on him as he ful- Babylon. But this time, the idols cowered
filled God’s plan. The servant brought in in shame. They could not save Babylon,
God's kingdom ina quiet, unexpected way. but God assured his people he would save
He drew little attention to himself but them. He would protect them and lead
achieved powerful results. them from womb to glory.
Matthew 12:18-21 quotes Isaiah 42:14 Babylon also received God’s taunt
and applies the Old Testament’s words to (47:1-15). The Lord would expose Baby-
Jesus Christ. Jesus quietly fulfilled God’s lon’s shame, dethrone her from world do-
purpose and brought in God’s spiritual minion, and bring terrible judgment on
kingdom. He did powerful works such as her. Babylon had applied words to herself
healing many kinds of diseases, but did so that applied only to God—“I am, and there
in a humble way, and told people to give is no one besides me” (47:8; cf. 45:5-6).
glory to God, not to him. God would teach the Babylonians the
Christ’s example stands in stark contrast meaning of humility.
to Israel’s role as God’s blind, deaf, and un-
faithful servant (Is 42:18—25). Israel spurned Israel’s Release and Exaltation
God's ways, ignored God’s prophets, and (48:1-52:12)
in the end, paid the high price of exile.
Israel’s stubbornness and God's even
Israel’s Redemption more stubborn grace (48:1-22)
from Babylon (43:1-45:25) Isaiah contrasted Israel’s stubbornness
Isaiah described God’s power and bless- with God’s even more stubborn grace
ing (43:1-44:8). God was Savior and Re- (48:1-22). God’s people had received
deemer. God was his people’s leader, and God's grace and wasted it, delighting in-
he would lead them home from exile. He stead in their sin and rebellion. They had
would display his grace. In contrast, Is- no excuse before a righteous, holy God.
rael had displayed a rebellious attitude But God chose to love them anyway, just
from the start of her relationship with God. as he chooses to love us anyway. He
God proclaimed his superiority to idols vowed to redeem them, restore them to
(44:9-23). He described how carefully their land, and teach them to love and
workers prepared the materials that later serve him again.
became objects of worship. How could the
The Lord's servant (49:1-7)
people bow before an image they them-
selves had crafted? It made little sense, but The servant of Isaiah 49:1—7 received God’s
neither do many of the false religious faiths call from the womb. He experienced a frus-
that have appeared in today’s world. The trating ministry and worried that perhaps
Bible says spiritual blindness presents a his work was in vain. Surely God was with
powerful obstacle to accepting the truth him, but how? God replied by giving his
of the gospel (1 Cor 2:14; 2 Cor 4:4). servant an even greater mission. He would
Isaiah declared that God ruled as absolute not only be God’s servant to Israel, but
sovereign over creation (44:24-45:25). The also to all the nations, that God’s salvation
Lord controlled mighty King Cyrus; in fact, might reach the ends of the earth.
he even referred to him as his shepherd and Isaiah 49:3 identifies the servant as Is-
anointed one (44:28; 45:1)! One day, every rael, but Israel cannot have a mission to
knee would bow to this almighty God himself (49:5). Probably we should un-
(45:23). derstand Isaiah as referring to the rem-
nant, the righteous faithful within the com-
Judgment Against Babylon munity of Israel. This interpretation seems
(46:1-47:15) likely in light of the apostle Paul’s words
Isaiah predicted Babylon’s fall to Persia. (Acts 13:47). Paul quoted Isaiah 49:6 and
He described the contest between God and told his audience in Asia Minor that those
374
 Isaiah 40-66

who faithfully proclaimed the gospel ful- God. She would rejoice in the knowledge
filled God’s command through Isaiah. that her God reigned over all.
Israel's return (49:8-26)
The Suffering Servant
God promised to re-establish his cov- (52:13-53:12)
enant with his people. He would feed
Isaiah 52:13-53:12 comprises the most fa-
them, shelter them, care for them, and
mous of the servant passages. Isaiah de-
bring joy to their hearts once again. But
scribed a servant whom God exalted, be-
Zion struggled with some serious doubts;
fore whom kings of the earth shut their
could God really love her again? God as- mouths (52:13-15). Yet he suffered rejec-
sured them he could. In fact, all the moth-
tion from the people and experienced sor-
ers in Israel would abandon their chil- row and grief (53:1-3). He suffered on be-
dren before the Lord would ever abandon half of God’s people who truly merited
his people (49:14-16)! God vowed to es- the punishment he received. All this came
tablish a new generation of those who through God’s hand (53:4-6).
loved him, a generation that would over- The servant accepted his fate without
flow Israel’s borders! protest, with silent resignation. Despite
God and his servant (50:1-11) his innocence, he went to his death on be-
The Lord assured Israel he had the power half of God’s people (53:7-9). But God who
to save them. They had not slipped from crushed him also would reward him. The
his sovereign control; rather, he had pun- servant achieved victory through a life of
ished them for their sins! Verses 4-11 de- suffering, for that suffering fulfilled God’s
scribed an obedient servant humiliated for plan.
God's cause. But as in other servant pas- Bible scholars have typically offered
sages, the servant received God's grace to three possible interpretations of this ser-
strengthen him for his task. Asa result, he vant passage. First, some identify the ser-
stood resolute in his purpose. No one vant with the prophet Isaiah (or another
could defeat him because God stood on prophet if they hold the multiple-author
his side! view). But no concept of a prophet suf-
Commentators differ as to who fulfilled fering for the nation’s sins appears else-
where in the Bible, and silent submission
Isaiah’s words. Some have suggested Isa-
does not seem to fit the prophets.
iah prophesied about Jesus Christ, since
Second, some scholars suggest the ser-
some of his words might aptly describe
vant represents Israel. In this view, the na-
Jesus’ trial (50:6; cf. Mt 26:67-68; 27:26).
tions express their surprise that Israel suf-
Others have proposed that Isaiah spoke
fered in their place. Other interpreters have
about his own suffering. Interestingly, the
modified this position by arguing that the
New Testament does not cite this passage
servant represents the faithful remnant of
anywhere. Israel who suffered for the nation’s sins.
Encouragement to the righteous But again difficulties arise. The Bible
(51:1-16) clearly states that Israel and Judah paid
God encouraged the righteous to look to for their own sins (2 Kgs 17:7-23; Is
the past, future, and present. They should 42:23-25). Perhaps the remnant suffered
look to the past to remember their spiri- unjustly because of evil people’s sins, but
tual roots. They should look to the future the remnant did not suffer in place of the
to appreciate God’s great coming works. evildoers.
And they should look to the present to see Third, some interpreters argue that the
their salvation and deliverance. servant represents Jesus Christ. They sug-
gest the New Testament evidence de-
Good news for Jerusalem mands the messianic interpretation. Jesus
(51:17-52:12) quietly grew to manhood in Israel and
Isaiah announced exciting news for then began proclaiming God’s kingdom.
Jerusalem. He portrayed the city as a Many despised and rejected him and fi-
drunkard inebriated with the wine of nally put him to death. In his death, Jesus
God’s judgment. But she would be set free suffered for the sins of others. He experi-
from her bondage to sin so she could serve enced crucifixion between two robbers and
375
Encountering the Prophets

burial in an official’s tomb. And God Barren wasteland would sprout vegeta-
planned it all to bring eternal life to all who tion. Desert regions would become lush.
respond in faith to his offer of forgiveness And the nation’s population would stretch
and salvation. its borders. People would have to scram-
Isaiah 52:13-53:12 portrays a beautiful ble to make room for one another. God
picture of the depth of Christ’s sacrifice would put his people’s shame behind
for sinful humanity. Read it again. Ask them. He had struck them in anger for
God to sear the images into your heart. their sin, but now he planned to gather
Are you beginning to understand God’s them with compassion.
love for you? Isaiah also described Jerusalem's gates.
Many interpreters have argued that his
Celebrating the Return beautiful depiction denotes a time yet fu-
(54:1-59:21) ture, for Judah’s return from exile never
featured such splendor.
Judah's return from exile was definitely
something worth celebrating. As we ex- Call to trust in God (55:1-13)
amine this section of Isaiah 40-66, we find Isaiah called the people to trust in God in
Isaiah’s words accenting various aspects light of his abundant blessings. They should
of that celebration. quit spending their money for things that
could not bring lasting satisfaction and in-
Jerusalem's rebirth (54:1-17) vest their lives in a relationship with God.
Jerusalem’s rebirth would boast two as- He called them to repent while they had
pects—fertile land and numerous people. time, and urged them to trust in God’s
|
1) -
_ Jesus and Isaiah
y)
52:13-53:12 = a
:
| Isaiah 52:13-53:12 (often simply called “Isaiah 53”) forms one of the Old Testament’s most 5
y remarkable prophecies concerning Jesus Christ. The chart below summarizes Isaiah’s words and y
\N 4
i how Jesus fulfilled them: )
N
| as . : , ]
) Verse The Servant’s Description Fulfillment in Christ :
\ \
NN Nf
52:13 Raised, lifted up, exalted God exalted him and will exalt him fully at y
. oS \\
the second coming (Phil 2:9-11) Y
}
Nf

\\
m= 52:14
Meigs
Appearance disfigured
E : 5 é
Received beating at his trial (Mt 26:67)
j
NY

y
iNy ’ ‘ f seen ; ' ;
/)
\
y 52315 Sprinkled many nations Sprinkling of his blood brings forgiveness y
]
WW
(1 Pt 2:9) ‘
i : ; ; ;
) 53:3 Despised and rejected Many rejected him, especially the leaders
(in 11:47-50)

53:4-6 Suffered for our sin; Died for our sin according to God's plan
stricken by God (1 Cor 15:3)

| 53:7 Silent before oppressors

:
Silent before accusers at his trial
| (Mk 14:60-61)

y 53:8 Killed for the people's sin Died for our sin (2 Cor 5:14-15)

] 53:9 Assigned a grave with the wicked Crucified between two robbers,
1 and rich, but did no wrong buried in a rich council member's tomb
\
(Mk 15:27-28, 43-46)

53:10 Lord’s will to crush him; God prepared him as an offering for sin
Se
he will see his offspring (Rom 5:9)

53:12 Receives great reward because Receives great reward because he poured
he poured out his life out his life (Phil 2:9-11; Heb 1:3-4)
Ze

EE
/a a a aah i beac ieiead RaeeU or Eh Ne (2ZA7”Z

376
 Isaiah 40-66

The busy
approach to the
Damascus Gate
into the old city
of Jerusalem.
Isaiah described
Jerusalem's
gates; many
interpreters
have argued
that his
beautiful
depiction
denotes a time
yet future, for
Judah's return
from exile never
featured such
splendor.

ATOM ways. God’s word would accomplish its This passage anticipated the apostle
eunuchs
purpose in their lives and bring them great Paul’s announcement that believers of all
AKAROA joy if they only embraced it. nations and types would become one fam-
Torah
Foreigners join God’s family (56:1-8) ily in Jesus Christ (Gal 3:28-29). Perhaps
the Ethiopian eunuch served as a fore-
Foreigners and eunuchs worried that they shadowing of the fulfillment of this
would not receive a share of God’s com- prophecy (Acts 8:26-40).
ing blessing. Indeed, certain passages of
the Torah appeared to give preference to Summary of Israel’s sins (56:9-57:21)
native Israelites (Dt 23:3-4). But God Isaiah summarized Israel’s past sin. Spir-
promised rich blessings for both groups. itual blindness, injustice, and idolatry all
He would grant the eunuchs a name bet- characterized the people’s lives. But again,
ter than that of sons and daughters. And the prophet held out hope. No sin lay be-
he also would bring the foreigners into his yond the cleansing power of God’s grace.
family. Faithfulness to God counted more But those who persisted in wickedness
than bloodline. would never experience that grace.

Cw)
Encountering the Prophets

Call to true righteousness (58:1-14) darkness would see their great spiritual
The people wondered why God didn’t light and stream to it in great numbers,
seem to notice their fasting. God responded bringing their wealth with them. The Lord
that they fasted from impure motives. They would provide his people lasting security;
forced their workers to work just as hard they would never need to close their gates.
and thought that mere fasting would earn The prophet was at least partly looking
God's approval. But the Lord desired a fast ahead to God’s coming kingdom (v. 20).
that touched the people’s hearts, not His description of the nations joining in
merely their stomachs. He wanted them worship of the true God foreshadows Rev-
to humble themselves before him and elation 7:9-14, where people from every
show their repentance by acts of kindness nation and tribe gather around God’s
and grace to their fellow citizens. Then he throne to praise him.
would respond to their fasting. God's further restoration (61:1-11)
Isaiah also called the people to honor
Verses 1-3 present another picture of a ser-
the Sabbath. They treated the day the same
vant whom God had anointed and on
as any other, but God called them to turn
whom God's Spirit rested. The servant had
aside from the pursuits of their livelihood
a ministry of announcing good news and
and to rest and meditate on him. Even
comfort to the oppressed. He proclaimed
today, God asks us to set aside a day to
the year of the Lord’s favor was at hand.
cease from our normal routine to give
Luke 4:16-30 records Jesus’ fulfillment
honor and worship to him.
of these words. As he stood in the syna-
Israel’s sin and God's deliverance gogue at Nazareth, Jesus took the scroll of
(5931-21) Isaiah and read the words we now call Isa-
Isaiah described Israel's predicament. The iah 61:1-3. He then announced, “Today
Lord was more than capable to save them, this scripture is fulfilled in your hearing”
but their sins had separated them from (Lk 4:21). Many became confused over
him. They defiled their hands with blood- what Jesus had said and others became
shed and spoke lies while their feet quickly quite angry at him. But indeed, the words
pursued new paths of evil. As a result, jus- were fulfilled; the time of God’s visitation
tice and righteousness departed from the had come The world lay in bondage to sin,
land. and Jesus came to proclaim liberty and
God responded to this description of the freedom from its power (Jn 10:10).
people’s hopeless condition. He would Isaiah also promised God’s people
bring salvation! He vowed to bring his would see their ancient ruins restored
Spirit and revive the people. Those who (61:4-11). Again, foreigners would partic-
feared his Name would receive his bless- ipate in the restoration project. Isaiah de-
ing, but His enemies would face swift scribed Israel’s special blessing among the
judgment. Paul applied Isaiah 59:20-21 to nations. Praise and righteousness would
Christ’s second coming, when the Lord spring up before all nations.
will restore godliness and holiness forever
(Rom 11:26-27). Zion’s marriage to God (62:1-12)
Isaiah foresaw a grand marriage between
The Climax of God's Restoration the Lord God and Zion, his bride. His
(60:1-66:24) prophecy provides a beautiful picture of
In the remaining chapters the prophet’s God’s love for his people and a foreshad-
words become more and more exciting. owing of Christ’s marriage to the church
He looked ahead to a day when God (Rv 19:7-9).
would climax redemptive history and Today, a bride generally assumes her
bring ultimate victory for his people and husband’s name. The name change signi-
glory to himself. fies the beginning of a new special rela-
tionship. God also had new names cho-
Zion's glorification (60:1-22) sen for his bride (Is 62:4). Hephzibah
Isaiah called a redeemed Zion to arise and means “my delight is in her” and Beulah
prepare to serve as God’s instrument of means “married.” These names may or
blessing. Nations enveloped in spiritual may not sound beautiful to us, but the
378
 Isaiah 40-66

Should Christians fast today?

| Both Old and New Testaments mention completely on the Lord in prayer and
fasting. People sometimes abstained from worship.
food to seek God's favor (2 Sm 12:21), mourn Fasting is more than going without food.
the dead (1 Sm 31:13), or commemorate some Fasting involves a humble heart attitude
tragic time (Zec 7:5). They might fast as that results in holy living (Is 58:5-7).
individuals (1 Kgs 21:27) or in groups (Jon 3:5). Fasting does not guarantee God will answer
Jesus spoke about fasting (Mt 6:16-18), and our prayers the way we want. Rather, fasting
the early church sometimes practiced it (Acts helps us concentrate more fully on him.
1333). Fasting does not make someone spiritually
Should Christians fast today? And if so, mature. We should not make fasting a test
when and how? Here are some suggested of spiritual maturity or think less of
guidelines: someone who chooses not to fast.
Christians who fast should practice their
e The Scriptures do not command Christians to fasting privately, not to impress others
fast. However, Christians may sometimes (Mt 6:16-18).
choose to fast in order to focus more

KALA TN

emillennialism
meanings they convey certainly are. The dence on God. When we pray, we confess
Lord rejoiced in his people as a bride- our need for God to reach into our lives
groom rejoiced in his bride. What a pic- and touch them in some way. The prophet
ture of God’s love! knew God's people had failed him in
many ways. Yet he also knew hope of for-
Judgment of the nations (63:1-6)
giveness lay within their reach if they only
God’s judgment would precede his final would repent. He pleaded for God to re-
salvation. He would deal with sin wher- store them. Do you regularly pray for
ever he found it. His coming from Edom God's people?
may indicate that Edom posed a special
problem for God's people at that time. The Blessing for God's servants (65:1-25)
people would hear Isaiah’s prophecy and Isaiah 65 described further blessing God’s
know God would deal with every enemy. servants would receive in God’s coming
kingdom. Many had offended the Lord
Prayer for God's intervention
with their sin, and he would see that they
(63:7-64:12)
received their just punishment. But God
Isaiah’s prayer for God’s intervention em- was going to create a new heavens and a
phasized the people’s absolute depen- new earth for his faithful ones (vv. 17-25).
Joy, long life, and security would prevail
in this new world.
Some interpreters suggest this passage
eunuchs
refers to an earthly reign of Christ after he
Torah
returns (premillennialism). Others be-
premillennialism
lieve we should understand it as denot-
ing eternal life in heaven. However way
we interpret these verses, we can see God
Key Terms has planned an incredible future for his
children (1 Cor 2:9).
Deutero-lsaiah
Trito-lsaiah The ultimate conclusion (66:1—24)
Akitu festival Chapter 66 draws Isaiah’s prophecies to-
gether into a grand conclusion. The

379
 Encountering the Old Testament

_ Summary

ANTON ATAN ANANSI

1. The proponents of the theory that Isa- . Isaiah’s celebration of Judah’s return
iah was written by more than one au- included mention of Jerusalem's re-
thor give as support the time span of birth, the need for the people to trust
the material in Isaiah, the differences in God, the sins of Israel, the call to
in subject matter and vocabulary in true righteousness, and how God
1-39 and 40-66, and the mention of would deliver Israel.
King Cyrus by name.
. Isaiah, like other prophets, predicted
2. Proponents of the one-author view that one day, foreigners would be-
cite Jewish and Christian tradition, the come part of God’s people.
possibility of predictive prophecy, and
. Isaiah presented the climax of God's
the use of Isaiah in the New Testa-
restoration by stating that it would in-
ment.
clude Zion's glorification, Zion’s mar-
3. The themes found in Isaiah 40-66 are: riage to God, and the judgment of the
God's people are in captivity for their nations. Isaiah’s presentation included
sins, the captivity proves that God is his prayer for God's intervention, a
God, and God will restore and redeem blessing for God's servant, and the
his people. conclusion that the restoration would
be complete.
4. The suffering servant has been inter-
preted as Isaiah, Israel, or Jesus.

prophet began by describing God as a sov- Isaiah described Jerusalem’s amazing

ereign servant seeker (vv. 1-2). Even coming rebirth. The Lord would bring sal-
though he created the universe, he reached vation in an instant! Again, the restoration
down in love to those who humbled them- would include people from all nations sub-
selves before him. mitting themselves to God. The idea of

Study Questions

1. What are the arguments some inter- 3. How does Isaiah 40-66 develop the
preters have given to support the mul- motif of the Lord’s servant? What char-
tiple-author view of the Book of Isa- acteristics best describe the servant?
iah? What evidence have others used
. Isaiah’s words concerning Gentiles
to support the single-author view?
joining God's family suggest God in-
2. How do the concepts of chapters 40 tended Israel to bring spiritual light to
and 41 lay a foundation for the rest of them. What responsibility do you have
the book? What key ideas occur personally in God's plan to reach the
there? world?

380
 Isaiah 40-66

Further Reading

Oswalt, John N. The Book ofIsaiah: Chapters 1-39. Webb, Barry G. The Message ofIsaiah: On Eagles’
New International Commentary on the Old Wings. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1996. Rich in
Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. A solid application.
thorough evangelical commentary for the Wolf, Herbert M. Interpreting Isaiah: The Suffering
advanced student. and Glory of the Messiah. Grand Rapids:
. The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40-66. New Zondervan, 1985. A college-level textbook that
International Commentary on the Old Testament. combines good scholarship and readability.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. A solid, thorough Youngblood, Ronald F. The Book of Isaiah: An
evangelical commentary for the advanced student. Introductory Commentary. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids:
Motyer, J. Alec. The Prophecy ofIsaiah: An Baker, 1993. A shorter survey.
Introduction and Commentary. Downers Grove:
InterVarsity, 1993. For the advanced student.

Gentiles becoming part of God’s people those who belong to Christ through faith
probably seemed odd to many Jews, but will enjoy it. The rest will experience
God fulfilled his words as the gospel of God’s wrath. Isaiah’s warning reminds
Christ reached the Gentiles (Eph 2:11-18). us that the Holy One of Israel calls each
The Book of Isaiah ends with a sober- of us to holy living. Such a lifestyle comes
ing warning. God has prepared a won- only through the Lord’s work in our
derful conclusion to history, but only lives.

381
>

al

ti@as
2 xl 1-20
| Struggling with God's Call
CUNO

| Outline |
© Outline
¢ Jeremiah’s Background
¢ Jeremiah’s Message
God Calls Jeremiah to Service (1:1-19)
Jeremiah Describes Judah’s Sad Condition Objectives
(2:1-10:25) : ‘
Jeremiah Wrestles with People After reading this chapter,
and with God (11:1-20:18) you should be able to
¢ Outline the contents of Jeremiah 1-20
¢ Discuss Jeremiah’s background
e Summarize the detail of Jeremiah’s call
to prophetic service
¢ Describe the situation in which Jeremiah
found Jerusalem
¢ Compare idols with God
as Jeremiah compared them

383
Encountering the Prophets

Do you ever face struggles in your Chris- the territory of Benjamin.” Probably Jere-
tian life? If you have not, you probably miah’s father was not the Hilkiah who
will at some point. Perhaps you will not served as high priest and discovered the
understand why God allows you to ex- Book of the Law in the temple (2 Kgs 22:8).
perience a particularly difficult situation. The high priest would almost certainly
Or maybe you will serve the Lord faith- have lived in Jerusalem.
fully for many years, but suffer heartache Jeremiah lived in Anathoth, three miles
because people do not want to listen to northeast of Jerusalem. Anathoth was one
you. At times, you may feel resentment of forty-eight cities Joshua had given to
toward God for giving you such a task. the Levites (Jos 21:18). Some scholars sug-
You might even question whether God has gest Jeremiah may have descended from
called you at all. Abiathar, from the line of Eli (1 Kgs
The prophet Jeremiah’s life illustrates 2:26-27). The prophet lived within sight
how costly serving the Lord can be. As of Jerusalem, and could walk there in
you study his life and message, try to dis- about an hour.
cover what drove this prophet of Judah to As far as we know, Jeremiah never
continue God’s work whatever the cost. served as a priest. Priests began their ser-
Doing so will help you face whatever chal- vice at age thirty (Nm 4:3), but Jeremiah
lenges the Lord sends your way. was still a young man when the Lord
called him to prophesy (Jer 1:6). In fact,
some suggest Jeremiah may still have been
Outline a teenager! But Jeremiah’s youth did not
hinder God’s purposes. God gave Jere-
I. God Calls Jeremiah to Service miah the strength to serve him. God also
(1:1-19) commanded Jeremiah not to marry and
have children, for Judah’s future contained
II. Jeremiah Describes Judah’s Sad only suffering (16:1-4).
Condition (2:1-10:25) As he took a stand for the Lord, Jere-
. A Failing Marriage (2:1-3:5) miah experienced incredible opposition.
. AStory of Two Sisters (3:6—4:4) He suffered beatings and public humilia-
. Trouble from the North tion (20:1-6), and battled many false
(4:5-6:30) prophets (6:13-14; 28:1-17; 29:8-9). King
. Worthless Public Worship Jehoiakim scorned his words, and even
(7:1-8:3) sought to kill him (36:21-23, 26). Zedekiah,
iw). Treachery,
ies)
>
ays Trouble, and Tears Judah’s last king, often sought Jeremiah’s
(8:4-10:25) counsel, but then refused to obey it (37:17;
III. Jeremiah Wrestles with People
38:14-23). After Jerusalem’s fall, a group
of Judeans took Jeremiah to Egypt against
and with God (11:1-20:18)
A. Coping with Conspiracies
his will (43:4-7).
(11:1-12:17) At times, Jeremiah wondered why the
B. Three Signs of Judgment Lord let him suffer so much. The prophet’s
complaints to God reveal how deeply Je-
(131-27)
C. Judah’s Desperate Situation remiah struggled with the task God had
(14:1-17:27) given him (15:10, 15-18; 20:7-10, 14-18).
D. A Lesson from the Potter’s They also show a man with a deep rela-
House (18:1-19:15) tionship to God, a man who knew he could
FE. Persecution Leads to Despair trust God with his innermost thoughts and
feelings. In spite of all the opposition, Je-
(20:1-18)
remiah faithfully pursued his prophetic
TL AT TA A NAN
calling. By God’s strength, he determined
to complete all the Lord gave him to do.
Jeremiah's Jeremiah prophesied during Judah’s last
Background forty years (627-587 B.c.). During Josiah’s
reign (640-609 B.c.), Judah experienced
Jeremiah 1:1 calls Jeremiah “the son of some religious renewal. But the kingdom
Hilkiah, one of the priests at Anathoth in suffered rapid spiritual decay after Josiah’s
384
 Jeremiah 1-20

death. Many people continued to trust in planned Jeremiah’s ministry long before the
empty religious rituals, and believed God prophet was even born!
would bless Jerusalem no matter how they Most Bible scholars believe Jeremiah
lived. God sent Jeremiah to warn the peo- was only sixteen to twenty-five years old
ple to repent, but unfortunately, most did when he received God’s call. He therefore
not listen. was astonished that God would choose
In 626 B.c.—about the same time God him, and protested he was too young for
called Jeremiah—NABOPOLASSAR estab- the job! But God promised to be with him
lished himself as king of Babylon. During and protect him. He would equip Jeremiah
his reign and the reign of his son Neb- to perform this great task. As believers
uchadnezzar, Babylon became the domi- today, we also might feel overwhelmed
nant power in the ancient Near East. Ul- by God’s call, but he has promised to pro-
timately, God would use Babylon to judge vide the strength for us to do whatever he
Judah. asks.
The Book of Jeremiah provides an ac- The Lord confirmed Jeremiah’s call in
count of Jeremiah’s message and ministry. three ways (vv. 9-19). First, the Lord
It describes Judah's last days, and shows touched Jeremiah’s mouth, symbolically
why God finally judged his people as he placing the divine word there. Second,
did. It powerfully presents Jeremiah’s mes- God showed Jeremiah the branch of an al-
sage so later generations might avoid the mond tree. The almond tree’s early bloom-
same sins. ing announced the coming of spring. The
Baruch, son of Neriah, worked closely sign was also a play on words. The almond
with Jeremiah, sometimes serving as his tree (Hebrew sagéd) indicated God's watch-
scribe (Jer 36:4-21). Many scholars believe ing (Hebrew sogéd) over the fulfillment of
Baruch helped to collect Jeremiah’s his word. God's second promise thus as-
prophecies into what we now know as the sured Jeremiah God also would accom-
Book of Jeremiah.” Perhaps others also plish the rest of his word. Third, the Lord
helped collect Jeremiah’s words. showed Jeremiah a boiling pot, symbol-
The Book of Jeremiah has much to teach izing the disaster God would pour onto
us. Jeremiah’s words faithfully proclaim the land. Again, God confirmed he would
God's message, and his life illustrates the protect and defend his prophet.
deep commitment God expects and de-
Jeremiah Describes Judah’s
serves from each of us.
Sad Condition (2:1-10:25)
OT EE Oy A failing marriage (2:1-3:5)
Jeremiah’s Message Jeremiah called on the people of Jerusalem
to remember the days of old when God
had blessed them. How far they had
God Calls Jeremiah to Service strayed from their early devotion to him!
(1:1-19) Their ancestors soon forgot the Lord and
Jeremiah 1:1-3 reminds us that God called followed other gods. Israel’s leaders—
Jeremiah at a particular place and time. priests, prophets, and rulers—all partici-
However, because Jeremiah brought God's pated in the spiritual rebellion and ignored
message, the prophetic words continue to God's grace.
speak to us today. Jeremiah’s generation had followed the
The Lord called Jeremiah clearly and di- bad example their ancestors set. They had
rectly—"Before I formed you in the womb committed two great evils (2:13). First, they
I knew you, before you were born I set you had turned away from God, the source of
apart; |appointed you as a prophet to the all they had, “the spring of living water.”
nations” (v. 5). The verbs stress how God Second, they had substituted idol worship
sovereignly prepared Jeremiah for prophetic for their relationship with God. Jeremiah
service. First, God knew Jeremiah before Je- compared their idols to broken cisterns
remiah’s conception. Second, God set apart that could hold no water. The Lord had
Jeremiah before Jeremiah’s birth. Third, God freed his people to serve him, but they per-
appointed Jeremiah a prophet. God had sisted in worshiping other nations’ gods.

385
Encountering the Prophets

Jeremiah also likened the people’s idol- tions; soon, they would serve those gods
atry to harlotry. Judah was God’s un- in a foreign land!
faithful wife, who defiled herself with Jeremiah expressed his frustration—no
other lovers. She strayed from the Lord— one would listen to his warnings (6:9-15)!
her true husband—to follow Baal. She had Corruption pervaded the society. The lead-
as many gods as she had cities (2:28)! ers assured the people everything was fine,
The people wanted the freedom to sin but everything was not fine. The people
and still enjoy God’s blessing. They ig- refused to follow God’s commandments
nored God's discipline and continued to or listen to God’s prophets. Judah stood
chase after other gods. God withheld rain at a spiritual crossroads. Would they
and brought other nations against Judah, choose the way of life, or the way of death?
but they persisted in their rebellion. The Worthless public worship (7:1-8:3)
people rejected God’s Law and oppressed
Bible scholars generally believe Jeremiah
the poor and innocent.
preached this message in 609 B.c. because
A story of two sisters (3:6-4:4) of its close connections with 26:1-24.° As
Jeremiah likened Israel and Judah to two Jeremiah stood at the temple gate, he saw
sisters. Israel acted wickedly, so the Lord many worshipers pass by. They trusted in
judged her and sent her into exile. But empty words to save them—“This is the
Judah, Israel's sister, learned nothing at all temple of the Lorb, the temple of the Lorp,
from this, proving to be even more faith- the temple of the Lorb!” (7:4).
less than her unfortunate sister! In 2 Samuel 7, God had established a
In spite of these severe words, God covenant with David and promised to es-
promised blessing would still come if his tablish David's throne forever. David un-
people repented. He commanded them to derstood that God still demanded faith-
abandon their idols and to commit them- fulness from him and his sons (1 Kgs
selves totally to him. Repentance must 2:3-4), but later generations did not. The
come from deep within their hearts. Today, people assumed David’s descendants
God still expects sincere commitments would rule forever, and God’s blessing
from his children. Half-hearted repentance would rest on Jerusalem and the temple
and faith have no place in God’s service. no matter how Judah lived. They overem-
phasized the Davidic covenant, and to-
Trouble from the north (4:5-6:30) tally neglected the demands of the Mosaic
Jeremiah intensified his words of judg- covenant. God had to bless them, didn’t
ment. Judah’s rulers would panic, unable he? After all, they were in Jerusalem, wor-
to stop the disaster. The nation’s sin had shiping at the temple!
corrupted its heart. Its rebellion would Jeremiah confronted the people’s false
bring God’s judgment. hopes. How could they steal, murder, com-
As Jeremiah described Judah’s judg- mit adultery, swear false oaths, and prac-
ment, he felt God’s anguish (4:19-22). The tice idolatry, and then come to the Lord’s
prophet loved his people and his country, temple, say a few “magic words,” and ex-
and did not wish to see calamity. Yet, he pect his blessing? They could not! Empty
admitted his people had no spiritual un- words would not save Jerusalem! Jeremiah
derstanding. He shuddered as he pon- challenged the people to show their faith
dered the extent of God's anger. by obeying God’s commandments. When
God challenged Jeremiah to find a sin- God saw changed hearts, he would bless
gle righteous person in Jerusalem (5:1). the nation again.
The people professed faith in the Lord, but Jeremiah challenged the people to con-
they did not live according to his ways. sider the fate of Shiloh, the city that had
Leaders and common people alike trans- once contained the tabernacle. The Lord
gressed his laws and worshiped idols. brought judgment on Shiloh because of its
Their stubborn hearts convinced them wickedness (7:12), and he could and
God would never judge them. God would do the same to Jerusalem. God did
warned the people he would bring a for- not have to have his house of worship in
eign nation to judge their sin (5:18-19). any particular city.
They had worshiped the gods of other na- God instructed Jeremiah to stop pray-
386
 Jeremiah 1-20

The ruins of
Shiloh. Jeremiah
challenged the
people to
consider the fate
of Shiloh, the
city that had
once contained
the tabernacle.

ing for the people. Their evil had become of famine and drought. If they did not turn
unthinkable—they were even sacrificing back to God, he would scatter them among
their children to pagan gods! The Lord the nations. Jeremiah called on Judah to
promised to bring judgment as terrible as embrace God’s wisdom, for only then
their sin. He would turn their pagan would the nation have reason to boast.
shrines into places of slaughter, and feed Jeremiah powerfully contrasted Judah’s
their carcasses to the beasts of the field. idols with the Lord God. Idols were the
Many people today trust in their rituals work of people’s hands. Workers cut down
for security. They think God will accept trees and carved them into the proper
them because of their baptism, church at- shape. They secured the idols so they stood
tendance, faithful giving, or service to their upright. Metalworkers decorated the idols
church. But Jeremiah warns us that apart with silver, gold, and precious stones. But
from faith, even important church activi- idols had no power to do anything. In con-
ties are empty rituals. We must place our trast, the Lord God ruled as King of the
ultimate trust in the Lord, never in people nations. He created the world and sus-
or things. tained it by his wisdom and power. One
Treachery, trouble, and tears day, idols would perish, but God would
(8:4-10:25) rule forever.
Jeremiah mourned Judah’s sad spiritual
The Lord marveled at Judah’s wickedness.
Common animals observed the laws God state (10:17—25). No one could heal Judah's
had given them, but God’s people did not. wounds. An enemy would soon turn the
Rather, they acted as if they had never even nation into desolate wasteland.
heard of God's laws! Prophets and priests
Jeremiah Wrestles with People
pursued their own gain while telling the
and with God (11:1-20:18)
common people peace and prosperity
would last forever. Jeremiah 11-20 contains what many in-
Jeremiah shared God’s agony over the terpreters call “Jeremiah’s confessions.”
people’s lack of understanding. What Many of the prophet’s personal prayers
more could the Lord do? What would it and complaints to God occur within these
take to heal Zion? Did anyone realize the chapters iG113-20; eal2-1-6), 15: 10221;
reason for Judah’s calamity? Again, the 17:14-18; 18:18-23; 20:7-18). Jeremiah often
prophet drove home the truth—the peo- struggled with people who did not want
ple had transgressed God’s Law, and thus to hear his words, and he received a lot of
were experiencing adversity in the form mocking and persecution. But sometimes

387
Encountering the Prophets

Jeremiah struggled with God. Did not the Many people today profess to know
Lord see his pain? Why did Jeremiah have Christ, but their lives reflect many ideas
to suffer so much and see so few positive or practices that oppose Christianity. If we
results? Jeremiah 11-20 highlights many allow unchristian attitudes and behaviors
of Jeremiah’s struggles as he sought to un- into our lives, our Christian faith will suf-
derstand his place in God’s purpose. fer. The Lord calls us to submit our entire
lives to him and focus on things that please
Coping with conspiracies (11:1-12:17)
him (Phil 4:8; Col 3:1-3).
God had confirmed his covenant with Is- Jeremiah then commanded the people
rael when he led the people out of Egypt, to fill their jugs with wine. Just as wine
through the wilderness, and into the land could lead to drunkenness, so the Lord
he had promised to their ancestors. But was bringing spiritual drunkenness
God’s people often rebelled against his au- on Judah. God would show his people
thority. The Lord had endured many gen- no compassion as they suffered sin’s
erations of disobedience. He warned that consequences.
he would not tolerate much more, but Jeremiah pleaded with the people to
Judah continued the sins of earlier gener- heed God's warning. Everyone would ex-
ations. Again, God instructed Jeremiah not perience humiliation—even the rulers. But
to pray for the people. He would forgive sin had hardened the people’s hearts. They
them only if they truly repented. could not and would not change their sin-
Jeremiah then learned his enemies were ful condition.
plotting against him (11:18-23). People
from Anathoth, his hometown, had com- Judah's desperate situation
manded him not to prophesy any longer. (14:1-17:27)
Now, they were trying to silence him per- The Lord sent a drought to turn the peo-
manently! But the Lord assured Jeremiah ple back to him. The ground cracked, and
he would deal with the situation. The water became so scarce that animals de-
prophet’s enemies would not prevail. serted their young. Jeremiah prayed for
Jeremiah also pondered God’s justice— the people, but God told him not to do so.
why did the wicked prosper? They did not The Lord needed to deal severely with
honor God at all, yet they lived lives of rel- them so they would understand how se-
ative ease. Jeremiah asked God to punish riously he took their sin. Indeed, Jeremiah
them severely, but God warned him not himself began to wonder if God had re-
to get tired and discouraged yet. Jere- jected Judah forever (14:17-22).
miah’s ministry was just beginning! False prophets formed a large part of
Judah’s problem (14:13-16). They went
Three signs of judgment (13:1-27) about telling the people the Lord would
God often commanded his prophets to bring lasting peace, so no one needed to
perform symbolic actions that had spiri- fear famine or war. The Lord promised to
tual applications for his people. He in- punish these false prophets. They would
structed Jeremiah to purchase a linen die by famine and sword—the very judg-
waistband and hide it in some rocks by ments they told the people would never
the River. The Hebrew may refer to the come!
Euphrates hundreds of miles away or per- God told Jeremiah interceding for the
haps to FARAH, a place a few miles from people was pointless. He would not for-
Anathoth (Jos 18:23).4 After some time, give Judah even if Moses and Samuel
God commanded Jeremiah to retrieve the stood before him in prayer (15:1)! The Lord
waistband. When the prophet did so, he spelled out the people’s only choices—
found the waistband ruined from pro- death, sword, famine, or captivity. King
longed exposure to nature’s elements. Manasseh (697-642 B.c.), Hezekiah’s son,
The Lord said his people were just like had filled Judah with idolatry and social
the waistband. He had stayed close to injustice. The evil influences he established
them, but they strayed from him and fol- lasted long into the reigns of his succes-
lowed other gods. They exposed their lives sors. The Lord declared the time had come
to pagan influences, and those influences to deal with Judah’s sins.
soon made them spiritually worthless. Jeremiah lamented his situation—every-
388
 Jeremiah 1-20

our standards, but should point others

to Christ’s standards by our words and
examples.
God instructed Jeremiah not to marry
and raise a family, for terrible times were
coming (16:1-9). God also told him not to
mourn the dead, for they died as punish-
ment for their sin. The Lord would send
Judah’s survivors into exile. He promised
to regather them someday, but punish-
ment had to come first.
Meanwhile, Judah’s sin continued
(17:1-18). The people trusted in themselves
instead of God. Jeremiah warned them
only God could give their lives meaning
and purpose. Their healing needed to
come from the God they had forsaken.
The Lord called his people to honor the
Sabbath with rest and worship, and
promised blessing if they did (17:19-27).
David's descendants would rule forever,
and temple worship would prosper.
Today, God has given us one day out of
seven to set aside especially for worship
and rest. Does the way you spend the
Lord’s day honor him?
A lesson from the potter’s house
(18:1-19:15)
The Lord sent Jeremiah to the potter’s
house and gave his prophet a message to
preach there (18:1-12). As the potter
worked, he could easily refashion a clay
An eastern one cursed him for speaking God’s word vessel that developed a defect. He simply
potter. The Lord
(15:10)! He also asked God to remember pressed the clay back into a lump and re-
sent Jeremiah to
the potter's his faithful service (15:15-18). The prophet fashioned it according to his purpose.
house and gave followed God’s commandments and faith- The potter’s work illustrated a valuable
him a message fully shared the messages God gave him. spiritual principle. As the potter fashioned
to preach there
Now, he bluntly challenged God’s char- clay, so the Lord shaped the nations ac-
(18:1-12).
acter. Had the Lord forgotten him? Jere- cording to his sovereign purpose. If God
miah had not understood how difficult decreed judgment against an evil nation but
serving the Lord might be! the nation repented, God might cancel the
The Lord reassured his struggling ser- judgment. But if God promised blessing to
vant by repeating words from Jeremiah’s anation and the nation turned against him,
call (15:19-21; see 1:17-19). He would he might cancel the blessing. The people
strengthen Jeremiah to continue proph- should never presume God would bless
esying, and Jeremiah’s enemies would not them in spite of their sinful lives. On the
prevail. God also reminded Jeremiah to other hand, they would receive God’s for-
maintain a godly example. The prophet giveness if they truly repented.
must not sink to the people’s spiritual The people rejected Jeremiah because
level, but strive to raise theirs to his. they rejected God. Jeremiah knew his en-
Peer pressure often tempts us to com- emies planned evil against him. He asked
promise our Christian principles in some God to protect him and to judge them for
way. When we face such challenges, we their sin. Sometimes people will shun us,
need to remember God has called us to too, when we share God’s message with
holiness (1 Pt 1:15). We dare not lower them. We should remember they are re-
389
Encountering the Prophets

Pluralism
and the Christian

Judah's borders touched several other in Christ and help them grow in their faith. We
_ kingdoms, each with its own religious ideas. also should try to promote Christian principles
Judah soon adopted many practices from of social justice so our society reflects a
those kingdoms and began to worship their Christian perspective as much as possible.
gods. Judah became a pluralistic society, Second, Christians should avoid spiritual
holding conflicting religious views side by side. compromise with other faiths. We must
Today’s world displays many similarities with respect other people’s right to believe as they
ancient Judah. Numerous non-Christian faiths wish, but we dare not dilute our Christian |
exist, and some groups encourage us to join faith. oe
them. What should our response be to such Israel began by accommodating idolatry,
pluralism? and soon, the people were practicing it = =
First, Christians should try to impact society themselves. Believers must strive to impact the
for Jesus Christ. Jesus said we should light our world for Christ, and at the same time avoid
world as we shine forth with the truth (Mt compromising the truth of the gospel. _
5:14-16). We should try to win others to faith

jecting God more than they are rejecting Judah calamity would come, for the peo-
us (Mt 5:11-12). Jesus commanded us to ple had abandoned the Lord to worship
love our enemies and pray for them (Mt idols. They shed innocent blood, and even
5:43-47), leaving their judgment in God’s sacrificed some of their children to Baal!
hands. Jeremiah described the terrible things
Jeremiah took an earthenware jar from that would occur when invading armies
the potter’s house to the HINNOM VALLEY besieged Jerusalem. People would run out
south of Jerusalem (19:1-2). He warned of food and turn to cannibalism. Corpses

Summary

. Jeremiah of Anathoth was the son of 4. Because the people of Judah had
a priest, Hilkiah. He was quite young turned from God, they were experi-
when he began his service as a encing adversity and faced being scat-
prophet during the last forty years of tered among the nations.
Judah.
. When Judah’s situation was desperate,
. The people of Jerusalem had fallen God showed no sympathy and told Je-
into a sinful condition because they remiah not to pray for Judah because
had turned away from God and had it would not be effective.
substituted idol worship for their rela-
. Jeremiah suffered personally as he
tionship with God.
tried to do what God commanded
. God expects his people to serve him amidst pressure from the people.
faithfully.

390
 Jeremiah 1-20

Study Questions

3 1. What does the Book of Jeremiah re- 3. Do you think Jeremiah had a right to
veal about the prophet Jeremiah him- complain to God so much? How do
self? Even when Jeremiah suffered op- you think God used Jeremiah’s com-
position, was he still in the center of plaints in the prophet's life?
God's will for his life? Does God some-
. What lessons did Jeremiah learn from
times call his people to suffer today
the potter’s house?
for his cause?
. Jeremiah complained, but he also
. How did the people defend their ac-
trusted. When you pour out your
tions during Judah’s last days? Why
heart to God, will you trust him as
did Jeremiah have such a hard time
well when he answers?
convincing them of their sin?

Persecution leads to despair (20:1-18)

Pashhur the priest reacted angrily to Je-
Key Person/ remiah’s words against Judah and
Places Jerusalem. He had the prophet beaten, and
Nabopolassar locked him in the public stocks until the
Farah next day. But after Jeremiah was released,
Hinnom Valley he pronounced judgment against Pash-
hur. God would give the priest a new
name—Magor-Missabib, which means
“terror on every side”! Pashhur, along with
his family and friends, would experience
would lie everywhere and become food the horror of Jerusalem’s siege. The city
for wild animals. At the end of his mes- would fall, and Pashhur would die in cap-
sage, Jeremiah smashed the jar, thus sym- tivity.
bolizing Jerusalem’s complete and irre- Such experiences forced Jeremiah into a
versible destruction. The Hinnom Valley deep personal struggle (vv. 7-13). If he
would become the valley of slaughter for spoke God's word, people persecuted him.
all who placed their trust in idols. If he remained silent, God’s word became

Further Reading

Brueggemann, Walter. To Pluck Up, To Tear Down: A Testament Commentary. Downers Grove:
Commentary on the Book of Jeremiah 1-25. InterVarsity, 1973. Standard college-level
International Theological Commentary. Grand commentary.
Rapids/Edinburgh: Eerdmans/Handsel, 1988. Rich Thompson, J. A. The Book of Jeremiah. New
in theological exposition and application. International Commentary on the Old Testament.
Harrison, R. K. Jeremiah and Lamentations: An Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980. For the more
Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old serious student.

391
Encountering the Prophets

a fire in his bones that he simply could not Lord may call us to serve him in ways that
stifle. He had to preach it, whatever the cost. stretch us to the limit, where life’s strug-
Jeremiah’s suffering sometimes drove gles sometimes seem overwhelming and
him to despair (vv. 14-18). Why did the where God seems to ignore our prayers.
Lord make him endure so much? Every But Jeremiah pressed on, and so must we.
day brought more trouble and sorrow. Je- He did not understand God’s ways, but
remiah cursed the day of his birth and he knew that somehow he could keep
wished he had died in his mother’s womb. trusting the Lord in every situation. The
Maybe at some point in your life, you Lord has not promised to show us the rea-
have felt as discouraged as Jeremiah. son for everything we encounter, but he
Maybe you even feel this way now. Jere- has promised to equip us for whatever he
miah’s life demonstrates that biblical faith calls us to do and to give us the strength
offers no guarantees of easy living. The to complete it (Phil 1:6).

B92
 Jeremiah 21-52
and Lamentations
Dealing with Disaster

Outline
| ¢ Jeremiah’s Message Continues
) (21:1-52:34) OTA Ra

Jeremiah Challenges Rulers and Prophets

a — (21:1-29:32) Objectives
| The Book of Comfort (30:1-33:26)
After reading this chapter,
The Failure of Jerusalem's Leadership
you should be able to
(34:1-39:18)
¢ Outline chapters 21-52 of Jeremiah
Jerusalem After Its Fall (40:1-45:5)
¢ Describe how Jeremiah challenged
Oracles About the Nations (46:1-51:64)
the rulers and prophets
Jerusalem's Fall Revisited (52:1-34)
¢ Explain why Jeremiah 30-33 is often called
¢ Lamentations: A Cry of Agony “The Bookcot Comforts
Outline ¢ Compare God's covenant with Moses
The Background of Lamentations with the new covenant with his people
The Message of Lamentations * List the incidents of disobedience leading
to the fall of Jerusalem
e Name the nations to which Jeremiah
spoke oracles in chapters 46-51
¢ Outline the Book of Lamentations
¢ Give examples of how acrostics
are used in Lamentations
° Describe the results of the destruction
of Jerusalem é

595
Encountering the Prophets

In the previous chapter, we saw how Je- E. The Nation Pays a Tragic
remiah faced many difficult challenges. Price (39:1-18)
He battled enemies who did not want to
hear God’s message and often suffered be- VII. Jerusalem After Its Fall
cause he obeyed God's call. Jeremiah also (40:1-45:5)
struggled with God, wondering why God A. Trouble from Within
had given him such a frustrating task. (40:1-41:18)
Jeremiah’s struggles continued as B. Trouble in Egypt (42:1-43:13)
Judah’s sin brought God’s judgment ever C. Failure to Learn from History
closer. The people firmly resisted the truth (44:1-45:5)
Jeremiah proclaimed, and eventually they VIII. Oracles about the Nations
paid a terrible price for their sin. Jeremiah, (46:1-51:64)
too, mourned Jerusalem’s fall, because he . Egypt (46:1-28)
had warned the people for forty years to Philistia (47:1-7)
no avail. . Moab (48:1-47)
. Ammon (49:1-6)
LO A TA TTT TS
Edom (49:7-22)
Outline Damascus (49:23-27)
. Kedar and Hazor (49:28-33)
IV. Jeremiah Challenges Rulers and . Elam (49:34-39)
Prophets (21:1-29:32) 4 Babylon (50:1-51:64)
once)
te
ea
SC)
A. Jeremiah Rebukes Rulers and IX. Jerusalem’s Fall Revisited
Governments (21:1—23:8) (52:1-34)
B. Jeremiah Rebukes Prophets
and Their Audiences
OTT TAT NS
(23:9-40)
C. Jeremiah Describes God’s Jeremiah’s Message
Anger (24:1-25:38)
D. Jeremiah Confronts the Continues
People (26:1-24)
E. Jeremiah Wears a Yoke
(21:1-52:34)
(27:1-28:17)
Jeremiah Challenges Rulers
F. Jeremiah Writes to the Exiles
and Prophets (21:1-29:32)
(29:1-32)
Jeremiah rebukes rulers
V. The Book of Comfort
and governments (21:1-23:8)
(30:1-33:26)
A. Israel’s Return to the Land As King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon at-
and to God (30:1-31:40) tacked Jerusalem, Zedekiah, Judah’s last
B. Jeremiah’s Symbolic Land king, sent messengers to ask Jeremiah for
Purchase (32:1-44) guidance (21:1-2). Jeremiah replied that
C. God’s Great Future Works God himself was fighting against Judah!
(33:1-26) Those who surrendered to the Babyloni-
ans would live, but whoever remained in
VI. The Failure of Jerusalem’s Jerusalem would die (21:8-9).
Leadership (34:1-39:18) God promised to spare the city if the
A. The Leadership Does Not king and his leaders truly repented, but if
Keep Its Word (34:1-22) they persisted in unbelief, God would de-
B. The Leadership Has Not stroy Jerusalem (22:2-5). The city would
Learned Obedience (35:1-19) become a frightening object lesson to all
C. The Leadership Refuses to who might consider opposing God.
Respect God’s Word (36:1-32) Jeremiah told the people to mourn for
D. The Leadership Refuses to Shallum (Jehoahaz), King Josiah’s son
Listen to God’s Prophet (22:10-12). Jehoahaz ruled only three
(37:1-38:28) months before Pharaoh Necho deposed
394
 Jeremiah 21-52 and Lamentations

him and took him captive to Egypt (2 Kgs Mt 26:39, 42). The nations would receive
23:31-34). The prophet then denounced full punishment for their evil.
Jehoiakim, Shallum’s successor and an- Eight years after this prophecy—in 597
other of Josiah’s sons (22:13-23). Josiah B.c—Nebuchadnezzar took King Je-
had served the Lord faithfully, but Je- hoiachin (Jeconiah) and many Judean of-
hoiakim had not followed his father’s ficials prisoner to Babylon. He also placed
righteous example! Jeremiah declared Je- Zedekiah, another of Josiah’s sons, on
hoiakim would die a disgraceful death Judah’s throne, and gave Judah one more
and receive a donkey’s burial (22:19)! chance to submit to Babylon’s rule. The
Jehoiachin (Coniah), Jehoiakim’s son, Lord used that occasion to bring Jeremiah
soon would suffer for his father’s wicked- another prophetic message.
ness (22:24-30). Nebuchadnezzar took him God showed Jeremiah two baskets of
to Babylon, where he spent thirty-seven figs—one good, one bad (24:1-3). The
years in prison (2 Kgs 24:10-15; 25:27-30). good figs represented the exiles in Baby-
Judah’s other leaders also cared only for lon, whom God would protect, bless, and
themselves, but God promised he would one day restore. But the bad figs symbol-
one day raise up a righteous leader who ized Zedekiah and those who remained
would establish justice in the land (23:5-6). in Jerusalem. This faithless group would
Jesus Christ began to establish this king- die by sword, famine, and disease.
dom at his first coming, and will complete
Jeremiah confronts the people
the task when he comes again.
(26:1-24)
Jeremiah rebukes prophets As Jeremiah stood outside the temple, he
and their audiences (23:9-40) challenged the worshipers to change their
Jeremiah often battled false prophets. ways. How much more clearly could God
These men assured the people God would state his concern? The Lord had destroyed
bless Judah forever, but their words did Shiloh, a former tabernacle site, in judg-
not come from the Lord. Some even spoke ment for Israel’s evil. Jeremiah warned
in the name of Baal and encouraged evil- that Jerusalem would soon suffer the same
doers to continue their sin (vv. 13-14)! fate.
Even today, many people tolerate all kinds Jeremiah’s harsh words angered his
of evil rather than change their lifestyles. hearers, and many screamed for his death.
Priests also acted corruptly and dis- How dare he speak against Jerusalem and
graced the temple. They claimed to speak the temple? But Jeremiah stood firm, warn-
God’s truth, but really spoke lies. Jeremiah ing the people that if they killed him, they
urged the people not to listen to the false would have innocent blood on their hands.
priests and prophets who perverted God's Other people defended Jeremiah. He
word. The Lord would punish those who was only speaking God’s message—just
dared to speak falsely in his Name! as a prophet was supposed to do! They re-
called how Micah the prophet had spoken
Jeremiah describes God’s anger
strong words against Jerusalem a century
(24:1-25:38)
earlier, but no one had punished him. In
In 605 B.c., Nebuchadnezzar became king fact, his words brought King Hezekiah
of Babylon. That-same year, Jeremiah again and the people to repentance! If Micah had
warned the people trouble was coming committed no crime, how could the peo-
(25:1-14). The Lord had prepared his in- ple accuse Jeremiah?
strument—Nebuchadnezzar! The Judeans
would experience seventy years of exile, Jeremiah wears a yoke (27:1-28:17)
and only then could they hope for deliv- At the beginning of Zedekiah’s reign, God
erance. God revealed for the first time how instructed Jeremiah to wear a yoke to sym-
long his people would have to suffer in bolize Judah’s future submission to Baby-
exile for their sin. lon. God would place all nations under
God had not forgotten the other nations Nebuchadnezzar’s yoke; any nation that
either (25:15-38). He would deal with sin resisted would perish.
wherever he found it! Drinking God's cup Jeremiah continued to confront false
symbolized receiving God’s wrath (Ob 16; prophets, who insisted no disaster would

395
Encountering the Prophets

come. He urged the king and his officials so later generations could see his faith-
not to listen to them. Submission to Baby- fulness (Hb 2:2-3).
lon would save lives, but if the people re- Terrible times lay ahead for God’s peo-
sisted, Nebuchadnezzar would destroy ple. Apart from his intervention, they
Jerusalem. could not recover from their sin. The for-
The prophet Hananiah was one such eign gods in whom they trusted had
false prophet. In 594 B.c., he declared God proven worthless. Treaties with other
would soon free the nations from Baby- nations also gained them nothing but
lon’s yoke (28:1-4). Jehoiachin and all the problems.
exiles would return within two years! In Nevertheless, God loved his people and
dramatic fashion, Hananiah seized Jere- promised to save them. He would plun-
miah’s yoke and broke it, symbolizing der the nations who plundered them, and
God's breaking of Babylon’s power. raise his people to new heights of bless-
ing. He also promised to restore David’s
But Hananiah spoke only his own
line (30:9), a promise that awaits its ulti-
wishes, not God’s truth. He convinced
mate fulfillment in Jesus Christ (Lk
many people to trust in a lie, a very seri-
1:32-33). God judged Assyria, Babylon,
ous lie, and for that he would pay with his
and other nations who oppressed his peo-
life. Two months later, this false prophet ple, but the Bible also warns of a coming
was dead. day when God will judge his enemies for-
Jeremiah writes to the exiles ever (Rv 20:11-15).
(233t=s2) God was determined to honor his
Shortly after Jehoiachin’s exile, Jeremiah covenant with his people (31:3). He would
sent a letter to the Judeans in Babylon. turn their mourning and suffering into joy
False prophets there were actually assur- and celebration. As we face difficult cir-
ing the people exile would soon be over! cumstances—times that drive us to de-
But Jeremiah told the people to build spair or grief—we need to remember God
homes, plant gardens, raise families, and knows our pain. We should take our con-
cerns to him in prayer, for he has promised
pray for Babylon's welfare, for they were
to work in his children’s lives according
not leaving anytime soon. He restated
to his great purpose (Rom 8:28; Phil 2:13).
God's timetable for exile (25:12)—seventy
The nation felt the agony of exile—it had
years!
lost its children to enemy conquest (31:15).
Jeremiah named several false prophets But God’s stubborn love for his people
who had led the people astray by claim- would triumph over their tragedy! The
ing to speak for God. The Lord’s death Lord had appointed Jeremiah to proclaim
sentence on them would prove they were words of judgment and blessing (1:10), but
false prophets. so far, the prophet had spoken mostly
judgment. Now he declared that one day
The Book of Comfort (30:1-33:26) the Lord would pour out great blessing
Bible scholars refer to Jeremiah 30-33 as and revitalize the nation (31:28).
“The Book of Comfort” or “The Book of Jeremiah also reported God was mak-
Consolation.”! Jeremiah’s prophecies often ing a new covenant with His people
contained strong words against God’s sin- (31:31-34). After God led his people out
ful people; it seemed that God had given of Egypt to Sinai, he confirmed his
up on Judah. But the Book of Comfort pro- covenant with them, vowing to bless and
claimed an exciting message—God had guide them as they lived in faithful obe-
not cast aside his people! A glorious future dience to him. But in the centuries that
would follow their judgment. followed, Israel broke the covenant many
times despite God’s faithfulness. Jeremiah
Israel's return to the land promised this new covenant would be
and to God (30:1-31:40) different.
God promised to restore his people from Moses wrote the old covenant on scrolls
captivity. He told Jeremiah to write down and stone tablets (Dt 4:13; 29:20). As the
the prophecy as a testimony. Other people read it, they knew what God ex-
prophets also wrote down God’s words pected. But in the new covenant, God
396
 Jeremiah 21-52 and Lamentations

A small field
near Jerusalem.
During the siege
of Jerusalem,
the Lord
instructed
Jeremiah to buy
a field that
Hanamel, the
prophet's
cousin, was
selling.

would place his law in his people’s hearts request. Hanamel, the prophet’s cousin,
ina way he had not done in earlier times. was selling a field, and the Lord instructed
God’s Spirit would guide their lives from Jeremiah to buy it.
within them in a deep, new way. Jeremiah obeyed, but wondered what
Jeremiah was not saying teaching would the Lord could possibly have in mind! For
be unnecessary under the new covenant forty years, Jeremiah had proclaimed
(31:34), for God’s people would still need Jerusalem’s downfall at the hands of Baby-
to grow spiritually. But each person would lon. Why, then, was God telling him to buy
know the Lord personally and enjoy di- Hanamel’s field? Buying it was wasting
rect access to him. Furthermore, God money, for soon the Babylonians would
would forgive his people’s sin—sin that own all of Judah! Had the Lord changed
formed a barrier between him and them. his mind about the calamity?
The Lord guaranteed his words by ap- The Lord assured his bewildered
pealing to nature (31:35-37). The sun, spokesman all was going according to
moon, and stars all would change their plan. In fact, he challenged Jeremiah to lis-
courses before his promises would fail! ten to his own prayer (vv. 17, 27)! The peo-
The New Testament declares Christ is ple had angered God, and he would judge
the mediator of the new covenant (Heb them for all their wickedness. Neverthe-
8:7-13), a covenant he established with his less, the Lord intended Jeremiah’s land
own blood (Lk 22:20). Through his death purchase as a sign of hope. One day,
on the cross, Christ paid for sin once and Judean land would again have value!
for all (Heb 9:12), and his sacrifice brings God's people would return and claim it
God's forgiveness to all who place their again.
faith in him (Rom 3:21-24). The Holy Spirit God's great future works (33:1-26)
helps believers live according to God’s
will, and we enjoy direct access to God the The Lord had just given Jeremiah a com-
mand he did not understand (32:7). Now,
Father through Christ (Rom 5:1-2; 8:3-4).
Many people today think Christianity is he promised to show the people mar-
a list of rules or a set of teachings, but the velous things they would not understand
heart of our faith is a personal relationship (33:2-3)! Judgment would come first, of
course, but voices of joy and celebration
with Jesus Christ (Jn 14:6).
would one day resound in the land again.
Jeremiah’s symbolic land purchase Jeremiah reinforced his prophecy by re-
(32:1-44) peating his earlier words (33:15-16; see
During Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of 23:5-6). God would give his people a
Jerusalem, Jeremiah received an unusual king—the Branch of David's line. Fur-

S97
Encountering the Prophets

thermore, the Lord promised to bless the remiah had received. Jeremiah dictated
priesthood. Corrupt kings and priests the words to Baruch, his scribe, who care-
were to blame for much of the nation’s de- fully copied them.
pravity, but one day, these two offices Baruch read the scroll to many of
would serve the Lord faithfully (33:17-18). Judah’s officials, who insisted Jehoiakim
The New Testament declares that Jesus hear the words. But the king showed his
Christ fulfills both aspects of Jeremiah’s utter contempt for God’s words by cut-
prophecy. He currently intercedes for be- ting the scroll into pieces and casting them
lievers as our great High Priest (Heb into the fire. Jehoiakim also ordered the
7:24-28), and one day will sit on David's arrest of Jeremiah and Baruch, but they
throne (Lk 1:32-33) when he returns as had hidden before the officials took the
King of kings (Rv 19:11-16). scroll to the king.
Jehoiakim’s defiance did not erase the
The Failure of Jerusalem's truth of God’s words. The king had dis-
Leadership (34:1-39:18) honored God, and would die a dishonor-
God’s people had often suffered from their able death (see also 22:18-19). Jeremiah
leaders’ bad examples. This trend contin- prepared another scroll as a testimony to
ued during Jerusalem’s last, desperate years, that generation and to future generations.
as the rulers led the nation into utter ruin. The leadership refuses to listen
The leadership does not to God's prophet (37:1-38:28)
keep its word (34:1-22) When Egypt’s army entered the land to
As Nebuchadnezzar’s siege began, stop the Babylonians’ advance, the Baby-
Zedekiah faced desperate circumstances lonian army temporarily lifted the siege
and initiated a half-hearted attempt to win from Jerusalem. Zedekiah sent messen-
God's favor. The king proclaimed the re- gers to Jeremiah requesting prayer for the
lease of all Hebrew slaves in accordance city, but Jeremiah assured the king no
with the Mosaic Law (Ex 21:2), but the peo- mercy was coming. Egypt’s army would
ple soon reversed the king’s decree and return home, and Nebuchadnezzar would
took back their slaves. return to Jerusalem!
Jeremiah proclaimed God’s displeasure. When Jeremiah tried to go to Benjamin
The Lord would “release” his people to on business, he was accused of desertion
sword, pestilence, and famine! If they and arrested. Zedekiah summoned him
would not live in faithful obedience to the and asked for a message from the Lord.
covenant, they would suffer the curses of Jeremiah replied that the Lord had spo-
the covenant. ken—Zedekiah would soon face captiv-
The leadership has not ity in Babylon! The prophet also com-
learned obedience (35:1-19) plained to the king—why had the king put
During Jehoiakim’s days, Jeremiah gave
him in prison? Many false prophets had
announced Babylon would never come
his people an object lesson. He brought
the Rechabites—one of Judah’s clans—
against Jerusalem. Now, only the true
into the temple area, and commanded
prophet remained; the rest had scattered!
them to drink wine. But the Rechabites re- Jeremiah’s dialogues with Zedekiah re-
fused, for Jonadab, their ancestor, had in-
veal the king's lack of courage. Zedekiah
structed them to abstain from wine and seemed to believe the prophet’s words,
live a nomadic lifestyle forever. but would not follow them. He met se-
Jeremiah urged the people of Judah to cretly with Jeremiah and asked his coun-
learn from the Rechabites’ example. These sel, but Jeremiah expressed only frustra-
men faithfully obeyed their earthly father; tion—the king was not going to listen
why could not God’s people obey their anyway! The prophet insisted Zedekiah’s
heavenly Father? only hope was surrender, but the king
feared reprisal from his own citizens. Con-
The leadership refuses sequently, Zedekiah took no action, and
to respect God’s word (36:1-32) Jeremiah remained a prisoner of the king
God instructed Jeremiah to prepare a scroll until Jerusalem fell.
that contained all the prophetic words Je- As we share our faith, we will also find

398
 Jeremiah 21-52 and Lamentations

The Assyrian
forces advance
on Lachish; from
an Assyrian
relief.

those who, like Zedekiah, are willing to Jerusalem after Its Fall
listen, but hesitate to act on our words. (40:1-45:5)
Others, like Jehoiakim, may oppose us di-
rectly. In such situations, we cannot com- Trouble from within (40:1-41:18)
promise the truth, but must remain pa- Nebuchadnezzar appointed Gedaliah, the
tient. Instead of arguing and fighting, we son of a Judean official (26:24; 40:5), gov-
should pray the Lord will lead these peo- ernor of Judah. Gedaliah urged the peo-
ple to repentance (2 Tm 2:24—26). ple to stay in the land and serve Babylon
faithfully.
Jerusalem pays a tragic price
Judean officials warned Gedaliah that
(39:1-18)
enemies threatened his life, but Gedaliah
The terrible hour Jeremiah had prophesied did not believe their warnings. Soon, he
finally came. The Babylonians breached paid with his life. Ishmael, a member of
Jerusalem’s walls and captured the city. the royal house, struck him down, and he
Zedekiah and his officials tried to flee, but and his men fled to Ammon, taking many
Babylonian forces captured them and captives with them. Judean forces rescued
brought Judah’s king to face his conqueror. the captives, but Ishmael escaped.
Nebuchadnezzar showed no mercy,
blinding Zedekiah and leading him in Trouble in Egypt (42:1-43:13)
chains to Babylon. The last thing Zedekiah Facing the prospect of real trouble from
ever saw was the death of his sons. Neb- Babylon, the people sought Jeremiah’s ad-
uzaradan, captain of the guard, oversaw vice. They even promised to do whatever
Jerusalem’s destruction. Everything in the Lord commanded. But when Jeremiah
which God’s people had trusted lay in told them God wanted them to stay in the
smoldering ruins. land, they rejected his counsel! Despite Je-
Nebuchadnezzar allowed Judah’s poor remiah’s warnings that God would judge
people to remain in the land, since the them for doing so, a large group fled to
poor offered little threat of revolt. Jere- Egypt, taking Jeremiah and Baruch with
miah received his freedom, and chose to them.
stay in Judah among the poor. Imagine Even in Egypt, Jeremiah continued
how the prophet felt when he saw all his prophesying. God would use Babylon to
prophetic words come true! He had judge Egypt, too, and when he did, the
warned God's people for forty years; now Jews living in Egypt would experience
it was too late. conquest’s horrors again.

399
Encountering the Prophets

Failure to learn from history when he killed Josiah (2 Kgs 23:29-30), his
(44:1-45:5) campaign in 601 B.c. on the way to meet
Jeremiah challenged the Judeans to learn Nebuchadnezzar, or perhaps to a later at-
from the past. For generations, God had tack by Hophra (588-568 B.c.) around the
endured their idolatry and rebellion, and time of Jerusalem’s fall (Jer 37:5).3 Perhaps
finally had cast them into exile. Jeremiah God used both Babylonian and Egyptian
warned his hearers idolatry in Egypt forces to judge Philistia.
would bring the same bitter consequences.
Moab (48:1-47)
Nebuchadnezzar would visit Egypt just
as surely as he had visited Judah! The Moabites descended from Lot, Abra-
But Jeremiah’s audience interpreted the ham’s nephew (Gn 19:36-37), and lived
historical evidence differently. They be- east of the Dead Sea. Pride lay at the heart
lieved listening to Jeremiah had brought of Moab’s problems, perhaps because the
their trouble, and vowed to continue sac-
country had faced little serious hostility
rificing to their idols in Egypt. Even today, from major powers (48:7, 11, 29-30). Neb-
many people deny God’s truth and con- uchadnezzar conquered Moab and its
tinue in their rebellion. neighbor Ammon sometime after Jeru-
salem fell. Josephus, the Jewish historian,
Oracles about the Nations suggests the year 582 B.c.*
(46:1-51:64) Jeremiah’s detailed listing of Moab’s
cities suggests the judgment was exten-
Like many other prophets, Jeremiah spoke
sive. Even Chemosh, chief god of the
prophecies about other nations. God’s
Moabites, went into exile with those who
power did not end at Judah’s borders. He
worshiped him! Nevertheless, the Lord
controlled all nations, and would also
held out some hope for Moab’s restora-
judge their sin.
tion (48:47), perhaps during the messianic
Egypt (46:1-28) age.
In 605 B.c., as Babylon’s army pushed Ammon (49:1-6)
west, Egypt moved northward into Syria The Ammonites also descended from Lot
in an effort to stop the invader. At Car- (Gn 19:36, 38) and lived east of the Jordan.
chemish, Nebuchadnezzar’s forces won They often fought with God’s people and
a decisive victory and established Baby- treated them cruelly (1 Sm 11:1-2; 2 Sm
lon as the dominant power in the ancient 10:1-4; Am 1:13). God announced he
world. Jeremiah used that occasion to an- would humble their pride, too, though Je-
nounce Egypt’s judgment. Egypt would remiah also expressed some hope for their
survive, but only after feeling God’s restoration.
wrath.
God vowed to use Nebuchadnezzar to Edom (49:7-22)
strike Egypt. For centuries, Egypt's loca- The Edomites descended from Esau,
tion had provided it a certain amount of Jacob’s brother (Gn 36:1), and became a
natural security. Mesopotamian armies bitter enemy (Am 1:11-12; Ob 10-14).
had to travel a long way and fight many Using words similar to the prophet Oba-
battles before arriving there. But this time, diah’s (cf. Jer 49:9, 14-16 and Ob 1:1-5),5
Egypt would not escape. The Lord would Jeremiah denounced Edom’s pride and
dash the hopes of those who trusted in promised complete destruction, compa-
Pharaoh and Egypt's gods. rable to that of Sodom and Gomorrah.
The Babylonian Chronicle, an ancient Edom probably fell to Babylon shortly
historical record, reports that Nebuchad- after Judah (Jer 25:9, 21; Mal 1:3). Edom’s
nezzar invaded Egypt in 601 B.c.? Both western territory became the province of
sides suffered heavy losses. Idumea during Roman times, and the
Edomites soon lost their national identity.
Philistia (47:1-7)
The Philistines also suffered God's wrath. Damascus (49:23-27)
Jeremiah’s words about Gaza may refer to Damascus and the surrounding Aramean
Necho’s campaign into Judah in 609 B.c. city-states had suffered under the As-
400
 Jeremiah 21-52 and Lamentations

The sphinx,
Cairo. Like many
other prophets,
Jeremiah spoke
prophecies
about other
nations,
including Egypt.

syrian conquests in the late eighth cen- would become plunder. Babylon rejoiced
tury. Nebuchadnezzar also subdued because it had conquered the world, but
them around 605 B.c.° Days of joy and the Lord would show the temporary na-
celebration became days of panic, death, ture of humanity’s power. He called the
and destruction. nations to attack Babylon and retrieve their
share of the spoils.
Kedar and Hazor (49:28-33) Jeremiah described the Lord as “the
Jeremiah also mentioned these two Arab Holy One of Israel” (50:29) and “the Lorp
tribes from east of the Jordan.’ Perhaps of hosts” (50:34), stressing God’s awe-
their raids on Judah’s territory made a spe- some power. The Lord despised human
cial prophecy about them necessary! God arrogance, and humbled those who
promised to overthrow them, and wild thought themselves wise and powerful.
animals would take over their land. Political leaders, warriors, and priests
would all perish from the land. Jeremiah
Elam (49:34-39) compared Babylon’s destruction to the
Elam lay east of Babylon, and rarely fig- destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah
ured in biblical events, though it occa- (50:40). Only wild animals would live
sionally became a significant power in near its ruins!
Mesopotamia. Nevertheless, Elam did not Babylon thought itself great, but it was
lie outside of God’s control. The Lord’s only fulfilling God’s purpose. The Lord
fierce anger would devour the nation, had used Babylon to judge his people and
though he also promised to restore them the other nations, but now, it was Baby-
one day. lon’s turn to face God’s judgment (cf.
6:22-23 and 50:41-42). They would drink
Babylon (50:1-51:64) the cup of God’s wrath, and the Lord had
Jeremiah saved Babylon’s judgment for a large cup for them! Jeremiah mentioned
last. A northern nation would utterly the Medes (51:11), who, along with the Per-
vanquish this rebellious kingdom. Bel sians, would soon bring Babylon’s do-
(or Marduk), Babylon’s chief god, would minion to an end.
be shown powerless. God wanted all the Jeremiah commissioned Seriah, a
world to see who really controlled the Judean official, to take these prophetic
nations! words to Babylon and read them there.
God warned his people to flee Babylon. Throwing the scroll into the Euphrates
Terrible times were coming and the city graphically portrayed Babylon’s ultimate

401
Encountering the Prophets

tion. Someday, God would bring all his

nci ontNear people home.
The Book of Jeremiah stands as a great
astern Laments monument to God’s work through one
man’s faithful life. The prophet Jeremiah
bravely faced terrible and horrifying cir-
ae also composed laments to cumstances, even though he saw little pos-
disasters. One example is the Lamentation itive response to anything he said or did.
r the Destruction of Ur, composed during the He knew that somehow, God was using
: arlysecond millennium s.c.: him, and his life displayed the faith God
desires his children to have.
te:Anu the water of my eye verily | poured; to Enlil The Lord also calls us to submit to his
__ lin person verily made supplication. “Let not my purposes, even when we do not fully un-
city be destroyed,” verily | said unto them; “Let not derstand them and even when they bring
Ur be destroyed,” verily | said unto them... . The us great heartache. In such times, we may
utter destruction of Ur verily they directed; that its cling to his promise—God has a great fu-
people be killed, as its fate verily they decreed.... ture in store for His people (Jer 29:11).
Enlil brings Gibil to his aid. The great storm of
heaven he called; the people groan. The great
storm howls above; the people groan. The land-
annihilating storm roars below; the people groan. Lamentations:
The evil wind, like the rushing torrent, cannot pS 0
restrained. (ANET, 458) A Cry of Agony
The Book of Lamentations is not an easy
In general, laments from the ancient world paralle book to read. In it we hear the tragic cries
Lamentations in that the peoples mourn the a : of a people experiencing the horrors of
destruction of their cities and ascribe the war, humiliation, and exile. On a spiritual
destruction to a god or group of gods. How ev level, the author ponders God’s relation-
the strong moral tone of Lamentations. ma ship with his exiled people. He even won-
unique. The writer describes God as bri ders aloud whether God has finally cast
judgment because of the people’ his people aside.
violation, and calls the nation:
ancient laments
lack such a t
Outline
I. Jerusalem’s Lament (1:1—22)
fate—it would sink and not rise again. II. Jerusalem’s Angry God (2:1-22)
In 539 B.c., the Lord used Cyrus the Per-
sian to end Babylon’s world domination. Ill. Judah’s Lament (3:1-66)
No nation could thwart God’s ultimate
purposes. IV. Judah’s Utter Ruin (4:1-22)

Jerusalem's Fall Revisited V. Judah’s Plea (5:1-22)

(52:1-34)
Jeremiah closed his book with a final re- The Background of Lamentations
minder of the horrors of Jerusalem’s fall. Scholars differ over the authorship of
The chapter closely parallels Jeremiah 39, Lamentations.’ The title “The Lamenta-
but gives a bit more detail regarding the tions of Jeremiah” appears in many Bibles,
aftermath of Jerusalem’s destruction. Nev- reflecting early Jewish and Christian tra-
ertheless, the book closes on a note of hope. dition. Furthermore, we know Jeremiah
When Evil-merodach, Nebuchadnezzar’s wrote other laments (2 Chr 35:25) and that
successor, came to power, he released King he witnessed Jerusalem’s fall. Lamenta-
Jehoiachin from prison (2 Kgs 25:27-30), tions and Jeremiah also contain many sim-
and Jehoiachin ate at the king’s table reg- ilar themes, and these facts together point
ularly. Babylonian cuneiform records have to Jeremiah as the author.
even confirmed Jehoiachin’s regular ra- Some scholars, however, have suggested
402
 Jeremiah 21-52 and Lamentations

. Jeremiah challenged the rulers and . Jeremiah’s land purchase pointed to

false prophets by rebuking the rulers God's coming restoration of the land.
and the government, by rebuking the
. Jesus will one day fulfill Jeremiah’s
false prophets and their audiences, by
prophecy by ruling as a good king
describing God's anger, by confronting
and a faithful high priest.
the people about their behavior, by
wearing a yoke, and by writing to the . The Judeans in Egypt placed blame for
Judeans in exile in Babylon. their captivity on Jeremiah rather than
on their own sin and continued to
. God promised to spare Jerusalem
worship idols.
if the king and his leaders truly
repented. . The nations to which Jeremiah spoke
oracles included Egypt, Philistia,
. The yoke God instructed Jeremiah
Moab, Ammon, Edom, Damascus,
to wear symbolized Judah's submis-
Kedar, Hazar, Elam, and Babylon.
sion to Nebuchadnezzar.
. The author of the Book of Lamenta-
. God had not forgotten his people, in
tions used acrostics as a literary device.
spite of their sin.
. The author of Lamentations is in great
. God promised that he would make
sorrow because of the total devasta-
a new covenant with his people.
tion of Jerusalem.

OO Jeremiah did not write the book. They be- The Message of Lamentations
acrostics
lieve the writing styles of Lamentations
Jerusalem's lament (1:1-22)
and Jeremiah are too different. Further-
more, the book does not specifically name Three contrasts describe Jerusalem’s sor-
row. First, the city that once stood full of
Jeremiah as its author.
people now sat alone. Second, the com-
The Book of Lamentations contains a se-
munity that had enjoyed greatness now
ries of acrostics, or alphabetic poems. The
experienced the grief of a widow. Third,
Hebrew alphabet has twenty-two letters, the princess of cities had become a lowly
and each letter begins a verse. Lamenta- slave. Jerusalem wept bitterly, but no one
tions 1:1 begins with aleph, the first letter comforted her.
of the Hebrew alphabet. Lamentations 1:2 God had finally dealt with the city’s un-
begins with beth, the second letter, and so cleanness, and she called to others to see
on throughout the chapter. Chapters 1, 2, her pain. God had laid a trap for his peo-
and 4 follow this pattern. Chapter 3 has ple and judged their wicked leaders.
sixty-six verses—twenty-two groups of Zion’s neighbors gave her no comfort, but
three. There, each letter begins three rather, rejoiced at her fall! But despite her
verses. Chapter 5 is not an acrostic, though distress, Jerusalem did not blame God.
it, too, has twenty-two verses. Rather, she asked God to see her sorrow
Whoever wrote Lamentations probably and punish those who mocked her.
wrote it shortly after 587 B.c. The book re- Jerusalem's angry God (2:1-22)
flects the heartache of someone who still God showed his people no mercy, de-
anguished over the vivid scenes sur- molishing everything in which Judah had
rounding Jerusalem’s fall. trusted—fortresses and palace, temple

403
Encountering the Prophets

Study Questions

. Describe King Zedekiah’s relationship Jeremiah. How was Jeremiah’s

with Jeremiah. Do you think Zedekiah prophecy of the new covenant ful-
really believed Jeremiah? Why or why filled in Jesus Christ?

or . Why do you think the people refused

. Identify Judah's last five kings and to listen to Jeremiah even after
give a brief appraisal of each one’s Jerusalem fell?

reign: . When was the Book of Lamentations

. Why did false prophets pose such a written? Since God had judged his
problem for God’s people? people so severely, did the people
have any hope of a future?
. Describe the role of the Book of Com-
fort (chapters 30-33) in the Book of

and sacrifices. The Lord also brought judg- Judah's lament (3:1-66)
ment against the priests and prophets The author shared the people’s agony. God
who had led the people astray. Religious had cut off any path to relief and would not
festivals ceased, and people everywhere listen to his people’s prayers. The people
mourned. had become a laughingstock to the world
The author wept as he saw Jerusalem’s as God's fierce judgment overtook them.
suffering. Little ones starved to death in At the same time, the people’s only hope
their mothers’ arms while enemies mocked for salvation and restoration lay in the God
the city’s downfall. The dead became food who had fiercely judged them! His disci-
for the living due to the extreme food short- pline would strengthen them, and would
age! Jerusalem’s fall meant God had ful- not last forever. His faithfulness was great!
filled his word, for the people had failed All needed to confess their sin and return
to heed his persistent warnings. The to the Lord. The author also asked the Lord
prophet challenged the people to pray for to deal with Judah’s enemies. They would
God’s compassion. receive the penalty for their sins, too.

Further Reading

Brueggemann, Walter. To Build, To Plant: A American Commentary 16. Nashville: Broadman,

Commentary on Jeremiah 26-52. International 1993. A solid commentary rich in biblical exegesis
Theological Commentary. Grand and exposition.
Rapids/Edinburgh: Eerdmans/Handsel, 1991. Rich Kaiser, Walter C., Jr. A Biblical Approach to Personal
in theological exposition and application. Suffering. Chicago: Moody, 1982. A short survey
Harrison, R. K. Jeremiah and Lamentations: An with many devotional thoughts.
Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old Thompson, J. A. The Book of Jeremiah. New
- Testament Commentary. Downers Grove: International Commentary on the Old Testament.
InterVarsity, 1973. Standard college-level Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980. For the more
commentary. serious student.
Huey, F. B., Jr. Jeremiah, Lamentations. New

404
 Jeremiah 21-52 and Lamentations

Judah's utter ruin (4:1-22) Judah's plea (5:1-22)

The siege of Jerusalem brought many hor- The people begged God to have compas-
rors of war. People everywhere slowly sion on them. Foreigners controlled their
died of starvation, then became food for nation, and they had to work hard just to
others! Even the rich lost everything in a have enough to survive. Many had died
city that thought it would stand forever. in battle or starved. The survivors had suf-
Jerusalem had tolerated social injustice fered physical and emotional abuse.
too long. Even prophets and priests mis- Mount Zion, God’s chosen temple site, lay
treated the righteous for their own per- in ruins.
sonal gain. The people hoped their king The people asked God to restore them
would save them, but he could not. Judah as he had in the past, but behind their pe-
consoled herself a little with the knowl- tition loomed a frightening question. Had
edge that one day God would judge her God abandoned them forever?
enemies, too.

405
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 Ezekiel 1-24
Rough Days Are Coming! |

Outline
© Background of Ezekiel
__¢ Message of Ezekiel
a Oracles and Events Relating
to Ezekiel’s Call (1:1-5:17) Objectives
The Day of the Lord (6:1-7:27)
After reading this chapter,
God’s Glory Departs (8:1-11:25) you should be able to
Judgment Against Jerusalem (12:1-24:27)
* Outline the basic contents of Ezekiel 1-24
¢ Apply the events of Ezekiel’s commission
to your own life
¢ Describe the four symbolic acts of Ezekiel
that showed how seriously God takes sin
¢ List the sinful acts Ezekiel was shown
by God
¢ Describe the events preceding
the destruction of Jerusalem

407
Encountering the Prophets

A human- The Book of Jeremiah portrays the in-

headed winged
bull from the
credible discouragement Jeremiah often
entrance to the faced as he served God. He proclaimed
palace at Calah, God’s message to Judah for forty years but
Nineveh. saw little if any response. Nevertheless,
he diligently pressed on to accomplish the
task God gave him.
The prophet Ezekiel faced rough days,
too, and like Jeremiah, he knew even
worse were coming. As he spoke to
Judeans already in exile in Babylon,
Ezekiel warned them of God’s impending
judgment and urged them to repent. But
tragically, the people failed to realize the
depth of their depravity. Soon, their fel-
low Judeans who still lived in Jerusalem
and Judah would join them in exile.

i ANAT Ni
AIT OOo SISOS SOS

tline
I. Oracles and Events Relating to
Ezekiel’s Call (1:1-5:17)
A. Setting (1:1-3)
B. God’s Glory Appears (1:4-28)
C. Ezekiel’s Commission
(2:1-3:27)
D. Four Symbolic Actions
(4:1-5:17)
II. The Day of the Lorp (6:1-7:27)
A. Prophecy to the Mountains of E. Righteousness Inadequate to
Israel (6:1-14) Save the Wicked (14:12-23)
B. The End (7:1-27) Three Analogies (15:1-17:24)
. Individual Responsibility
III. God’s Glory Departs (8:1-11:25) Affirmed (18:1-32)
A. Setting (8:1-6) ae
URES
. Lament for the Leaders
B. Elder-led Idolatry (8:7-13) (19:1-14)
C. Tammuz Worship (8:14-15) Lesson from History (20:1-44)
D. Sun Worship (8:16-18) — Judgment against Judah
E. Executioners Summoned (20:45-21:32)
(9:1-11) K. Three Oracles (22:1-31)
F. The Glory Prepares to Depart L. Oholah and Oholibah
(10:1-22) (23:1-49)
G. The Elders Rebuked (11:1-21) M. The Rusty Pot (24:1-14)
H. The Glory Departs (11:22-25) N. Ezekiel’s Wife Dies (24:15-27)

IV. Judgment against Jerusalem

ST
oo
(12:1-24:27)
A. Ezekiel Packs for Exile Background
(12:1-20)
B. Revelation Fulfilled of Ezekiel
(12:21-28) Ezekiel’s name means “God has strength-
C. False Prophets Denounced ened.” We know little about him outside
(I3x1=23) the book that bears his name. We do know
D. Idolatry Denounced (14:1-11) he served as a prophet in Babylon (Ez 1:3;
408
 Ezekiel 1-24

2:5; 33:33) and could have served as a moved about like the creatures. Many
priest in Jerusalem’s temple had the Baby- commentators have tried to explain what
lonians not taken him into exile. He went Ezekiel might have seen. We do not know
into exile in 597 B.c. as part of Jehoiachin’s exactly what the wheels represented, but
deportation. (This was the second depor- one thing is certain—they really impressed
tation of Jews to Babylon. The first took Ezekiel!
place in 605 B.c.; see Dn 1:1.) He was mar- As Ezekiel watched the creatures and
ried, but his wife died as part of a sign to wheels move, he heard something else—
the people (Ez 24:15-27). He ministered a voice. At the sound of the voice, the crea-
primarily to the Jews in Babylon, but also tures dropped their wings as if in sub-
by correspondence to those in Jerusalem. mission. Ezekiel then saw a throne and a
At the time of Ezekiel’s deportation, radiant being on it. The prophet fell on his
Babylon was strong under Nebuchad- face as he realized he stood in the very
nezzar. Jerusalem, slow to believe prophe- presence of God’s glory.
cies of judgment, had only about ten years Ezekiel’s commission (2:1-3:27)
left before Nebuchadnezzar’s final inva-
sion would lead to the city’s destruction. God commissioned Ezekiel for his
Ezekiel warned the Jews in Jerusalem they prophetic ministry (2:1-10). He promised
soon would join their brothers and sisters to send Ezekiel to a stubborn and rebel-
lious house. In fact, the words “stubborn
already in Babylon if they did not repent.
Many interpreters have argued for the and rebellious house” occur over and over
unity of the Book of Ezekiel. The book’s again in these verses. God told his young
smooth flow, consistent autobiographical prophet the ministry would be hard and
style, and other factors all suggest the text
the people unwilling to listen to him. We
of Ezekiel came from one hand.! Prophe- also may encounter difficult challenges
and unresponsive people as we serve the
cies in the book date to as late as 571 B.c.
Lord. Our task, as Ezekiel’s, is to remain
(29:17). Assuming the writing came from
faithful and leave the results to him.
Ezekiel, we may presume he completed
As the last part of the prophet’s initial
the book by around 550 B.c.
commission—probably as part of Ezekiel’s
vision—God told him to eat a scroll
Eo Ty
(3:1-15). The scroll contained a list of all
Message of Ezekiel the people’s sins—so many that God
needed both sides of the scroll to list them
Oracles and Events Relating all! Ezekiel probably thought the scroll
would taste bitter, but found as he ate it
to Ezekiel’s Call (1:1-5:17)
that it tasted sweet. Perhaps this experi-
Setting (1:1-3) ence taught Ezekiel God’s word should
Ezekiel had his first vision in 592 B.c. by taste sweet to him whether it brought
the RIVER CHEBAR, a large irrigation canal blessing or judgment.
that flowed southeast from Babylon.” Most Ezekiel then visited the exiles at TEL
interpreters believe the expression “the Asis, a settlement along the Chebar near
thirtieth year” refers to the thirtieth year Babylon. The name “Tel Abib” means
of Ezekiel’s life. According to the Law of “heap of ruins,” apparently referring to
Moses, Ezekiel normally would have en- an abandoned town site where the Baby-
tered the priesthood at that age. lonians settled a Jewish community.
Ezekiel visited the exiles for seven days,
God's glory appears (1:4-28) apparently only watching and observing
Ezekiel saw four dazzling beings. The them. His presence caused consternation
prophet described them as having certain among the people—what was he doing
resemblances to creatures he knew, but there anyway?
they also possessed characteristics unlike God called Ezekiel to serve as his mes-
anything he ever had seen. These creatures senger (3:16-21). He held the prophet ac-
moved as the Spirit of God directed them. countable for accurately reporting his mes-
Ezekiel also saw four wheels far up in sage to the people. He did not hold him
the air. The wheels were dazzling and accountable for the people’s response. God

409
Encountering the Prophets

AT
also holds us responsible to faithfully com- to burn a third of it in fire, chop a third of
ay
of the Lord plete the ministry opportunities God gives it to bits with a sword, and toss a third into
us. The response of the people is not in our the wind and let it blow away. He also was
hands. to take a few pieces and bind them into
God told Ezekiel he would face trouble his garment.
(3:22-27). The people would bind him with The hair’s division represented the dif-
ropes to keep him from proclaiming God’s ferent fates the people would suffer. Some
judgment. God also promised to restrict would die in the fire as the Babylonians
or silence Ezekiel at times so the people set fire to the city. Others would die by the
would not hear his message. sword, while still others would experience
Four symbolic actions (4:1-5:17)
exile to a distant land. But God would pro-
tect a small remnant and keep it close to
Ezekiel performed four symbolic actions him. His purposes for his people would
to show the people how seriously God took continue through them.
their sin. The people were moving faster Such actions naturally appear strange
and faster toward the day of judgment. to us, and Ezekiel’s original audience prob-
First, God told Ezekiel to take a brick
ably thought them quite strange, too! But
and write on it “Jerusalem” and then lay desperate times demanded desperate
siege to it (4:1-3). When people asked what measures. God used Ezekiel’s prophetic
he was doing, he replied, “I’m laying siege
actions to warn the people how little time
to Jerusalem.” Ezekiel’s apparent child’s remained for them to repent.
game contained a much deeper meaning.
God, through Nebuchadnezzar’s armies, The Day of the Lord (6:1-7:27)
was about to lay siege to Jerusalem one
last, terrible time. The concept of the Day of the Lord occurs
Second, God told Ezekiel to lie on his commonly in the prophets and in the New
left side for 390 days to bear the iniquity Testament. [t includes three elements: the
of Israel (4:4-8). He also was to lie on his judgment of God against sin, the cleans-
right side for forty days to bear the iniq- ing and purging of God’s people, and the
uity of Judah. Scholars disagree over the salvation of God’s people.
meaning of God’s instructions. Some be- Prophecy to the mountains of Israel
lieve God was describing the length of Is- (6:1-14)
rael and Judah’s past iniquity. Others Ezekiel called for a prophecy to the moun-
argue God was instructing Ezekiel about tains of Israel. The mountains stood as
his people’s future time of judgment. silent witnesses to everything that had
Ezekiel’s symbolic action illustrated the happened in Israel since the people en-
depth of sin to which God’s people had tered the land and conquered it. God
sunk. Only deep repentance could save promised the mountains would see their
them from drowning in their evil. idolatrous altars and high places smashed.
Third, God told Ezekiel to cook his bread Second, God announced the cities would
making small rations and using human be laid waste. Famine, sword, and siege all
dung for fuel (4:9-17). Ezekiel responded would come against the city to destroy it.
in horror—he had never eaten anything When that happened, Ezekiel vowed,
unclean! God told Ezekiel he could use “then they will know.” This phrase—’ they
cow dung instead of human dung as fuel. will know”—occurs again and again in
That may sound like small consolation, Ezekiel and presents a note of irony. God
but many peoples of the world use cattle warned of terrible judgment and said when
dung as a fuel. Once the dung is dry, it is it happened, “Then they will know.” When
odorless and burns cleanly. calamity finally came and the people real-
Nevertheless, Ezekiel’s point remains ized God was serious, it would be too late.
the same. The people would have small Nevertheless, Ezekiel’s warning did offer
rations in the day of their captivity. The the people the opportunity to repent.
Babylonians would surround the city and
cut off the food supply. The end (7:1-27)
Fourth, God told the prophet to divide Ezekiel described the awful conditions
his hair into three parts (5:1-17). He was that would accompany Jerusalem’s fall.
410
 Ezekiel 1-24

AOA
Ten
is All hands would hang limp and shame the altar of burnt offering. The people
would cover their faces. They would fling chose a holy place to worship, but they
ANTAL ATATANNINNENNRIND into the streets the silver and gold they dishonored God by choosing his temple
Ishtar
prized so greatly, for it would not save as a place to worship false gods! God
them from the Babylonians. Again, God promised to cleanse the land of such idol-
promised—“Then they'll know.” atry. He would not tolerate this obnoxious
offense to his holy character. His people
God's Glory Departs (8:1-11:25) must worship him alone.
Setting (8:1-6) Executioners summoned (9:1-11)
Ezekiel 8-11 presents one of the most tragic Ezekiel’s vision continued as God sum-
visions of the Book of Ezekiel. The year moned six executioners and a scribe to
was 591 B.c., fourteen months after carry out his judgment on Jerusalem. First,
Ezekiel’s initial vision. Ezekiel received God commanded to mark those people
the vision while sitting in a house in Baby- who truly had repented and who agonized
lon with some of Judah’s elders. over Jerusalem’s terrible spiritual condi-
God’s Spirit gave Ezekiel a vision of tion. He knew who followed him and he
Jerusalem. The first thing the prophet saw would protect them.
was an idol of jealousy sitting in the tem- Second, God commanded the messen-
ple court area. This probably represented gers to have no pity on the rest. The exe-
Asherah, the wife of the pagan god Baal. cutioners began to kill everyone as the
Ezekiel, a man of the priestly line, no doubt Lord shouted, “Fill the temple courts with
revolted at the presence of any idol any- the corpses!” (9:7). Ezekiel reacted in hor-
where, let alone on the temple grounds! ror at the sight—were God’s people really
But God told him he would see even worse this corrupt and deserving of judgment?
things in his vision. God assured him they were. The Lord saw
their sin in all its ugliness and promised
Elder-led idolatry (8:7-13)
to judge it completely.
God took Ezekiel to the entrance of the
court to the secret chamber, closer to the The glory prepares to depart
holiest of the temple area. There, seventy (10:1-22)
elders were practicing idolatry, right on The glory of God filled the temple court.
the temple grounds! They thought God It rose over the temple area, accompanied
didn’t see their sin, but he saw it all. by the cherubim and wheels Ezekiel had
As God took Ezekiel on this tour of seen earlier. God’s presence prepared to
Jerusalem, the prophet probably could not depart Jerusalem. Did anyone care he was
believe how bad things had become. Yet leaving? Apparently few did.
at each step, God told him worse abomi- The elders rebuked (11:1-21)
nations were yet to come.
Ezekiel rebuked the elders who sat at the
Tammuz worship (8:14—15) east gate of the Lord’s house for their fa-
The Lord took Ezekiel to the gate of the talistic attitudes. They believed nothing
temple at the outer court, where Ezekiel they could do would make any difference
saw women weeping for Tammuz. Tam- to God at this point. But Ezekiel held out
muz was a Mesopotamian agricultural a sliver of hope. Perhaps it was too late to
god, husband of the goddess Ishtar. His save the city and even the nation, but in-
followers believed that every year at har- dividuals could still turn to the Lord. They
vest time, Tammuz died, and these women might suffer exile, but they would escape
joined Ishtar in mourning his death.° Tam- with their lives and perhaps become part
muz came back to life in the spring when of the faithful remnant with whom God
crops rejuvenated themselves and buds would renew his purposes.
appeared on the trees. Again, God warned The glory departs (11:22-25)
Ezekiel greater sins lay ahead.
The vision came to a sad end. The cheru-
Sun worship (8:16-18) bim lifted up their wings with the wheels
Ezekiel next saw people bowing down to beside them and God's glory hovered over
the sun between the temple’s porch and them. The Lord’s glory went up from the

411
Encountering the Prophets

midst of the city and stood over the Mount encouraged the people’s worship of many
of Olives east of the city, the very moun- gods. Ezekiel said both prophets and idol-
tain from which Jesus would describe the aters were guilty. Many people today also
end of the age (Mt 24:3). God paused as if remain unwilling to make an absolute
to take one more long, painful look at the commitment to follow the Lord.
rebellious city. Then, in an instant, the
Righteousness inadequate
glory departed. God had cleared the way to save the wicked (14:12-23)
for his judgment to begin.
Ezekiel described the people’s degree of
Judgment Against Jerusalem wickedness. Even if Noah, Daniel, and Job
(12:1-24:27) lived among these people and prayed for
them, probably only those three would
Ezekiel packs for exile (12:1-20) survive on the basis of their righteousness!
God told Ezekiel to pack his bags as if God's grace had preserved a remnant but
preparing for exile. The prophet did so few people sincerely followed him.
and began to dig by the city wall. When The prophet Daniel lived as a contem-
people asked what he was doing, he re- porary of Ezekiel. At the time of this
sponded, “I’m preparing to go into exile.” prophecy, he was probably no more than
His symbolic act represented the situation thirty to thirty-five years old. The Scrip-
soon to occur in Jerusalem. Some people, tures encourage us to live faithfully as ex-
such as Ezekiel, already lived in exile. Oth- amples for Christ no matter how young
ers soon would follow. we are (1 Tm 4:12).
Revelation fulfilled (12:21-28) Three analogies (15:1-17:24)
The people misunderstood God’s patience In chapters 15-17 Ezekiel used three analo-
with them. They believed prophetic vi- gies to describe God’s people. First, he de-
sions were failing because they did not see scribed them as a vine (15:1-8). Second,
the prophets’ predictions coming true. But he compared them to an unfaithful wife
God assured them there would be no more (16:1-63). Third, he likened them to two
delay. He would accomplish it soon, in his eagles (17:1-24).
perfect timing. Ezekiel described a vine that fire had
False prophets denounced (13:1-23) charred. One might dare to put his trust in
a vine to support him, but certainly not a
False prophets of Ezekiel’s day continued burned vine! In similar fashion, the people
to follow their own spirit. They apparently were placing their trust in Jerusalem, but
hoped God was merely going to “slap their
Jerusalem would not support them. The
wrists” and let them go home. But it was
people thought their beloved city would
not to be.
sustain them forever, for God’s blessing
The Lord promised to clean away the
rested on it. Instead, Jerusalem had become
whitewash. A rotten wall with a nice coat
charred with spiritual decadence.
of paint or whitewash on it looks fine, but
Ezekiel next compared Israel to an un-
it will not support anyone who tries to lean
faithful wife. God took her from infancy
against it! Jesus described the religious
(the days of Abraham) and raised her. He
leaders of his day as whitewashed
did so according to his grace. Nothing in
tombs—beautiful on the outside, but filled
with corruption and dead men’s bones Israel made her worthy of God’s attention
and favor. When Israel reached maturity,
(Mt 23:27—28). This description also fit the
prophets of Ezekiel’s day. Those who God took her for his bride.
promised deliverance would be the first But Israel spurned God's love and be-
to experience God’s awful judgment. came a harlot to all the nations. She
adopted the pagan customs and worship
Idolatry denounced (14:1-11) practices of the nations around her. Many
The first commandment required that the of these nations had religious rituals that
people have no other gods as rivals to the included sexual promiscuity, so Ezekiel’s
Lord (Ex 20:3). He wanted their absolute language fit the situation quite well. His
allegiance, but their idols were every- words are amazingly graphic when one
where. False prophets tolerated and even considers they come from a much more
412
 Ezekiel 1-24

The Jews weep

after the fall of
Jerusalem; from
arelief ona
menorah
(lampstand) in
the modern city
of Jerusalem.

socially and culturally conservative time The prophecy appears to come from
than today! But again, Ezekiel used des- Jerusalem’s last days. Zedekiah rebelled,
perate language for desperate times. Prob- counting on Egypt for support that never
ably his words shocked many, but he was came. Nebuchadnezzar marched on Jeru-
determined to focus their attention on the salem, conquered the city, blinded Zede-
depravity of the situation. kiah, and led the people into captivity.
Ezekiel told his hearers they had become
worse than Sodom and Samaria. What an Individual responsibility affirmed
awful thing that God’s people would be- (18:1-32)
come this way! Only deep repentance and Amid all the calamity of exile, many peo-
a touch of God’s grace could rescue them ple began to complain. This situation was
from destruction. not their fault! The proverb they quoted
Ezekiel described two eagles in chapter
underscored their belief that they suffered
17. The first eagle is Babylon and the sec-
because of their ancestors’ sins, not their
ond eagle is Egypt. He also portrayed two
own. Even today, many try to excuse their
vines. The first vine represented the cap-
tives of Jehoiachin already in captivity (597 sin by blaming their parents, their back-
ground, or other factors.
B.c.). The second vine represented Zede-
kiah, the spineless king who listened to Je- But Ezekiel affirmed individual re-
remiah but did not have the courage to sponsibility. God would punish people
obey his counsel (Jer 38:17—23). for their own sin, not for the sin of others.
Ezekiel related his story. The first eagle The Lord also affirmed that he took no
took the choice vine and transplanted it. pleasure in the death of the wicked (18:23,
Nebuchadnezzar, the first eagle, came and 32). His righteous holy character de-
took the captives in Ezekiel’s group to manded that he punish sin, but he derived
Babylon. Zedekiah, the second vine, re- no joy from judging his people. He pre-
mained behind in Jerusalem. But this vine ferred that they turn to him in repentance
quickly turned toward Egypt, the second and live. Today God still prefers that peo-
eagle, for help when it appeared, ignor- ple turn to him rather than persist in their
ing the power Babylon had shown. evil (2 Pt 3:9).

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Encountering the Prophets

Lament for the leaders (19:1-14) Judgment against Judah

Ezekiel compared Judah to a lioness with (20:45-21:32)
two cubs. The first cub was Jehoahaz and The people suggested Ezekiel was only
the second cub Jehoiachin. Jehoahaz speaking parables. They thought his mes-
was Josiah’s oldest son and Judah’s last sages were mere stories composed to em-
good king. His reign lasted only three phasize the tragedy of their experience.
months after his father’s death. Pharaoh But Ezekiel’s message reflected more than
Necho of Egypt captured him and took parables. It accurately described the peo-
him to Egypt where he died (2 Kgs ple’s condition—racing toward judg-
23:31-34). Nebuchadnezzar captured Je- ment! Unfortunately, the prophet’s warn-
hoiachin, the second cub, and took him
ings fell on deaf ears. The people loved
to hear him preach but did not take his
to Babylon.
words seriously.
Ezekiel lamented the fact that Judah
now had no ruler—or at least, they had Three oracles (22:1-31)
no real ruler. Zedekiah lacked the courage Ezekiel uttered three oracles to get the peo-
and conviction he needed to lead the peo- ple’s attention. First, he declared Israel had
ple and soon the nation would crumble become a nation of bloodshed, dross, and
away into oblivion. uncleanness. The term “bloodshed” de-
notes murder or injustice. Ezekiel was not
Lesson from history (20:1—-44)
describing capital punishment, but the so-
Had God’s people learned from history? cial injustice that permeated the land. The
No, not really. In 591 B.c., the elders came people remained bent toward idolatry as
to inquire of the Lord. But Ezekiel sensed they strayed farther and farther from the
a problem with their sincerity. They en- Lord. Apart from God and his laws, they
joyed listening to his counsel but did not adopted their own standards—of injus-
intend to follow his advice. Ezekiel refused tice and immorality.
to give them an audience. The Lord would Second, Ezekiel described Israel as a na-
give them no more revelation until they tion of dross. The term “dross” designates
were ready to receive it. the refuse material that rises to the top of
Ezekiel reminded the elders of the peo- molten metal. The process of heating the
ple’s dismal spiritual history. Israel barely metal separates the impurities from the
had left Egypt when the people began to pure metal. These impurities are lighter
complain. Despite all the miracles they than the metal, so they rise to the top. The
had seen, they lacked the faith to trust God refiner skimmed the dross from the top of
to provide their needs. For almost a thou- the metal and threw it away because it had
sand years, they maintained this rebellious no value.
attitude and learned precious little about Ezekiel said God’s people had become
a relationship with God. God in his grace like dross because of their sin. As God re-
withheld judgment but he would not do fined his people he found a lot of spiritual
so anymore. dross in their lives. He would remove it
through the fires of judgment. God still
wants to remove all impurities from our
lives today so we can serve him more com-
pletely (Rom 13:14).
Key Terms Third, Ezekiel depicted God’s people as
Day of the Lord a nation of uncleanness. He condemned
Tammuz prophets and priests alike for leading the
Ishtar people astray. The nation’s sin grew worse
Key Places and worse. But God could find no one
among the leadership who would take a
River Chebar ° stand for Israel and beg God to forgive her.
Tel Abib Ezekiel used the imagery of plugging a
breach in the city wall to make his point.
When an enemy comes against a walled
city, it must find a way to penetrate the
414
 Ezekiel 1-24

wall. If the army succeeds in doing so, pened to Israel because of Israel’s sin but
those defending the city must stop the ad- continued her evil practices anyway. She
vance or the city will fall. Brave men must thus would face a more severe judgment.
answer the call to stand in the gap. But The rusty pot (24:1-14)
God could find no one to defend Jerusalem
In 588 B.c., the Babylonian siege of
from his judgment—prophet, priest, or
Jerusalem began. In July of 587 B.c., the
prince.
city finally fell to Nebuchadnezzar’s
Oholah and Oholibah (23:1-49) forces. On the day the siege began, God
Ezekiel described two sisters—Oholah commanded Ezekiel to prophesy.
and Oholibah. Although we know what The prophet likened Jerusalem to a rusty
the names literally mean (“her tent” and pot. Have you ever tried to cook some-
“my tent is in her,” respectively), scholars thing in a rusty pot? You should not—the
have proposed quite different views as to rust comes loose from the pot and mixes
precisely what significance the names in with the food. In the same way, sin per-
had.° Oholah represented Samaria, the vaded the land and contaminated all
northern capital, and Oholibah repre- Jerusalem. Just as a cook would throw out
contaminated food, so God would hurl his
sented Jerusalem, the southern capital.
Both sisters were terribly wicked but God people into captivity.
took them as his own and married them Ezekiel’s wife dies (24:15-27)
anyway. Ezekiel 24:15-27 records the death of
Oholah committed great evil so God Ezekiel’s wife. The Lord warned the
gave her into the hands of the Assyrians prophet she was about to die and in-
in 722 B.c. But Oholibah her sister—who structed him how to respond. Ezekiel was
saw this judgment—learned absolutely to mourn inwardly, but make no external
nothing. That is, Judah saw what hap- display of mourning and lamentation.

Summary

. The Book of Ezekiel is written in an . The people of God sinned greatly

autobiographical style. against him; led by the elders they
practiced idolatry in the holiest part of
. God told Ezekiel to perform four sym-
the temple, they worshiped a pagan
bolic actions to demonstrate how seri-
agricultural god, and they worshiped
ously he took the people's sin: playing
the sun.
a game with a brick, lying on his right
and left sides for a specific number of . In preparation for the judgment,
days, cooking bread using small ra- Ezekiel denounced the false prophets
tions and using human dung for fuel, and the idolatry of the people.
and dividing his hair into three parts
. Ezekiel described God's people with
and performing different actions with
analogies in which he compared them
each part.
to a vine, an unfaithful wife, and two
. The concept of the Day of the Lord in- eagles.
cludes the judgment of God against
. In his lament for Judah Ezekiel analo-
sin, the cleansing and purging of
gously used cubs to represent Jehoa-
God's people, and the salvation of
haz and Jehoiakim.
God's people.
Encountering the Prophets

Study Questions

1. What was the historical setting for 4. Describe Ezekiel’s vision of chapters
Ezekiel’s prophetic ministry? 8-11. What was the significance of
God's glory departing Jerusalem?
2. What do we know about the prophet
himself from his book? . How would you characterize the gen-
eral attitude of Ezekiel’s audience?
3. List the various symbolic prophetic ac-
What seems to have been the view-
tions Ezekiel performed for the peo-
point of the people who stayed be-
ple. In general, how do you think the
hind in Jerusalem after the second de-
people responded to those actions?
portation?

Further Reading

Block, Daniel |. The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 1-24. 1994. A thorough exegesis and exposition of the
New International Commentary on the Old text of Ezekiel.
Testament. Grand Rapids; Eerdmans, 1997. A Craigie, Peter C. Ezekiel. Daily Study Bible.
detailed commentary for the advanced college Philadelphia: Westminster, 1983. For the general
student or graduate student. Rich in exegesis and reader.
footnotes. Taylor, John B. Ezekiel: An Introduction and
Cooper, Lamar Eugene, Sr. Ezekiel. New American Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament
Commentary 17. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1969.
Good college-level commentary.

Ezekiel’s apparent lack of reaction to his or mourn. Tragically, they would finally
wife’s death naturally got the people’s at- realize the prophet Ezekiel had been right
tention, and they asked him why he did all along.
not mourn. Ezekiel responded that God But God had not finished with his peo-
intended to do the same to Jerusalem very ple. He planned to restore them and bless
soon. The city’s destruction would mean them again! In the next chapter, we see how
the death of many of their loved ones. The God described the judgment of his enemies
survivors would suffer such horror they and ultimate salvation of those he loved.
would find themselves unable even to cry

416
 Ezekiel 25-48
God's Planning an Exciting Future!
wn aN ar
AERA MN

Eze 's Message Continues

25:1-48:35)
Oracles Against the Nations (25:1-32:32)
Israel's Restoration (33:1-39:29)
Israel's New Temple (40:1-48:35) Objectives
After reading this chapter,
you should be able to
¢ Name the nations to whom Ezekiel
directed his oracles in chapters 25-32
¢ Identify the common theme of the
warnings Ezekiel pronounced on the
seven nations in chapters 25-29
e List the specifics of the new temple
that God revealed to Ezekiel
¢ Present the five major approaches
to interpreting Ezekiel 40-48

417
Encountering the Prophets

Have you ever known people who always would crush these two kingdoms just as
seem to have a sour attitude? No matter it had all the rest.
what the circumstances, they tend to see Ezekiel singled out Edom for special at-
things in the worst possible light. Such tention because the Edomites had played
people can quickly put you in a melan- a significant role in Jerusalem’s destruc-
choly mood and ruin your day! tion (Ob 10-14). They cut down the
Perhaps you felt a little like you were Judeans as they tried to flee, turned them
talking to one of those people as you read over to the Babylonians, or sold them into
Ezekiel 1-24. Ezekiel’s message focused slavery. God promised to lay Edom and
on God’s dissatisfaction with his people’s its cities waste. When he did, they would
spiritual condition. The prophet tried know he was the Lord.
many different tactics, but they all basi-
Philistia (25:15-17)
cally pointed out that God would judge
his people’s sin. The Philistines, ancient enemies of God’s
In chapters 25-48, the tone of Ezekiel’s people, also were soon to fall. They re-
messages begins to shift. The prophet de- joiced in Judah’s fall but God would judge
scribes how God will judge those who op- them, too. They also would learn the sting
pose his people, whether those people live of his wrath.
among them or in the nations surround- Tyre (26:1-28:19)
ing them. He also looks ahead to a glori- Ezekiel prophesied about Tyre in the year
ous day in which God will defeat sin for 587 B.c., around the time of Jerusalem’s
all time, restore his people, and dwell with fall. Tyre, a Phoenician port city, would
them forever. Ezekiel’s ministry contained
soon come under God's wrath.
many difficult challenges, but he still
Tyre rejoiced over Jerusalem's fall be-
closed his book on a positive note—God
cause it thought it would gain financially
was planning an exciting future!
by Jerusalem’s ruin. After all, Jerusalem’s
destruction meant one less competitor in
the world of trade! But Ezekiel vowed that
Ezekiel’s Message Tyre also would become spoil for the na-
tions and experience utter desolation and
Continues devastation.
(25:1-48:35) Tyre had often bought its way out of
trouble when enemies threatened her. At-
tacking kings would leave loaded with
Oracles Against the Nations riches and Tyre would promise to send
(25:1-32:32) more each year.
We already have seen how Isaiah and Je- Ezekiel mentioned such a situation re-
remiah proclaimed oracles against the na- garding Tyre and Babylon. Babylon re-
tions (Is 13-23; Jer 46-51). Ezekiel now took ceived a lot of money from Tyre but could
his prophetic turn at depicting these king- not destroy the city. Alexander the Great
doms’ ultimate lot. God would display his finally destroyed Tyre around 332 B.c. The
sovereignty over all of them. total desolation Ezekiel had prophesied
Ammon (25:1-7) came at last. All the nations would lament,
Ezekiel declared that Babylon would con- for Tyre’s fall also spelled financial trou-
quer Ammon. The Ammonites rejoiced in ble for many foreign merchants.
Judah’s fall, but God would judge them,
The people of Tyre also lamented their
too. When he did, they would know he leader. Note the leader’s pride in 28:2—
was the Lord. he claimed to be a god! He possessed great
riches and wisdom, but God would lay
Moab and Edom (25:8-14) him low.
Moab and Edom believed Judah was just Some Bible interpreters have noted the
like all the rest of the nations. Only through parallels between Isaiah 14 and Ezekiel 28.
a fluke of history had God’s people risen Isaiah 14 described the morning star, the
to prominence in the land. Ezekiel warned son of the dawn, whose pride God would
that Nebuchadnezzar’s mighty army humble. This proud ruler, like the ruler of

418
 Ezekiel 25-48

A shepherd
tends his flock in
the Judean hills.
The shepherds
of Israel did not
look after their
flock—God's
people—so God
himself
promised to be
their shepherd
(ch. 34).

suum §=E7zekiel 28, had also uttered pompous, ar- sequences. God promised that when the
Sheol
rogant boasts, lifting himself up to a level Day of the Lord came for the Egyptians,
with God. they would know that he was God.
Like Isaiah 14, Ezekiel 28 is another pas- Ezekiel began these prophecies in 587
sage many evangelicals believe describes B.c., a Short time before Jerusalem’s fall.
Satan because the language goes so far be- The prophet used Assyria as an example
yond what we would normally expect of of pride that led to a great fall. God had
a human ruler. Yet verse 12 specifically made Assyria great, but she congratulated
refers to the king of Tyre as the object of herself instead of praising him.
Ezekiel’s words. Also, the New Testament Ezekiel vowed God would treat Egypt
does not cite these verses as referring to as he had treated Assyria just twenty-five
Satan. Probably Ezekiel’s lofty language years earlier. Nineveh had fallen in 612
symbolically described the great material B.c.; Egypt would fall soon. Her pride
blessing God had given Tyre’s ruler. Other would lead to her downfall.
interpreters have understood Ezekiel’s In 585 B.c., Ezekiel chanted a lament for
words to have a secondary fulfillment in Pharaoh, king of Egypt. He compared
Satan.! Pharaoh to a raging sea monster in the
Sidon (28:20-26) bonds of captivity. God would use Baby-
lon to tame this monster. Egypt's fall
Sidon was another leading Phoenician
would bring fear to many because of
city. God said he would bring glory to
Egypt's high status at that time. As other
himself by judging Sidon. Neither Sidon
kingdoms saw Egypt's defeat, they would
nor Tyre would provide an irritation to
contemplate their own futures.
Israel anymore.
In haunting language, Ezekiel described
Egypt (29:1-32:32) God's taking Egypt to Sheol. There, Egypt
Ezekiel closed his oracles against the na- found a welcoming committee—Assyria,
tions with four chapters against Egypt. Elam, and Edom. These nations had also
Egypt at this time was one of Judah’s worst trusted in their own power and splendor,
enemies, mainly because of what Egypt but God had brought their dominion to
did not do. Egypt typically encouraged an end. Ezekiel warned the Egyptians they
smaller kingdoms in Palestine to revolt on would become like every other nation that
promise of Egyptian support.? But when had challenged God’s authority.
mighty kingdoms came against these king- The prophet’s words stand as a sober
doms, Egypt did nothing to help, and their warning today for any nation faced with
hapless neighbors suffered terrible con- the temptation to pride. All of us will one

419
Encountering the Prophets

day face death. How should we prepare belonged to him, not them. They had ig-
for that? The New Testament writers tell nored his commandments and shown
us we need to make our peace with God themselves unfit to possess it, and there-
through the Lord Jesus Christ. If we do fore, he had delivered them into exile.
that, death’s power over our lives will be But even in these desperate times, the
broken. Will our nation learn this lesson? people refused to listen to Ezekiel. They
Will we? heard the words, but would not allow
them to reach their hearts. “What a won-
Israel’s Restoration (33:1-39:29) derful preacher,” they probably said to one
So far in the Book of Ezekiel we have seen another. But they walked away from his
a lot to get discouraged about. Ezekiel has messages without any hint of change in
performed many symbolic actions through their lives.
which he warned the people of God’s im- People today often like to hear a good
pending judgment. In chapters 33-39, he sermon. They will listen to preachers who
began to describe the wonderful blessings can deliver a quality message and even
God had in store for his faithful people. enjoy their oratorical skill. But they do not
apply the truth they hear to their own lives.
Call to repentance (33:1-33)
Neither did Ezekiel’s audience. God
In chapter 33 God appointed the prophet warned them that one day, they would un-
as a watchman over the city (see also 3:17). derstand that Ezekiel was indeed a
A watchman kept watch for signs of the prophet of God. But by the time they re-
enemy and warned the people of any alized it, Jerusalem lay in ruins and they
threat or attack. Ezekiel was responsible
stood in captivity in Babylon.
to warn the people of their sin before God
judged them for it. He served as a spiri- God's flock (34:1-31)
tual watchman for God’s people. Ezekiel compared Israel’s leaders to shep-
The people felt discouraged as they herds who tended their flock (the people).
heard all these gloomy prophecies. (Per- He warned them to feed the flock, not
haps you feel this way as you read Ezekiel!) themselves. They were to use their posi-
Ezekiel presented God’s message using a tions of authority to serve the people, but
variety of creative techniques and meth- instead used their power for dishonest
ods. But the bottom line remained the gain or merely to satisfy their own needs.
same—God would judge his people for Even today, many Christian leaders fail to
their sin if they did not repent. Many of understand that leading means serving.
God's people felt their situation was hope- Ezekiel told them they were responsi-
less. Nothing could save them now! ble for God scattering the flock. Why? Be-
Ezekiel assured Israel the situation was cause the shepherds cared only for them-
not hopeless. God still held out the hope selves. They only cared about the sheep
of repentance, and would judge people insofar as the sheep brought blessing to
according to their own ways. Even if the them. The church today desperately needs
nation was headed for exile, individuals leaders who will give of themselves be-
could still turn to God and receive a right cause they care deeply for the people God
relationship with him through faith. And has given them to lead.
even in Jerusalem’s last days, if the whole What solution did Ezekiel present? God
nation repented, who knew what mercy himself would care for them! The Lord
God might extend? promised to regather his people, care for
The year was 587 B.c. and Jerusalem had them personally, and even reestablish King
fallen to the Babylonians. God had with- David over them. Many interpreters un-
held prophetic words from Ezekiel dur- derstand this passage as referring to the
ing Jerusalem's siege, but now opened the messianic kingdom.’ When the Lord Jesus
prophet’s mouth to bring the people a returns, he will establish his people and
message. care for them personally.
The exiles protested that the whole sit-
uation smacked of unfairness. “It was our Judgment on Edom (35:1-15)
land,” they said. “It’s not fair that they We mentioned earlier in the chapter how
took it.” God’s response indicated the land Edom sided with the Babylonians against
420
 Ezekiel 25-48

God’s people as Nebuchadnezzar con- God would bind his broken nation to-
quered Judah and Jerusalem. Perhaps that gether again.
is why Ezekiel singled out Edom for more
Gog and Magog:
special attention at this point in the book. The ultimate triumph (38:1-39:20)
God would humble the Edomites for their
Great
hostility and arrogance. When he did, they In chapters 38-39, Ezekiel looked far into
Tribulation
would know he was the Lord. the future to see some things that God
would do one day. Ezekiel up to this point
Blessing to Israel (36:1-37:28) had focused primarily on the events of his
God promised to restore Israel and reestab- own generation. The words he spoke now
lish them as his people again. This restora- had meaning for his day in that they chal-
tion included two aspects—physical lenged his hearers to live faithfully in light
restoration and spiritual restoration. of the great kingdom God would usher in
First, God promised to bring the people some day.
back to the land and rejuvenate it. He Bible scholars disagree over the mean-
would implore nature to come alive again, ing of Gog and Magog.’ The terms appear
and nature would respond in all its full- to describe the ultimate foe of God’s peo-
ness. The Lord would cause vegetation to ple. Revelation 20:8 also mentions them
sprout and bear fruit again as it had in the in an equally difficult context. We can say
days of God’s blessing. that whoever they are, God’s power will
Second, God promised to awaken the overcome them. As they gather against
people spiritually again. God had judged God’s people, the Lord will bring final vic-
his people to protect his holy character. He tory.
had to punish all sin wherever he found Ezekiel’s description of this battle par-
it! God’s patience was tempered by his jus- allels the Book of Revelation. God's call to
tice, and the day of justice came. God was the birds to eat the bodies of his van-
acting for his sake and when he brought quished enemies (39:17) sounds like the
judgment they understood at last that God call that accompanies Christ’s return (Rv
was Judge. 19:17). Many Bible interpreters have there-
As part of the spiritual re-creation Israel fore linked Ezekiel 38-39 with the time of
would receive a heart of flesh. God did not the Great Tribulation, the final period of
restore them to the land so they could lapse history before the Lord returns, brings vic-
into idolatry and rebellion again. He tory, and establishes his kingdom.’ Gog
would restore them to serve him faithfully. and Magog are defeated, and God secures
But they could do so only if his trans- absolute victory.
forming power touched their hearts. The The triumph of God is the triumph of
New Testament calls this experience the Israel. God’s people win because God
new birth (Jn 3:3, 5). wins. Most important, a spiritual out-
God then confirmed his words by giv- pouring occurs. People turn to God in
ing Ezekiel the famous vision of dry bones. large numbers as they realize he alone is
The vision described a two-stage resur- God. In that day, the Lord will be their God
rection. First, the dry bones received flesh and they will be his people.
on them. Second, they came to life!
The deadness of the dry bones symbol- Israel’s New Temple (40:1-48:35)
ized the deadness of the people’s hope. Evangelicals have long discussed the
They were dried up, hopeless, powerless! meaning and interpretation of Ezekiel
But God’s Spirit would breathe life into 40-48. Indeed, these chapters present some
them again. He was able to take them and of the greatest challenges facing Old Tes-
reunite them into one nation under his tament interpreters. Does the prophet
lordship. speak of events that were fulfilled after the
God gave the people a second sign. He exile, or does he refer to events yet future?
told Ezekiel to take two sticks and write And if the events are yet future, is Ezekiel
“Judah” on one and “Joseph” on the other. referring to Israel, the church, or both?
These two sticks represented Judah and Let’s look at the basic details of the chap-
Israel, respectively. Just as the sticks be- ters and then try to make some general
came bound as one in Ezekiel’s hand, so conclusions.

421
Encountering the Prophets

Setting (40:1-4) God's glory returns (43:1-12)

The year was 572 B.c. Ezekiel had served In Ezekiel 11 God’s glory had departed the
as a prophet for about twenty years. God temple. The glory had hovered over the
took Ezekiel to Israel to an unnamed high temple, then moved to the Mount of
mountain. From there Ezekiel could see Olives, then disappeared. But Ezekiel 43
God’s plans unfold in a vision. portrayed God’s glory returning to
The Lord instructed him to write down Jerusalem! The details also should remind
everything he saw. Much of the vision per- us of Ezekiel 1, where the prophet initially
tained to the new temple God was plan- saw angelic creatures, bright, dazzling
ning. We may find these descriptions and wheels, and the glory of God. God
details quite foreign, but as a priest, Ezekiel promised to set his glory there forever.
must have been fascinated with each item The altar (43:13-27)
God revealed. As you read Ezekiel 40-48,
Ezekiel described the altar of burnt offer-
try to imagine the prophet eagerly taking
ing’s dimensions. This altar stood in the
notes on everything God described.
temple court area. On it the priests offered
The courts (40:5-47) up the sacrifices the people brought. The
Ezekiel described the temple’s inner and prophet carefully gave precise details con-
outer courts. This was nothing new. He cerning the altar’s size and shape. He then
also saw special chambers for temple per- described in similar fashion the offerings
sonnel. Priests could go there and change the priests would offer in that day. And,
their garments, eat a meal, and more. most of exciting of all, God would accept
their offerings again, because he accepted
The temple and associated structures his people again.
(40:48-41:26)
Ezekiel depicted the utter splendor that The ministers and their duties
would characterize God’s house. Again, (44:1-45:8)
we may find such detail hard to follow, Ezekiel described a sealed gate on the
but God's priest was enjoying himself im- city’s east side. No one entered by it be-
mensely as he took it all in. Jerusalem had cause “the Lorp God of Israel has entered
lost its temple in 587 B.c., but God one day by it” (44:2). Interestingly, when Jesus en-
would restore it again. tered Jerusalem on Palm Sunday he prob-
ably came through this eastern gate.
Chambers for the priests (42:1-14) Jerusalem’s current eastern gate, located
Ezekiel again highlighted the chambers somewhere near where Ezekiel’s eastern
for the priests. The priests would some- gate would have been, is sealed shut be-
times eat on the temple grounds because cause a Muslim king heard of Ezekiel’s
someone would bring a sacrifice and part prophecy and wanted to make sure (too
of that sacrifice belonged to them. Priests late!) that no Jewish Messiah would come
could don their priestly robes in these through the gate. It serves as an interest-
rooms and change back into their ordinary ing commentary on Ezekiel’s prophecy.
clothes before they left. The prophet announced that God’s ho-
Perhaps such description excited Ezekiel liness would pervade the city. A zeal for
because he had missed out on being a holiness lay close to Ezekiel’s heart, for
priest. Nebuchadnezzar had taken him God had called the priests to mediate his
into captivity before he had a chance to holiness to the people. God worked
serve. Maybe Ezekiel hoped to serve in the through them to show people his holiness.
Lord’s new temple. And as the people came into right rela-
The temple area (42:15-20) tionship with him by faith, their lives
began to reflect his holy character. A holy
Ezekiel depicted a huge temple area five
people lives like its God, and God used
hundred reeds (1,500 yards) on a side.
the priests to help bring that about.
Such an area would be much larger than
the temple mount of Jesus’ day, which Offering regulations (45:9-46:24)
probably was about five hundred yards Prophets had often condemned the peo-
on a side. Clearly, God had big plans for ple for their use of dishonest weights and
his temple! measures (Hos 12:7; Am 8:5). In the day

422
 Ezekiel 25-48

Salt deposits on
the Dead Sea,
Israel. The lake
is so salty that
no fish can
survive. In
Ezekiel’s vision,
water flowed
from the temple
in Jerusalem
into the Dead
Sea, making it
fresh and
teeming with
life.

Ezekiel described, all would use honest peoples of all nations comprise Christ's
measures. Perhaps priests like Ezekiel gen- body, the church (Eph 2:11-22).
uinely grieved over the way people Ezekiel listed the tribal allotments. The
abused the sacrificial system and cheated priests and Levites surround the sanctu-
each other. This would not happen when ary, a feature some might expect in light
the Lord brought restoration. of their continual duties there. The prince,
Ezekiel said the prince will provide for who also would play an important role in
the national offerings. Some evangelicals national worship, had territory on the east
understand the prophet’s words as a ref- and west sides.
erence to Jesus Christ. Unfortunately, we
Jerusalem's gates (48:30-35)
cannot say for sure, as the New Testament
does not cite this passage. Jerusalem had twelve gates—one for each
tribe. The gates had tribal names written
The river (47:1-12) on them, a fact paralleled in the Book of
Ezekiel’s description of the river closely Revelation’s description of the new
parallels Revelation 22. Most evangelicals Jerusalem (21:12).
believe Revelation 22 describes heaven, Ezekiel closes his book by affirming that
and this fact raises questions about the in- after all is said and done, the name of the
terpretation of Ezekiel 40-48. Does Ezekiel city will be “The Lorp is there.” The per-
describe a restored temple on earth dur- sonal presence of the Lord with his peo-
ing the course of history, or something that ple stands as the goal of redemptive his-
occurs after Christ returns or in heaven? tory. He will be there—personally, visibly,
The river flows from the temple and pro- face to face in intimate fellowship with his
vides healing for the nations (47:12). This is people forever. For the Christian, the
also true in Revelation 22:2. God is concerned promise of God’s eternal presence remains
about the healing of his people forever. most precious. He promises believers he
will never desert them in this life, but he
Tribal boundaries (47:13-48:29)
also promises that one day, a new age will
The tribal boundaries appear basically dawn in which they will enjoy personal
similar to those from the reigns of David fellowship with him forever.
and Solomon. God’s people will include
native Israelites but also foreigners who Possible interpretations of Ezekiel
join themselves to God’s people by faith. 40-48
Such prophetic words beautifully fore- Evangelicals have suggested various in-
shadow the New Testament assertion that terpretations of Ezekiel 40-48.° One view

423
Encountering the Prophets

end of the great tribulation period and es-

tablish his rule with Jerusalem as his cap-
Key Places ital. During this time, the priests will offer
Ammon
sacrifices as a memorial to Christ’s aton-
ing work. According to this view, then, the
Moab
Edom
earthly reign of Christ will possess
markedly Jewish characteristics.
Key Terms Philistia
A third view understands these chap-
Tyre
Sheol
Sidon
ters as prophetically referring to the
Gog church. This position’s proponents may
Magog
Egypt perceive the events Ezekiel describes as
Great Tribulation being fulfilled today in some spiritual
millennium sense. Others believe his words refer to
life in God’s heavenly kingdom. They
point to Jesus words regarding his fulfill-
ATTAIN ing of the Law and the Prophets (Mt
millennium proposes that Ezekiel’s prophecy found 5:17-18) and suggest the church has taken
its fulfillment in the return and rebuilding Israel’s place in God’s redemptive pro-
of Jerusalem under Zerubbabel, Ezra, and gram (Gal 3:28-29).
Nehemiah. Because the people lacked the A fourth view combines the first and
faith to follow through completely on third views. It proposes that Ezekiel’s
God's promise, the temple never achieved words were partially fulfilled in the sec-
the dimensions Ezekiel described. ond temple period. The rest will be ful-
A second view argues that we should filled completely in the church age or in
take Ezekiel’s words as literally as possi- the millennial kingdom.
ble, but understand them to describe A fifth view suggests that we should un-
God’s future kingdom.’ Those who hold derstand Ezekiel’s language symbolically,
this position usually believe Christ will as apocalyptic literature.’ Ezekiel ex-
fulfill this prophecy during a one thou- pressed important spiritual truths about
sand-year reign on earth called the mil- God and his kingdom through tangible
lennium. The Lord Jesus will return at the terms his readers would understand.

Summary

ANSE

1. Ezekiel continues his message in chap- 5. God led Ezekiel to a high mountain,
ters 25-32 by directing oracles of judg- where he showed him a vision that re-
ment against the nations of Ammon, vealed the description of the new
Moab, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, Sidon, and temple, and God instructed him to
Egypt. write down everything he saw.
. In Ezekiel 33-39 the prophet describes . Each one of the twelve gates of
the blessings of the restoration. Jerusalem was designated for one of
the twelve tribes.
. Even in the worst of times the people
refused to listen to the prophet . Bible interpreters have many possible
Ezekiel and apply his messages to their interpretations of Ezekiel 40-48.
own situation.
. God's restoration of Israel would be
both physical and spiritual.

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 Ezekiel 25-48

Study Questions

1. What are the implications of Ezekiel’s 4. In the Book of Ezekiel, God promised
prophesying against other nations he would judge evil and restore his
(chapters 25-32)? How does God still people. What difference should that
show his power over all nations? promise make in the lives of God's
:
. Describe the role of the watchman in people today?
the Book of Ezekiel. In what sense do . Describe the various ways Christians
modern Christians have this role? have interpreted Ezekiel 40-48.
Do you lean toward a particular view
. Evaluate the statement, “Ezekiel’s au- yourself? If so, why?
dience listened to him, but they didn’t
really listen to him.” What subtle
warning does Ezekiel 33:30-33 give to
today’s Christian?

Further Reading

Cooper, Lamar Eugene, Sr. Ezekiel. New American Taylor, John B. Ezekiel: An Introduction and
Commentary 17. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament
1994. Strong on exegesis and exposition. Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1969.
Craigie, Peter C. Ezekiel. Daily Study Bible. Good college-level commentary.
Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983. For the
general reader.

Throughout chapters 40-48, he depicted them to himself. He will be their God and
God's perfect plan for his people, the last- they will be his people. He will show
ing presence of God with his people, and them his glory and care for them forever.
the blessings and responsibilities of life in And he will wipe away every tear from
God's coming kingdom. their eyes. Perhaps believers should
Whichever view of Ezekiel 40-48 we allow the Lord the freedom to fulfill
embrace, we should come away expec- Ezekiel’s words in the way he chooses.
tant. God is planning an exciting future! Whatever he does is certain to be beyond
He will restore his people and gather description!

425
“oe llewal
[Thi
ae a
 Daniel
The Kingdom of God—
Now and Forever

_ ¢ Daniel as Apocalyptic Literature ;

mot ‘Uniqueness of Apocalyptic Literature
- Characteristics of Apocalyptic Literature NS a

“Biblical” Apocalyptic
_e Contents of the Book of Daniel Objectives
~ Outline
After reading this chapter,
Overview
you should be able to
¢ The Theological Themes of Daniel
¢ Describe the distinctiveness of the Book of
The Sovereignty of God Daniel compared to the rest of the Old
The Pride of Humankind Testament
The Ultimate Victory of God's Saints ¢ Outline the Book of Daniel
¢ Problems of Interpretation ¢ Demonstrate how Daniel and his three
Bilingualism friends were faithful to God
Identify of the Four Kingdoms ¢ Describe the visions of Daniel
Vision of the “Seventy Weeks” ¢ Identify the three dominant themes
Historical Questions of the Book of Daniel
Date of Composition ¢ Tell how Daniel’s approach to the nations
differs from that of the other
Old Testament prophets
e Explain why there are problems
of interpretation in Daniel
e Respond to the charges that the
Book of Daniel is full of errors
¢ Evaluate the two positions taken
on the date of the Book of Daniel

427
Encountering the Prophets

KAMA
AAT AANA
Daniel is one of the most disputed and de- erated heroes of Israelite faith (such as
canon
bated books of the Bible. Yet its message Enoch, Abraham, Isaiah, or Ezra) who
ALANNA is clear and unmistakable. While Bible lived centuries before the books were ac-
apocalyptic tually written.
literature
scholars still wrestle with controversial is-
sues like date and historical accuracy, the These apocalyptic writings also share a
TATRA Book of Daniel consistently calls for faith- similar content. They are concerned with
intertestamen-
tal apocalyptic fulness among God’s people of every gen- the future and often reveal an eschato-
eration. The book relates the episodes and logical judgment. They usually divide his-
{AANA tory into distinct periods of time (for ex-
pseudonym
visions of Daniel, a believer trying to re-
main faithful while living in a foreign land ample, four kingdoms and seventy weeks
AAA hostile to his faith. of years). History culminates in final judg-
eschatological
ment, which rewards the good and pun-
NAAT
TEE EEE EEE EY ishes the wicked in a life beyond death.
vaticinium
This literature is sensitive to the dis-
ex eventu
Daniel as Apocalyptic tinction between the spiritual world and
TANNIN
intertestamen- Literature the physical world. Sometimes angels or
demons represent the supernatural world.
tal period
One of the reasons for the debate is the At other times, the recipient of the vision
AACA distinctiveness of Daniel when we com- is carried into the other world for a heav-
biblical
apocalyptic
pare it to other Old Testament books. The enly journey. So apocalyptic literature in-
Christian canon includes Daniel among volves both the temporal (eschatological
the prophets, but the Jewish canon groups time) and spatial (heavenly truth).
it among works it calls “the Writings” (see Many of these writings employ a tech-
discussion in chapter 1). Indeed, a casual nique whereby a well-known event of the
reading will reveal that Daniel is different past is cast in predictive, futuristic lan-
in content and style from the other Old guage. The author assumes the position
Testament prophets. But how is it differ- of a predictive prophet and speaks of the
ent and why? event as though it were still in the future.
Such a prophecy (known as a vaticinium
Uniqueness ex eventu, “prediction after the fact”)
of Apocalyptic Literature would lend credence to the whole mes-
Daniel is singular because it contains ma- sage if its readers believed it was a real
terial modern scholars call apocalyptic lit- prophecy. Some scholars believe the Book
erature. This type of literature is defined of Daniel used this technique (see below).
by the Book of Revelation in the New Tes-
tament, which is the oldest document ac- “Biblical” Apocalyptic
tually claiming the title “apocalypse” or The Old Testament contains a few pas-
“revelation.” The term refers to a body of sages that display certain, though not all,
documents containing a unique manner of these characteristics, and are generally
and style of communication, and having apocalyptic in nature (Jl 3, Is 24-27, and
in common a basic content.’ Apocalyptic parts of Ezekiel and Zechariah). Although
literature was widespread in Judaism these passages and the Book of Daniel
around the time of Christ and had a pro- clearly have apocalyptic features, they
found influence on early Christianity. show significant differences from the later
apocalyptic books of the intertestamen-
Characteristics tal period. We should probably view
of Apocalyptic Literature these sections, along with the New Tes-
The intertestamental apocalyptic books tament Book of Revelation, as compris-
have several characteristics in common. ing another literary category that we may
They always contain some type of vision. call “biblical apocalyptic.” This subcat-
The initial revelation is usually symbolic egory opens with historical material, and
and mysterious, and requires interpreta- gradually moves to the more apocalyp-
tion by a heavenly mediator. The name tic type of material (especially in Zech-
of the author, if given, is assumed to be ariah and Revelation).
a pseudonym or pen name. Many of Daniel has much in common with other
these books claim their authors are ven- Old Testament apocalyptic passages. Yet
428
 Daniel

An Assyrian when we compare the Book of Daniel with of the second half are the personal ac-
relief showing a
lion released
the Old Testament prophets in general, we counts of Daniel dated to the later part of
from its cage. see that this book is thoroughly unique. his life.
The Assyrian Other eschatological passages view the fu-
kings kept lions
for hunting.
ture from the perspective of Israel and the Outline
Daniel was covenant promises to God’s people. But
sentenced to be Daniel’s perspective is different. He con- I. The Preparation of Daniel and
put into a lion siders the secular world empires in the
pit.
His Friends (1:1-21)
light of God’s ultimate purposes and de-
scribes the coming, final kingdom of God II. Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream and
Daniel uses a universal panorama when Daniel’s Interpretation (2:1-49)
he describes the future.
Also, the purpose of the Book of Daniel III. The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)
is unique. This book does not call its read-
IV. Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream and
ers to repent and lead a new life, as is true
of many other prophets. The Book of Daniel’s Interpretation (4:1-37)
Daniel calls God’s people to faithfulness
V. The Writing on the Wall (5:1-31)
and obedience during times of hardship.
This is in line with its nature as apocalyptic VI. The Lions’ Den (6:1-28)
literature.
VII. Vision of the Four Beasts
(7:1-28)
VII. Vision of the Kingdoms (8:1-27)
Book of Daniel IX. Daniel’s Prayer and Vision of
The Book of Daniel conveniently falls into the Seventy Weeks (9:1-27)
two parts: the narrative stories of chapters
1-6 and the visions of chapters 7-12. The X. Message of Encouragement
stories of the first half relate the events of (10:1-11:45)
Daniel and his ministry in the foreign
courts of Babylonia and Persia. The visions XI. Troubles and Victory (12:1-13)

429
Encountering the Prophets

AANA
Overview 5. Belshazzar is the perfect picture of the
chiasm
arrogant ruler who thinks of himself as in-
Daniel 1-6 vincible. But God quickly turned his
The opening chapters contain three of the pompous rebellion into helpless terror
most famous stories of the Bible: Neb- (v. 6). In chapter 6, Daniel became the ob-
uchadnezzar’s burning fiery furnace ject of jealous hatred and deceit. But God
(chapter 3), the handwriting on the wall honored his spiritual fortitude, even in the
at Belshazzar’s party (chapter 5), and Dar- midst of the den of lions.*
ius’ den of lions (chapter 6). But all the sto- Each chapter of the historical section
ries of chapters 1-6 have in common a sin- opens with a specific problem that finds
gle theme: Daniel and his three friends resolution as the narrative progresses.
successfully bear witness to their faith be- Often the problem threatens the faith or
fore a hostile world. Though the circum- life of Daniel or his friends. But always,
stances are often unpleasant, these young the problem is resolved through the faith-
men consistently stand up for righteous- fulness of a servant of God faced with chal-
ness against overwhelming odds. In the lenging circumstances. In chapters 1, 3,
process they find that God is faithful. and 6, the religious faithfulness of Daniel
Chapter 1 introduces the young Daniel or his friends is directly attacked. In each
(probably a teenager) and his three friends. case, loyalty to God and faith in his holy
Nebuchadnezzar, the conquering Baby- character bring deliverance. In chapters 2,
lonian king, captured them and took them 4,and 5, Babylonian kings receive myste-
into exile to serve in his royal court. The rious messages from God that they are un-
Babylonians relocated Daniel, and at- able to understand (two are dreams and
tempted to train him in their pagan cul- one is an esoteric inscription). In all three
ture. They took away his family, his home, cases, the problem is resolved because God
his native Jerusalem, and anything that grants to Daniel the interpretation of the
might give him security in life. But Daniel divine communication.
was determined to obey God’s will for his Chapters 1-6 combine with chapter 7
life, even in what he ate. He refused to give and are intentionally organized around a
up his faith in God (1:8). Daniel proved concentric structure known as chiasm:
faithful in the little things first, and ulti- chapters 2 and 7 correspond, chapters
mately God honored him for his obedi- 3 and 6 correspond, chapters 4 and 5
ence and prepared him for a long life of correspond. Thus we have the following
service (1:9, 17). pattern.
In chapter 2 Nebuchadnezzar envi-
sioned a bizarre statue in a dream. Daniel 2 A vision of four kingdoms and their
was able to avert disaster by discerning end (Nebuchadnezzar)
both the dream and its interpretation. God 3 Faithfulness and a miraculous res-
thus demonstrated that he was in control cue (the three friends)
of earthly kingdoms (four represented in 4 Judgment predicted and experi-
the vision) and had given Daniel a special enced (Nebuchadnezzar)
gift of discernment (2:19). 5 Judgment predicted and experi-
Nebuchadnezzar attempted to compel enced (Belshazzar)
the entire Babylonian Empire to worship 6 Faithfulness and a miraculous res-
his ninety-foot tall golden idol (chapter 3). cue (Daniel)
The resistance of Shadrach, Meshach, and 7 Avision of four kingdoms and their
Abednego landed them ina burning, fiery end (Daniel)°
furnace. But God delivered them, and their
tenacious faith inspires all generations of This organization takes chapter 7 as a
believers. Nebuchadnezzar’s dream transitional chapter between the book’s
(chapter 4) was a mystery to every wise halves. Chiasm usually emphasizes the
man in Babylon except Daniel. Daniel was central point as the main thought of a unit.
miraculously able to warn Nebuchad- This would mean chapters 1-7 are con-
nezzar that his pride was inevitably going cerned with God’s punishment of proud
to be his downfall. rulers, as is clear from the midpoint at
Pride is also a central theme in chapter chapters 4 and 5. So the historical section
430
 Daniel

The concluding vision contains the clear-

Christian est Old Testament reference to the resur-
rection (12:1-3).
_ Citizenship Chapters 7 and 8 are intimately related
even though they are in different lan-
guages (see the discussion of bilingualism
Christians living in today’s world have both a below). Daniel's vision in chapter 7 fore-
responsibility to be faithful to God anda sees four kingdoms represented as ani-
_ responsibility to be productive citizens in society. mals that are increasingly more terrible in
Daniel, Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego serve appearance and conduct. Out of the last
well as examples of how to achieve such a balance. one emerges a pompous little horn that
The first priority for every Christian is to live speaks rebellious words, defies God’s au-
within the will of God. Any society's laws form a thority, and persecutes God’s people. As
practical framework conveying that society’s Daniel watches, he sees in his vision the
consensus on what is mutually beneficial for every “Ancient of Days” and “one like a son of
citizen. Christians should be committed to man,” who together establish a fifth and
upholding and obeying that moral consensus. But final kingdom, an eternal kingdom of the
in addition, Christians have a higher voice to obey. saints of the Most High. The vision of
Christians can and should contribute to society. chapter 8 foresees two of the creatures in
Daniel and his friends became high officials in the more detail. Again an earthly, human em-
government and served in the best capacity pire is responsible for inflicting suffering
available to them. But if the society demanded on the people of God.
allegiances or actions that interfered with their In chapter 9 Daniel was studying the
service to God and their commitments to live Book of Jeremiah and praying for the exile
within his will, they quietly disobeyed the law of to end. His prayer for Judah’s forgiveness
humankind. and restoration resulted in another vision
So Christians listen to higher orders. The world in which the angel Gabriel related the mys-
needs Christians to express opinions and stand as terious revelation of the seventy weeks.
correctives to the denigrating aspects of each Chapters 10-12 relate Daniel’s dramatic
culture. Jesus calls his church to be salt for the vision in which he sees an attempt to de-
world, which involves acting as a purifying agent, stroy Judaism in the second century B.c.
preservative and flavor enhancer (Mt 5:13). As the by the Greek ruler ANtTIocHUsS IV
light of the world, Christians are to reflect and EPIPHANES. This king epitomizes the
proclaim the salvation Christ died to provide (Mt pompous earthly ruler. Though he is un-
5:14-16). able to annihilate the people of God, he
inflicts them with unprecedented suffer-
ing. Ultimately, the supernatural forces of
| in general forms a theology of history in heaven intervene to ensure victory for
God’s kingdom. In chapter 12, Daniel
pe wcrent which God delivers those who faithfully
learned that the godly are not informed
cae eys represent him in the world and humiliates
about the timing of God’s final victory.
the proud who fail to acknowledge him.
AAA AAA God’s people must learn to live in faith
a Son of Daniel 7-12 and in the assurance of victory without re-
an 0
Though the visions of chapters 7-12 are in
D
quiring specific details.
CUOMO,
_ general less famous than the stories of the
Seventy sevens _ first half, they nonetheless contain indi- TOO

Eo
vidual passages that are well known for
their theological import. The vision of
The Theological
paints of the chapter 7 portrays God as “The Ancient Themes of Daniel
Ne of Days”; another figure is called “The There are many secondary theological
Son of Man,” a designation that Jesus ap- themes in the Book of Daniel that are ben-
plied to himself (Mt 16:27; 24:30; 26:64; Mk eficial for study, such as the role of prayer
8:38; 13:26, etc.). Chapter 9 includes the in Daniel (2:18; 9:3, 20-23) or Daniel’s
often discussed “Seventy sevens” or “sev- understanding of the Old Testament
enty weeks of years” passage (vv. 24-27). prophetic message in general (4:27). But
431
Encountering the Prophets

three themes dominate this book: the sov- relate how God’s servants (Daniel and his
ereignty of God, the self-destructive pride friends) were able to overcome the
of humankind, and the ultimate victory of strongest human forces of earth in their ef-
God's kingdom. forts to remain faithful to God. The first of
the visions (chapter 7) portrays three fright-
The Sovereignty of God ening beasts and a grotesque monster that
Other prophets of the Old Testament knew threatens to exterminate God’s people. But
that Yahweh, the God of Israel, was sov- the Ancient of Days prevails and estab-
ereign over the whole world, including lishes an eternal kingdom for his saints.
the other nations (e.g., Am 1-2). But Daniel Even in persecution and death, the sover-
illustrated this fact in graphic new ways. eign Lord of the kingdom will provide res-
Through both the stories and visions, urrection (12:1-3). In the stories, God was
Daniel demonstrated the lordship of God sovereign over all his past enemies. The
over the whole world, not just Jerusalem visions reveal how that sovereignty will
and the Israelites. This truth was meant to play itself out in human history.
be a source of great comfort for exiled Is- This emphasis on God's sovereignty
raelites living in a foreign context. leads naturally to the next two primary
This pervasive theme is apparent from themes of the book. Human pride and re-
the outset of chapter 1. The very first verse bellion are self-destructive because they
asserts that Nebuchadnezzar came to be- fail to acknowledge the sovereign Lord of
siege Jerusalem. The reader of the book the universe; God’s people will ultimately
may assume the Babylonian king has come succeed because with him they cannot fail.
in his own awesome strength and at his
own instigation. But the next verse makes The Pride of Humankind
it clear that Nebuchadnezzar was acting A further emphasis of the Book of Daniel
in accordance with the will of Yahweh: is the pride and arrogance of humankind
“The Lorp gave Jehoiakim into the hand and God’s total condemnation of ego-
of Nebuchadnezzar...” (1:2—Hebrew na- tism. In the stories of chapters 1-6, re-
tan, “give,” isa key word in this chapter). bellious pride is the issue behind the
After Daniel decided to resist the cul- problem that introduces each chapter. In
tural pressure to compromise, God “gave” the visions of chapters 7-12, the obsti-
(natan) him favor with Nebuchadnezzar’s nate arrogance of future world leaders is
chief of staff (1:9). Later, God “gave” (na- the enemy of God and his people. Ulti-
tan) the four young Jews surpassing mately in each case God has acted, or will
knowledge and discernment, and Daniel act, to turn human pride and arrogance
a gift for understanding visions and into shame and disgrace.
dreams (1:17). So this chapter emphasizes Nebuchadnezzar (chapter 4) and Bel-
God's sovereignty over the affairs of na- shazzar (chapter 5) are specific examples
tions (Babylon and Israel, 1:2) as well as of human pride (these chapters form the
individuals (Daniel and his three com- literary centerpiece of chapters 1-6, see
panions, 1:17). above). In both cases, their pride reduces
Specifically with regard to the nations, them to pathetic states of absolute help-
Daniel adds a new twist to the prophetic lessness and ridicule. After God has acted,
view of the nations. Most other prophets they are hardly recognizable as kings of the
have oracles against Israel’s enemy na- great and mighty Babylon (4:33; 5:6, 20).
tions (Is 13-23, Jer 46-51, etc.). But Daniel The pride of world empires forms a cen-
views the key empires in a sequential tral theme in chapters 7-12. Chapters 7
order of four, followed by a fifth, eternal and 8 portray a succession of proud world
kingdom. Rather than preaching sermons leaders, finally reaching a climax of im-
against Israel’s immediate neighbors, perial pride at the little horn with the big
Daniel sees visions of future empires that mouth (7:8). But a new heavenly kingdom
oppose God and oppress his people led by the Ancient of Days and the Son of
everywhere. Man replaces these proud earthly reigns.
Both the stories and the visions portray In chapters 10-12, the supernatural forces
a struggle between the successive rulers of of heaven will move to crush the ultimate
the world and God’s kingdom. The stories anti-Christian ruler of earth, who has ar-

432
 Daniel

rogantly raised himself above every god supreme in heaven and earth, and those
(11:36-45). allied with him share in his triumph. No
The Book of Daniel is especially rele- matter how severe the persecution, the en-
vant for every generation of believers be- emies of God cannot bring an end to his
cause it confronts pride as our ultimate community of believers. The unique apoc-
problem. Sin and rebellion always find alyptic nature of Daniel teaches that this
root in pride and self-absorption. So sal- has always been so (chapters 1-6) and al-
vation must involve confession, rejection ways will be so (chapters 7-12). Even in
of prideful self-sufficiency, and a depen- death, God’s people are victorious (12:1-3).
dence on God (Mk 8:34), all of which are Prevalent in this book is the idea of four
so magnificently modeled by Daniel, his great world kingdoms followed by a fifth
three companions, and later by the Saints (chapters 2 and 7). Interpreters have tra-
A replica of the of the Most High. ditionally taken these kingdoms to refer
Ishtar Gate,
ancient Babylon. to Babylonia, MeDo-PeRsIA, GREECE, and
The first half of The Ultimate Victory Rome respectively. But the accurate iden-
the Book of of God's Saints tity of the kingdoms is much disputed
Daniel relates
the events of Daniel also reveals much about the king- even among evangelicals.° Though the
Daniel and his dom of God. The fundamental message of precise details are in doubt, the message
ministry in the Daniel is that through every circumstance is clear and irrefutable. All earthly king-
courts of
Babylonia and
of life, it is possible to live a life of faith doms are temporary, even fleeting, no mat-
Persia. and victory with God’s help. God reigns ter how impressive they may look at the
moment. Ultimately the Son of Man will
usher in the eternal kingdom of the An-
cient of Days (7:14).
Although this promise is certain, the rest
of the book describes a delay in the arrival
of God’s eternal kingdom. During the
postponement, God’s faithful people will
endure severe testing and persecution at
the hands of proud, unbelieving leaders
of the world. The seventy weeks of years
(9:24-27) and the promise of the resurrec-
tion (12:1-3) presuppose that the faithful
saints of God will have to endure hard-
ship for a limited time. But those who
faithfully endure and await his timing will
participate in his final victory.
Daniel is a primary source for Old Tes-
tament eschatology. Together with the
New Testament Book of Revelation, it pro-
vides much of our data for various inter-
pretations about the endtimes. Though
Christians disagree on issues such as when
Christ will return and the details of his
reign, the most important question is
whether the church is currently living a
life worthy of his blessing and acceptance,
whenever he comes again.
In other words, the details of eschatol-
ogy are not as crucial as eschatological
ethics: behaving Christ-like now in this
world, and living in anticipation of his re-
turn. Daniel teaches that God’s people can
and should live holy, righteous lives while
suffering the injustices of this life. They
433
Encountering the Prophets

OES are encouraged to do so because God will the second century, assumes the empires
Maccabees
one day bring them ultimate victory. are Babylonia, Media, Persia, and Greece.
LEELA ULE Thus the kingdom of heaven that suc-
abomination
of desolation LLL LLL LLL MDBLBLBLLLLL LM LLL ED, ceeded the Greek period would be the Jew-
ish state set up by the Maccabees during
Problems of the second century B.C. (we will say more
Interpretation on this later). This position denies the pos-
sibility of detailed and accurate predictive
prophecy.
Bilingualism
Now, however, some evangelicals have
Interestingly, Daniel is one of only two accepted the possibility that the fourth em-
books in the Bible that are bilingual (Ezra pire was Greece while maintaining a sixth-
is the other).’ The book contains both He- century date for the book." The traditional
brew and Aramaic, a sister language of He- approach, which identifies the fourth king-
brew that slowly replaced it as the native dom with Rome, still has much to com-
language of exiled Jews. The most surpris- mend it to all readers of Daniel.
ing aspect about the interchange of Hebrew
and Aramaic is that the changes do not co- Vision of the “Seventy Weeks”
incide with the unit breaks of the book. In-
Daniel's vision of the “seventy weeks” or
stead of chapters 1-6 being in one language
seventy periods of time is also difficult to
and 7-12 being in the other, the book has
interpret (9:24-27). Many interpreters
Hebrew in 1:1-2:4a, Aramaic in 2:4b-7:28,
today assume the prophecy is ex eventu,
and Hebrew again in chapters 8-12.
Scholars have suggested many creative or written after the supposedly predicted
explanations for why the author of Daniel events that took place in the second cen-
used two languages.® The most widely tury B.c. The disruption of the sacrificial
held position believes the entire book was system and the “abomination of desola-
originally composed in Aramaic. The be- tion” are routinely dated to 167 and 166
ginning (1:1—2:4a) and ending (8-12) were B.c.? In this approach, the passage is no
later translated into Hebrew in order to real predictive prophecy at all, but only a
ensure the book’s acceptance into the retrospective look on events that have al-
canon.” All such attempts to explain the ready taken place.
bilingual nature of Daniel are highly spec- But many evangelical scholars argue
ulative. Perhaps the author used Aramaic that these verses are indeed futuristic, pre-
deliberately as a literary device to cast the dictive prophecy, and that they are most
stories set in Babylonia and Persia in a perfectly and completely fulfilled in Jesus
much different light from the visions of Christ, though there is little agreement on
chapters 8-12. the specifics of the interpretation. Daniel
saw details of the coming of Christ
Identity of the Four Kingdoms vaguely, as though looking across several
There are many difficult issues of inter- mountain ranges. The mountains farthest
pretation in the Book of Daniel. For ex- away are clear only in outline form and it
ample, in the previous section we men- is impossible for the viewer to gauge their
tioned that scholars disagree on the proper distance because of the interven-
identity of the four kingdoms of chapters ing mountain ranges and valleys. No
2 and 7. Many define the debate narrowly doubt Jews of the second century felt this
between evangelical and nonevangelical prophecy was fulfilled in their day. And
positions. The evangelical position would so it was partially, since they stood on an
assume the four kingdoms of Daniel 2 and intervening mountain range. “But guided
7 are Babylonia, Medo-Persia, Greece, and by the Holy Spirit, [Daniel] was actually
Rome. In this way, the kingdom of heaven pointing to the coming of Jesus Christ
may be clearly identified with the coming more than a century and a half later.”"°
of Christ and the birth of Christianity dur-
ing the Roman period. Historical Questions
On the other hand, the nonevangelical The Book of Daniel, then, contains certain
position, which usually dates the book to passages that are controversial and pre-
434
 Daniel

sent more than one possible meaning. But to make Daniel only third in the kingdom
in addition to this, some modern scholars (6:7/516; 29).
assert the book is full of historical inaccu- Many also assume the author was con-
racies. Typically, they argue that the au- fused about Belshazzar’s father. Chapter
thor incorrectly identified historical fig- 5 frequently refers to Nebuchadnezzar as
ures and mixed up certain dates within his father, whereas we know that Bels-
the book. We now discuss a few of these hazzar was the son of Nabonidus, who
problems. may not have been related to Nebuchad-
nezzar at all. But it is widely known that
Nebuchadnezzar’s madness the terms “father” and “son” have broader
Many scholars regard Nebuchadnezzar’s meanings in Hebrew and Aramaic than in
madness (4:32-33) with skepticism. Some our own languages, and may be used to
even aver that it is “beyond reasonable designate the royal ancestor or even sim-
doubt” that the author has confused a tra- ply one’s predecessor on the throne. In ad-
dition about Belshazzar’s father, NABONI- dition it may be that Nabonidus was ac-
pus (found in the Dead Sea Scrolls), with tually a son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar.”°
Nebuchadnezzar.'* But documentary ev- Darius the Mede
idence from the later years of Nebuchad-
nezzar’s forty-three-year reign is meager, Another historical comment in Daniel that
scholars assume to be inaccurate is the ref-
and ancient references mention a severe
erence to Darius THE MEDE in 5:31.
illness just before his death.
Cuneiform sources from Babylonia prove
“King” Belshazzar that the city of Babylon fell in October 539
King Belshazzar plays an important role B.c., to the better-known and more famous
in the Book of Daniel, and three chapters Cyrus the Persian. Many scholars believe
are dated to his reign (5, 7, and 8). Yet, as Darius the Mede is strictly unhistorical.
far as we know, he never assumed the title Rather than assume mistaken judgment
“king” (only “son of the king”) in Baby- on the part of the ancient author, there are
lonian records.!° Indeed, his name was so several indications that the misunder-
little known to historians before the deci- standing is on our part due to lack of de-
pherment of cuneiform literature in the tailed information. One scholar has sug-
middle of the nineteenth century that some gested that Darius the Mede may be
identified with Gubaru, a certain provin-
considered the name a pure invention of
the author of Daniel.!” Some scholars who cial governor of Babylon.”! Or Darius the
Mede may have been a different individ-
study Daniel have often assumed the au-
ual also known as Gubaru who served,
thor was misinformed or confused about
not as provincial governor, but as the ac-
Neo-Babylonian history, since the book
tual conqueror of Babylon.”
often refers to Belshazzar as “king” and Anentirely different explanation is that
as “son” of Nebuchadnezzar. the name “Darius the Mede” is a throne
However, we now know that Belshaz- name for Cyrus the Persian, and that they
zar had been established as a co-regent are in fact the same individual.”’ There is
with Nabonidus his father for ten years linguistic evidence for the idea that Daniel
and exercised royal authority during that 6:28 should be translated “Daniel pros-
time.!® The author of Daniel has related a pered in the reign of Darius, that is, in the
situation in which Belshazzar is acting reign of Cyrus the Persian.” The Aramaic
king, rather than the official state co-re- word “and” (translated “that is” here)
gent.!? The Aramaic word “king” is sometimes clarifies what goes before it,
broader than our English term. It was ap- and in this case explains that the two
propriate for the author of Daniel to refer names belong to the same person.”4
to Belshazzar as king, since Nabonidus Whichever of these explanations seems
appears to have been out of the picture at more attractive, we should not assume the
this time. Actually the author was quite Book of Daniel contains historical inaccu-
informed on Neo-Babylonian history, since racies. Before the discovery of the relevant
he knew that Belshazzar himself was only Babylonian documents, many scholars as-
the second in the kingdom and could offer sumed Belshazzar was completely ficti-

435
Encountering the Prophets

AAACN tious. But now it is clear the ancient au- under a pen name) like other apocalyptic
vaticinium
ex eventu thor was much closer to historical accu- books. Thus the first-person account of the
racy than previously thought. Although visions in chapters 7-12 is actually that of
several historical difficulties remain in the the historical Daniel. This option assumes
book, the author of Daniel was not con- the book is what it claims to be: a book
fused about historical events, as modern about the exiled Daniel, his experiences in
scholars often suggest. We should give the Babylonian and Persian courts, and
credit to the ancient author and assume his visions.
any inconsistencies are due to our own The second option holds that the book
lack of available data. The burden of proof as it stands comes from the second century
continues to rest on those who wish to dis- B.c. Many scholars believe the Aramaic sec-
credit Scripture. tion (2:4b-7:28) was composed sometime
in the third century B.c. and then incorpo-
Date of Composition rated into the current arrangement during
All of these difficult questions relate in the Maccabean crisis. When Antiochus IV
one way or another to the most contro- Epiphanes threatened to destroy Judaism
versial problem of all: When was the book in the 160s B.c., an author living in Judea
composed? There are basically two op- wrote an introduction in Hebrew and the
tions: either the book came from the late visions of chapters 8-12 to round out the
sixth century B.c. or it was written dur- book. The author wanted to encourage the
ing the second century B.c.”° The first op- Jews to remain faithful during the crisis
tion emphasizes the differences between and trust in God for deliverance.
Daniel and the rest of apocalyptic litera- This second approach assumes Daniel
ture. The second option maximizes the has much in common with the rest of apoc-
similarities. alyptic literature. It assumes the book is
Our first option is to accept Daniel as a pseudonymous, written in the name of a
composition from the late sixth century mythological Daniel who is known only
B.C., in which case it must be genuine pre- vaguely elsewhere.”° It also assumes the
dictive prophecy and not merely prophecy specific prophecies of the book are prophe-
after the event (vaticinium ex eventu, see
cies made after the events had already oc-
above). In this case, there is no need to pre- curred. The author has presented them in
sume the book is pseudonymous (written futuristic garb to encourage the readers to
remain faithful to God.” This option as-
sumes the book is an attack on the anti-Ju-
daism policies of Antiochus.
One of the great difficulties with this
Key Terms second option is that it assumes pseudo-
canon nymous works were accepted into the
apocalyptic literature canon. We have no conclusive evidence
intertestamental that literature written under a pen name
Key People/ apocalyptic was ever admitted into the canon.”® But if
pseudonym it were in this case, the community of faith
Places eschatological would have accepted a pseudonymous
Antiochus IV Epiphanes vaticinium ex eventu document as Scripture ina startlingly brief
Nabonidus intertestamental period period of time (presumably one or two
Darius the Mede biblical apocalyptic centuries). Moreover, pseudonymous
Belshazzar chiasm works normally used the name of a ven-
Medo-Persia Ancient of Days erated hero of faith from the past: Enoch,
Greece Son of Man Abraham, Moses, Ezra, and so on. But
Rome seventy sevens Daniel is mostly unknown outside the
Qumran Saints of the Most High Book of Daniel.
Maccabees Furthermore, the second-century date
abomination of for Daniel fails to explain the book’s major
desolation influence on the QUMRAN community as
reflected in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The large
number of fragments and copies of Daniel
436
 Daniel

Summary

1. The Book of Daniel is classified as 6. Daniel is the primary source for escha-
apocalyptic literature and is unique in tology in the Old Testament.
many ways. 7. There are problems of interpretation
2. The characteristics of intertestamental with the Book of Daniel as it is bilin-
apocalyptic literature are: it contains a gual, the interpretation of each of the
vision and requires interpretation by a four kingdoms is difficult, and the vi-
heavenly mediator, the author’s name sion of the “seventy weeks” is also dif-
is a pseudonym, it has similar content ficult to interpret.
in that it divides history into periods 8. Evangelical and nonevangelical schol-
of time and history ends as a final ars disagree on the identity of the
judgment, it involves the temporal four kingdoms.
and the spatial, and it often takes a
past event and writes it as a prediction 9. Many modern scholars point to Neb-
for the future. uchadnezzar’s madness, and the facts
about Belshazzar and Darius the Mede
3. Old Testament apocalyptic literature to conclude that the Book of Daniel is
does not have all the features of the full of errors.
intertestamental apocalyptic literature.
10. The two positions on the date of
4. There are two parts to Daniel: the nar- Daniel are the second century and the
rative story (1-6) and the vision (7-12). late sixth century B.c.
5. The dominant themes of the Book of 11. One of the major problems with the
Daniel are the sovereignty of God, the theory that Daniel was written in the
self-destructive pride of humankind, second century is that it assumes that
and the ultimate victory of God's pseudonymous works were accepted
kingdom. into the canon.

Study Questions

. Define apocalyptic literature. first seven chapters of Daniel. What is

. How is Daniel unique from other Old the central thought in this chiasm?
Testament books? . What are some of the more well-
. What is the basic call the Book of known visions contained in chapters
7-12?
Daniel puts forth to its readers?
. How are the themes of faithfulness
. Discuss some of the major theological
and loyalty to God and deliverance by themes in the Book of Daniel.
God worked out in Daniel? . Discuss the problems in interpreting
. Explain the chiastic structure of the Daniel.

437
Encountering the Prophets

Further Reading

Baldwin, Joyce G. Daniel: An Introduction and Russell, D. S. Daniel, An Active Volcano: Reflections
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament on the Book of Daniel. Louisville:
Commentary. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1978. Westminster/John Knox, 1989. Helpful theological
Excellent, though brief exposition. observations with many contemporary
Collins, John J. Daniel: A Commentary on the Book applications.
of Daniel. Hermenia. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993. Wenham, Gordon J. “Daniel: The Basic Issues,”
Best and most complete presentation of mainline Themelios 2, no. 2 (1977):49-52.
critical scholarship. Assumes late date. Wiseman, Donald J., ed. Notes on Some Problems in
Goldingay, John E. Daniel. Word Biblical the Book of Daniel. London: Tyndale, 1965.
Commentary 30. Dallas: Word, 1989. Informative Scholarly assessment of the difficult issues in
and thorough, though limited in its usefulness Daniel, from an evangelical position.
due to dogmatism about the late date of Young, E. J. The Prophecy of Daniel. Grand Rapids:
composition. Eerdmans, 1949.

among the scrolls demonstrates the book’s lical apocalyptic was thus the forerunner
popularity at Qumran. There would have of later Jewish and early Christian apoca-
been insufficient time for the book of lypses. Chapters 7-12 must have their ori-
Daniel—so recently composed—to have gin in Daniel, and the stories of chapters
such profound influence on the Qumran 1-6 have proven to be historically reliable.
community.”? The evidence that the book is genuinely
In conclusion, we should recognize predictive in nature rather than retro-
Daniel as “biblical apocalyptic,” a subcat- spective is convincing, and the sixth-cen-
egory of apocalyptic literature. It is apoc- tury date of SOS ON should not be
alyptic in nature (especially chapters 7-12), dismissed lightly.°°
though it differs significantly from the in-
tertestamental apocalyptic literature. Bib-

438
 Hosea, Joel, and Amos
A Call for Repentance
and a Promise for Blessing
TOOSS

AZ

AZ

CAAA
——_—

ZZ

BBB
a

ABBA

eEeOn—V—AA

_ ¢ Hosea: Sharing God's Heartache

| Outline .
The Man AAA

His Times
ie Major Themes of the Book Objectives
Content of the Book
After reading this chapter,
Hosea and the New Testament
you should be able to
¢ Joel: The Day of the Lord
¢ Outline the basic content
Outline of the Book of Hosea
Joel’s Background ¢ Describe the time period
Joel’s Message of Hosea’s ministry
¢ Amos: Shepherd for Social Justice e List the themes of Hosea
Outline ¢ Outline the basic content of Joel
Amos's Background ¢ Outline the basic content of Amos
Amos’s Message ¢ Identify the eight nations
Amos prophesied against
¢ List the five visions of judgment
Amos prophesied

439
Encountering the Prophets

A famous poem reads like this: Gomer committed adultery against him,
and Hosea suffered the agony of jealousy,
For the want of a nail, the horseshoe betrayal, humiliation, and shame. Yet as
was lost, those around him laughed, Hosea proph-
For the want of a horseshoe, the horse esied. He told Israel that she, God’s wife,
was lost,
was just like Gomer. As God called hus-
For the want of a horse, the rider
was lost,
bands and wives to total commitment to
For the want of a rider, the battle each other, so God expected total com-
was lost, mitment from his bride Israel. As Hosea
For the want of a battle, the kingdom lived among his hearers, they saw his
was lost, pain and received his message through
And all for the want of a horseshoe nail! his words and life.
We know little about Hosea’s back-
The point of the poem, of course, is to ground. Hosea’s name means “The Lord
show how sometimes small and seem- saves” and is related to the names
ingly insignificant items can have a major “Joshua” and “Isaiah.” His father, Beeri,
impact on present and future events. appears only in Hosea 1:1. No other Old
The prophets of the last twelve books of Testament book mentions this prophet,
the Old Testament have been designated and New Testament references to Hosea’s
the Minor Prophets. Most of these books words give us no information about the
have only a few chapters, and at first prophet himself.
glance, they may seem a small and some- We do know that Hosea lived and
what insignificant part of God’s word. But prophesied in the northern kingdom. Al-
the minor prophets pack a powerful spir- though he had an occasional word about
itual punch all their own. Each one is Judah,! Hosea focused on Israel. He chal-
minor in size but mighty in impact. lenged God’s people to recognize their
As you study the minor prophets, try to sinful ways and repent.
understand what unique contribution
each prophet made to the biblical revela- His Times
tion. The first three we will study are Hosea began his ministry during a pe-
Hosea, Joel, and Amos.
riod of prosperity. In the north, Jer-
oboam II (793-753 B.c.) restored Israel’s
ATEN
border from HaMatH in Syria to the Dead
Hosea: Sharing Sea (2 Kgs 14:25). In Judah, Uzziah
(792-739 B.c.) extended his dominion into
God's Heartache Philistia along the coast, received tribute
from the Ammonites, fortified Jerusalem,
Outline and amassed a strong army (2 Chr
26:6-15). Israel and Judah’s territory ex-
I. Hosea’s Family/God’s Family panded to what it had been in David’s
(E1=3%5) time.
With economic prosperity, however,
II. God Takes Israel to Court
came spiritual trouble. The people had
(4:1-5:15) already adopted many of the religious
III. Hosea’s Invitation Tarnished by practices of those around them. They no
Reality (6:1-11:11) longer worshiped the Lord alone, but also
served other gods. They worshiped the
IV. God’s Final Arguments against god Baal, Canaanite god of agriculture
Israel (11:12-13:16) and fertility, and his consort Asherah.
They built shrines to these gods, and
V. The Possibility of Restoration adopted the sexual fertility rites that ac-
(14:1-9) companied their worship. Sacred prosti-
tution actually became part of Israel's re-
The Man ligion! Gradually, the people became
Hosea’s great courage and conviction convinced that Baal, not the Lord God,
shaped his prophetic ministry. His wife had provided them with life’s blessings.
 Hosea, Joel, and Amos

Most Bible scholars date the beginning Hosea urged Israel to press on to know
of Hosea’s ministry to late in Jeroboam’s the Lord fully, for only then could she live
reign. At this time, Assyria was rising to as he expected (6:3).
power, and would soon establish itself as
a world empire under TIGLATH-PILESER IIL. God's frustrated love
Many in Israel saw this nation as a possi- As Hosea experienced Gomer’s unfaith-
ble ally, but Hosea warned against trust- fulness, he learned more of God’s pain and
ing Assyria for anything (5:13; 7:11). Trag- frustration with Israel. God’s frustration
ically, history would prove the prophet’s surfaces again and again in Hosea’s words.
concerns well-founded. Since Hosea does God deeply loved his people, and seeing
not specifically describe Samaria’s fall, their adultery truly grieved him. He knew
most interpreters date the writing of his he would have to judge their sin, and yet
book to just before 722 B.c. how could he send his own people—his
own bride—into exile?
Major Themes of the Book God’s love would eventually prevail.
Though Israel had hurt him, God ex-
Spiritual adultery pressed his special love for her in Hosea’s
God created marriage for humanity’s closing chapter. If she repented and trusted
good. He ordained that a man and a in him, God would forgive her and heal
woman should make a lifelong commit- her. He could make her into what he had
ment of love to each other. Adultery vio- intended her to be all along—his own
lated the marriage relationship and de- beautiful bride.
filed the basic institution God had
established for humanity’s well-being. Content of the Book
Hosea declared that in a spiritual sense,
God and Israel were husband and wife. Hosea’s family/God’s family (1:1-3:5)
Israel had forsaken her marriage bond God commanded Hosea to marry Gomer,
with the Lord, joining herself to Baal and a woman who proved unfaithful to Hosea.
other lovers. She had mocked the divine Scholars have debated the nature of this
love that had made her a people. She had command. Did God command Hosea to
taken God’s gifts and used them to wor- marry a woman who was already sexually
ship idols (2:8). Israel was committing immoral, or did Gomer become unfaith-
nothing less than spiritual adultery. ful after her marriage to Hosea?
Gomer’s unfaithfulness portrayed ona Some scholars have found difficulty
human level the spiritual adultery Israel with the idea that God would command
was committing. Gomer defiled herself his prophet to marry a prostitute. They
and hurt her husband; Israel defiled her- argue that Gomer became unfaithful after
self and grieved God. Hosea married her, and that this under-
Hosea’s graphic language (e.g. 2:2-3, 10) standing better fits the analogy of God and
shows the depths to which Israel had Israel (2:15). In this interpretation of the
plummeted, as God through his prophet text, the expression “adulterous wife”
called his bride back to himself. refers to what Gomer became after her
marriage to Hosea.
Knowledge of God Other scholars have focused their at-
The Christian life is a relationship with the tention on the Hebrew expression trans-
living Lord. God calls people to know him lated “adulterous wife” (Nrv). The word-
deeply and to grow in that knowledge. ing literally reads “woman/wife of
Regular prayer, Bible study, and meeting harlotries.” The Hebrew word in question,
with other believers are some ways God zenanim (“harlotries” ), occurs twice in 1:2
uses to help people know him better. and a total of twelve times in the Old Tes-
Hosea challenged Israel to know God. tament.? In the ten other occurrences, the
The people lived lives that totally opposed term refers to past or present harlotry,
God because they did not know him never to future harlotry. This evidence sug-
(4:1-3). They rejected his Law and gests that Gomer was already a prostitute
prophets. God lamented, “My people are when Hosea married her.
destroyed for lack of knowledge” (4:6). In either case, God’s actions certainly

441
Encountering the Prophets

seem extreme to us, but so were the times. her treachery was everywhere. She thought
God determined that he would get his God did not see her sin, but God saw
point across to Israel, even if he had to in- everything. The leaders failed to consult
vite one of his prophets to share in his own the Lord, and this failure brought tragic
experience.? consequences.
Hosea’s three children received sym- Israel's harlotry included both religious
bolicnames that warned of God’s coming and political aspects. She committed reli-
judgment. Jezreel alluded to the place gious harlotry when she forsook God's
where Assyria would win a decisive vic- laws and worshiped idols, adopting some
tory over Israel. Lo-ruhamah, “not pitied,” of her neighbors’ worship patterns. She
indicated that God would not pity Israel committed political harlotry when she ap-
any longer. Lo-ammi, “not my people,”
pealed to other nations rather than to God
pointed to a coming separation between
God and Israel.
for help. She turned to Assyria and then
Nevertheless, a ray of hope shone to Egypt, but God said her only hope lay
through the darkness of God’s judgment. in him.
God promised he would restore Israel for Hosea compared Israel to four things in
his very own, depriving her of her im- 9:10-11:11. First, Israel was like a bunch of
moral ways and making her holy instead choice grapes in the wilderness that had
(1:10-11; 2:6-23). Hosea portrayed this spoiled; God said she would bear no more
truth by buying Gomer back after she had fruit. Second, Israel was like a vine that
abandoned him and somehow become the grew according to its own plan, choosing
property of another (3:1-5).* He had her own way instead of God’s way. Third,
brought her home, and one day, God Israel was a trained heifer who loved to
would do the same for Israel. thresh grain because she could eat as she
God takes Israel to court (4:1-5:15) threshed.° God said he would yoke Israel
The language of Hosea 4:1, especially the to work in fields where righteousness and
Hebrew word rib (“charge” in the niv), kindness grew. Fourth, Israel was like a
suggests that God was bringing a legal toddling son. God had loved him, called
dispute against Israel. When Israel failed him out of Egypt, raised him, taught him
to live up to her part of the covenant God to walk, and Israel, in ungrateful response,
had made with her, God had the right to had turned to Baal.
bring charges against her. Israel stood God's final arguments against Israel
guilty before God.
(11:12-13:16)
Hosea declared that the people did not
really know God. This lack of knowledge Hosea tried to teach the people a lesson
led to sin, which would bring judgment. from history. Their forefather Jacob had
The priests used their office for dishonest wrestled with his brother in Rebekah’s
gain; they pointed out the people’s sin so womb, and as a man, he had wrestled with
the people would bring them more sacri- God. He had sought God’s favor and pre-
fices.° While some in Hosea’s day appar- vailed. Later, God had sent many prophets
ently blamed the women for harlotry, God to his people. These men received nu-
said that since both men and women par- merous visions and prophecies, all calling
ticipated in sexual sin, both were guilty the people back to their God who loved
before him. Many in Israel held out hope them. The prophets’ messages, however,
that Assyria would rescue them from their fell on deaf ears. Israel did not follow
troubles, but Hosea warned that Assyria Jacob’s example, and she did not heed the
would not stop God’s judgment. prophets’ words.
Hosea’s invitation tarnished God warned Israel her judgment would
by reality (6:1-11:1) be swift. God would remove her king, in
Hosea invited Israel to return to the Lord, whom she trusted so completely. God
to know him more intimately, but the peo- would prove him powerless in the face of
ple largely ignored the prophet’s invita- divine power and wrath. Samaria, the
tion. Israel had transgressed the covenant; northern capital, would fall—and hard!

442
 Hosea, Joel, and Amos

Part of the The possibility of restoration (14:1-9) KATA

Joel: The D
valley of Jezreel,
near Mount Despite Hosea’s scathing indictment of Is-
Tabor. The valley rael’s sin, he still held out hope for the na-
contains the tion and its citizens. He called them to re- of the Lord
ruins of
Megiddo, from pent and to acknowledge that God alone
which the name could provide for their needs. In return, Outline
Armageddon is God promised them healing and blessing.
derived (JI 2).
Hosea used agricultural terms to describe I. The Locust Plague (1:1—20)
Israel’s future restoration. Israel would
II. The Day of the Lord (2:1-17)
flourish like the vine, blossom like the lily,
take root like the trees of Lebanon, become III. The Lord’s Answer (2:18-3:21)
all God wanted her to be.
Joel’s Background
Hosea and the New Testament
During Joel’s day, a locust plague came
The New Testament cites Hosea several upon the land such as its citizens had never
times. When Joseph and Mary brought the seen. Joel described this locust plague as
infant Jesus out of Egypt, the Gospel writer “the Day of the Lorp” (1:15; 2:1, 11,31) and
Matthew affirmed in 2:15 that God had ful- called the nation to repentance. He also
filled Hosea 11:1 again—‘Out of Egypt I warned that an even more terrible day of
called my son.” When Jesus’ enemies chal- judgment was coming, one for which the
lenged him because he associated with sin- people needed to prepare themselves.
ners, Jesus challenged them to learn the We know very little about Joel’s back-
meaning of Hosea 6:6—“I desire mercy and ground other than that he was the son of
not sacrifice” (Mt 9:13). Finally, the apostle Pethuel. The name “Joel” appears else-
Paul cited Hosea 1:10-11 and 2:23 in Ro- where in Scripture, but we have no evi-
mans 9:25-26. Paul explained that God was dence to connect the prophet with anyone
creating for himself a people that would in- else who had that name. His name means
clude Jews and Gentiles alike. Gentiles who “The Lord is God.” Scholars disagree as
had never known the Lord would become to when Joel prophesied, suggesting dates
his children through faith in Jesus Christ. anywhere from 900 B.c. to 400 B.c. We pro-
443
Encountering the Prophets

pose a date of somewhere about 500-450 the apostle Peter announced that the Lord
B.c. for three reasons. First, 3:1-3 appears had fulfilled Joel’s words. The Holy Spirit
to refer back to the Babylonian exile. Sec- had come, indwelling all believers and en-
ond, Joel mentions priests and elders abling them to become like Jesus Christ
(1:13-14), but no king, which may suggest their Lord (Acts 2:14—21).
that Judah did not have one at the time. Third, God would judge unrepentant
Since the prophet called the entire nation nations. He would gather those who had
to repentance, it would be odd if he omit- sinned against him and his people and
ted the royal house. Third, Joel mentions repay them according to their evil. All the
no opposition from pagan cults. This fact earth would know God’s sovereignty in
seems to reflect postexilic conditions.” that day!
Fourth, Judah would enjoy special bless-
Joel's Message ing and prominence. Joel used figurative
The locust plague (1:1-20) language to describe the people’s coming
agricultural, political, social, and spiritual
Joel depicted the locust plague as un-
commonly severe. Earlier generations had benefits. Nature would flourish as God re-
not witnessed such a terrible thing, and moved Judah’s enemies, and the people
later generations would surely remember would live in harmony, for their God
it. Joel compared the locusts to a mighty would dwell with them.
army that ravaged the land and laid it bare.
Every part of society felt the effects of the
plague. Joel called the people to humble
themselves and cry to the Lord, for he
alone could save them. for Social Justice
The Day of the Lord (2:1-17)
Joel saw in the locust plague a sign of Outline
things to come. A day of darkness and
gloom was coming, and only those whose I. Superscription and Introduction
hearts were right before God could endure (1:1-2)
it. The prophet challenged the people to
return to God with all their hearts, not just II. Israel Is No Better Than the
with external signs of repentance (vv. Other Nations (1:3-2:16)
12-13). This call to deep repentance forms
III. Various Prophecies against
a turning point in the book. Only through
Israel (3:1-6:14)
repentance and faith could the people hope
for God’s compassion and restoration. IV. Five Visions of Judgment
The Lord’s answer (2:18-3:21) (7:1-9:10)
The Lord’s answer to his people included V. Promises of Restoration and
four parts. First, the land would experi-
Blessing (9:11-15)
ence restoration. The Lord would have
compassion on his people and renew na- Amos's Background
ture so the crops would grow abundantly.
The Lord would remove oppressors and Amos worked among the sheepherders of
display his glory, and God’s people would Tekoa, a small town in Judah about ten
rejoice in him. miles south of Jerusalem (1:1). The He-
Second, the people would experience a brew word translated “sheepherder”
spiritual awakening. Joel declared that one (nogéd) is not the usual word for “sheep-
day the Lord would pour out his Spirit on herder.” It occurs elsewhere only in
people in every category of society—male 2 Kings 3:4, where it refers to Mesha, king
and female, young and old, slave and free. of Moab. Because of this fact, some schol-
Cataclysmic events would accompany this ars have suggested that perhaps Amos
outpouring, and whoever called upon the was a wealthy shepherd. However, this
name of the Lord would receive his sal- argument rests on only two occurrences
vation (2:28-32). On the day of Pentecost, of the word nodgéd. Furthermore, Amos
444
 Hosea, Joel, and Amos

himself seems to emphasize his humble know exactly when each nation commit-
background (7:14). ted its crime.
Amosalso earned part of his living tend- Numerical expressions like “For three
ing sycamore trees. Certain kinds of sins ... even for four” occur elsewhere in
sycamores in Palestine produce figs. Fig the Old Testament (Jb 5:19-27; 33:14; Ps
growers helped the figs ripen by piercing 62:11-12; Prv 6:16-19; 30:15b-16, 18-20,
them a short time before harvest.® 21-23, 29-31; Mi 5:5). By using this ex-
Amos grew up in Judah, but God sent pression, Amos was indicating that God
him to prophesy in Israel. Certainly many would be gracious to these nations no
Israelites looked at Amos with suspicion longer. The time to pay for their sins had
(7:10-13). Nevertheless, Amos faithfully come.
performed his prophetic ministry. He Amos commenced his prophecy with
called Israel to repent of her sin and es- Damascus and Philistia, two kingdoms
tablish justice as the law of the land. God against whom Israel had always strug-
desired his people to love him and to re- gled. Damascus had brutalized the in-
flect that love to their fellow citizens. habitants of Gilead, while the Philistines
Amos, like Hosea, prophesied during had deported captive Israelites to Edom
the reigns of Jeroboam II of Israel (793-753 to sell them as slaves. Amos then preached
B.c.) and Uzziah (= Azariah) of Judah
against Tyre, a kingdom that had enjoyed
good relations with Israel during the
(792-739 B.c.).? Economic prosperity and
reigns of David and Solomon (2 Sm 5:11;
political stability had led to Israel's spiri-
1 Kgs 5:1-12). Tyre, a merchant city, had
tual decay. This spiritual decay displayed
also sold Israelites into slavery in Edom.
itself in social injustice. The rich exploited
After speaking judgment against Dam-
the poor; the powerful dominated the ascus, Philistia, and Tyre, Amos prophe-
weak. Morality meant little or nothing. sied against Edom, Ammon, and Moab,
The Book of Amos does not specifically three of Israel’s blood relatives (Gn
mention Assyria. This omission may in- 19:36-38; 36:1). Edom, the closest blood
dicate that Assyria was not yet a major relative, had continually made war against
power in the ancient Near East. Further- Israel and showed no compassion to his
more, both Jeroboam and Uzziah ruled as brothers. Moab had desecrated the bones
co-regents during part of their reigns. The of Edom’s king, while Ammon had killed
fact that Amos only mentions Jeroboam the unborn babies of Gilead by cutting
and Uzziah may indicate that he prophe- them from their mothers’ wombs.
sied during the time when these kings Amos then turned to Judah, his own
ruled independently. If so, we may date people. In contrast to the other nations’
Amos’s prophecy somewhere between 767 crimes, Judah’s crime was spiritual in na-
B.c. and 753 B.c.!° The reference to the ture. Judah had forsaken the Mosaic law
earthquake in 1:1 does not help us pin- and followed after false gods. Each gen-
point the beginning of Amos’s prophecy eration plunged deeper into sin. Amos an-
because we do not know for sure when nounced that God would deal with Judah,
this disaster occurred." Sucha precise ref- too.
erence might indicate, however, that the When Amos first came to the northern
prophet’s ministry was fairly short. kingdom, many Israelites probably looked
at him with suspicion. Why, they won-
Amos's Message dered, had this southern prophet come up
north to preach? But as Amos began to
Israel is no better than proclaim his message, the people discov-
the other nations (1:3-2:16) ered they liked what he said. He was con-
Amos began by speaking against eight na- demning all their enemies!
tions that God had singled out for judg- Then Amos’s message suddenly took a
ment. Each of the eight judgment speeches new direction: God would now judge Is-
contains an announcement of God’s judg- rael! Amos dealt with Israel much more
ment, the reason for judgment, and the na- extensively because she had committed
ture of judgment. Most of the sins Amos so many sins! The powerful oppressed the
mentions appear only here, and we do not weak, caring only for their own personal
445
Encountering the Prophets

gain. Sexual sin abounded. The people en-

joyed the fruit of their wickedness in pagan
temples. God had redeemed Israel from
Egypt and brought her into Canaan, yet
Israel showed no gratitude. The people si-
lenced God’s prophets and mocked the
Nazirites who had dedicated themselves
to God’s service (Nm 6:1-21). Israel had
burdened God with her sins, and now she
would bear the punishment.
Various prophecies against Israel
(3:1-6:14)
Amos reminded Israel that God’s election
écid cant we can receive his offer of brought responsibility. God had indeed
tion. The Holy Spirit then begins to work in us chosen Israel and brought her out of
o make us more like Jesus (Rom 8:29). Egypt. He had blessed her more than other
_ The Bible clearly teaches that social justice should nations. God’s election was a great privi-
bea natural product of the gospel. Consider the lege, but also made Israel more account-
examples below: able for her sins. God’s word told her she
was wrong, but she refused to listen.
© The Law of Moses insists on fair treatmentof Amos used many methods to drive
foreigners, widows, and orphans (Ex 22:21-24). home his prophetic points. For example,
The prophets speak of God's concern forsocial he asked his hearers a series of rhetorical
justice, and demand fair and compassio! at questions with obvious yes-or-no answers
treatment of underprivileged people (Is 58 (3:3-6a). By doing so, he set up his audi-
Am 2:6-7). ses ence for his last question (3:6b): “When
Jesus AGNES. concern
« BIC those ho disaster comes to a city, has not the Lorp
caused it?” This last question surprised
The early church sentfa nine Amos’s hearers with its shocking truth—
Jerusalem (Acts Mt:27-30) God had brought calamity to turn the peo-
ple back to him.
Amos also challenged Israel by com-
paring her actions to the actions of other
nations. If the Philistines and Egyptians,
two of Israel’s early enemies, came to
Samaria and saw the city’s wickedness,
they would be appalled (3:9-15). The
Philistines and Egyptians lived by higher
moral standards than Israel did, and they
didn’t have God’s word to follow! There-
fore, God would bring an enemy against
Israel who would remove Israel's strength
and plunder her goods.
Key People/ The rich, pampered women of Samaria
were the prophet’s next target (4:1-3).
Place These women oppressed the poor, con-
Tiglath-Pileser III cerning themselves only with their own
Uzziah indulgences. Amos compared them to the
Key Terms Jeroboam || well-fed cows of Bashan, a region of rich
soil and good cattle (Ps 22:12; Is 2:13; Ez
Asherah Gomer
God's election Jezreel 39:18; Zec 11:2). The enemy would soon
Lo-ruhamah round them up and drag them away.
Lo-ammi Amos sarcastically challenged the peo-
ple to persist in their sacrifices (4:4-5). They
knew all the rituals so well! They brought
446
 Hosea, Joel, and Amos

ple into facing reality. If Israel persisted in

: Kingdoms sin, she would die.
Amos called the people to embrace true
values (5:4-17), but his call went un-
Damascus @ heeded. In seeking the Lord there was life,
but the people preferred their own ways.
They sought spiritual guidance at the false
religious sites Jeroboam had established.'
They rejected authority and mistreated the
poor. Many called for the Day of the Lord,
the day when God would judge his ene-
mies. Amos warned the people, however,
that the judgment would fall on them. God
hated and rejected their religious rituals
because those rituals did not flow from
lives of faith. What God really wanted was
justice and righteousness in the land
(5:18-24).
Many people had become complacent
or even arrogant. They trusted in Samaria
Samaria @ for deliverance instead of grieving over
Israel's spiritual ruin. Amos said these peo-
ple would be the first to go into exile
(6:1-14).
Bethel e Five visions of judgment (7:1-9:10)
Amos had prophetic visions that helped
Jerusalem @ him understand what God was going to
do in Israel. The first three visions—locust,
fire, and plumb line—form a unit (7:1-9).
When God showed Amos a terrible locust
plague, Amos begged God not to bring it,
lest he utterly destroy Israel. God relented.
The Lord then showed Amos a fire so hot
it consumed even the Mediterranean Sea!
Again, Amos interceded for the people,
and again, God relented. Finally, God
Scale showed Amos a plumb line. A plumb line
0 10 20mi tested a wall’s straightness. Here, it sym-
bolized God's righteous standard. As God
0 10 20 30km tested Israel, he found her crooked. He
would have to tear her down and start
over.
Many in Israel did not like the prophet’s
ARTTRNINNANNONNRHRRANRNUNY all sorts of sacrifices, but their lives were preaching. They responded to God’s word
God's election
full of sin. God had sent famine, drought, by rejecting God’s messenger. Amaziah,
and plagues to get their attention, but the priest of Bethel, even accused Amos of
people failed to repent (4:6-11). Amos treason and ordered him to go back to
warned Israel that she soon would meet Judah where his messages against Israel
her God—in judgment. would be more popular. Amos responded
The prophet then launched another at- by affirming his own prophetic call. God
tack on the nation—he sang at her funeral had called him to prophesy and had
(5:1-3)! The word translated “lament” in equipped him to complete the task
5:1 (NIv) refers to a song or chant by which (7:10-17).
people mourned the dead." By using such The fourth vision God showed Amos
a statement, Amos hoped to shock the peo- was a basket of summer fruit, which sig-

447
 Encountering the Prophets

Summary

EL ANETTA NTN ANNAN

iP The prophet Hosea had great courage . The prophet Joel probably prophesied
and prophesied in spite of the humili- about 500-450 B.c.
ation he suffered because of his wife
. Amos worked among the sheep-
Gomer's adultery.
herders of Tekoa and earned part of
2: The Book of Hosea was written shortly his living tending sycamore trees.
before 722 B.c.
. Amos spoke out against other nations,
. The major themes of Hosea are: spiri- but especially against Israel.
tual adultery, knowledge of God, and
. Amos used a variety of oratory meth-
God's frustrated love.
ods to make his prophetic points.
. Hosea compared Israel to: a bunch of
. God showed Amos visions to help
choice green grapes in the wilderness
Amos understand what he was going
that had been spoiled, a vine that
to do to Israel.
grew according to his plan, a trained
heifer who loved to thresh grain be-
cause she could eat as she threshed,
and a toddling son.

Study Questions

. How did Hosea’s marriage and family message apply to his generation, and
background shape his prophetic min- to what extent did it have a future ap-
istry? In what sense does your family plication?
background affect your perception on
. Describe Amos’s background and call-
life?
ing.
. Hosea described the people’s spiritual
. What were some examples of social in-
adultery. Why did idolatry and har-
justice against which Amos prophe-
lotry occur together in Israel?
sied? How should our faith
3, What major event of Joel's day shaped in God relate to our actions toward
his message? To what extent did his other people?

nified that Israel was ripe for judgment people that God would never forget their
(8:1-3). Many in Amos’s day could deeds.
hardly wait for the Sabbath to end so they The fifth and final vision (9:1-6)
could open their shops again and start pointed to the absolute certainty of God’s
cheating people with dishonest weights judgment. No one would escape the
and measures (8:4-14). Amos warned the hand of the sovereign Lord. Ironically,
448
 Hosea, Joel, and Amos

Further Reading

Allen, Leslie C. The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester:
and Micah. New International Commentary on the InterVarsity, 1989. Good for college-level students.
Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976. A McComiskey, Thomas E., ed. The Minor Prophets:
more advanced commentary for the serious An Exegetical and Expository Commentary. 3 vols.
student. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992-98. For the serious
Hubbard, David A. Hosea: An Introduction and student seeking advanced study. Rich in textual
Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament analysis and exposition.

only those who ran to the Lord (in re- world in which David’s line would again
pentance and faith) would find forgive- have prominence. Amos also spoke of
ness and deliverance. other nations who would bear God’s
Promises of restoration and blessing Name and enjoy God’s blessing along with
(9:11-15) Israel. In the coming of Jesus Christ and
Amos closed his book with a message of the establishment of his church, we see at
hope. Despite all Israel’s sin, God still least part of the fulfillment of Amos’s
loved her. One day, he would create a prophecy (Lk 1:32-33; Acts 15:13-18).

449
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Outline Objectives
Jonah’ sBackground
After reading this chapter,
~ Jonah’s Message
you should be able to
cee Micah: Zealot for True Covenant
¢ Outline the basic content
Living
of the Book of Obadiah
Outline
¢ Outline the basic content
Micah’s Background of the Book of Jonah
Micah’s Message ¢ Compare the opinions
¢ Nahum: Nineveh Will Fall! about the date of Jonah
Outline ¢ Contrast God’s compassion
Nahum’s Background with Jonah’s attitude toward Nineveh
Nahum’s Message ¢ Outline the basic content
¢ Habakkuk: Lord, What's Going On? of the Book of Micah

Outline ¢ Identify the themes of Micah’s message

Habakkuk’s Background e Outline the basic content
of the Book of Nahum _
Habakkuk’s Message
¢ Explain the cause of Nineveh’s downfall
¢ Zephaniah: God Will Judge
All the Earth! ¢ Outline the basic content |
of the Book of Habakkuk
Outline
¢ Outline the basic content
Zephaniah’s Background
of the Book of Zephaniah
Zephaniah’s Message

451
Encountering the Prophets

So

Jaffa—Yafo— Israel and Judah had many neighbors. The Obadiah’s Message
modern Tel Aviv.
When God told
Philistines and Phoenicians lived along
Jonah to go on the Mediterranean coast. Ammon and Heading (1a)
a mission to Moab lay east of the Jordan. Edom con- The Book of Obadiah tells us nothing
Nineveh, he
went instead to
trolled the region south of the Dead Sea. about the prophet Obadiah, not even his
the port of Syria ruled the land north of Israel to the father’s name. Many Old Testament peo-
Joppa, modern Euphrates River. Beyond Syria in ple bear the name “Obadiah,” but we can-
Jaffa, to take a
ship in the
Mesopotamia lay Assyria and Babylonia. not definitely identify any of them with
opposite The prophets asserted that God was the prophet.
direction. Lord of all nations. He would hold these Scholars have disagreed over the date
nations accountable for their actions. In of Obadiah’s ministry. Some have argued
this chapter, we study several prophets that Obadiah prophesied around 850 b.c.,!
who spoke about God’s plans for other while others argue for a date shortly after
nations. One of these prophets person- 587 B.c., when Jerusalem fell to Babylon.
ally delivered his message to his foreign The later date seems preferable in light of
audience! verses 11-14, where Obadiah describes the
disaster that befell Jerusalem. Such strong
language suggests Obadiah is referring to
Obadiah:
\

Nebuchadnezzar’s conquest.*
The Edomites, descendants of Esau (Gn
Edom Will Fall! 36:1), had treated the Judeans cruelly, es-
pecially when Jerusalem fell to Babylon.
Outline Obadiah warned Edom that her day of
judgment loomed just around the corner.
I. Heading (1a) The Lord's message against Edom
(1b-14)
II. The Lord’s Message Against
Edom (1b-14) The message God gave Obadiah focused
on three issues: Edom’s arrogance (1b-4),
III. The Day of the Lord (15-21) Edom’s coming humiliation (5-9), and

452
 Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah

Edom’s violence against Judah (10-14). IV. Jonah Pouts over Nineveh
Sela, Edom’s capital city, stood on a very (4:1-11)
high rock, which made it easy to defend.
The nation thus developed an arrogant Jonah’s Background
confidence as expressed in verse 3—“Who Jonah 1:1 tells us only that Jonah was the
will bring me down to earth?” son of Amittai. Second Kings 14:25 reveals
Obadiah warned the Edomites that God that Jonah lived in GATH-HEPHER, a town in
would bring utter humiliation on them. the tribal territory of Zebulun (Jos 19:13).
Thieves and robbers would steal only He prophesied during the reign of Jer-
what they could use, but God would oboam IL, king of Israel (793-753 B.c.), who
sweep everything away! gave Israel some political stability. Spiritu-
Edom had committed terrible violence ally, however, the kingdom was suffering.
against his brother Jacob (Judah). When If Jonah recorded his own story, the book
Jerusalem fell, the Edomites had captured dates to the eighth century B.c. Some schol-
Judean fugitives and either killed them or ars have dated the book many centuries
turned them over to the Babylonians. They later because of alleged inaccuracies and
rejoiced at Jerusalem’s defeat. Judah Aramaisms. None of their arguments is
would not soon forget Edom’s wickedness conclusive, however, and a preexilic date
(Ps 137:7), seems most likely. Other scholars have
The Day of the Lord (15-21) suggested that the book is a parable or al-
legory, and should not be taken literally.
Obadiah prophesied that the coming Day
But the book itself gives no hint that its
of the Lord would bring both judgment
author so intended it. Furthermore, Jesus
and salvation. Edom and other nations
affirmed that Jonah preached to Nineveh
would drink God’s cup of wrath for their
sins, but God would restore his people to (Mt 12:41).
a position of prominence. They would pos- Jonah’s Message
sess the land and live in peace forever.
Jonah wants his own way (1:1-16)
TOT NAN God’s command to Jonah was clear—“Go
Jonah: Running to the great city of Nineveh and preach
against it, because its wickedness has come
away from God up before me” (1:2). Jonah, however, de-
People today try to run from God in many cided a trip east to Nineveh made no sense
ways. Some people try to avoid God and (4:2), and tried to flee west by ship to
his word altogether so they will not feel Tarshish.
guilty about the way they live. Others avoid The rebellious prophet underestimated
God by filling their lives with the pursuit God's resolve to send him to Nineveh. The
of power and success. Sometimes even Lord hurled a great storm against the ship,
Christians run from God if he calls them to terrifying the sailors. Meanwhile, Jonah,
do something they do not want to do. the person responsible for the danger, lay
Jonah ran from God because he didn’t fast asleep in the ship’s lower level!
want to do God’s will. Jonah convinced After the captain woke him, Jonah
himself that he knew best, but in the end, joined the others, who were trying to de-
God’s prophet realized he had a lot to learn. termine why the storm had come upon
them. When Jonah explained he was flee-
Outline ing from his God, they grew more fright-
ened than ever, and tried desperately to
I. Jonah Wants His Own Way bring the ship under control. Finally, they
(1:1-16) accepted Jonah’s solution and threw him
overboard. The storm ceased immediately.
II. Jonah Decides on God’s Way
Jonah decides on God's way
(1:17-2:10)
(1:17-2:10)
III. Jonah Preaches to Nineveh As Jonah entered the water, he thought he
(3:1-10) would drown. God’s grace prevailed,

453
Encountering the Prophets

the shore; Jonah was now ready for his

Master’s purpose.
Jonah preaches to Nineveh (3:1-10)
Jonah obeyed God’s second command and
began his five-hundred—mile journey.
When he arrived in Nineveh, he began
preaching the message God had given
him—‘Forty more days and Nineveh will
be overturned” (v. 4). Jonah needed three
days to cover the city completely (v. 3).
Probably to Jonah’s great surprise, the
people believed God’s message! They
humbled themselves with fasting and
sackcloth. Even the king of Nineveh par-
ticipated, and commanded all citizens to
Eee We need to keep three points in mind: do the same.* Although Jonah had con-
veyed no hope of deliverance, the
bi ioBeahation by works is impossible. If we can earn Ninevites probably decided they had
our salvation, then Christ did not need to die (Gal nothing to lose. Perhaps God would spare
PA: them if they truly repented. Their hopes
proved true: When God saw their repen-
2. God has revealed his power and being through tance, he relented and did not destroy
the beauty and order of creation. However, people —
Nineveh.
suppress that truth and choose sin instead (Rom —
1:18-23). God has also placed his morallaw Jonah pouts over Nineveh (4:1-11)
(conscience) in everyone, but people do not. follov Jonah, meanwhile, was anticipating Nin-
that law perfectly (Rom 2:14-15). Consequent! / eveh’s destruction; he became very upset
even people without God's written word erish when God spared the city. He felt he had
(Rom 2:11-12). Only the Bee2p can wasted his time coming all the way to Nin-
life (1 Cor 12:3). eveh, and asked God to take his life.
The plant God provided for Jonah’s
shade furnished an important object les-
son. Jonah became angry to the point of
death over a mere plant, but didn’t care at
all for the thousands of people in Nineveh.
judgment should In sharp contrast, God’s compassion
more urgently. reached out to Nineveh, honoring her re-
pentance. God still accepts those who
admit their helplessness, repent of sin, and
trust in him.

TNT NT TT
however, and a large fish swallowed
Jonah. Speculation over what kind of fish Micah: Zealot for
this might have been misses the point—
the fish was a miraculous touch of God’s
True Covenant Living
grace. Through this fish, the Lord pre-
Outline
served his prophet for the task that lay
ahead. I. First Round of Judgment and
Jonah prayed to the Lord from the fish’s Salvation (1:1-5:15)
belly. The prophet described his desper- A. God’s Judgment of Apostasy
ate situation, and affirmed the Lord’s de- and Social Sin in Samaria and
liverance. Jonah had thought his life would Judah (1:1-3:12)
end, but God had intervened. Salvation B. God’s Word of Salvation to
had come! The fish vomited Jonah onto His People (4:1-5:15)
454
 Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah

II. Second Round of Judgment and had not God promised King David that
Salvation (6:1—-7:20) Jerusalem would stand forever? Was not
A. God’s Indictment of His David's descendant on the throne? How
People (6:1-16) could anything possibly go wrong? Micah
B. Micah’s Lament Ends with warned that such faith would provea very
Hope (7:1-20) weak foundation when God dealt with
Judah’s sin.
Micah’s Background Micah’s message also contained en-
Micah’s message centered on the themes couraging words for the future of God’s
of social injustice, true worship, and false people (4:1-5:15). Micah spoke of God's
security. The prophet lived in MoresHETH, ultimate kingdom, when Jerusalem would
a town usually identified as Moresheth- serve as a channel of blessing for the
Gath, about twenty-five miles southwest world. The world would experience peace
of Jerusalem. He prophesied concerning under God’s rule, and people would walk
the evils of Samaria and Jerusalem. He with him (4:1-8). Furthermore, God’s ul-
mentions only kings of Judah in 1:1, and timate King would be born in Bethlehem,
this may indicate a focus on the southern a relatively minor city. God had planned
kingdom. The kings Micah listed—Jotham, for this king’s coming since ancient times
Ahaz, and Hezekiah—help us date his (5:2). Micah proclaimed these prophecies
ministry to approximately 740-700 B.c.° to motivate his hearers to godly living in
their own generation (4:9-13).
Micah’s Message Jesus Christ fulfilled God’s word
through Micah (Mt 2:4-6; Lk 2:1-7). Jesus
First round of judgment accomplished spiritual salvation during
and salvation (1:1-5:15) his first coming, and one day, he will re-
Micah called the whole earth to see God’s turn to reign over all as King of kings.
coming judgment against his people. The
prophet singled out Samaria and Jerusalem Second round of judgment
because they were Israel and Judah's cap- and salvation (6:1—7:20)
ital cities. The thought of judgment pro- Micah called Israel into court (6:1-5), just
duced a real tension in Micah’s life (1:8-16), as Hosea had done (Hos 4:15:15). The Lord
a tension also present in other prophets. called mountains and hills to testify because
On the one hand, Micah’s prophetic office they had been present throughout Israel’s
united him with God’s purposes, and he history. They thus could serve as excellent
had to announce judgment. On the other witnesses! God questioned his people:
hand, Micah loved his people, and the “What have I done? How have I wearied
thought of their exile drove him to per- you?” Clearly, the failure lay with Israel.
sonal lament. Christ’s church still needs Micah also advised the proper response
leaders who will speak God’s truth, but at to God's indictment. The prophet’s imag-
the same time, love God’s people. ined listener asked what he might do so
Social injustice enraged Micah. The God would accept him (6:6-7). Micah
wicked lay awake at night because they replied that God had already said what he
couldn’t sleep until they had calculated wanted—a life displaying justice, mercy,
how to steal their neighbors’ possessions! and a close walk with God. The Lord de-
Society’s leaders displayed an especially sired faithfulness that resulted in holy liv-
poor example. The political leaders’ poli- ing. God still wants this from his children
cies destroyed what little hope the poor today.
had. Micah said the rulers cooked the poor Unfortunately, as God looked at Micah’s
like stew (3:1-3)! False prophets also generation, he saw few such lives. Instead,
abused their office by letting money in- he saw crooked business practices, vio-
fluence their words. They uttered bless- lence, and deceit (6:11-12). The people fol-
ings to those who paid them well, but con- lowed the ways of Omri and Ahab, two
demned those who could pay nothing. evil kings from Israel’s past (6:16). God
Jerusalem also stood on her false secu- warned his people: He would not allow
rity—“Is not the Lorp among us? No dis- these sins to continue!
aster will come upon us” (3:11). After all, Micah ended his book with a personal
455
Encountering the Prophets

lament (7:1-20). As he searched the nation, III. The Cause and Certainty of
he could find no godly people. Injustice Nineveh’s Downfall (3:1-19)
abounded. People looked only for their
own personal gain. The leadership set a Nahum’'s Background
bad example by accepting bribes. Micah We know very little about the prophet
mourned that even within the family, so- Nahum outside the book that bears his
ciety’s foundational institution, one could name. Nahum 1:1 calls him “the Elkoshite,”
find no security—*“A man’s enemies are but scholars do not agree on where Elkosh
the members of his own household” (7:6). was.° Some have suggested Elkosh was in
Nevertheless, Micah found hope in the Galilee to the north, while others have
midst of tragedy. He could still experience proposed Judah as its location. Still others
personal salvation, and perhaps others have advanced the idea that Elkosh was
would, too. He was willing to endure per- near Nineveh, against whom Nahum
secution from God’s enemies because he prophesied.
knew that one day, God would vindicate We can date Nahum’s prophecy because
him. Judgment would surely come to of his allusions to datable events. Nahum
those who opposed the Lord. mentions the fall of THEBES (3:8), an event
Micah closed his lament (and book) as that occurred in 663 B.c. The prophet also
many psalmists ended their laments— speaks of Nineveh’s fall, which took place
with a prayer (7:14-20). He prayed that in 612, as something yet future. Conse-
God would shepherd his people as he had quently, we may date Nahum’s prophetic
when he first brought them into the land. ministry between 663 B.c. and 612 B.c.
He asked that the Lord would again dis- The Book of Nahum, like the Book of
play his miraculous power, for it would Obadiah, deals primarily with a foreign
inspire his people and terrify his enemies. kingdom. During the late seventh century
Micah also confessed God’s utter unique- B.C., a power struggle arose in the Near
ness. No other god was compassionate East as Assyria began to decline. In 626,
enough to forgive the sin of his people for- NABOPOLASSAR founded an independent
ever. Micah affirmed that in days to come, Chaldean dynasty in Babylon, and soon,
God would again show his faithfulness in with the help of the Medes, destroyed the
every way. He would confirm his ever- Assyrian Empire. Soon after, Nebuchad-
lasting relationship with his people be- nezzar would take Babylon to heights it
cause of his promises to Israel's forefathers had not attained since the days of Ham-
over a thousand years before. murapi (1792-1750 B.c.). As Nahum
We may face difficult circumstances looked at his world, he saw the hand of
today and suffer for our faith in Christ. God moving against Assyria. The prophet
Evil may surround us, and we wonder announced that Nineveh, Assyria’s capi-
why God allows it to continue. In such tal, would soon fall forever.
times, our hope must lie in the God who
can cast our sins into the depths of the sea Nahum’s Message
(7:19). We can trust him to work all things
together for good in his children’s lives The zeal and power of God (1:1-2:2)
(Rom 8:28). Nahum began by describing God’s awe-
some power (1:2-8). God was an aveng-
ing God and would not tolerate sin for-
ever. God was also the almighty Sovereign.
Nahum: Creation trembled before him, and none
Nineveh Will Fall! could withstand his wrath. At the same
time, God was the Savior of those who
trusted in him. He was a stronghold in
Outline
trouble, and he knew his own. These truths
I. The Zeal and Power of God about God’s character lay the foundation
(C=?) for the rest of Nahum’s book.
Nahum 1:9-2:2 contains three cycles in
II. The Siege and Destruction of which Nahum alternates between de-
Nineveh (2:3-13) scribing vengeance on Nineveh and com-
456
 Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah

passion toward Judah. First (1:9-13), days, the Lord would restore his people’s
Nahum warned Nineveh her plans would splendor.
fail. Nineveh had plotted evil against the The siege and destruction
Lord, ignoring his ways, and now would of Nineveh (2:3-13)
pay the price. Judah, however, would gain
Nahum continued with a graphic de-
freedom from Nineveh’s yoke of oppres-
scription of Nineveh’s fall. Her enemies
sion and shackles of slavery. Second
would defeat her army and plunder the
(1:14-15), Nahum announced that God
city. Nahum described the irony of the sit-
would cut off Nineveh’s name and pre- uation; Nineveh’s army appeared strong,
pare her grave. He would destroy the but anarchy and panic would take over.
city’s idols and temples. Judah would re- The chariots would race madly in the
This tablet
includes part of joice when she heard the announcement streets, but to no avail. And, of course, God
the Babylonian of Nineveh’s fall. Third (2:1-2), Nahum was behind it all, for he had determined
Chronicle
describing the
warned Nineveh an attacker was coming! that Nineveh’s day of judgment had come.
fall of Babylon. Meanwhile, as Nineveh finished her last Nineveh’s defeat would lead to a fran-
tic desertion of the city. People left every-
thing behind and ran for their lives; silver
and gold weren't that important anymore!
Nineveh’s plundering vividly reveals the
fact that material goods can bring only
temporary pleasure. Jesus was right when
he said, “A man’s life does not consist in
the abundance of his possessions” (Lk
12:15). We need to build our lives on our
relationship with God, never on material
things.
The cause and certainty
of Nineveh’s downfall (3:1-19)
Nineveh was a wicked city, a city of blood-
shed. The Assyrians’ ruthless political poli-
cies led other nations to fear them. Signs
of their oppression were evident even
within their own capital city.
Nahum described Nineveh as a prosti-
tute and a sorceress (vv. 4-5). Nineveh con-
tained a temple to IsHtTar, a goddess de-
picted as a harlot, so sexual immorality
was common. Nineveh had plundered
many nations and had an insatiable lust
for power. Assyrian society also contained
many who practiced magic and divina-
So ae
a
‘ oh eeiaeecreae ene tion. Whatever Nineveh trusted in would
fail, however, for God would shame her
before the nations and heap disgrace on
her.
Nahum instructed Nineveh to prepare
oe ftom wef
= ‘ae
oS
for her final ruin (vv. 8-19). Thebes, the
er sO eoees LEeee4: pride of Egypt, had fallen, and now, so
tase PrLEEIOG would she. No escape would appear, only
(RELIED; wees
FY It
Pintrorief the inevitable destruction. The rest of the
s SOR neih (eee world, who had suffered under Assyria’s
Y 2 es
7m ee coerseni ste oppressive yoke, would greet the news of
Nineveh’s fall with thunderous applause.
457
Encountering the Prophets

FATTO $C
ATT A A AE A GTN plans that would astound Habakkuk—he
Habakkuk: Lord,
Babylon
was raising up the army of Babylon! God
would use this mighty nation to judge
What's Going On? Judah.
Have you ever felt that what God was Now Habakkuk was really confused
doing made absolutely no sense? If you (1:12-2:1)! How could God use a wicked
have, you’re not alone. The prophet people like the Babylonians to judge
Habakkuk struggled with these same Judah? Certainly Judah deserved God’s
questions. He could not understand why judgment, but certainly not at the hands
God would work the way he did. As we of Babylon! How could God use a nation
read Habakkuk, we'll see that Habakkuk more wicked than Judah as his instrument
learned an important lesson: He might not of judgment against Judah?
always understand God’s ways, but he But God, of course, had a reply (2:2-5).
could always trust God, no matter what He told Habakkuk to write down the vi-
the circumstances. sion, for the judgment would occur very
soon, exactly as God had said. In the face
Outline of such calamity, two responses were pos-
sible. One was to remain proud and arro-
I. Habakkuk Struggles with God’s gant like the Babylonians. The other was
Purposes (1:1-2:20) to live by faith, knowing God was still in
A. Habakkuk’s First Struggle control.
(1:1-11) Habakkuk 2:4—’The righteous shall
B. Habakkuk’s Second Struggle live by his faith’”—occurs three times in
(1:12-2:20) the New Testament (Rom 1:17; Gal 3:11;
Heb 10:38). Through faith in Jesus Christ,
Il. Habakkuk Yields to God’s we receive God's righteousness. The Holy
Purposes (3:1-19) Spirit enables us to live lives of faith and
godliness. Habakkuk’s statement lies at
Habakkuk’s Background the heart of Christian theology. God calls
Habakkuk’s name appears only in his book us to salvation through faith and calls us
(1:1). We really know little else about him. to live by that faith.
Habakkuk lived during Judah’s last Habakkuk launched a series of woes
days. Most scholars place the beginning against the Babylonians (2:6-20). The
of his ministry before 605 B.c., when Baby- Babylonians had extended themselves too
lon, under Nebuchadnezzar, became a far, and would soon pay the price. They
dominant world power (1:5).’ Habakkuk’s had gained at the expense of others, found-
words against Babylon (2:5-20) imply that ing their empire on violence and blood-
Babylon had already become a strong na- shed. They had forced other nations to
tion. Probably Habakkuk’s ministry began drink God’s cup of wrath, but the cup
before 605 but continued until shortly be- would soon come to them. They had fol-
fore Jerusalem’s fall in 587. lowed worthless idols who faded quickly
against the Lord’s splendor and glory. God
Habakkuk’s Message would bring Babylon down, too, in his
Habakkuk struggles perfect timing.
with God's purposes (1:1-2:20) Habakkuk yields to God's purposes
Habakkuk began his theological struggle (3:1-19)
with a cry of bewilderment (1:2): “How Habakkuk expressed his submission to
long, O Lorp, must I call for help, but you God’s ways in a prayer set to music (vv.
do not listen?” Habakkuk knew God loved 19). He feared the Lord’s report, and asked
justice and hated injustice, so why did God the Lord to remember his mercy when the
let Judah’s injustice continue? Habakkuk judgment began (v. 2). Habakkuk de-
took his concerns straight to the sovereign scribed the Lord’s majesty and power (vv.
God. God also invites us to take our strug- 3-15). God was sovereign over the whole
gles and concerns to him. earth. He had judged the nations, but also
God replied (1:5-11) that he had big brought about the salvation of his people.
458
 Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah

The Temple
Scroll from the g.
Dead Sea Scrolls. . Sie ” po aN
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discovered this “medi WwBalt ReaROS oe Aisa
scroll and many ae ss ate: Olea Wont aPay
others at the aes Prana Sabi none Bey ees

ancient acetha ee AIO Yay Wii fer nied

settlement of Leneareeantodi Mah obery3r
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Qumran near . pine wrsnbit wear wry abyprisn
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the Dead Sea.
; 3 : : emesis ameboot sem yr yi”
Texts such as this
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help us better y Sat nee pee pum: TAN gr seas A
understand how eS ates ba Mire fo
ancient scribes
passed down
copies of the
Scriptures over
the centuries.

Because he knew of God’s absolute bated whether the “Hezekiah” in the ge-
faithfulness in the past, Habakkuk re- nealogy is King Hezekiah of Judah
signed himself to God’s present purposes (716-686 B.c.).8 Those who doubt the con-
(3:16-19). The prophet’s fear stirred his in- nection point out that no other biblical ge-
nermost being, for all he could do was wait nealogies connect these five names. Fur-
for Judah’s judgment. Nevertheless, thermore, if Zephaniah meant Hezekiah,
Habakkuk determined to trust in the Lord king of Judah, he would only have had to
despite all circumstances. No matter how add the words “king of Judah.” On the
hopeless his situation, he would hope in other hand, those who favor a connection
his God. God also desires this kind of “no- with King Hezekiah suggest that Zepha-
matter-what” faith from his children today. niah felt adding the words “king of Judah”
was unnecessary, since everyone knew
who Hezekiah was.
Zephaniah dates his ministry to the
Zephaniah: God Will reign of Josiah (640-609 B.c.). In the eigh-
teenth year of Josiah’s reign, the Book of
Judge All the Earth! the Law was discovered in the temple, and
this discovery ignited a period of sweep-
Outline ing spiritual revival in Judah (2 Kgs
22:3-23:7). In light of this, many propose
I. Judgment against Judah that Zephaniah prophesied early in
(1:1-2:3) Josiah’s reign, before the revival occurred.’
Since Zephaniah 2:13 mentions Nineveh’s
II. Judgment against the Nations fall as future, Zephaniah’s ministry ap-
(2:4-15) parently ended before 612 B.c.
III. Judgment against Judah and the Zephaniah’s Message
Nations (3:1-8)
Judgment against Judah (1:1-2:3)
IV. Restoration of Israel and the After a general statement about God’s
Nations (3:9-20) judgment of creation, Zephaniah focused
on Judah. Many worshiped Baal, Molech,
Zephaniah’s Background and the host of heaven (1:4—5), while oth-
Zephaniah traces his ancestry back four ers adopted a stagnant view of God—“The
generations (1:1). Bible scholars have de- Lorp will do nothing, either good or bad”
459
Encountering the Prophets

would pay a penalty for their evil (vv.

4-11). One day, they would fall, and God's
Key Person/ faithful would dispossess them. Distant
Places nations would fare no better. The CUSHITES
(Ethiopians) would fall to the sword (v. 12),
Nabopolassar and Assyria, long-time enemy of Israel
Gath-hepher and Judah, would receive due recompense
Key Terms Moresheth
for her arrogance (vv. 13-15).
Aramaisms Thebes
Edom Judgment against Judah
allegory
Nineveh and the nations (3:1-8)
Bethlehem Jerusalem would not escape God's chas-
tening. Corrupt leadership displayed it-
self at every level—royalty, judges,
prophets, and priests. These leaders did
not trust in the Lord or listen to his Word.
(1:12). The Day of the Lord would bring Zephaniah promised the Lord would
punishment to every rebellious corner of bring real justice to all the nations on the
Jerusalem. Zephaniah warned Judah to day of his wrath (v. 8).
prepare for that day. Those who humbled
themselves before the Lord might escape
Restoration of Israel
and the nations (3:9-20)
the coming disaster (2:1-3).
Zephaniah closed his book with a mes-
Judgment against the nations sage of hope. The day of God’s judgment
(2:4-15) would also bring God’s healing and
Zephaniah, like other prophets, affirmed restoration. The Lord would purify the
God’s sovereignty over all nations, not just lips of his people so they might serve him
Israel and Judah. Neighboring countries faithfully. He would remove the proud,
such as Philistia, Moab, and Ammon exalt the humble, and give his people se-

Summary

. The message God gave the prophet . Nahum includes three cycles describ-
Obadiah focused on Edom’s judgment ing vengeance on Nineveh and com-
because of its violence against Judah. passion toward Judah.
. Jonah wanted his own way instead of . The Book of Habakkuk tells us all that
God's way and because of that was is known about the prophet
swallowed by a great fish. Habakkuk.
. Jonah became angry at God because . Habakkuk questioned God's ways but
he did not destroy Nineveh after determined to have faith no matter
Jonah had traveled so far to that city. what.

. Micah’'s prophecy centered on the . Zephaniah prophesied judgment

themes of social injustice, true wor- against Judah and the nations, but
ship, and false security. also prodicted future blessing for the
nations.
. Micah offered encouraging words for
God's people and said that God's king
would be born in Bethlehem.

460
 Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah

Study Questions

. What is the major theme of Obadiah? . Summarize Habakkuk’s dialogue with

What had Edom done that he consid- God in fifty words or less. What was
ered so terrible? Habakkuk’s basic complaint? How did
he respond (at first and finally to
. Summarize the story of Jonah. Identify
God's answer?
the important spiritual lessons Jonah
learned. . How did the apostle Paul use
Habakkuk 2:4 in his letter to the Ro-
. Describe Micah’s background. How
mans?
does his message parallel that of the
prophet Amos? What did Micah have . Identify the key issues surrounding
to say about the coming Messiah? Zephaniah’s background. How did the
prophet affirm God's sovereignty over
. Identify Nahum’s historical setting.
all nations?
What is the major theme of his book?

Further Reading

Allen, Leslie C. The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah InterVarsity, 1988. Good for basic reading at the
and Micah. New International Commentary on the college level.
Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976. A McComiskey, Thomas E., ed. The Minor Prophets:
more advanced commentary for the serious An Exegetical and Expository Commentary. 3 vols.
student. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992-1998. For the serious
Baker, David W., T. Desmond Alexander, and Bruce K. student seeking advanced study. Rich in textual
Waltke. Obadiah, Jonah, Micah. Tyndale Old analysis and exposition.
Testament Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester: Robertson, O. Palmer. The Books of Nahum,
InterVarsity, 1988. Good college-level text. Habakkuk, and Zephaniah. New International
Baker, David W. Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah: Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids:
An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old Eerdmans, 1990. For the serious student. Contains
Testament Commentary. Downers Grove/Leicester: ample footnotes for further study.

curity in the midst of their land. Such bless- into the future to motivate them to live
ings would normally cause God’s people lives pleasing to God. We, too, should
to rejoice over him, but Zephaniah af- yield our lives to the Lord daily in grati-
firmed that God would rejoice over them! tude for all he has done, is doing, and will
The prophet gave his people this glimpse do for us.

461
 Haggai, Zechariah,
and Malachi
Rebuilding a People

|Outline
__ © Haggai: Dealing with People
_ Who Just Don’t Care
|Outline» |
= _Haggai’s Background
Wie -Haggai’s Message Objectives
|e Zechariah: Get Ready
_ for God's Kingdom! After reading this chapter,
- Outline . you should be able to
Zechariah’s Background e Outline the basic content
of the Book of Haggai
Zechariah’s Message
¢ Outline the basic content
_¢ Malachi: Give God Your Best!
of the Book of Zechariah
Outline
¢ Discuss the problem of the authorship
Malachi’s Message of Zechariah
¢ Outline the basic content
of the Book of Malachi
¢ Identify the concerns of God found
in Malachi’s prophecy

463
Encountering the Prophets

Babylon’s fall to Cyrus the Persian in 539 complete it right away! But many of God’s
B.c. launched an exciting time for God's people had become apathetic. They didn’t
people. Cyrus promptly issued a decree care about the temple as much as they
that any Jews who wished could return to cared about their own comfort. God used
Judah and rebuild the temple (Ez 1:1-3). Haggai to stir the people’s hearts toward
A group of almost fifty thousand returned God's concerns.
to Judah and began the rebuilding process
(Ez 2:64-65). Tragically, opposition soon Haggai’s Message
stopped the temple work (Ez 4:1-5). First message: A call to action
Haggai and Zechariah prophesied at a (1:1-15)
time when God's people needed a fresh
challenge to finish the temple. Haggai fo- Haggai challenged his hearers with a ques-
cused on the people’s spiritual apathy, tion—“Is it a time for you yourselves to be
living in your paneled houses, while this
while Zechariah declared the great things
God would do in the future. Malachi, min-
house remains a ruin?” (v. 4). The people
had plenty of time to tend to their own de-
istering about sixty years later, encour-
sires, but no time to finish God’s temple!
aged the nation to give God its best.
Haggai confronted them with their cur-
a rent situation. Their fields produced mea-
ger crops. Their food and drink did not
satisfy. Their clothes did not keep them
warm, and their wages disappeared much
Dealing with People too quickly. Why? Because the people had
allowed God’s house to lie in ruins while
Who Just Don’t Care they scurried here and there in pursuit of
their own ambitions!
Outline Haggai’s initial challenge moved the
people to action. Within the month, work
I. First Message: A Call to Action
on the temple resumed, with Haggai as-
(1:1-15) suring the people the Lord would help
II. Second Message: A Word of them.
Encouragement (2:1-9) Second message: A word
of encouragement (2:1-9)
IJ. Third Message: Confirmation of
Blessing (2:10-19) About a month after the temple work
began, Haggai brought another challenge.
IV. Fourth Message: The He asked Judah’s elders how the temple’s
Restoration of the Davidic current state compared to its appearance
Kingdom (2:20-23) before the exile. Clearly, the present glory
did not match the former glory. But Hag-
Haggai’s Background gai encouraged the people to keep work-
Haggai began prophesying in the fall of ing. God’s Spirit was with them! The Lord
520 s.c. (1:1).! Work on God’s temple had would make the house’s latter glory
greater than its former glory.
ceased about fifteen years earlier because
of opposition from Judah’s neighbors. Dar- Throughout history, God’s temple has
tus I (521-486 B.c.), Persia’s third king, now
indeed advanced in glory. The church is
God's temple, and God's Spirit dwells in
ruled the empire. Zerubbabel, who had
her (1 Cor 3:16). Individual believers are
helped the people establish themselves in
temples of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:19-20).
Judah (Ez 2:2; 3:2), ruled as governor, while
And when the Lord establishes his ever-
Joshua (Ez 2:2; 3:2) served as high priest.
lasting kingdom, he himself will be its tem-
Some scholars have suggested Haggai was ple (Rv 21:22).
an elderly man (Hg 2:3), but we cannot say
for certain. Ezra 5:1 mentions Haggai, but Third message: Confirmation
we know little else about him. of blessing (2:10-19)
Haggai possessed great zeal for the Two months after his words of encour-
Lord’s temple—he wanted the people to agement, Haggai questioned the priests

464
 Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi

regarding laws about clean and unclean IV. The Observance of Fasts
things. If a man carried holy meat in his (7:1-8:23)
garment, and his garment touched any
other food, would the food become holy? V. The Coming of the Messiah
The priests said it would not. Haggai then (9:1-14:21)
asked what would happen if any one of
these things touched someone unclean. Zechariah’s Background
Would it become unclean? The priests said Zechariah 1:1 calls Zechariah the son of
it would. “So it is with this people and this Berechiah and grandson of Iddo. The Book
nation,” Haggai said. “Whatever they do of Nehemiah lists Iddo among the priests
and whatever they offer is defiled” (v. 14). who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel
The people thought they would become (12:4). It also mentions Zechariah as head
holy if they built their homes near the tem- of his father’s household (12:16). Perhaps
ple. Instead, they profaned the temple by Zechariah returned from Babylonia as a
their unclean living. Many people today young man and his father Berechiah died
think if they merely spend time in God’s at an early age.
house, they will receive God’s blessing. Many modern scholars have questioned
Instead, their unholy lives hurt the whether the entire Book of Zechariah
church’s ministry. comes from the prophet himself.? Most
Despite Judah’s sin, God determined to generally accept Zechariah 1-8 as coming
bless the people. He told them to mark from Zechariah, but have suggested
their calendars, for blessing would begin Zechariah 9-14 is later material for three
immediately. God’s favor would encour- reasons:
age the people to continue the temple
work. 1. The subject matter in 1-8 and 9-14
is quite different. Chapters 1-8 deal
Fourth message: The restoration primarily with rebuilding the tem-
of the Davidic kingdom (2:20-23) ple and Jerusalem, whereas chap-
Haggai further described God’s future ters 9-14 focus on the distant future.
plans. The Lord would bring down king- 2. Vocabulary and style are very dif-
doms and exalt his people. Zerubbabel, a ferent in the two sections.
descendant of King David, would serve 3. Zechariah 9:13 mentions Greece,
as God’s special servant in that day. God which was not a major power until
would establish David’s kingdom again. after Zechariah’s days.
Perhaps Zerubbabel’s connection with
David’s line inspired hope for Messiah's But these items do not prove multiple
coming. Christians see the ultimate ful- authorship for the Book of Zechariah. We
fillment of this prophecy in Jesus Christ will address each point in order:
(Lk 1:32-33), a descendant of David
through Zerubbabel (Mt 1:1, 12). 1. Prophets often wrote about a vari-
ety of topics. Moreover, the Book of
LOO
Zechariah’s structure resembles
other biblical apocalyptic writings.
Zechariah : Get Ready The book opens with a historical
for God's Kingdom! frame of reference and then moves
into a more universal picture of
God’s work in the world (cf. Dn 1-6
Outline and 7-12; Rv 1-3 and 4-22).
2. Different topics naturally require dif-
I. Call for a Return to the Lord
ferent vocabulary and style. More-
(1-1-6) over, prophets sometimes varied
II. The Eight Night Visions their styles for a specific purpose.
(1:7-6:8) 3. Greece was becoming a major power
during Zechariah’s lifetime, espe-
IJ. The Crowning of Joshua cially during Zechariah’s later years.
(6:9-15) Perhaps Zechariah wrote chapters
465
Encountering the Prophets

9-14 later in his life. We also should the buyers know exactly what they are
not rule out the possibility of pre- buying. Likewise, God was marking off
dictive prophecy. God knows the fu- Jerusalem as his own. He would protect
ture and can reveal it to his prophets. the city from harm and dwell there. He
warned Judah’s enemies they would be-
Zechariah began his ministry two come slaves, but offered repentant nations
months after Haggai (Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1). Like the chance to join themselves to him!
Haggai, he encouraged the people to re- The fourth vision focused on the high
build the temple. He also spoke about priest’s office (3:1-10). Joshua’s filthy gar-
God’s coming kingdom. Through special ments represented the priesthood’s fail-
visions, Zechariah learned God’s plans for ure to serve the Lord faithfully (Jer 6:13;
the present and future. God’s eternal king- Mi 3:11). Satan stood ready to point out
dom was coming, but he also called peo- Joshua’s sin and the sin of Joshua’s pre-
ple to serve him in Zechariah’s day. decessors. But Satan received God’s re-
buke—God had chosen Jerusalem and
Zechariah’s Message would restore the priestly office. Joshua’s
new clothes signified forgiveness and
Call for a return to the Lord (1:1-6) cleansing. The high priest and his col-
Zechariah called God’s people to rededi- leagues represented the beginning of a
cate themselves to him. Their ancestors great work. God would raise up a servant
had persisted in their evil ways and re- he called “Branch,” who would bring ina
fused to follow God’s commandments. wonderful new age. (See comments on
When God sent prophets to them, they 6:9-15).
would not listen. Finally, they paid the In Zechariah’s fifth vision, he saw a
price of exile. Zechariah challenged Judah lampstand and two olive trees (4:1-14).
to make a clean break with past sin and The text does not identify the lampstand,
follow the Lord. though the two olive trees appear to rep-
resent Zerubbabel and Joshua. The Lord
The eight night visions (1:7-6:8)
brought a special word to Zerubbabel—
Each of Zechariah’s night visions follows the temple would soon be complete! God’s
a certain pattern. First, Zechariah describes Spirit, not human effort, would complete
what he sees. Second, he asks the heav- the temple (4:6). Zechariah 4:6 provides
enly messenger what the vision means. Christians with an important principle to
(The fourth vision does not include this remember. God may call us to do difficult
item.) Third, he receives an interpretation tasks, but through his Holy Spirit work-
from the heavenly messenger. ing in us, we can accomplish his purpose
Zechariah’s first vision revealed a host (Phil 2:13; 4:13).
of horsemen who patrolled the earth Zechariah’s sixth vision featured a fly-
(1:7-17). They reported all was quiet. The ing scroll (5:1-4). The scroll measured
angel of the Lord asked how much longer thirty feet by fifteen feet, and writing cov-
God would withhold mercy from ered both sides. The scroll represented the
Jerusalem and Judah. The Lord replied curse, God’s convicting word against the
that he would restore his people and judge land. God’s word stood as a standard
the nations who had oppressed them. against sin and would judge the guilty.
The prophet’s second vision revealed People today also stand under the judg-
four horns and four craftsmen (1:18—21). ment of God’s word. His word points out
The four horns symbolized the nations our sin, but it also tells us about Jesus
that had scattered God’s people and de- Christ, who died to take away our sin.
stroyed their dignity. The four craftsmen The prophet’s seventh vision portrayed
represented God's forces against those na- a woman in an ephah basket (5:5-11). The
tions. He would scatter them as they had woman represented wickedness. The
scattered his people. heavenly messenger threw her into the
The third vision featured a man mea- basket and sealed it with a lead cover.
suring Jerusalem (2:1-13). Today, when Winged messengers then flew the basket
people sell property, a surveyor surveys to Babylonia. This action signified that
the property and marks its boundaries so God was going to remove his people’s sin.
466
 Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi

This
monumental
menorah was
presented to
Israel by the
British
Parliament. In
Zechariah’s fifth
vision, he saw a
menorah
(lampstand).

He freed them from sin so they could serve harmony. But ultimately the text points to
him faithfully, just as he does for his chil- Christ, in whom the offices of king and
dren today (Rom 6:17-18). priest find perfect unity. Jesus built God’s
In Zechariah’s eighth vision, the prophet temple, the church (Mt 16:18; 1 Cor 3:16),
saw four chariots coming from between and intercedes for believers as our great
two bronze mountains (6:1-8). The chari- High Priest (Heb 7:24-28). He is also the
ots represented spirits of heaven who pa- successor to David’s throne (Lk 1:32-33),
trolled the earth at God’s command. Some and will rule forever as King of kings (Rv
interpreters believe this passage refers to 19:11-16).
God’s judgment of Egypt, Assyria, and
The observance of fasts (7:1-8:23)
Babylon, but the passage names no spe-
cific countries. The vision probably de- In518 B.c., a delegation from Bethel came
scribes God’s general sovereignty over all to ask the priests and prophets a question.
the nations. The spirits reported that God’s During the exile, the people fasted during
Spirit now had rest in the north. God had the fifth month to mourn the temple’s de-
dealt with his enemies, and could now struction (2 Kgs 25:8). They also fasted in
continue to restore his people. the fourth, seventh, and tenth months (Zec
8:19). The fast of the fourth month proba-
The crowning of Joshua (6:9-15) bly commemorated the breaching of
The Lord gave Zechariah an unusual com- Jerusalem’s wall (Jer 39:2), the seventh
mand. He was to make a crown and place month fast either the Day of Atonement
it on the head of Joshua, the high priest. (Lv 16) or Gedaliah’s assassination (Jer
God then interpreted the action. God’s ser- 41:2), and the tenth month fast the begin-
vant “Branch” would build the temple, ning of the siege against Jerusalem (Jer
rule as a priest on his throne, and bring 39:1). Now that exile was over and the tem-
peace between the offices of king and ple was almost finished, the people won-
priest. dered—should they continue fasting in
Some scholars suggest the text may have the fifth month?
originally hinted at Zerubbabel and The Lord’s reply contained two key
Joshua's unity of purpose—political and points. First, the people should remember
spiritual leadership working together in the past. God had warned their ancestors

467
Encountering the Prophets

that he expected them to live in faithful death. Within a week, God’s grand re-
obedience to him. Exile came as his final demptive purpose would reach its cli-
judgment against their persistent rebel- max—Jesus died ona cross, but rose from
lion. The Lord encouraged the people to his grave on the third day. He secured the
learn from their past sins so they would salvation of all who place their faith in
not repeat them. him. But when Jesus returns, he will ful-
Second, fasting as self-pity was worth- fill the rest of Zechariah’s words. His king-
less. God had judged his people for their dom will last forever.
sin. He had called them to repent, but they Part of God’s restoring his people in-
refused to listen. Therefore, when they cluded removing their bad leaders
called for help in their time of distress, he (10:2-11:17). Zechariah described the lead-
refused to listen. Fasting provided a way ers as worthless shepherds who cared lit-
for God’s people to humble themselves tle for their sheep. They were interested
before him, but true humility and repen- only in their own personal gain. At God’s
tance should lead to righteousness. If the command, Zechariah assumed leadership,
people only fasted to feel sorry for them- but the people rejected his good leader-
selves, they were wasting their time. ship. They apparently did not want their
Nevertheless, the Lord’s reply also con- sin exposed. The prophet warned the peo-
tained a message of grace. He would re- ple another evil leader would come before
gather his people and reestablish his Name God’s ultimate leader.
in Jerusalem. He would restore his rela- Bible scholars have tried to identify the
tionship with his children. He would bring three shepherds Zechariah mentioned
lasting peace and blessing, and Israel (11:8), as well as the future evil shepherd
would become a light to other nations. (11:16). Some suggest the shepherds were
Other peoples would see God’s blessing priests of Zechariah’s day, while others
and seek it for themselves. God would propose they were political leaders. Still
turn Israel’s fasts into times of blessing; others have proposed the three represent
He was in control! three groups—prophets, priests, and
rulers. Whoever the bad leaders are,
The coming of the Messiah Zechariah guaranteed the Lord would re-
(9:1-14:21) move them.
Zechariah said the Lord would remove Is- Zechariah 12-14 reveals several fea-
rael’s enemies from Syria, PHOENICIA, and tures of the Lord’s coming kingdom. First,
Philistia (9:1-8). He also would form a God will bring the victory (12:1-9). Jeru-
remnant from among them! This prophecy salem will be God’s instrument, but the
illustrates how God was preparing the triumph will be his. He will destroy all the
way for the gospel to spread to all the nations that gather against his people.
world. One day, people from all nations Second, the nation will embrace its Lord
would become part of God’s family. (12:10-13:6). As God pours out his Spirit,
The prophet then announced another his people will look upon one whom they
reason for rejoicing—Israel’s king was com- have pierced, and mourn for him as one
ing, riding ona donkey (9:9-17)! He would would mourn the death of an only son.
bring lasting peace, and his dominion John the apostle connected this prophecy
would stretch to the ends of the earth. with Jesus’ crucifixion (Jn 19:37; Rv 1:7).
Jesus partially fulfilled Zechariah’s For almost two thousand years, the Jew-
words when he rode triumphantly into ish people as a whole have not recognized
Jerusalem on Palm Sunday (Mt 21:1-11). Jesus as their Messiah. Zechariah pro-
Great numbers of people cheered his com- claimed that one day, in God’s perfect tim-
ing. Many rejoiced because they thought ing, they will (see also Rom 11:25-27).
Jesus would fulfill this entire prophecy, When this happens, they will mourn bit-
becoming King of the Jews, destroying terly over their years of unbelief. Sin and
Rome’s power, and establishing God’s impurity will disappear, and false
kingdom on earth. prophecy will cease.
But the complete fulfillment of the Third, God’s shepherd will be struck
prophecy would have to wait. Jesus rode down (13:7-9). In Zechariah 13:7, God com-
into Jerusalem that day to prepare for his manded, “Strike the shepherd, and the
468
 Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi

AANA

millennium
RUE
sheep will be scattered.” Through this tween his first and second comings. For
process, the Lord would prepare a special him, as with many other prophets, Mes-
remnant for his purposes. He would es- siah’s coming kingdom was one glorious
tablish a personal relationship with them. future. We who live after Jesus Christ’s
At his last meal with his disciples, Jesus first coming can look back with gratitude
warned them about his coming arrest (Mt for his victory over sin. We can also look
26:31). He told them they would fulfill this ahead with excitement to the kingdom he
prophetic word, and they did. As Jesus’ en- will establish when he comes again.
emies led him away, His disciples ran fright-
ened into the night, unaware that the dawn AUN A LOTT
of his resurrection lay just ahead (Mt 26:56).
Fourth, the Lord will return to save his Malachi:
people (14:1-21). Zechariah foretold a day
when all nations will gather themselves Give God Your Best!
against Jerusalem. At the last minute, the
Lord will intervene, deliver his people and Outline
establish his everlasting kingdom. He will
destroy his enemies, and all nations will I. Introduction (1:1)
worship the one true God. Some Bible in-
The Golden II. God’s Love for His People
terpreters believe 14:6—21 describes a per-
Gate, Jerusalem. (1:2-5)
Some people sonal reign of Christ on the earth (mil-
believe that this lennium). Others believe it denotes
gate will not be
III. God’s Honor among His People
opened until Christ’s eternal rule in heaven. Still oth- (1:6=2:9)
Messiah comes ers suggest it refers to both earthly and
in glory. heavenly kingdoms. IV. God’s Concern about
Zechariah writes
of the coming of
When Zechariah wrote about Messiah’s Intermarriage and Divorce
the Messiah. coming, he did not distinguish sharply be- (2:10-16)

469
Encountering the Prophets

V. God's Justice and Patience no other examples of such an expression

(2:17-3:6) referring to an unnamed prophet.
We know little about Malachi other than
VI. God’s Concern for Tithes and that he lived in postexilic Judah. His book
Offerings (3:7-12) attacks God’s people for their general dis-
regard for the law and proper worship.
VII. God’s Love for the Remnant
Through a series of disputations, Malachi
(213=4:3)
challenged his audience to give the Lord
VIII. Conclusion (4:4—6) their best in everything. In these disputa-
tions, he stated the people’s sin, their un-
believing response, and God’s evidence
Malachi’s Message of their sin.
Scholars generally date Malachi’s min-
Introduction (1:1) istry to the time of Ezra and Nehemiah or
Malachi’s name means “my messenger.” just slightly before, since Malachi speaks
Consequently, some scholars have sug- against many of the same problems. A date
gested the book is anonymous and that of around 470-460 B.c.—just before Ezra’s
we should translate 1:1 as “The word of arrival—seems probable.°
the Lorp to Israel through my messenger.”
God's love for his people (1:2-5)
This view, however, is not likely.* We have
The people questioned the extent of God’s
love. In reply, Malachi reminded them of
God’s covenant. Jacob and Esau, ances-
= Apathy tors of Israel and Edom, were brothers, but
and the Christian God chose Jacob to receive the covenant
blessings. God blessed Israel, but made no
covenant with Edom. In fact, he devas-
~ Haggai’s hearers had not repeated their ancestors’ tated Edom’s land. The Edomites’ pride
_ sins. The prophet did not preach against their made them think no one could stop them,
idolatry, immorality, or social injustice. The people but God said he would frustrate their
~ were not worshiping other gods or violating their plans. On the other hand, God’s covenant
marriage commitments. They were not cheating with Israel demonstrated his love for his
each other or oppressing the poor. Yet, Haggai people.
denounced them because they had placed their God's honor among his people
own concerns above the Lord. (1:6-2:9)
While the people cared for their own needs,
Malachi brought a charge against the
God's house lay in ruins. They rebuilt their homes,
but could not find time to rebuild the temple.
priests—they were showing contempt for
Perhaps the initial opposition from neighboring
God’s Name! They were accepting blind,
peoples had discouraged them, but Haggai told lame, and sick animals for sacrifice. They
them the time had come. They needed to finish the led the people astray by showing them
temple and give God the honor he deserved! God’s sacrifices were not really important.
Today, many things compete for our attention. Malachi gave three reasons why God
As we pursue our active schedules, other concerns deserved the people’s honor and respect.
may keep us from giving the Lord the time he First, God was their father. Children hon-
deserves. As a result, our lives fail to bring him the ored their earthly fathers; why didn’t they
glory they should. honor their heavenly Father? Second, God
Jesus said we should give God's plans for our was their Master. The people called him
lives our highest priority (Mt. 6:33). We dare not “Lord,” so why didn’t they treat him like
crowd the Lord out of our schedules, but rather, ee one? Third, the Lord was a great King.
should live our lives in light of our relationship — Subjects would not bring a sickly animal
with him. Doing so will help us avo the sin 1 of as a gift to an earthly king, so why should
they bring such an animal to heaven’s
King?
The prophet warned the priests God
would curse their sacrifices. The Levites
470
 Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi

long commitment. The expression “wife

of your youth” (2:14) suggests many men
Key People/ were abandoning the vows they had made
Place early in life. As wives grew older, their
husbands divorced them, apparently to
Darius
marry younger, more attractive women.
Zerubbabel
Key Term Joshua
God's statement “I hate divorce” (2:16)
shows how seriously he takes marriage
Phoenicia
millennium commitments. Jesus affirmed this stan-
dard when religious leaders questioned
him (Mt 19:3-9). Many marriages today
end in divorce, but God’s word commands
were not taking their duties seriously. They us to marry for life. Sometimes serious sin
should have been teaching the people brings conditions where divorce seems the
God’s ways by word and example, but best solution, but God’s ideal is still last-
they were failing miserably. Today, the ing commitment.
Lord still expects Christian leaders to be
models of godly living. They should set a God's justice and patience (2:17-3:6)
high standard for others to follow. Many people felt God didn’t care about
the nation’s evil. The wicked appeared to
God's concern about intermarriage
escape unnoticed. Malachi assured his
and divorce (2:10-16)
people God's perfect justice would pre-
God established marriage as a sacred in- vail. The Lord would send his people a
stitution. He prohibited marrying outside special messenger, and then the Lord him-
the faith because doing so would com- self would come (3:1). He would judge sin
promise Israel’s relationship to him (Jos wherever he found it—even among his
23:12-13). In fact, intermarriage was one own people—and bring the world ulti-
of the main reasons Israel and Judah began mate justice.
to practice idolatry. Ezra and Nehemiah The Lord fulfilled his word to Malachi
attacked this problem a short time after through John the Baptist and Jesus Christ.
Malachi (Ez 9-10; Neh 13:23-29). John came first to announce Jesus’ com-
God also intended marriage to be a life- ing (Lk 7:27). Jesus’ death and resurrec-

Study Questions

1. Identify the historical circumstances . What did Zechariah promise about the
out of which Haggai and Zechariah priesthood?
arose. How would you characterize
. How did Zechariah describe the mes-
Haggai’s audience?
sianic kingdom? How were his words
. How did Haggai (and Zechariah) moti- fulfilled in the New Testament?
vate the people to rebuild the temple?
7. What's the main theme of Malachi?
. Discuss the pertinent issues surround-
. Malachi prophesied against many
ing the authorship of Zechariah.
types of abuses in his day. How are
. On what aspects of Judean life did people—even Christians—sometimes
Zechariah’s visions touch? How many guilty of these same abuses today?
visions do you remember?

471
Encountering the Prophets

CA
|
eT
“77 Summary

: \ EE i

1. Haggai’s messages included: a call to 4. God often revealed his plans to

action, a word of encouragement, a Zechariah through night visions.
confirmation of blessing, and the
5. Malachi’s message is a series of
restoration of the Davidic kingdom.
disputations.
2. While Haggai had great zeal for the
6. God fulfilled his word to Malachi
temple, the people were most inter-
through Jesus Christ and John the
ested in their own comfort.
Baptist.
3. The subject matter of Zechariah is dif-
7. Malachi closed his book with a com-
ferent in chapters 1-8 from chapters
mand to remember the Law of Moses
9-14 and this has caused some to
and a promise that God’s judgment
maintain a multiple-authorship view
was coming.
of the book.

tion defeated sin, and the Holy Spirit en- God had given them everything. The tithe
ables believers to live as God wants (Rom also provided for the Levites. To neglect
8:34). And when Jesus returns, he will de- giving one’s tithe was to steal from God.
stroy sin forever. Even today, people steal from God by giv-
God's concern for tithes and offerings ing the Lord less than they should.
(3:7-12) God challenged his people to put him
Malachi brought a serious charge against to the test. If they faithfully brought their
the people—they were stealing from God! offerings, he would flood them with bless-
The Law of Moses required the people to ing! Other nations would recognize the
tithe, to give 10 percent of their income to Lord had abundantly blessed Israel and
the Lord. Tithing reminded the people that would also praise him.

Further Reading

Baldwin, Joyce G. Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: student seeking advanced study. Rich in textual
An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old analysis and exposition.
Testament Commentary. Downers Grove: Merrill, Eugene H. Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An
InterVarsity, 1972. Good, solid, college-level Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody, 1994. A
commentary. detailed, yet readable analysis of the text with
Kaiser, Walter C., Jr. Malachi: God’s Unchanging ample footnoting.
Love. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984. Good survey with Verhoef, Pieter A. The Books of Haggai and Malachi.
a more devotional focus. New International Commentary on the Old
McComiskey, Thomas E., ed. The Minor Prophets: An Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987. A solid
Exegetical and Expository Commentary. 3 vols. commentary for the serious student.
Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992-98. For the serious

472
 Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi

God's love for the remnant (3:13-4:3) those who lived by it would experience
Some of God’s faithful followers won- life as God intended it. People who live
dered if God really loved them. They felt by God’s words today also experience that
they served him in vain. They saw others blessed life.
sin against the Lord and get away with it. Second, Malachi promised the people
But Malachi said the Lord would remem- God's judgment was coming. The Lord
ber his children’s faithful lives. When God would send Elijah before that day to call
judged the world, he would preserve his the people to repentance. Jesus affirmed
people for his own possession. He would that John the Baptist fulfilled Elijah’s role
celebrate with those who truly feared him. (Mt 11:13-14; 17:10-13). John announced
the coming of Messiah, who would bring
Conclusion (4:4-6) the world salvation and judgment. Jesus
Malachi closed his book with a command secured eternal salvation at his first com-
and a promise. First, he commanded God's ing, and, at his second coming, he will
people to remember the Law of Moses. judge the world (Heb 9:28).
The Law laid a foundation for life, and

473
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 Epilogue
A Final Word

IK AAAS “~.. when the fullness of time had come, On the other hand, Christianity has been
Heil sgeschichte
God sent his Son. .” clear from its inception that the New Tes-
Galatians 4:4 tament fulfills and complements the Old.
The Gospel writers’ genealogies of Jesus
Now we have come to the end of the mat- (Mt 1:1-16; Lk 3:23-28) explicitly affirmed
ter. Or have we? The Old Testament has that the Messiah has arrived, and that he
no clearly stated completion or resolution. is the culmination and fulfillment of the
Instead, the Old Testament ends in expec- Old Testament prophecies. Over and over
tation, awaiting a fuller revelation to usher again in the New Testament, the authors
in a new kingdom and its Messiah. The emphasize the intimate connections be-
Old Testament’s many and varied prophe- tween the events of their day and the Old
cies about the coming Son of David and Testament with quotes such as “All this
his new era point to a future time. Yet no took place to fulfill what had been spoken
one in the Old Testament can be said to be by the Lord through the prophet . .” (Mt
that Messiah, and there was certainly no 1:22: and see also Lk 24:44-47). And the
period in Israel’s history that ushered ina early church clearly recognized and af-
messianic era. firmed the importance of the Old Testa-
In this sense, every reader of the Old Tes-
ment to Christian faith.? The arrangement
tament is confronted with an important
of Old Testament books in the Christian
question: “Since the Old Testament claims
canon (see chapter 1) intentionally ties Old
God revealed himself in ancient Israel and
and New together. By concluding with the
that he will reveal himself further in the
prophets, the Old Testament collection has
future, what do I make of these theologi-
left off with a final prediction of that day
cal claims?” Or to put it another way,
when one greater than David will appear
“How are the Old Testament’s claims re-
solved in history?” The Old Testament (Mal 3:1).
clearly presents a history of redemption But this raises one of the thorniest ques-
and promise, a “salvation-history” (Hetls- tions of reading the Bible: How do the Old
geschichte). But as one scholar has pointed and New Testaments relate to each other?
out, it is a salvation-history that never ac- Some today would say the Old Testament
tually arrives at salvation. And that his- does not relate to modern culture; indeed,
tory is not quite complete, since it never even many Christians cut it from their
arrives at a terminus point.! Bibles, either intentionally or by neglect.
In the history of religion, there are only But with the earliest Christian believers
two possible answers to this question— we must assert that the Old Testament is
the one offered by Judaism and the one of- God’s word for our times! The question is
fered by Christianity. Judaism believes the not whether we should read both Testa-
truth-claims of the Old Testament were ments, but rather How we should read them
preserved in the Pharisaic traditions of the together. Exactly how do they relate? We
Mishnah (approximately .p. 200) and, fi- must define this relationship as more than
nally, in the Talmud (commentary on the a simple promise-fulfillment connection,
Mishnah produced in Palestine and Baby- since much of the Old Testament is some-
lonia). In this approach the culmination of thing other than promises. Likewise, it is
Old Testament hopes and expectations is more than a simple chronological se-
deferred to the future. The Messiah’s ar- quence, as the terms “old” and “new”
rival is still a future event, and the king- might imply. This is not an old, outmoded
dom of God is postponed. covenant system now made obsolete by a
475
Epilogue

Third, the Old Testament is the theolog-

ical centerpiece of the New. The authors of
the New Testament begin by affirming the
theological truths of the Old, and they as-
sume their readers also know those truths
and accept them. In fact, most of the great
doctrinal truths of the church are defined
Key Term first, not in the New Testament, but in the
Heilsgeschichte Old. Furthermore, many of these truths
are not defined at all in the New Testament;
they are taken for granted. So for exam-
ple, the significance of creation, the con-
sequences of human sin, the central role
newer, sleeker model. Instead, the rela-
of covenant in redemption, the doctrine of
tionship is more integrative and recipro-
substitutionary atonement—all are given
cal. There is a codependency between the
definitive statement in the Old Testament
Old and New Testaments. Reading either and assumed by the authors of the New
in isolation from the other will result in (respectively Gn 1-2, Gn 3, Gn 12, 15 and
misunderstanding both. numerous places throughout the Penta-
The intimate relationship between the teuch, Is 53). And this is only a partial list.
Testaments has at least three aspects. First,
In many ways, the New Testament con-
the Old Testament is the literary background tains little that is actually new, but rather
for the New. This can be illustrated by the describes the climactic fulfillment of the
sheer mass of New Testament quotations theological themes and messages from the
of or allusions to the Old. One scholar has Old Testament. In these ways, and in many
counted 295 separate explicit references others, the Old Testament is clearly the lit-
to the Old Testament, occupying some 352 erary, historical and theological matrix of
verses of the New.’ But the literary rela- the New.
tionship is more than mere quotations. So we return to that intimately personal
The rhetorical techniques, and to some de- question the Old Testament poses for every
gree even language and style of the New reader: “Since God claims to reveal him-
Testament authors, are shaped by the Old self in the Old Testament and promises to
Testament. reveal himself further in the future, what
Second, the Old Testament is the histor- do I make of these theological claims?” The
ical foundation of the New. It is no exag- New Testament and two thousand years
geration to say the New Testament would of church history have affirmed with one
be incomprehensible without the histori- voice: Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of that
cal information of the Old. How would revelation. Together the truth-claims of the
readers of the New Testament understand Old and New Testaments give us pause to
the claim that Jesus of Nazareth is the Mes- consider restating the question. Perhaps
siah without first learning something we should ask, not what do I make of the
about the history of national Israel and her claims of the Bible, but what do they make ~
Davidic dynasty? This historical interde- of me? The Bible offers truth, and invites
pendency could be illustrated in countless all of us to confess, receive, and believe. In
ways. But perhaps the most obvious is the so doing, these writings become the means
New Testament’s claim to historically ful- of grace whereby God's Spirit makes us
fill the Old Testament’s future hopes. new people.

476
 otes
Sketch of the Ancient Civilization of the
Tigris-Euphrates Valley (New York:
Hawthorn, 1962), 27; and Wolfram
von Soden, The Ancient Orient: An
Introduction to the Study of the Ancient
Near East, trans. Donald G. Schley
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 6-11.
3. On the geography of Egypt in
Chapter 1: What Is the Old Testament 9. Wurthwein, Text of the Old general, see John A. Wilson, The
and Why Study It? Testament, 12-41, provides a detailed Culture of Ancient Egypt (Chicago:
1. R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the _ discussion of the Masoretic text.
University of Chicago Press, 1951),
Old Testament (Grand Rapids: 10. Brotzman, Textual Criticism,
8-17; William C. Hayes, Most Ancient
64-69; Wurthwein, Text of the Old
Eerdmans, 1969), 260-61; William H. Egypt, ed. Keith C. Seele (Chicago:
Testament, 42-44,
Green, General Introduction to the Old University of Chicago Press, 1964),
11. Brotzman, Textual Criticism,
Testament: The Canon (Grand Rapids: 1-41; and Hermann Kees, Ancient
| 87-96, gives a good summary of the
Baker, 1980 [1898]), 9-10. Egypt: A Cultural Topography, ed. T. G.
scrolls and their significance. For a
2. For slightly different perspec- H. James, trans. Ian F. D. Morrow
more complete account, see
tives on Jamnia, see Harrison, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
Frank Moore Cross, The Ancient
Introduction, 277-78; Roger T. 1961), 47-95.
Library of Qumran, 3rd ed.
Beckwith, The Old Testament Canon of 4. Donald B. Redford, Egypt,
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995).
the New Testament Church (Grand Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times
12. For a thorough discussion of the
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985), 276-77. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Septuagint, see Sidney Jellicoe, The
3. Karl Barth, Evangelical Theology: Press, 1992), 3-28.
Septuagint and Modern Study (Winona
An Introduction, trans. Grover Foley 5. Herodotus 2.5.
Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1978 [1968]);
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979 6. Wilson, Culture of Ancient Egypt,
see also Wurthwein, Text of the Old
{1963]); Emil Brunner, Revelation and 8-17; and William W. Hallo and
Testament, 49-74; Brotzman, Textual
Reason: The Christian Doctrine of Faith Criticism, 72-79; and Tov, Textual
William Kelly Simpson, The Ancient
and Knowledge (Philadelphia: Criticism, 134-48.
Near East: A History, ed. John Morton
Westminster, 1946). 13. Brotzman, Textual Criticism, Blum (New York: Harcourt Brace
4. Dewey M. Beegle, The Inspiration 69-72, provides a good summary of Jovanovich, 1971), 188.
of Scripture (Philadelphia: Westminster, the Targums; see also Wurthwein, Text 7. Kees, Ancient Egypt, 9-10. This
1963); Daniel P. Fuller, “Benjamin B. of the Old Testament, 75-79; and Tov, helps explain how devastating the
Warfield’s View of Faith and History: Textual Criticism, 134-48. For a com- plagues described in the Book of
A Critique in the Light of the New plete discussion, see Alexander Exodus were to the Egyptians.
Testament,” Bulletin of the Evangelical Sperber, ed., The Bible in Aramaic, 4 8. Wilson, Culture of Ancient Egypt,
Theological Society 11 (1968): 75-83. | vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1959-1973). 153
5. For a classic discussion of ple- 14. These principles are drawn 9. Aharoni, Land of the Bible, 21.
nary verbal inspiration, see R. Laird from a comparison of several basic 10. For more details on this section,
Harris, Inspiration and Canonicity of the works on hermeneutics. See see Aharoni, Land of the Bible, 21-42;
Bible: An Historical and Exegetical Study | J. Robertson McQuilkin, Understanding and Denis Baly, The Geography of the
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1957). and Applying the Bible, rev. ed. Bible: A Study in Historical Geography
6. A. R. Millard, “In Praise of (Chicago: Moody, 1992); Gordon Fee (New York: Harper & Row, 1957),
Ancient Scribes,” Biblical Archaeologist and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the 125-27.
45 (1982): 143-53. | Bible for All Its Worth, rev. ed. (Grand 11. Baly, Geography, 194.
7. Ellis R. Brotzman, Old Testament | Rapids: Zondervan, 1993); A. Berkeley 12. Aharoni, Land of the Bible, 31.
Textual Criticism: A Practical Mickelsen, Interpreting the Bible (Grand 13. Baly, Geography, 109-14;
Introduction (Grand Rapids: Baker, | Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963). Aharoni, Land of the Bible, 43-63.
1994), 49-53, gives a good summary of 14. For more on the history of
the Masoretes and their contribution | Chapter 2: Where and When Did the Israel, see John Bright, A History of
to preserving the Old Testament text. _ Events of the Old Testament Take Israel, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia:
8. Ernst Wurthwein, The Text of the | Place? Westminster, 1981); and Eugene H.
Old Testament: An Introduction to the 1. Yohanan Aharoni, The Land of the Merrill, Kingdom of Priests: A History of
Biblia Hebracia, trans. Erroll F. Rhodes | Bible: A Historical Geography, trans. Old Testament Israel (Grand Rapids:
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), gives Anson F, Rainey, 2nd ed. (London: Baker, 1987).
a good summary of the ancient manu- | Burns & Oates, 1979), 3-6. 15. Roux, Ancient Iraq, 140-53; and
scripts pertaining to the Old 2. For more on the geography of Walter R. Bodine, “Sumerians,” in
Testament. See also Emanuel Tov, _ Mesopotamia in general, see Georges | Peoples of the Old Testament World, ed.
Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible | Roux, Ancient Iraq, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Alfred J. Hoerth, Gerald L. Mattingly,
(Minneapolis/ Assen, Netherlands: Penguin, 1980), 19-33; H. W. E Saggs, and Edwin M. Yamauchi (Grand
Fortress/ Van Gorcum, 1992). The Greatness That Was Babylon: A Rapids: Baker, 1994), 27-36.

477
Notes

16. Wilson, Culture of Ancient Egypt, ship: Jos 8:32; 1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Kgs 14:6; 4, For linguistic details and further
69-103; and James K. Hoffmeier, 21:8; Ezr 6:18; Neh 13:1; Dn 9:11-13; discussion, see Bill T. Arnold,
“Egyptians,” in Peoples of the Old Mal 4:4; Mt 19:8; Mk 12:26; Jn 5:46-47; “WS, in New International
Testament World, ed. Alfred J. Hoerth, 7:19; Acts 3:22; Rom 10:5; etc. Dictionary of Old Testament Theology
Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. 2. Sanhedrin 21b—22a; and also see and Exegesis, ed. Willem A.
Yamauchi (Grand Rapids: Baker, Baba Bathra 14b. VanGemeren, 5 vols. (Grand Rapids:
1994), 255-64. 3. Aboth 1.1 and Antiquities 4.8.48, Zondervan, 1997), 3:1025-26.
17. Bright, History, 83-87. Some respectively. 5. Wenham, Genesis, 6-7; and Ross,
prefer a slightly earlier date; see 4. For a survey of early Jewish and Creation and Blessing, 104.
Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, 78-79. Christian doubts regarding Mosaic 6. Gerald Bray, “The Significance of
18. Roux, Ancient Iraq, 184-207; and authorship, see R. K. Harrison, God’s Image in Man,” Tyndale Bulletin
Bill T. Arnold, “Babylonians,” in Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand 42, no. 2 (1991): 224-25.
Peoples of the Old Testament World, ed. Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), 497-98. 7. The phrase usually translated
Alfred J. Hoerth, Gerald L. Mattingly, 5. His most important book was “without form and void” is literary
and Edwin M. Yamauchi (Grand Die Composition des Hexateuchs (1877). hendiadys, meaning it expresses a
Rapids: Baker, 1994), 47-50. 6. Kenneth A. Kitchen, Ancient single notion through two words (tohii
19. Keith N. Schoville, “Canaanites Orient and the Old Testament (Downers wabohti). But what is the single notion
and Amorites,” in Peoples of the Old Grove: InterVarsity, 1966), 15-34. here intended? The phrase is often said
Testament World, ed. Alfred J. Hoerth, 7. James A. Sanders, Canon and to denote a chaotic universe at this
Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Community: A Guide to Canonical stage of creation. But recent compara-
Yamauchi (Grand Rapids: Baker, Criticism (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984). tive and linguistic study has revealed
1994), 162-67. 8. Tremper Longman III, Literary that the expression describes a “bare”
20. The precise timing between the Approaches to Biblical Interpretation or “empty” earth, an uninhabited
genealogy of Gn 11:27-32 and (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987). place that now is to be populated and
Abram’s call in 12:1-3 is not certain. 9. Carl E. Armerding, The Old inhabited by humankind. See David
See Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Testament and Criticism (Grand Rapids: Toshio Tsumura, The Earth and the
Genesis, Chapters 1-17 (NICOT; Grand Eerdmans, 1983). Waters in Genesis 1 and 2: A Linguistic
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 366-68, and 10. For this assessment, see Eugene Investigation, Journal for the Study of
Allen P. Ross, Creation and Blessing Carpenter, “Pentateuch,” in the Old Testament—Supplement Series
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988), 258. International Standard Bible 83 (Sheffield: JSOT, 1989), 17-43.
21. Hoffmeier, “Egyptians,” 273. Encyclopedia, ed. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, 8. Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of
22. Harry A. Hoffner Jr., “Hittites,” 4 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Genesis: Chapters 1-17, New
in Peoples of the Old Testament World, 1979-1988), 3:752-53. International Commentary on the Old
ed. Alfred J. Hoerth, Gerald L. Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
Mattingly, and Edwin M. Yamauchi Chapter 4: Genesis 1-11: The Prelude 1990), 2-11; and David W. Baker,
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994), 130. to Israel “Diversity and Unity in the Literary
23. Hoffmeier, “Egyptians,” 287-88. 1. W. G. Lambert and A. R. Millard, Structure of Genesis,” in Essays on the
24. David M. Howard Jr., Atra-hasis The Babylonian Story of the Patriarchal Narratives, ed. A. R. Millard
“Philistines,” in Peoples of the Old Flood (Oxford: Clarendon, 1969); and and Donald J. Wiseman (Winona Lake,
Testament World, ed. Alfred J. Hoerth, Isaac M. Kikawada and Arthur Quinn, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 208.
Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Before Abraham Was: The Unity of 9. F. B. Huey Jr. and John H.
Yamauchi (Grand Rapids: Baker, Genesis 1-11 (Nashville: Abingdon, Walton, “Are the ‘Sons of God’ in
1994), 233-36. 1985), 41-48. This basic plot is also Genesis 6 Angels?” in The Genesis
25. Edwin M. Yamauchi, present in the Sumerian version Debate, ed. Ronald F. Youngblood
“Persians,” in Peoples of the Old (Thorkild Jacobsen, “The Eridu (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1986),
Testament World, ed. Alfred J. Hoerth, Genesis,” Journal of Biblical Literature 184-209. Some (such as Huey) have
Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. 100 [1981]: 513-29). argued the passage refers literally to
Yamauchi (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2. For an excellent survey of the par- angels cohabiting with humans.
1994), 107-24. allels, see Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis 10. Victor P. Hamilton, “Genesis,”
26. Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, 1-15, Word Biblical Commentary 1 in Evangelical Commentary on the Bible,
491-515. (Waco, Tex.: Word, 1987), xlvi-l, and ed. Walter A. Elwell (Grand Rapids:
throughout the commentary. See also Baker, 1989), 18-19.
Chapter 3: Introduction to the John H. Walton, Ancient Israelite 11. Bill T. Arnold, “Babylonians,” in
Pentateuch: The Birth of God’s People Literature in Its Cultural Context: A Peoples of the Old Testament World, ed.
1. Besides these explicit references, Survey of Parallels between Biblical and Alfred J. Hoerth, Gerald L. Mattingly,
there are others connecting the Ancient Near Eastern Texts (Grand and Edwin M. Yamauchi (Grand
Pentateuch to Moses in a less direct Rapids: Zondervan, 1989), 19-42. Rapids: Baker, 1994), 43-45.
fashion: Ex 25:16, 21-22; Dt 28:58; 3. Allen P. Ross, Creation and 12. Derek Kidner, Genesis: An
29:20, 21, 27, 29; 30:10, 11. In addition, Blessing: A Guide to the Study and Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale
scholars have looked outside the Exposition of the Book of Genesis (Grand Old Testament Commentary (Downers
Pentateuch for evidence of its author- Rapids: Baker, 1988), 718-23. Grove: InterVarsity, 1967), 110.

478
 Notes

Chapter 5: Genesis 12-50: The 8. Gary A. Rendsburg, The 2. Ibid., 82; and A. Leo Oppenheim,
Patriarchs: Ancestors of Israel's Faith Redaction of Genesis (Winona Lake, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead
1. See, for example, P. Kyle Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1986), 46-47. Civilization (Chicago: University of
9. Gn 25:26, though the exact mean- Chicago Press, 1964), 192.
McCarter Jr., “The Patriarchal Age:
ing of his name is uncertain. 3. R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the
Abraham, Issac, and Jacob,” in Ancient
10. David J. A. Clines describes the Old Testament (Grand Rapids:
Israel: A Short History from Abraham to
theme of the Pentateuch as the partial Eerdmans, 1969), 601.
the Roman Destruction of the Temple, ed.
fulfillment of the promises to the 4. Victor P. Hamilton, Handbook on
Hershel Shanks (Englewood Cliffs,
patriarchs (The Theme of the Pentateuch, the Pentateuch: Genesis, Exodus,
N.J./Washington, D. C.: Prentice
Journal for the Study of the Old Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
Hall/Biblical Archaeology Society, Testament—Supplement Series 10 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1982), 246.
1988), 20-29. [Sheffield: JSOT, 1978]). 5. Gordon J. Wenham, The Book of
2. A. R. Millard, “Methods of 11. Thomas E. McComiskey, The Leviticus, New International
Studying the Patriarchal Narratives as Covenants of Promise: A Theology of the Commentary on the Old Testament
Ancient Texts,” in Essays on the Old Testament Covenants (Grand (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), 161.
Patriarchal Narratives, ed. A. R. Millard Rapids: Baker, 1985), 10. 6. John E. Hartley, Leviticus, Word
and Donald J. Wiseman (Winona Lake, Biblical Commentary 4 (Dallas: Word,
Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 35-51. See Chapter 6: Exodus: A Miraculous 1992), 247-60.
also the other articles in this excellent Escape 7. John Bright, The Authority of the
volume on the patriarchal narratives. 1. “Exodus” is from the Greek trans- Old Testament (Nashville: Abingdon,
3. It is sometimes suggested that it lation of 19:1, meaning “departure.” 1967), 53-55, 148-49.
could also have been another Ur locat- 2. James K. Hoffmeier, “Egypt, 8. Christopher J. H. Wright, God’s
ed closer to Haran, the traditional Plagues in,” in Anchor Bible Dictionary, People in God’s Land: Family, Land, and
homeland for the patriarchal family. ed. David Noel Freedman, 6 vols. Property in the Old Testament (Grand
Barry J. Beitzel, The Moody Atlas of (New York: Doubleday, 1992), Rapids/Exeter, England:
Bible Lands (Chicago: Moody, 1985), 80. 2:374-78. Eerdmans / Paternoster, 1990), 260-65.
4. Stephen's speech in Acts 7:2-4 3. R. Alan Cole, Exodus: An 9. Hartley, Leviticus, Ixviii-lxix.
contradicts this chronological Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale
sequence. For possible solutions, see Old Testament Commentary (Downers Chapter 8: Numbers: Failure in the
Grove: InterVarsity, 1973), 122. Desert
Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis,
Chapters 1-17 (NICOT; Grand Rapids: 4. John J. Bimson, Redating the 1. Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to
Eerdmans, 1990), 366-68, and Allen P. Exodus and Conquest, Journal for the the Old Testament as Scripture
Ross, Creation and Blessing (Grand Study of the Old Testament— (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 199.
Rapids: Baker, 1988), 258. Supplement Series 5 (Sheffield: JSOT, 2. R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the
5. Martin J. Selman, “Comparative 1981). Old Testament (Grand Rapids:
Customs and the Patriarchal Age,” in 5. Kenneth A. Kitchen, “Exodus, Eerdmans, 1969), 618-22.
The,” in Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. 3. Ibid., 621-22.
Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives, ed.
David Noel Freedman, 6 vols. (New 4. For more on these and additional
A. R. Millard and Donald J. Wiseman
York: Doubleday, 1992), 2:703. problems with the numbers, see
(Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns,
6. For details of the various lakes in Timothy R. Ashley, The Book of Numbers,
1983), 114, 136.
the eastern Delta, see John R. New International Commentary on the
6. Though Gn 15 may not actually
Huddlestun, “Red Sea,” in Anchor Old Testament (Grand Rapids:
contain a substitutionary element. See
Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel Eerdmans, 1993), 60-61.
Richard S. Hess, “The Slaughter of the
Freedman, 6 vols. (New York: 5. John Bright, A History of Israel,
Animals in Genesis 15: Genesis 15:8—21
Doubleday, 1992), 5: 639. 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: Westminster,
and Its Ancient Near Eastern Context,” 7. Yet a wider geographical mean- 1981), 134.
in He Swore an Oath: Biblical Themes ing is possible for the Hebrew name, 6. John W. Wenham, “Large
from Genesis 12-50, ed. Richard S. Hess, yam sip (“Sea of Reeds”) as in 1 Kgs Numbers in the Old Testament,”
Philip E. Satterthwaite, and Gordon J. 9:26, where it refers to the Gulf of Tyndale Bulletin 18 (1967): 30-32. On
Wenham, 2nd ed. (Grand Aqaba. See Kenneth A. Kitchen, “Red the other hand, perhaps we should
Rapids/Carlisle, England: Sea,” in The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, view the Old Testament’s use of num-
Baker/ Paternoster, 1994), 55-65. ed. N. Hillyer, 3 vols. (Wheaton, bers as hyperbole, on which see David
7. Selman, “Comparative Ill. /Leicester: Tyndale/InterVarsity, M. Fouts, “A Defense of the Hyper-
Customs,” 119, 137, and see the side- 1980), 3:1324. bolic Interpretation of Large Numbers
bar. Though the parallels are not exact, 8. Barry J. Beitzel, The Moody Atlas in the Old Testament,” JETS 40 (1997):
they are clear enough to provide back- of Bible Lands (Chicago: Moody, 1985), 377-87.
ground on a custom that would other- 90-91. 7. Gordon J. Wenham, Numbers: An
wise be unclear to the Western reader Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale
(John H. Walton, Ancient Israelite Chapter 7: Leviticus: Instructions for Old Testament Commentary (Downers
Literature in Its Cultural Context: A Holy Living Grove/Leicester: InterVarsity, 1981),
Survey of Parallels between Biblical and 1. Helmer Ringgren, Religions of the 126-27. :
Ancient Near Eastern Texts [Grand Ancient Near East, trans. John Sturdy 8. Wenham, Numbers, 150.
Rapids: Zondervan, 1989], 54-55). (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1973), 161. 9. Tbid., 164.

479
Notes

Chapter 9: Deuteronomy: Restoring 13. That is, the first nine books of (Louisville: Westminster /John Knox,
the Covenant the Hebrew canon, omitting Ruth and 1993), 3-5; H. G. M. Williamson, 7 and

1. The Septuagint incorrectly trans- counting Samuel and Kings as one 2 Chronicles, New Century Bible
book each (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Commentary (Grand Rapids/London:
lated the phrase “copy of this law” in
Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Eerdmans/ Marshall, Morgan & Scott,
Dt 17:18 as to deuterondmion totito, “this
Judges, Samuel, Kings). David Noel 1982), 5-11.
second law.”
Freedman, The Unity of The Hebrew 12. Talmud, Baba Bathra, 14b.
2. Duane L. Christensen, Deuteron-
omy 1-11, Word Biblical Commentary Bible (Ann Arbor: University of 13. Talmud, Baba Bathra, 15a;
Michigan Press, 1991), 15. Josephus, Antiquities, 6.6.1.
6A (Dallas: Word, 1991), xli.
3. Victor P. Hamilton, Handbook on
Chapter 10: Introduction to the Chapter 11: Joshua: Conquest and
the Pentateuch: Genesis, Exodus,
Historical Books: The History of Division
Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
Israel's Nationhood 1. Marten H. Woudstra, The Book of
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1982), 406-8.
4. These words occur in one form 1. Talmud, Baba Bathra 14b and 15a. Joshua, New International
or another in 5:29; 6:2, 5, 13, 24; 7:9; 2. Gordon J. Wenham, “History and Commentary on the Old Testament
S167 1012207 il 13722" the Old Testament,” in History, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981), 5-13,
5. In covenant contexts, love Criticism, and Faith: Four Exploratory presents a complete summary of
always has to do with covenant com- Studies, ed. Colin Brown (Downers authorship and date issues.
mitment, or obedience. William L. Grove/ Leicester: InterVarsity, 1976), 2. William F. Albright,
Moran, “The Ancient Near Eastern 13-75; V. Philips Long, The Art of “Archaeology and the Date of the
Background of the Love of God in Biblical History (Grand Rapids: Hebrew Conquest of Palestine,”
Deuteronomy,” Catholic Biblical Zondervan, 1994), 88-119. Bulletin of the American Schools of
Quarterly 25 (1963): 77-87. 3. Elmer A. Martens, “The Oriental Research 58 (1935): 10-18;
6. Stephen A. Kaufman, “The Oscillating Fortunes of ‘History’ Kenneth A. Kitchen, Ancient Orient
Structure of the Deuteronomic Law,” within Old Testament Theology,” in and Old Testament (Downers Grove:
Maarav 1, no. 2 (1978-79): 147. Faith, Tradition, and History: Old InterVarsity, 1966), 57-75.
7. For this development of Testament Historiography in Its Near 3. See, e.g., Eugene H. Merrill,
Kaufman’s observation, see John H. Eastern Context, ed. A. R. Millard, Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old
Walton, “Deuteronomy: An Exposition James K. Hoffmeier, and David W. Testament Israel (Grand Rapids: Baker,
of the Spirit of the Law,” Grace Baker (Winona Lake, Ind.: 1987), 66-75; David M. Howard Jr., An
Theological Journal 8, no. 2 (1987): Eisenbrauns, 1994), 313-40. Introduction to the Old Testament
213-25. 4. The Talmud attributes the Historical Books (Chicago: Moody,
8. For the several ways that Dt 27-34 authorship of Judges and Samuel to 1993), 64-65.
may be outlined, see J. A.Thompson, Samuel (Baba Bathra 14b). 4. Caleb’s words to Joshua (Jos 14:7,
Deuteronomy: An Introduction and 5. Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to 10) indicate a forty-five-year period
Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament the Old Testament as Scripture between Moses’ sending of the spies
Commentary (Downers Grove/ (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 230-31. into Canaan (Nm 13-14) and Caleb’s
Leicester: InterVarsity, 1974), 14-21. 6. Martin Noth, The Deuteronomistic current situation. Israel spent forty
9. George E. Mendenhall, History, 2nd ed., Journal for the Study years in the wilderness, but one to
“Samuel's ‘Broken Rib’: Deuteronomy of the Old Testament—Supplement two of those were at Mount Sinai
32,” in No Famine in the Land: Studies in Series 15 (Sheffield: JSOT, 1991). For a receiving God’s Law (Nm 10:11-12).
Honor of John L. McKenzie, ed. James convenient summary, see David M.
W. Flanagan and Anita Weisbrod Howard Jr., An Introduction to the Old Chapter 12: Judges and Ruth: Israel's
Robinson (Missoula, Mont.: Scholars, Testament Historical Books (Chicago: Moral Crisis
1975), 64-65. Moody, 1993), 179-82. 1. R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the
10. Cecil Frances Alexander, “The 7. Frank Moore Cross, Canaanite Old Testament (Grand Rapids:
Burial of Moses,” in Poems with Power Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the Eerdmans, 1969), 680-81.
to Strengthen the Soul, ed. James History of the Religion of Israel 2. Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to
Mudge (Abingdon, 1907), 36. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard the Old Testament as Scripture
11. For this discussion, see University Press, 1973), 274-89. (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 258-59.
George E. Mendenhall, Law and 8. Duane L. Christensen, 3. Arthur E. Cundall and Leon
Covenant in Israel and the Ancient Near “Deuteronomy in Modern Research: Morris, Judges and Ruth: An
East (Pittsburgh: Biblical Colloquium, Approaches and Issues,” in A Song of Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale
1955), 32-34. Power and the Power of Song: Essays on Old Testament Commentary (Downers
12. Ex 20-25, Dt, and Jos 24. For the Book of Deuteronomy, ed. Duane L. Grove: InterVarsity, 1968), 30.
discussion and introduction to the Christensen, Sources for Biblical and 4. For more on this problem, see
extensive bibliography on this topic, Theological Study 3 (Winona Lake, Cundall and Morris, Judges and Ruth,
see John H. Walton, Ancient Israelite Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1993), 16. 30-33.
Literature in Its Cultural Context: A 9. Childs, Introduction, 231-33. 5. Martin Noth, The History of Israel,
Survey of Parallels between Biblical and 10. Talmud, Baba Bathra 15a. trans. Stanley Godman, 2nd ed. (New
Ancient Near Eastern Texts (Grand 11. Sara Japhet, I and II Chronicles: A York: Harper & Row, 1960), 85-97; and
Rapids: Zondervan, 1989), 95-109. Commentary, Old Testament Library see David M. Howard Jr., An

480
 Notes

Introduction to the Old Testament | Old Testament Israel (Grand Rapids: and J. Maxwell Miller (Philadelphia:
Historical Books (Chicago: Moody, Baker, 1987), 243-48. Westminster, 1977), 401-5.
1993), 108-9. 2. Bill T. Arnold, “The Amalekite’s 9, John Gray, I & II Kings: A
6. Recently, scholars have questioned Report of Saul’s Death: Political Commentary, 2nd ed., Old Testament
whether this is really a case of levirate Intrigue or Incompatible Sources?” Library (Philadelphia: Westminster,
marriage. Our legal understanding of Journal of the Evangelical Theological 1970), 395-96.
this passage is far from complete. For Society 32 (1989): 289-98.
discussion of the problems, see 3. Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, 237. Chapter 16: 2 Kings: The End of
Robert L. Hubbard Jr., The Book of Ruth, 4. Leon J. Wood, Israel’s United National Israel
New International Commentary on the Monarchy (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979), 1. Donald J. Wiseman, 1 and 2
Old Testament (Grand Rapids: 229-30, discusses David’s potential Kings: An Introduction and Commentary,
Eerdmans, 1988), 48-62. strategy in such a move; see also Tyndale Old Testament Commentary
| Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, 234. (Downers Grove/ Leicester:
Chapter 13: 1 Samuel: God Grants a 5. Many believe Kileab, David's InterVarsity, 1993), 193-94.
King second son (2 Sm 3:3), died in youth, 2. R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the
1. For a good discussion of these for we hear no more of him as the nar- Old Testament (Grand Rapids:
rative unfolds. Eerdmans, 1969), 727-28.
people, see David M. Howard Jr., “The
6. Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, 253, 3. James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient
Philistines,” in Peoples of the Old
suggests the event took place in the Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old
Testament World, ed. Alfred J. Hoerth,
| mid—990s B.c. Testament, 3rd ed. (Princeton, N.J.:
Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M.
7. Ibid., 254. Princeton University Press, 1969), 281.
Yamauchi (Grand Rapids: Baker,
4. Sargon boasts of actually finish-
1994), 231-20.
Chapter 15: 1 Kings: The Glory of ing them off and deporting the popu-
2. Carl Friedrich Keil and
Solomon and the Beginning of the End lation (Pritchard, 284).
Franz Delitzsch, Commentary on the
5. For more, see Wiseman, Kings,
Old Testament, 10 vols. (Grand Rapids: 1. Talmud, Baba Bathra 15a.
18-26; and David M. Howard Jr., An
Eerdmans, 1978), 3:1. Ralph W. Klein, 2. John H. Walton, Ancient Israelite
Introduction to the Old Testament
1 Samuel, Word Biblical Commentary Literature in Its Cultural Context: A
Historical Books (Chicago: Moody,
10 (Waco, Tex.: Word, 1983), xxv, sug- Survey of Parallels between Biblical and
1993), 197-203.
gests some explanations as to why the Ancient Near Eastern Texts (Grand
6. Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to
books are divided the way they are. Rapids: Zondervan, 1989), 119; and
the Old Testament as Scripture
3. 1 Chr 6:33-34 establishes the Simon J. DeVries, 1 Kings, Word (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 291-92.
levitical connection. | Biblical Commentary 12 (Waco, Tex.:
7. Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament
4. Eugene H. Merrill, Kingdom of Word, 1985), xxix-xxxiii. Theology, trans. D. M. G. Stalker, 2
Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel 3. Mordechai Cogan and Hayim vols. (New York: Harper & Row,
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987), 181. Tadmor, II Kings: A New Translation 1962-1965), 1:340-43.
5. Dt 17:14-20 had anticipated the with Introduction and Commentary,
day a king would rule Israel; see | Anchor Bible 11 (Garden City, N.Y.: Chapter 17: 1 and 2 Chronicles:A
Merrill, Kingdom of Priests, 189-90. | Doubleday, 1988), 3. Look Back
6. Leon J. Wood, Israel’s United 4, See Donald J. Wiseman, 1 and 2 1. Talmud, Baba Bathra, 15a.
Monarchy (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979), Kings: An Introduction and Commentary, 2. For summary and review of this
167; Joyce G. Baldwin, 1 and 2 Samuel: | Tyndale Old Testament Commentary traditional position, see J. Barton
An Introduction and Commentary, | (Downers Grove/ Leicester: Payne, “1, 2 Chronicles,” in Expositor’s
Tyndale Old Testament Commentary | InterVarsity, 1993), 40-43. Bible Commentary, ed. Frank E.
(Downers Grove/ Leicester: 5. A. R. Millard, “Israelite and Gaebelein, 12 vols. (Grand Rapids:
InterVarsity, 1988), 159-60; Ben E Aramean History in the Light of Zondervan, 1979-1992), 4:304-6.
Philbeck Jr., “1-2 Samuel,” in Inscriptions,” Tyndale Bulletin 41, no. 2 3. David Noel Freedman, “The
Broadman Bible Commentary, ed. Clifton (1990): 261-75. Chronicler’s Purpose,” Catholic Biblical
J. Allen, 11 vols. (Nashville: 6. Eugene H. Merrill, Kingdom of Quarterly 23 (1961): 436-42; Sara
Broadman, 1970), 3:81-82. | Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel Japhet, “The Supposed Common
7. Archaeological evidence shows (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987), 294. Authorship of Chronicles and Ezra-
Beth-shan was an important city long 7. “Man of God” is this author’s Nehemiah Investigated Anew,” Vetus
before Bible times; see “Beth-Shean,” favorite synonym for “prophet.” It Testamentum 18 (1968): 330-71, and I &
in Holman Bible Dictionary, ed. Trent C. | stressed the divine authority of the II Chronicles, Old Testament Library
Butler (Nashville: Holman, 1991), prophet, whose words were known to (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox,
174-75. | have been true. This author frequently 1993), 3-5; Frank Moore Cross, “A
used it for Elijah and Elisha (Wiseman, Reconstruction of the Judean
Chapter 14: 2 Samuel: David's Reign Kings, 142-43). Restoration,” Journal of Biblical
1. For a good suggested chronology | 8. Herbert Donner, “The Separate Literature 94 (1974): 4-18; H. G. M.
of David's reign, see Eugene H. | States of Israel and Judah,” in Israelite Williamson, Israel in the Books of
Merrill, Kingdom of Priests: A History of and Judaean History, ed. John H. Hayes Chronicles (New York/Cambridge:

481
Notes

Cambridge University Press, 1977), Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Books, rev. ed. (Chicago: Moody, 1988),
5-70, and 1 and 2 Chronicles, New 1982), 69-70. : 45-46.
Century Bible Commentary (Grand 5. Clines, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, 5. Robert L. Alden, Psalms: Songs of
Rapids/London: Eerdmans/ Marshall, 116-18. Devotion (Chicago: Moody, 1974), 24.
Morgan & Scott, 1982), 5-11. 6. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, 172; 6. For a good survey of Ugarit and
4. Raymond B. Dillard and Tremper and Joseph Blenkinsopp, Ezra- Ugaritic studies, see Peter C. Craigie,
Longman III, An Introduction to the Old Nehemiah: A Commentary, Old Ugarit and the Old Testament (Grand
Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, Testament Library (Philadelphia: Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983).
1994), 171-72. Westminster, 1988), 204-7.
5. David M. Howard Jr., An 7. Fensham, Ezra and Nehemiah, Chapter 20: Job: One Man’s Search for
Introduction to the Old Testament 171-72. Justice
Historical Books (Chicago: Moody, 8. Mark A. Throntveit, Ezra- 1. For extensive bibliography and
1993), 234. Nehemiah, Interpretation (Louisville: discussion, see John H. Walton,
6. Williamson, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Westminster /John Knox, 1992), 92. Ancient Israelite Literature in Its
23. 9. Sara Japhet, “The Supposed Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels
7. Ibid., 92-95. Common Authorship of Chronicles between Biblical and Ancient Near
8. Ibid., 225-26. and Ezra-Nehemiah Investigated Eastern Texts (Grand Rapids:
9. This verse is a sort of “charter” Anew,” Vetus Testamentum 18 (1968): Zondervan, 1989), 169-97.
for the rest of Israel’s history 330-71; and Williamson, Ezra, 2. Ibid., 178.
(Raymond B. Dillard, 2 Chronicles, Nehemiah, xxxili-xxxvi. However, this 3. W. G. Lambert, Babylonian
Word Biblical Commentary 15 [Waco, new position is far from universally Wisdom Literature (Oxford: Clarendon,
Tex.: Word, 1987], 77-78). accepted. See Clines, Ezra, Nehemiah, 1960), 1.
10. Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Esther, 9-10; and Fensham, Ezra and 4. Walton, Israelite Literature,
Theology, trans. D. M. G. Stalker, 2 Nehemiah, 1-4. 183-85.
vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 10. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, 5. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom
1962-1965), 1:349; see also Dillard, XXXV. Literature, 21-91.
2 Chronicles, 76-81; Williamson, 1 and 2 11. For summary of the arguments, 6. For discussion of the parallels,
Chronicles, 31-33. see Eugene H. Merrill, Kingdom of see Walton, Israelite Literature, 175-97.
11. Howard, Introduction, 256-60. Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel 7. John E. Goldingay and
12. Williamson, 1 and 2 Chronicles, (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987), 503-6; Christopher J. H. Wright, “Yahweh
132-34. and David M. Howard Jr., An Our God Yahweh One’: The Oneness
13. Ibid., 26-27. Introduction to the Old Testament of God in the Old Testament,” in One
14. Roddy Braun, 7 Chronicles, Historical Books (Chicago: Moody, God, One Lord: Christianity in a World of
Word Biblical Commentary 14 (Waco, 1993), 281-83. Religious Pluralism, ed. Andrew D.
Tex.: Word, 1986), xxix-xxxi; and 12. H. G. M. Williamson, Ezra and Clark and Bruce W. Winter, 2nd ed.
Howard, Introduction, 261-63. Nehemiah, Old Testament Guides (Grand Rapids/Carlisle, England:
(Sheffield: JSOT, 1987), 81. Baker/Paternoster, 1992), 44-45.
Chapter 18: Ezra, Nehemiah, and 8. Glendon E. Bryce, A Legacy of
Esther:A Time to Rebuild Chapter 19: Introduction to the Wisdom: The Egyptian Contribution to
1. David J. A. Clines, Ezra, Poetical Books: The Literature of the Wisdom of Israel (Lewisburg,
Nehemiah, Esther, New Century Bible God's People Pa./London: Bucknell University
Commentary (Grand Rapids/ London: 1. David L. Petersen and Kent Press/ Associated University Presses,
Eerdmans/Marshall, Morgan & Scott, Harold Richards, Interpreting Hebrew 1979).
1984), vii. Poetry, Guides to Biblical Scholarship 9. Francis I. Andersen, Job: An
2. Bryan E. Beyer, “Zerubbabel,” in (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 2-6; Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale
Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel R. K. Harrison, “Hebrew Poetry,” in Old Testament Commentary (Downers
Freedman, 6 vols. (New York: Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Grove/Leicester: InterVarsity, 1976),
Doubleday, 1992), 6:1085; and Bible, ed. Merrill C. Tenney, 5 vols. 64.
H. G. M. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976), 10. John E. Hartley, The Book of Job,
Word Biblical Commentary 16 (Waco, 3:76-87. New International Commentary on
Tex.: Word, 1985), 17, 32-33. 2. For a concise summary of the the Old Testament (Grand Rapids:
3. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, issues, see Harrison, “Hebrew Poetry,” Eerdmans, 1988), 85.
49-50. 80-81. 11. R. K. Harrison, Introduction to
4. A literary device known as 3. Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical the Old Testament (Grand Rapids:
“repetitive resumption,” which Poetry (New York: Basic, 1985), 3-26; Eerdmans, 1969), 1027.
returns to the narrative flow broken Robert Lowth, Lectures on the Sacred 12. Hartley, Job, 15-20.
off by the insertion of a digression, in Poetry of the Hebrews, trans. G. Gregory 13. Andersen, Job, 67.
this case 4:6-23. Williamson, Ezra, (Boston/New York: Crocker & 14. Matitiahu Tsevat, “The Meaning
Nehemiah, 57; and FE. Charles Fensham, Brewster/J. Leavitt, 1829 [1787]). of the Book of Job,” in The Meaning of
The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, New 4. C. Hassell Bullock, An the Book of Job and Other Biblical Studies:
International Commentary on the Old Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Essays on the Literature and Religion of

482
 Notes

the Hebrew Bible (New York/ Dallas: 4. It is possible to isolate as many linguistic influences (ibid., 254-55,
Ktav/Institute for Jewish Studies, as fifteen separate discourses in 258-61; and Scott, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
1980), 36-37. 1:8-9:18; C. Hassell Bullock, An 192).
15. Andersen, Job, 71. Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic 5. Daniel C. Fredericks, Qoheleth’s
| Books, rev. ed. (Chicago: Moody, 1988), Language: Re-evaluating Its Nature and
Chapter 21: Psalms: The Songbook of | 165-71. Date (Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen, 1988),
Ancient Israel 5. Duane A. Garrett, Proverbs, see especially 266-78.
1. Those who believe the term Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, New 6. Garrett believes the book dis-
refers to the Korah of Nm 16-17 American Commentary 14 (Nashville: plays a gradual development of
include Derek Kidner, Psalms 1-72: An Broadman, 1993), 88. Solomon distancing himself from his
Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale 6. Hebrew has only two genders, role as monarch and assuming the
Old Testament Commentary (Downers masculine and feminine (there are no mantle of sage. The title “Qohelet”
Grove: InterVarsity, 1973), 35; other | neuters, as in English “it”). Nouns for allows him to speak, not as absolute
views include Hans-Joachim Kraus, abstract concepts such as righteous- monarch, but as teacher who “has
Psalms 1-59: A Commentary, trans. ness, love, and law, are feminine. been” king (Garrett, Proverbs, 264).
Hilton C. Oswald (Minneapolis: | Wisdom is a feminine noun (lokma), 7. Ibid., 374-76; and Othmar Keel,
Augsburg, 1988), 438-39; and Artur so it is personified here as a woman. The Song of Songs: A Continental
Weiser, The Psalms: A Commentary, 7. For classification by topics, see Commentary, trans. Frederick J. Gaiser
trans. Herbert Hartwell, Old R. B. Y. Scott, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes: (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994), 15-17.
Testament Library (Philadelphia: Introduction, Translation, and Notes, 8. See Garrett, Proverbs, 352-66, for
Westminster, 1962), 97-98. | Anchor Bible 18 (Garden City, N.Y.: a summary of the approaches.
2. Kidner, Psalms, 4-7; John Doubleday, 1965), 130-31. 9. Ibid., 376; and William H. Shea,
Durham, “Psalms,” in Broadman Bible 8. Robert L. Alden, Proverbs: A “The Chiastic Structure of the Song of
Commentary, ed. Clifton J. Allen, 11 Commentary on an Ancient Book of Songs,” Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta-
vols. (Nashville: Broadman, 1970), Timeless Advice (Grand Rapids: Baker, mentliche Wissenschaft 92 (1980):
4:153-54; Carl Friedrich Keil and | 1983), 10; and Garrett, Proverbs, 46-48. 378-96.
Franz Delitzsch, Commentary on the 9. Kidner, Proverbs, 23, 149-50. 10. Keel, Song of Songs, 17.
Old Testament, 10 vols. (Grand Rapids: 10. J. Ruffle, “The Teaching of 11. Ibid., 19.
Eerdmans, 1978), 5:14-19. Amenemope and Its Connection with 12. Such pronoun shifting is not
3. Kidner, Psalms, 36-43; Kraus, the Book of Proverbs,” Tyndale Bulletin uncommon in the Egyptian love
Psalms, 21-32. 28 (1977): 33-34. songs; see Papyrus Chester Beatty I,
4. Hermann Gunkel, The Psalms: A 11. Garrett, Proverbs, 46. group A, no. 32: “He does not know
Form-Critical Introduction, trans. 12. Kenneth A. Kitchen, “Proverbs my desires to embrace him... . O
Thomas M. Horner (Philadelphia: and Wisdom Books of the Ancient brother, [am decreed for you by the
Fortress, 1967). Near East: The Factual History of a Golden One, come to me that I may
5. For a brief overview, see Gene M. Literary Form,” Tyndale Bulletin 28 see your beauty!” (Michael V. Fox, The
Tucker, Form Criticism of the Old (1977): 69-114; and Garrett, Proverbs, Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian
Testament, Guides to Biblical 39-46, 52. Love Songs [Madison: University of
Scholarship (Philadelphia: Fortress, 13. Gerhard von Rad, Wisdom in Wisconsin Press, 1985], 52-53).
1971). The commentary series Forms Israel, trans. James D. Martin (Valley 13. Tom Gledhill, The Message of the
of the Old Testament Literature Forge, Pa.: Trinity Press International, Song of Songs: The Lyrics of Love, The
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans) applies this 1993 [1972]), 61-64. Bible Speaks Today (Downers
approach to the Old Testament. Grove/Leicester: InterVarsity, 1994),
Chapter 23: Ecclesiastes and Song of 91-92"
Chapter 22: Proverbs: Advice on Songs: Israelite Faith in Everyday Life 14. Ibid., 23
Living in God's World 1. R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the 15. C. Hassell Bullock, An
1. Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart, | Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerd- Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic
How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth, | mans, 1969), 1072; R. B. Y. Scott, Books, rev. ed. (Chicago: Moody, 1988),
rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes: Introduction, 207; and Raymond B. Dillard and

1993), 218. Translation, and Notes, Anchor Bible 18 Tremper Longman III, An Introduction
2. There are five Hebrew verbs in (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965), to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids:
the infinitive, often translated “to” in 196. Zondervan, 1994), 264-65.
the older translations. Example, “To 2. Duane A. Garrett, Proverbs,
Chapter 24: Introduction to the
know wisdom and instruction, to per- | Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, New
American Commentary 14 (Nashville: Prophets: Voices of God’s Servants
ceive the words of understanding . . .”
(K]V). Broadman, 1993), 282-83. 1. For a detailed discussion of the
3. Derek Kidner, The Proverbs: An 3. Ibid., 344. roles of Moses, Samuel, and Elijah in
Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale 4. It has been suggested the book developing the prophetic office, see
Old Testament Commentary (Downers | was originally in Aramaic and later Willem A. VanGemeren, Interpreting
Grove/ Leicester: InterVarsity, 1964), translated, or that it was written the Prophetic Word (Grand Rapids:
59. under heavy Phoenician-Canaanite Zondervan, 1990), 27—40.

483
Notes

2. See e.g. 1 Sm 9:9; Am 7:12, 14. Glory of the Messiah (Grand Rapids: Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
3. The medieval Jewish scholars Zondervan, 1985), 91-92. 1986), 17-28, provides a detailed sum-
Rashi and David Kimchi suggested 3. Wolf, Interpreting Isaiah, 90-92; mary of the issue.
this in their Hebrew commentaries on Ronald F. Youngblood, The Book of 2. S. R. Driver, Introduction to the
Isaiah, but the tradition has no other Isaiah: An Introductory Commentary, Literature of the Old Testament, 9th ed.
support. 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993), (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1913),
4. James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient 47-49; Oswalt, Isaiah, 209-13. 238-40, provides a summary of critical
Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old 4. Martin and Martin, Isaiah, p. 56. issues regarding Is 40-66.
Testament, 3rd ed. (Princeton, N.J.: 5. J. Gresham Machen, The Virgin 3. Claus Westermann, Isaiah 40-66,
Princeton University Press, 1969), 608. Birth of Christ, 2nd ed. (New York: trans. D. M. G. Stalker (London: SCM,
5. For a fuller comparison of bibli- Harper, 1932), provides a classic treat- 1969), 296.
cal and ancient Near Eastern prophet- ment of Christ’s birth and its implica- 4, Oswalt, Isaiah, 25-28; Herbert M.
ic material, see John H. Walton, tions. Wolf, Interpreting Isaiah: The Suffering
Ancient Israelite Literature in Its 6. J. Robertson McQuilkin, and Glory of the Messiah (Grand
Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels Understanding and Applying the Bible, Rapids: Zondervan, 1985), 31-36.
between Biblical and Ancient Near rev. ed. (Chicago: Moody, 1992),
Eastern Texts (Grand Rapids: 267-70. Chapter 27: Jeremiah 1-20: Struggling
Zondervan, 1989), 201-16. 7. James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient with God's Call
6. The Assyrians, like the Hebrews, Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old 1, J. A. Thompson, The Book of
were Semites; Gn 10:10-12 places the Testament, 3rd ed. (Princeton, N.J.: Jeremiah, New International
Assyrians in Abraham's genealogy. Princeton University Press, 1969), 287. Commentary on the Old Testament
7. For good discussions of the 8. Oswalt, Isaiah, 490-91, provides a (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980),
Assyrians, see H. W. F. Saggs, “The brief but thorough discussion of the 51-52.
Assyrians,” in Peoples of Old Testament issue. See also Rv 12:9 and 20:2, where 2. Thompson, 43; R. K. Harrison,
Times, ed. Donald J. Wiseman (Oxford: Satan is described as a serpent and a Jeremiah and Lamentations: An
Clarendon, 1973), 156-78; and dragon. Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale
William W. Hallo, “From Qargar to 9. Oswalt, Isaiah, 526. Old Testament Commentary (Downers
Carchemish: Assyria and Israel in the 10. Dennis J. McCarthy, Treaty and Grove: InterVarsity, 1973), 31-32.
Light of New Discoveries,” Biblical Covenant: A Study in Form in the 3. Harrison, Jeremiah and
Archaeologist 23 (1960): 34-61. Ancient Oriental Documents and in the Lamentations, 85; Walter Brueggemann,
8. For further reading on the Old Testament, 2nd ed. (Rome: Biblical To Pluck Up, To Tear Down: A
Babylonians, see Joan Oates, Babylon, Institute Press, 1978), provides a great Commentary on the Book of Jeremiah
rev. ed. (London: Thames & Hudson, treatment of the whole issue of 1-25, International Theological
1986); and W. G. Lambert, “The covenants in the ancient world. Commentary (Grand
Babylonians and Chaldeans,” in 11. Wolf, Interpreting Isaiah, 171; Rapids / Edinburgh:
Peoples of Old Testament Times, ed. John H. Walton, “New Observations Eerdmans/Handsel, 1988), 74.
Donald J. Wiseman (Oxford: on the Date of Isaiah,” Journal of the 4. Harrison, Jeremiah and
Clarendon, 1973), 179-96. Evangelical Theological Society 28 (1985): Lamentations, 99; Thompson, Jeremiah,
9. For a discussion of the Persians, 129-32. 364; Brueggemann, To Pluck Up, 121.
see Edwin M. Yamauchi, Persia and the 12. Oswalt, Isaiah, 631, gives a brief
Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990); and summary of the issue; see also Chapter 28: Jeremiah 21-52 and
Geo Widengren, “The Persians,” in Edwin R. Thiele, The Mysterious Lamentations: Dealing with Disaster
Peoples of Old Testament Times, ed. Numbers of the Hebrew Kings: A 1. J. A. Thompson, The Book of
Donald J. Wiseman (Oxford: Reconstruction of the Chronology of the Jeremiah, New International
Clarendon, 1973), 312-57. Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, rev. ed. Commentary on the Old Testament
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965), (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 551;
Chapter 25: Isaiah 1-39: Prophet of 119-23, 132-36, 182-91. Walter Brueggemann, To Build, To
Judah’s Royal Court 13. Oswalt, Isaiah, 674. The matter Plant: A Commentary on Jeremiah 26-52,
1. Alfred Martin and John A. is related to the discussion of chapters International Theological
Martin, Isaiah: The Glory of the Messiah 36-39. Commentary (Grand
(Chicago: Moody, 1983), 56-57; 14. “Merodach-baladan,” in Rapids/ Edinburgh:
Carl Friedrich Keil and Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Eerdmans/Handsel, 1991), 39. R. K.
Franz Delitzsch, Commentary on the Bible, ed. Merrill C. Tenney, 5 vols.
Harrison, Jeremiah and Lamentations:
Old Testament, 10 vols. (Grand Rapids: (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976), An Introduction and Commentary,
Eerdmans, 1978), 7:226-28. 4:191-92. Tyndale Old Testament Commentary
2. John N. Oswalt, The Book of (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1973),
Isaiah: Chapters 1-39, New Chapter 26: Isaiah 40-66: Great Days
133, and C. Hassell Bullock, An
International Commentary on the Old Are Coming!
Introduction to the Old Testament
Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1. John N. Oswalt, The Book of Prophetic Books (Chicago: Moody,
1986), 208; Herbert M. Wolf, Isaiah: Chapters 1-39, New 1986), 213, limit the designation to
Interpreting Isaiah: The Suffering and International Commentary on the Old chapters 30-31.

484
 Notes

2. Harrison, Jeremiah and (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970), Robert J. M. Gurney, “The Four
Lamentations, 170. 475-79. Kingdoms of Daniel 2 and 7,”
3. Thompson, Jeremiah, 696-97. 4. Eichrodt, Ezekiel, 522-23; Taylor, Themelios 2, no. 2 (1977): 39-45; and
4. Josephus, Antiquities 10.9.7. Ezekiel, 244; Feinberg, Ezekiel, 219-21; John H. Walton, “Daniel’s Four
5. Scholars disagree over which Walther Zimmerli, Ezekiel 2: A Kingdoms,” Journal of the Evangelical
prophet borrowed from whom. Some Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Theological Society 29 (1986): 25-36.
even suggest Jeremiah and Obadiah | Ezekiel, Chapters 25-48, trans. James D. 7, Aramaic is found in Gn 31:47
used a common prophetic source. | Martin, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: (two words only), Ezr 4:8-6:18;
6. Thompson, Jeremiah, 723-24. Fortress, 1983), 304-5. 7:12-26, Jer 10:11, and Dn 2:4b-7:28.
7. We should not confuse this 5. Taylor, Ezekiel, 242-43. 8. Daniel C. Snell, “Why Is There
Hazor with the Hazor in northern 6. C. Hassell Bullock, An Aramaic in the Bible?” Journal for the
Galilee; Thompson, Jeremiah, 726-727. Introduction to the Old Testament Study of the Old Tetament 18 (1980):
8. James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Prophetic Books (Chicago: Moody, 32-518
Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old 1986), 248-49; Taylor, Ezekiel, 251-54. 9. H. L. Ginsberg, “The
Testament, 3rd ed. (Princeton, N.J.: 7. Feinberg, Ezekiel, 233-39. Composition of the Book of Daniel,”
Princeton University Press, 1969), 308. 8. Willem A. Van Gemeren, Vetus Testamentum 4 (1954): 246-75.
9. See Bullock, Prophetic Books, Interpreting the Prophetic Word (Grand 10. Bill T. Arnold, “The Use of
270-71 and Harrison, Jeremiah and Rapids: Zondervan, 1990), 334-38.
Aramaic in the Hebrew Bible: Another
Lamentations, 197-98 for a summary of 9. Taylor, Ezekiel, 253-54.
Look at Bilingualism in Ezra and
the key issues. Daniel,” Journal of Northwest Semitic
_ Chapter 31: Daniel: The Kingdom of
Languages 22, no. 2 (1996): 1-16.
Chapter 29: Ezekiel 1-24: Rough Days God—Now and Forever
11. Lucas, “Four Empires Scheme,”
Are Coming! 1. For more on what follows here, 194; Gurney, “Four Kingdoms,” 39.
1. John B. Taylor, Ezekiel: An see John J. Collins, Daniel: With an 12. Collins, Daniel, 92.
Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale | Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature, 13. Robert J. M. Gurney, “The
Old Testament Commentary (Downers Forms of the Old Testament Literature Seventy Weeks of Daniel 9:24-27,”
Grove: InterVarsity, 1969), 14-16. 20 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984), Evangelical Quarterly 53 (1981): 36.
1-24. There is no definitive list of the
2. Walther Eichrodt, Ezekiel: A 14. Collins, Daniel, 65.
Commentary, trans. Cosslett Quin, Old | so-called apocalyptic writings. D. S. 15. Baldwin, Daniel, 108-9.
Russell listed seventeen books that fit
Testament Library (Philadelphia: 16. Paul-Alain Beaulieu, The Reign
this category, ranging from the mid-
Westminster, 1970), 52. of Nabonidus, King of Babylon, 556-539
second century B.c. to the second cen-
3. Walther Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1: A B.c. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale
| tury A.p., in addition to several more
Commentary on the Book of the Prophet University Press, 1989), 186-88.
from the Dead Sea Scrolls (The Method
Ezekiel, Chapters 1-24, trans. Ronald E. 17. Raymond P. Dougherty,
and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic
Clements, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Nabonidus and Belshazzar: A Study of the
| [Philadelphia: Westminster, 1964],
Fortress, 1979), 139. Closing Events of the Neo-Babylonian
37-38).
4. Hichrodt, Ezekiel, 84-85; Taylor, Empire (New Haven, Conn.: Yale
2. Joyce G. Baldwin, Daniel: An
Ezekiel, 78-81; Charles L. Feinberg, The University Press, 1929), 13.
Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale
Prophecy of Ezekiel: The Glory of the Lord 18. Belshazzar may have been the
| Old Testament Commentary (Downers
(Chicago: Moody, 1969), 33-34. real power behind the throne through-
Grove: InterVarsity, 1978), 53-59.
5. Feinberg, Ezekiel, 51-52; Taylor, out Nabonidus’s reign (Beaulieu,
3. The approximate dates for the
Ezekiel, 99.
| visions are as follows: chapter 7 in 553 Nabonidus, 90-98).
6. Taylor, Ezekiel, 171; Eichrodt,
B.c.; Chapter 8 in 551 B.c.; chapter 9 in 19. E. J. Young, The Prophecy of
Ezekiel, 321-22; Zimmerli, Ezekiel,
539 B.c.; and chapters 10-12 in 536 B.c. Daniel (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
483-84. These dates overlap with the events in 1949), 115-18.
chapters 1-6, so the book has a literary 20. A. R. Millard, “Daniel 1-6 and
Chapter 30: Ezekiel 25-48: God's History,” Evangelical Quarterly 49
arrangement (tales and visions) rather
Planning an Exciting Future (1977): 71-72.
than a chronological one.
1. Charles L. Feinberg, The Prophecy 4. Bill T. Arnold, “Wordplay and 21. John C. Whitcomb, Darius the
of Ezekiel: The Glory of the Lord Narrative Techniques in Daniel 5 and Mede: A Study in Historical Identification
(Chicago: Moody, 1969), 161-64. | 6,” Journal of Biblical Literature 112 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959). For
2. John B. Taylor, Ezekiel: An (1993): 479-85. more detail on the discussion that fol-
Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale 5. John E. Goldingay, Daniel, Word lows, see Edwin M. Yamauchi, Persia
Old Testament Commentary (Downers Biblical Commentary 30 (Dallas: and the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker,
Grove: InterVarsity, 1969), 199; | Word, 1989), 158, and Baldwin, Daniel, 1990), 58-59.
Feinberg, Ezekiel, 168-69. | 59-60. 22. This view is a slight modifica-
3. Feinberg, Ezekiel, 197; Taylor, 6. Ernest C. Lucas, “The Origin of tion of the “Gubaru” theory;
Ezekiel, 220-21; Walther Eichrodt, | Daniel’s Four Empires Scheme Re- William H. Shea, “Darius the Mede:
Ezekiel: A Commentary, trans. Cosslett Examined,” Tyndale Bulletin 40, no. 2 An Update,” Andrews University
Quin, Old Testament Library (1989): 185-202, especially 192-94; Seminary Studies 20 (1982): 229-48.

485
Notes

23. Donald J. Wiseman, “Some was not going to marry another McComiskey, 3 vols. (Grand Rapids:
Historical Problems in the Book of nation, but restore Israel. Baker, 1992-1998), 2:496-502;
Daniel,” in Notes on Some Problems in 5. According to the Law of Moses, Carl Friedrich Keil and
the Book of Daniel, ed. Donald J. the priests received a portion of most Franz Delitzsch, Commentary on the
Wiseman, et al. (London: Tyndale, sacrifices to keep for themselves (Lv Old Testament, 10 vols. (Grand Rapids:
1965), 12-16. 6:14-7:38). The priests were apparent- Eerdmans, 1978), 10:339-49.
24. David W. Baker, “Further ly more concerned about their own 2. Robert B. Chisholm, Interpreting
Examples of the Waw Explicativum,” stomachs than about the people’s spir- the Minor Prophets (Grand Rapids:
Vetus Testamentum 30 (1980): 134. itual condition! Zondervan, 1990), 109-10; C. Hassell
25. For a brief summary, see 6. The Law of Moses said not to Bullock, An Introduction to the Old
Gordon J. Wenham, “Daniel: the Basic muzzle the ox while he was threshing; Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago:
Issues,” Themelios 2, no. 2 (1977): that way, the animal could share in the Moody, 1986); Carl E. Armerding,
49-52. harvest (Dt 25:4). “Obadiah,” in Expositor’s Bible
26. Ez 14:14, 20, and in mythology 7. For a complete discussion of this Commentary, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein,
from the ancient city of Ugarit. issue, see Leslie C. Allen, The Books of 12 vols. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan,
27. Especially those prophecies Joel, Obadiah, Jonah and Micah, New 1979-1992), 7:337.
dealing with kingdoms (chapters 2, 7, International Commentary on the Old 3. For an excellent discussion of the
and 8). The prophecies of the seventy Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, evidence for dating the Book of Jonah,
weeks (9:24—27) and the king who 1976), 19-25. see John H. Walton in Bryan E. Beyer
exalts himself above God (11:36-45) 8. For an interesting discussion of and John H. Walton, Obadiah and

are taken as references to Antiochus

this procedure and more details about Jonah, Bible Study Commentary
the sycamore tree, see W. E. Shewell- (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988),
only, with no further fulfillment.
Cooper, Plants, Flowers and Herbs of the 65-72. Walton rightly points out that
28. Joyce G. Baldwin has argued
Bible (New Canaan, Conn.: Keats, even if scholars could prove Jonah
“there is no clear proof of pseudo-
1977), 156-57. was written centuries later, that would
nymity in the Old Testament and
9. See the background section on not rule out the historical accuracy of
much evidence against it” (“Is There
Hosea for further information. the book.
Pseudonymity in the Old Testament?”
10. Edwin R. Thiele, The Mysterious 4, The title “king of Nineveh” is
Themelios 4, no. 1 [1978]: 12).
Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, 3rd ed. somewhat strange here, since Nineveh
29. Rk. K. Harrison, Introduction to
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983), 107, was not the capital of Assyria at that
the Old Testament (Grand Rapids:
111, 119-20. time. Perhaps the title refers to a local
Eerdmans, 1969), 1127.
11. Hans Walter Wolff, Joel and governor of Nineveh.
30. There are dissenting voices in
Amos: A Commentary on the Books of the 5. Edwin R. Thiele, The Mysterious
the evangelical camp. Goldingay
Prophets Joel and Amos, ed. S. Dean Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, 3rd ed.
accepts the book as late and pseudo-
McBride Jr., trans. Waldemar Janzen, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983), 217.
nymous (Daniel).
S. Dean McBride Jr., and Charles A. 6. Bullock, Prophetic Books, 216, and
Muenchow, Hermenia (Philadelphia: Tremper Longman III, “Nahum,” in
Chapter 32: Hosea, Joel, and Amos: A
Fortress, 1977), 124, appeals to archae- The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and
Call for Repentance and a Promise for
ological evidence from Hazor to sug- Expository Commentary, ed. Thomas E.
Blessing
gest a date of 760 B.c. This earthquake McComiskey, 3 vols. (Grand Rapids:
1. Judah appears seven times in must have been quite serious; Zec 14:5 Baker, 1992-1998), 2:765-66, provide
Hosea (4:15; 5:5, 10; 6:4, 11; 10:11; also mentions it. good summaries of the issue.
12:3). 12. This Hebrew expression “to 7. Armerding, “Obadiah,” 493;
2. The other references are Gn take up a lament” also occurs in Bullock, Prophetic Books, 181-83;
38:24; 2 Kgs 9:22; Ez 23:11, 29; Hos 2:2, Jeremiah and Ezekiel (Jer 7:29; 9:10; Ez J. J. M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and
4: 4:12; 5:4; Na 3:4 (2X). NOS 2O M22 WO one)» Zephaniah, Old Testament Library
3. E. J. Young, Introduction to the Old 13. Jeroboam I (931-909 B.c.) estab- (Louisville: Westminster /John Knox,
Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, lished the worship centers at Dan and 1991), 82-84.
1949), 245-46, suggests the marriage Bethel (1 Kgs 12:25-29), and the 8. Keil and Delitzsch, Commentary,
and birth of the children were only people were still using them in 117; Chisholm, Interpreting, 201.
symbolic and never really happened, Amos’s day. Some Israelites also went 9. Chisholm, Interpreting, 201;
but the text really gives no indication to Beersheba in Judah, apparently Bullock, Prophetic Books, 168-69.
that we should understand it in this because of its connections with Isaac
way. (Gn 26:23-35; Am 7:9, 16). Chapter 34: Haggai, Zechariah, and
4. How Gomer lost her freedom is Malachi: Rebuilding a People
not known. Some scholars have sug- Chapter 33: Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, 1. Joyce G. Baldwin, Haggai,
gested that the woman Hosea bought Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah: Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction and
in 3:1-5 was another woman, since the God's Plan for the Nations Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament
text does not specifically name her. 1. Jeffrey J. Niehaus, “Obadiah,” in Commentary (Downers Grove:
However, for Hosea to marry another The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and InterVarsity, 1972), 29; Robert L.
woman would ruin the analogy; God Expository Commentary, ed. Thomas E. Alden, “Haggai,” in Expositor’s Bible

486
 Notes

Commentary, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein, | Prophetic Books (Chicago: Moody, Epilogue

12 vols. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986), 314-17. 1. John Bright, A History of Israel,
1979-1992), 7:572. 4. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: Westminster,
2. We could translate 2:9 either as Malachi, 211-12; Alden, “Haggai,” 1981), 460.
“The glory of this latter house” (Niv) 702-03; Walter C. Kaiser Jr. Malachi: 2. There were dissenting voices as
or “The latter glory of this house”
God's Unchanging Love (Grand Rapids: early as the second century a.p., but
(NAsv). However, the second interpre-
Baker, 1984), 13-15. they were consistently silenced by the
tation fits the context better.
5. Baldwin, Haggai, Zechariah, church. See Walter C. Kaiser Jr., Toward
3. Kenneth L. Barker, “Zechariah,”
in Expositor’s Bible Commentary, ed. Malachi, 213; Bullock, Prophetic Books, Rediscovering the Old Testament (Grand
Frank E. Gaebelein, 12 vols. (Grand 338-39. Kaiser, Malachi, 17, and Rapids: Zondervan, 1987), 19-22.
Rapids: Zondervan, 1979-1992), | Robert B. Chisholm, Interpreting the 3. Roger Nicole, “Old Testament
7:596-97, summarizes the relevant Minor Prophets (Grand Rapids: Quotations in the New Testament,” in
issues, as does C. Hassell Bullock, An Zondervan, 1990), 278, place Malachi Bernard L. Ramm, et al., Hermeneutics
Introduction to the Old Testament at 433 B.c. and 450 B.c., respectively. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1971), 41-42.

487
TTS SESS ISSN SSS
Armenia, 349, 351

Subject Index
Arnon, 42, 57
Arpad, 94
Arabic. See languages, Arabic.
Aramaic. See languages, Aramaic.
archaeology, 91, 98, 108, 110, 169-70,
224, 269, 286, 435, 459
archives, 223, 233, 234
Aaronic priesthood, 58, 65, 104, 119, prophecies concerning, 394, 400, Babylonian, 402, 435, 457
120, 122, 124, 134, 265-66, 269, 403, 418, 424, 445, 460 Hittite, 223
384, 390, 423, 467, 470 Amorites, 27, 30, 38, 45, 46, 47, 135, Ark of the Covenant, 104, 172, 183,
degraded, 196, 198, 396, 404, 405 137, 144, 149. See also lan- 195, 197, 198-99, 206, 210, 214,
second temple, 464-65 guages, Amorite. 219
temple, 266, 408-09, 422 amphictyony, 186-87, 190 Ashdod/Ashdodites, 199, 206, 269,
“Abomination of Desolation,” 434, Anathoth, 384, 388, 390 365
436 | Anatolia, 48, 57 Asherah, 286, 287, 440
abortion, 185, 357 _ “Ancient of Days,” 431, 432, 433 Asia Minor, 85, 374
Abrahamic covenant, 47, 64, 94-101, angels, 172, 428 Asia, 36, 39, 48
105, 107, 112, 114-15, 143-44, | annals, royal, 223-24, 233, 234 assassination of Gedaliah, 467
anointing Assur, 38, 57
148, 168, 170, 226, 272, 340. See
oil, 104 Assyria/ Assyrians, 38, 46, 94, 230,
also covenant.
call of God, 348 245, 340, 366, 445, 452. See also
Acco, city of, 40
anthropomorphism, 69, 72 languages, Assyrian; Nineveh.
Acco, Plain of, 40, 57
anti-Christ, 432-33 art/culture, 159, 163, 315, 399, 429
Achish, 204
antiphonal psalms, 305 empire, 44, 52, 54-55, 224, 255,
acrostics, 285-86, 320-21, 403
Anti-Lebanon Mountains, 40 351, 358, 360, 362, 367, 368,
Adar, month of, 273, 275
| antithetic parallelism, 282-83, 286, 318
400-01, 415, 441, 442
adultery kings, 240, 241, 242-43, 355, 441
apathy, spiritual, 464, 465, 470
marital, 123, 318, 440 rise /decline, 53, 196, 246, 348-50,
spiritual, 441-42, 448
Aphek, 198
354, 355, 360, 362, 396, 419,
Aegean Sea, 48, 56
apocalyptic literature, 346, 363, 366,
456-57, 460, 467
424, 428-29, 436-38
Africa, 36, 38 Aten, 48
Apocrypha, 22, 30
agriculture, 38-39, 44, 46, 189, 444, atonement, 122, 123, 126, 424, 466-67
apostasy
448. See also shepherd. Day of, 119, 122, 124
in desert, 137
Ai, 169, 173, 178 of Aaron, 128
national, 158, 159, 222, 231, 233,
Aijjalon Valley, 212 sacrifice, 120, 121, 122, 124-25
243, 244-45, 384, 385-86, 394,
Akkad/Akkadian kingdom, 38, 44, Atrahasis Epic, 78, 80-81, 84
454
46, 268, 341, 344, 345-46, 349. authority, prophetic, 342, 344
of Jeroboam I, 228
See also Akkadian language. authorship
of northern kingdom, 52, 159, 222,
Akkadian. See languages, Akkadian. of Chronicles, 252, 259, 270
228, 230-31, 240, 243, 340-41, of Daniel, 436, 437
Akitu, festival of, 374, 379
343, 347, 354, 415, 440-41, 455, of Ecclesiastes, 330, 333
Alexandria, 28
471 of Esther, 272
allegory, 331, 453, 460
of Omri,230 of Ezra—Nehemiah, 270-71
alliances, military, 354, 358, 359, 360,
of Saul, 256 of Historical Books, 161-66
364-65, 419, 442
of Solomon, 224, 227 of Isaiah, 355, 370-72, 379, 380,
by Samaria, 240, 243
of Judah, 240, 244-45, 340-41, 343, of Job, 298, 299
by Judah, 243 347, 348, 354, 356, 357-58, 384, of Joshua, 169
Egypt-Assyria, 246 385-88, 390, 391, 408, 410, 415, of Lamentations, 402-403
almond tree in Jeremiah, 385 455, 471 of Pentateuch, 68-75
altar, 104 application, scriptural, 30, 31 of Prophets, 346-47
burnt offering, 107, 120, 124, 422 Aqabah, Gulf of, 43, 57, 109-10, 113, of Proverbs, 321
incense, 104 254, 482 of Psalms, 304-05
memorial, 146, 177-78 Arabah, 42, 57 of Samuel, 196, 210
Amalek/Amalekites, 168, 134, 200, | Arabia/ Arabs, 44, 110, 269, 320, 354, of Song of Songs, 333
205, 2107211, 212 362, 366, 401 of Zechariah, 465-66
Amarna. See E] Amarna. | Arabian Desert, 36, 57 autobiographical style of Ezekiel, 415
Amarna Letters, 48, 57 | Arad, 130
Ammon/Ammonites, 144, 200, 212, Aram/Arameans, 44, 46, 50, 94, 216, Baal(s), 285, 286, 287, 341, 386, 390,
216, 218, 269, 400, 418, 440, 400 395, 440, 442, 459
452. See also languages, Araunah, 218, 219 of Peor, 137
Ammonite. Armageddon. See Jezreel Valley. —Zebub, 238, 247

488
 Subject Index

Baal-perazim, 212, 218 in David, 214-16 capital punishment. See punishments

Baale—Judah. See Kiriath Jearim. in Moses, 142, 146-47, 148, 222 under law.
baalism, Canaanite, 52, 57, 176, 182, suzerain treaty, 150, 152 Cappadocia, 349, 351
184, 187, 231, 238, 240, 241, 349 | blood, importance of, 119, 124 Carchemish, 400
Babel, 66, 79, 85, 86 boiling pot in Jeremiah, 385 Carmel, Mount, 231, 341, 349
Babylon/Babylonia, 38, 44, 54, 196, book Caspian Sea, 36, 57
292, 340, 348, 350-51, 366, 452 of comfort, 395 casuistic law, 106, 113, 123
Chaldeans of, 55, 93 of the annals of the kings of catastrophism, 85
Chronicle, 457 Israel/Judah, 223, 233 Caucasus Mountains, 36, 57
city of, 78, 86, 268, 401, 432, 433 of the covenant/law of Moses. See censuses, 65, 128, 129, 130, 219
destruction of Jerusalem by, 52, law/ Pentateuch. Central Benjamin Plateau, 212
55-56, 158, 210, 255, 368, 418, | Book of consolation. See “Book of central campaign of Joshua, 168,
452 Comfort.” 172-73, 182
exile to, 224, 244, 245, 251, 257, branch, messianic, 357, 366, 397, cereal offering, 120, 124
310, 371, 408-9, 429, 430, 431, 466-67 ceremonial law, 123, 134
435 bread, 119 Chalcolithic Age, 44, 46, 57
fall of, 46, 56-58, 224, 254, 258, | bride, Israel as, 441 Chaldeans, 54, 350, 351, 456
263, 274, 401-02, 434-35, 457, Britain, 467 chariots, 457
464 Bronze Age Chebar, River, 409, 414
Israel return from, 56-58, 159, Early, 44-45, 46, 56, 57 Cherubim, 411
376-77 Late, 46, 47-49, 50, 57 chiasm, 142-43, 152, 153, 284-85, 286,
new empire, 46, 246, 349, 385, Middle, 45-47, 57, 91 430, 436
395-96, 399, 400, 456, 466, 467 | bronze serpent, 130, 134 “child” /“son” motif, 291, 442, 448
old empire, 45, 46, 47, 48, 344, 350 Buddhism, 66 children
post-empire, 352 burnt offering, 107, 120, 124, 422 behavior by, 314, 317, 321
prophecy concerning, 354, 362, Cairo, 401 sacrifice of, 96, 387, 390
367, 394, 401-2, 403, 411, 413, calendar of worship, 119, 137-38 Chinnereth, 40, 42, 57
458 | calf, golden, 104 chosen people, 259, 260, 264, 378-79,
Theodicy, 292 call of God, 466 443
Bashan, 42, 57, 135, 144, 446 to Abram, 67, 68, 92-93 chronicles, Hittite royal , 223
Bay of Haifa, 40, 57 to Amos, 342 chronology, biblical. See dating.
beasts of Daniel, 429, 432 to Elisha, 239 church as temple, 464, 467
Behemoth, 297, 298 to Ezekiel, 408, 409-10 circumcision, 91, 172
Benjamin, 186, 213-14, 218, 219, 228, to holiness, 68, 119, 123, 124, cities of refuge, 143, 168, 176, 178
266, 384 125-26, 347, 389, 465 city-states, 47, 247
bestiality, 123 to Isaiah, 354, 356, 358 civil law, 123
Beth—Peor, 148 to Jeremiah, 385, 389 civil war
Beth—Shan, 206, 211 to purity, 65, 317, 318, 322, 378, in divided monarchy, 228
Beth-Shemesh, 199, 205 412-13 in early monarchy, 212, 219
Bethel, 42, 57, 91, 93, 99, 228, 447, 467 to renewal/repentance, 342, 348, classical prophecy / prophets, 341,
Bethlehem, 42, 57, 187, 188, 197, 305, 370, 376, 380, 388, 394, 408, 348-49, 350
320, 460 413, 440, 443, 449, 466, 473 cleanness laws, 119, 121-22, 128, 134,
Beulah, 378-79 to Samuel, 196 410, 415, 465
Bible to service, 341-42, 343, 344, 374 cloak of Elijah, 239
authenticity of, 68 to worship, 389 cloud of divine presence, 131
inspiration of, 24-26, 31, 123-24, | “called one,” prophet as, 341-42 Code of Hammurapi, 47, 95, 350
310 camp, Israelite, 130 comfort. See book of comfort.
first commentary on, 253 | Canaan/Canaanite, 47 commentary on Scripture, first, 253
interpretation of, 28-33 baalism, 52, 118, 137, 176, 182, 184, compassion of God, 68, 456
transmission of, 24, 26-28, 30 187, 231, 238, 240, 241, 285, complaint against God, 387-88, 389
biblical 348-49, 351, 364, 440 concubines, 95
apocalyptic, 428, 436, 437, 438 conquest of, 50, 130, 132, 134, 135, confession
higher criticism, 69-72, 91, 161-64 137, 168, 169, 170-71, 182, 183, of sin, 216, 219, 265, 307-08, 311
theology, 298 245 national, 270
Bitter Lakes, 108 covenant and, 47, 340 Confucianism, 66
Black Obelisk, 241 geography, 142, 145 conquest of Canaan, 46, 64, 130, 132,
Black Sea, 36, 57 peoples, 47, 57, 184, 290, 299 134, 135, 137, 158, 163, 168-76,
blasphemy, 119 religion, 52, 240 178, 182, 183, 245, 340
blessing /curse canon, 22, 23, 253-54, 428, 434, 436, | conquests
covenantal, 162, 258, 261, 270, 366, 437 of David, 212-14, 218
370, 373, 389, 446 canonical criticism, 72 of Omri, 230, 232

489
Subject Index

consecration prophets and, 344-45 covenant and, 94, 97, 100, 211,
of Joshua, 147 nature of, 56 214-16, 218, 219-20, 226, 246,
of priests, 119 promises, 98, 99-100, 256, 386, 364, 252, 255, 257, 258-59, 358, 367,
consequences of sin, 64-65, 147, 6959397 386, 449, 455, 464
216-17, 219, 220, 222, 238, 254, remembering, 145 Messiah in, 211, 360-61
295-96, 390-91, 413 restoration of, 420, 464, 465
salvation, 100
consolation. See “Book of Comfort.” “cows of Bashan,” 446
day(s)
constellations, 297 of Atonement, 467
creatio ex nihilo, 66, 72, 80, 86. See also
context, scriptural, 29-30, 31 of creation, 80
creation; fiat, creation by; sov-
conversion, 96, 98 of the Lord, 347-48, 352, 410, 414,
ereignty of God.
Copper-Stone Age. See Chalcolithic 415, 419, 443, 444, 447, 452-53,
creation, 67, 79-82, 295, 297, 454
Age. 460
ancient accounts of, 78, 79, 86 Dead Sea, 40, 42, 57, 212, 400, 423,
cosmogony, 78, 84
days of, 80 440, 454
courts of temple, 422
creationism, 82 Dead Sea Scrolls, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31,
courtyard, tabernacle, 104
covenant, 68, 72, 98, 99, 100, 173, 177. criticism, biblical, 69-73, 74 272, 301, 372-73, 435, 436,
See also election; promised crocodile, 297 437-38, 459
land. crossing death
promises, 142, 170 Jordan, 172 choice of, 386
renewal, 161, 240, 265, 270, 274 Red Sea, 104, 108-9, 129-30 of Christ, 115, 134, 375-76, 446,
Abrahamic, 47, 64, 94-96, 97, 98, crucifixion. See death of Christ. 454, 468
99, 100, 105, 107, 112, 114-15, cultic law. See ceremonial law. of Elisha, 249
143-44, 148, 168, 170, 226, 272, cuneiform, 38, 44, 46, 56, 57, 286, 402, of Joshua, 169, 178
340 435 of Moses, 145, 148, 168, 170
after Joshua, 182 curses. See blessings /curses. of Saul, 205-6, 211-12
ancient versions of, 148-51 Cush/Ethiopia, 354, 362, 366, 460 of suffering servant, 375
blessings/curses, 146-47, 152, 161, cymbals, 307 universality of, 328, 329
222, 247, 248, 257, 258, 264, Debir, 169
Cyrus Cylinder, 258, 268
270, 298, 386, 398, 470 debt slavery, 106, 269, 340, 398
Damascus, 43, 44, 48, 50, 99, 212-13,
bond with God, 119, 248, 266-68, decalogue. See Ten Commandments.
218, 227, 228, 234
386 deliverance
fall of, 348-49, 360, 362
breaking, 183, 184, 224, 230-31, by God, 354, 364, 367, 373
Gate, 377
233, 243, 247, 249, 402, 442 by judges, 183, 184
prophecies concerning, 354, 360,
ceremony, 106-7 from Assyrians, 244
Davidic, 94, 97, 100, 211, 214-16, 362, 366, 394, 400-01, 403, 445 from judgment, 312, 449
218, 219-20, 226, 246, 252, 255, Dan from Philistines, 199
257, 258-9, 358, 367, 386, 449, Tel, 185, 228 of remnant, 375
455, 464 tribe of, 184 in Exodus, 111-12
Exodus theme, 112-13 dating Delphi, 186
faithfulness of God’s people, 244, biblical, 46-58, 73, 108-10, 128, delta, 38-39
247, 248, 356, 386 163, 169 demons, 428
faithfulness of God, 226-27, 233, Amos, 445 deserts, 38, 42-44, 110
348, 475-76 Chronicles, 252 Deutero-Isaiah, 370-71, 379, 380
history, 160 Daniel, 436, 437 deuteronomic theology. See retribu-
hope, 420-21 Ezra—Nehemiah, 271 tion, theology of.
identity, 267-68 Haggai, 464 deuteronomist
integration of, 475-76 Hosea, 440-41, 448 editor theory, 161-64
law of, 66, 143
Job, 298 history, 152-53, 161, 162, 163, 164,
lawsuit, 147 165, 182, 190, 222, 246, 258
Joel, 443-44, 448
life-principles, 143, 145 dialogues, wisdom, 290-91, 293, 298
Jonah, 453
mediator, 397 dictation theory, 24, 30, 31
Judges, 186
messiah and, 94 discoursive wisdom, Mesopotamian,
Obadiah, 452
Mosaic/Sinaitic, 65-66, 100, 106-7, QO 2ODF S16 Se
prophets, 348
LIQFMMOT AG 7palolp2 2272467086, disease. See Judgment of God, by
Psalms collection, 304
396 plagues.
new, 375, 396-97 Samuel, 196, 210 disobedience to God. See obedience,
oath, 143 Zechariah, 466 to God; Rebellion.
obligations, 261, 347, 386, 446 Davidic dynasty, 52-53, 56, 161, 192, distich, 318, 320
people, 96, 100-01, 112-13, 143-47, 256, 260, 266, 389, 397, 465, divided kingdom, 44, 46, 52-55, 56,
211, 224, 246-48, 252, 259, 260, 472, 475, 476 158, 222, 223, 224, 227, 228-34,
264, 321, 446 attempt to destroy, 240 238-44, 256, 340

490
 Subject Index

during David's reign, 212, 219, 229 wisdom of, 290, 291, 297, 299, 315, theological significance of, 65-66,
divination, 118-19 316, 319 111-15
divorce, 469, 471 Ekron, 202, 238, 365 expiation, 120
Documentary Hypotheses, 69-72, | El-Amarna, 48, 57 Ezion—geber, 254
161, 164 Elah Valley, 202, 205, 230 faith
Dome of the Rock, 225 Elam, 362, 394, 401, 403, 419 biblical historicity and, 160
donkey, Balaam’s, 136 Elath, 43, 57, 254 Chronicles perspective of, 158-59
doxology, 306, 310 | elders, Ezekiel’s rebuke of, 411 Daniel perspective of, 430
drama literature, 293, 299, 332 election, 99-100, 441, 446. See also sal- half-hearted, 386
dreams, 345, 429, 430. See also visions. vation; sovereignty of God. of Abraham, 32, 65, 66, 90, 92-97,
dross, nation of, 414, 415 | Elim, 104 428, 436
drought, as judgment from God, 231, Elohim as name for God, 69 of Rahab, 172
388, 447 | Endor, 205-6 salvation through, 364
drunkenness, 320, 357 | English Bible, 23-24 faithfulness
dry bones, vision of, 421 Enuma Elish, 78-79, 84 covenant, 146, 226-27, 233
dynasty (ies) | Ephraim, 42, 57, 97, 176, 178, 186, 198, in marriage, 331
Davidic, 52, 55, 192, 225, 246, 227, 354, 364 marital, 318, 441, 442
257-61, 326, 330, 357, 360, 396, epilogue, Job, 293, 298 of God, 143, 144, 152, 170, 226-27,
397, 398, 449, 465, 467, 472, eschatological 233, 348, 375, 397, 404
475, 476 models of, 429
hope, 370, 424-25
Egyptian, 39, 47, 48 of Hezekiah, 244
judgment, 347, 364, 428, 459-61
Sumerian, 45 to God, 201
eschatology, 379, 428-29, 432, 433-34
Ea, 79 fall. See also Lament over Jerusalem.
eternal destiny, 147
eagles, in Ezekiel, 412, 413, 315 of Babylon, 418, 457, 464
Ethiopia. See Cush.
Early Bronze Age. See Bronze Age. eunuchs, 377, 379
of Judah/Jerusalem, 53, 55-56,158,
earthquake, 134, 445 162, 224, 238, 244, 246, 247,
| Euphrates River, 37, 38, 40, 47, 52, 56,
Eastern Gate, of Jerusalem, 422 254-55, 351, 360, 362-63, 368,
57, 246, 350, 401
Ebenezer, 198 375, 391, 394, 395, 398-400,
Europe, 36, 39
Ebla, 46 402-405, 408-12, 415-16,
evangelical biblical studies, 24, 30,
ecstatics, 345, 349 418-19, 421, 452-53, 458-59,
72-73
Eden, 67, 81, 82, 335, 347 467
evil
Edom/Edomites, 57, 150, 218, 298, of Nineveh, 456, 457, 459, 461
of Assyria, 457
310, 366, 470 of Samaria, 54, 161-62, 243-44,
problem of, 83, 90, 294, 298-301
opposition to Israel, 135, 143, 144, 254-55, 349, 360, 362, 375, 415,
shepherd, 468 441, 442
200) 21272277379
“spirit” in Saul, 201-02
prophecies concerning, 354, 362, Fallenness of humanity, 67, 79, 82, 84
surrounding, 456 false prophet, 342, 388, 394, 395-96,
394, 400, 403, 418, 419, 424,
types of, 377-78 403-04, 408, 412, 415, 455
445, 452-53
evolution, 82
region of, 42 false witness, 106
ex eventu, 434, 436
education, Israelite, 321, 322 famine, 446
exile
Egypt/Egyptian, 44, 45, 50, 55, 91, 92, judgment by, 218, 387, 398, 410,
archetype of, 256, 258, 380 447
366, 446, 457
exodus from, 66, 67, 68, 104-110,
as judgment, 386, 387, 398 Farah, 388, 391
Babylonian, 56-58, 159, 224, 244, farewell
111-12, 114, 128, 132-34, 137,
142, 169, 172, 184, 388, 396, 442 DAD AT, 25/, 10) Sol, Oly of Joshua, 177, 178
Israel in, 47, 48, 64, 65, 98, 105, 396, 408-9, 429, 430, 431, 435 of Moses, 66, 142, 143-48
107, 112, 305, 340, 341 Egyptian, 305, 340, 341, 442 fasting, 378, 465, 467-68
literature, 290, 291, 292, 299, 316, freedom from, 265 “father” /“mother” in wisdom litera-
319, 321 perspective from, 224, 246-47, 253, ture, 291
modern, 132 254-55, 408, 409, 412, 430 fear of the Lord, 146, 292, 296, 316,
Middle Kingdom, 39, 46, 47 prophecies of, 361 Bil, SR, Sykoy, SVM BVES,
New Kingdom, 39, 46, 47, 48, 57, psalms and, 304-05 feast days, 112, 119, 120, 122, 124, 130,
352, 365 | return from, 164, 254, 376 172, 272, 274, 275, 444. See also
Old Kingdom, 39, 44, 45, 46 salvation through, 420 by name.
prophecies concerning, 354, 362, | exodus, 128, 132-34, 142 Fertile Crescent, 36-40, 56, 57
394, 400, 403, 413, 419, 424, dating, 39, 46, 48, 108, 112, 169 fiat, creation by, 66
443, 467 events of, 104-10 fire, 132, 134, 429, 430
region of, 37, 38-39, 43, 49, 56, 198 exile in Egypt, 98, 305, 340, 341, figurative language, 30-31
relations with kingdom of Israel, 442 First-person narratives, 270-71, 274
227, 243, 394-95, 399, 414 historicity of, 108, 112, 129-30 Firstborn, 104
scribes, 105 route of, 108-10, 112, 133, 172 fish, Jonah and, 454, 461

491
Subject Index

flood, 66, 79, 84, 85, 86, 90 grace of, 64, 67, 68,91, 98, 112, 160, guilt. See sin.
flute, 307 184, 217, 257, 269, 327-28, 370, guilt offering, 120-21, 124
folly, 316, 323 374-75, 414, 443 Hagiographa. See Writings.
food, unclean, 415 holiness of, 122, 125-26, 128, 422 hailstones, 174
foreigners, 446 immutability of, 146 Hamath, 440
foretelling. See predictive prophecy. justice of, 295, 296, 297, 299, 470, Hammurapi, 45, 57.
forgiveness 471-72 Hammurapi, code of. See Code of
from sin, 217, 376, 377, 397 lordship of, 375, 420, 470 Hammurapi.
national, 148, 431 love of, 68, 112-13, 158-19, 160, handwriting on wall, 429, 430
form criticism, 70, 72 294, 354, 441, 448, 449, 469, 470 Haneans, 94
Former Prophets. See Prophets. mighty acts of, 64, 66, 68, 106, Haran, 47, 57,917 93797, 99
freewill offering, 120. See also sacrifice. 111-12, 114, 115, 130, 354, 364, hardening of heart, 358, 360, 388, 408,
futility of life, 295, 326 367, 373 409
Gad, 171, 177, 178, 219 names of, 69 “harlotries,” 441, 442
Galilee, 42, 57, 239, 456 omnipotence of, 297, 299 harp, 307
Galilee, Sea of. See Chinnereth. plan of, 433, 434, 455, 458, 468, 475 Hatti, 196
gap, standing in, 414-15 presence of, 107, 112, 113-15, 128, Hazeroth, 130, 132, 136
garden image in Song of Songs, 332 131, 134, 226, 259, 260, 411-12, Hazor, 43, 169, 174, 178, 223, 253, 394,
Garden of Eden. See Eden. 453 401, 403
garments, priestly, 104 protection of, 430 heart, changed, 421, 444
gate(s) provision by, 131, 132, 142 heaven, Ezekiel’s description of, 423
Jerusalem, 265, 422, 469 purpose of, 385, 429, 453-54, 455 Hebrew. See Languages.
new Jerusalem, 423 revelation of, 22, 24, 26, 31, 134, Hebron, 42, 57, 95, 177, 212, 213, 217,
Gath, 202, 204 143, 198, 454, 475, 476 219
Gath—-hepher, 453, 460 shepherding of, 456, 468-69 heifer, Israel as, 442, 448
Gaza, 109, 365, 400 sovereignty of, 66, 68, 72, 82, Heilsgeschichte. See salvation history.
Geba, 212, 218, 228 105-06, 158, 159, 164, 187, 192, heiroglyphs, 38, 57
genealogies, 81, 94, 104, 255, 256, 259 294-98, 356, 385, 388, 389, 432, herem. See holy war.
messianic, 173, 358, 475 437, 446, 456, 458, 467 Hermeneutics. See Bible, interpreta-
Mosaic, 104 transcendence of, 24, 30, 69, 72 tion of.
genre, biblical, 30, 31, 70, 72 unity of, 145-46 Hermon, Mount, 42, 295
Gentiles, blessings to, 377, 380-81 wrath of, 418, 456, 458 Heshbon, 144
geology, 85 gods. See also Asherah; Baal(s); Hexateuch, 161, 162, 164
Gerizim, Mount, 146, 153, 161, 176 Mesopotamian gods; polythe- Hezekiah’s tunnel, 257
Geshur, 217 ism. hieroglyphs, 38, 44, 56, 57
Gezer, 169, 212, 218, 223 fertility, 411, 415 high priest, 58, 122, 145, 147, 198, 466,
Gibeon, 173, 174, 178, 225, 226 sun, 411, 415 467
Gihon, Spring of, 214, 218 golden Christ as, 398
Gilboa, Mount, 203, 205, 206, 210, 211, calf, 137 highways. See travel.
218 calves of Jeroboam, 228 Hinnom Valley, 390-91
Gilead, 42, 57, 445 Gate of Jerusalem, 469 hippopotamus, 297
Gilgal, 173, 176, 178, 200, 240 Gomorrah, 91, 356, 362, 401, 402 historical
Gilgamesh Epic, 81, 84-85, 86, 329, 334 Goshen, 47 books, 23, 24, 158-59, 161-65
gleaning, 189 gospel epics, 223-24
glory “of the Old Testament,” 354 foundation of Old Testament, 476
of God, 107, 114, 134, 226, 408, 409, those who have not heard, 454 narrative, 222, 234
411-12, 422 grace of God, 160, 269, 327-28 prologue, suzerain treaty, 149-50,
of Zion, 378-79 in Isaiah, 354 152
God. See also Judgment of God; in Judges, 184 historical context. See context, scrip-
Yahweh. in Pentateuch, 64, 67, 68, 91, 98, tural.
blessing of, 214, 216 112 historicity of Scripture, 160
call of, 65, 341-44, 348, 370, 374, stubborn, 370, 374-75 history, biblical view of, 66-67,
376, 380, 388, 389, 394, 408, to withhold judgment, 217, 414 159-61, 433-34
413, 440, 443, 449, 466, 473 grammatical-historical method, 28-33 conclusion of, 379-81
character of, 68 grapes, Israel as spoiled, 442, 448 God in, 249
compassion of, 68, 456 gratitude to God, 461 primeval, 78-79, 84
ethical nature of, 119, 124-26 Great Synagogue, 165 Hittite Empire/Hittites, 46, 48, 49, 50,
faithfulness of, 143, 144, 152, 170, Greece/ Greek, 49, 54, 56, 160, 186-87, 149-50, 151, 152
226-27, 233, 348, 375, 397, 404 352, 433, 434, 436, 465, 477, holiness, 68
glory of, 107, 114, 134, 202, 203, 480. See also languages. call to, 68, 119, 123-26, 347, 389,
226, 408, 409, 411-12, 422 Griffin, 273 422, 465

492
 Subject Index

Code, 119, 120, 122 of Ptahhotep, 291 Jabbok, 42, 57

in Leviticus, 125-26 instructional wisdom, Egyptian, 291, Jabesh-gilead, 200, 205, 206, 212
of God, 125-35, 128, 422 DOD 299 SN, S19 7321 Jaffa. See Joppa.
restoration of, 378, 380 instruments, musical, 283, 284, 306, Jamnia/Yavneh, Council of, 23, 30
Holy 307, 361 Jebel Katarina, 110
of Holies, 122 | intercession of Christ, 398 Jebel Musa, 110, 113
“One of Israel,” 356, 401 intermarriage, 226, 230, 265, 268, 340, Jebel Serbal, 110
Holy Spirit 469, 471 Jebel Sin Bisher, 110
enabling believers, 444, 458, 464, | interpretation Jebusites, 169, 210, 214, 219
466 of dreams, 429, 430 JEDP theories. See Documentary
in inspiration, 24-25, 123-24, 310, of Scripture, 28-33, 287 Hypotheses.
312, 434 intertestamental apocalyptic. See Jericho, 135, 136, 137, 142, 168, 169,
in prophecy, 22 apocalyptic.
170, 171-73, 178
in changing hearts, 216, 397, 446 intertestamental period, 428
Jerusalem, 42, 57, 162, 216, 218, 259,
pouring out of, 444 | introduction to Ezra, 271
444. See also Jebusites; Zion.
holy war, 169, 170, 178, 200 Iran, 37, 57
fall of, 52, 53, 55-56, 158, 210, 238,
homosexuality, 123 Iraq, 37, 67
244, 255, 351, 368, 394, 399,
honesty, 422-23, 447, 455 Iron Age, 44, 50, 56, 57
400, 402-05, 410, 411, 412, 418,
honor of God, 202, 203, 469, 470 I, 46, 50-52
419, 421, 452-53, 458, 467
hope Il, 46, 52, 53,.57
modern, 314, 327, 361, 377, 397
covenant, 420-21 IIL, 46, 56
national capital, 210, 213-14, 245,
for future, 375, 397, 403, 404, | irrigation, 38
424-25, 429, 449, 458-59, 460 Isaiah Scroll, Qumran, 372-73 256, 398, 440, 455
in Chronicles, 253 Ishtar Gate, Babylon, 433 new, 423, 424

in God, 296, 301, 326, 327 | Israel. See also Abraham; Egypt; Isaac; post-kingdom, 58, 252, 253, 255,
messianic, 309, 467 Israel, northern kingdom of; 268-69, 270, 276, 413, 422, 423,
houses, Chaldean, 350-51 Jacob; Judah/Southern 424, 466
humility before God, 297-98 Kingdom; Moses; Sinai, prophecy concerning, 354, 362-63,
Huleh Valley, 42, 57 Mount. 366, 376-77, 380-81, 391, 395,
Hyksos, 47, 57 before kings, 168, 170, 172-77, 409, 468, 469
hymns, 304, 307, 310, 311 182-93, 198-99 temple, 52, 257, 265-66
identity of Darius, 435 chosen people of, 96, 100-101, Jezreel Valley, 40, 43, 57, 118, 223, 246,
idol worship, 374, 390, 387 112-13, 143-47, 211, 224, 247, 442, 443
idolatry, 199, 227, 228, 238, 268, 296, 246-48, 252, 255, 321, 446 Joppa/Jaffa/Yafo, 452
377, 386-87, 403, 411, 412, 415, figurative, 380 Jordan
440, 442. See also Asherah; in desert, 48, 68, 106-08, 110, Rift, 40, 42, 56, 57, 464
Baal(s); golden calves of 128-38, 143-45, 414 River, 40, 42, 66, 130, 136, 137, 142,
Jeroboam; Henotheism; land of, 36, 40-42, 175, 215, 229, 168, 169, 171, 172, 176, 177,
Mesopotamian gods. 456 218, 400, 401, 452
of Israel/Judah, 340, 400, 459-60, modern, 132, 423 Valley, 40, 42, 57, 135, 136
471 nation of, 48, 52, 326, 340, 372, 412, Joseph tribes, 421
of Nineveh, 457 424-25, 449 Jubilee, 119
powerlessness of, 373 post exile, 159, 253, 255, 264, 265,
Judah
Idumea/Idumeans, 400 266, 268, 351, 352, 374-75, 380,
apostasy of, 240, 244-45, 340-41,
idyll, 187, 190 403, 408, 420, 421, 464-65, 466,
343, 347, 348, 354, 356, 357-58,
imago Det, 80, 84, 86 470
384, 385-88, 390, 391, 408, 410,
immorality. See homosexuality; hon- time line for, 46-58, 73, 108-10
415, 455, 471
esty; sexual immorality; sin. united kingdom of, 158, 196, 197,
division from Israel, 52, 53, 54,
immutability of God, 146 199-206, 210, 211-220, 222-28,
158, 223, 228-35, 238-44, 340
imprecatory psalms, 305, 307, 310-11 254-60, 460
fall to Babylon, 55-56, 158, 162,
incarnation, 36, 68, 467 Israel, northern kingdom of, 224, 234,
224, 246, 254-55, 350-51, 360,
incense, altar of, 104 247, 255, 257, 358, 366, 440,
441-43, 446-49 362-63, 375, 398-400, 402-05,
incest, 123
apostasy of, 52, 159, 222, 228, 409, 410, 419, 421, 452-53,
inheritance, 96, 98, 176
230-31, 240, 243, 340-41, 343, 458-59
injustice, suffering, 433-34
347, 354, 415, 440-41 province of, 204, 255, 265, 266
inscriptions, 223-24
inspiration of Scripture, 22-26, division from Judah, 53, 158, 223, son of Israel, 92
123-24, 310 228-33, 238-44, 340 southern kingdom of, 52, 54, 210,
instruction fall to Assyria, 54, 161-62, 243-44, 234, 256, 257, 259, 342, 349,
in Proverbs, 316 254-55, 349, 360, 362, 375 355, 364-65, 366, 358, 414, 440,
of Amenemope, 291-92, 319, 320 Israel Stela, 108, 109 444, 447

493
Subject Index

tribe of, 42, 176, 183, 188, 204, early, 196-206, 210,.255, 256-57, Lebanon Mountains, 40
205-06,.211-12, 224, 225, 255, 258-60, 340 Levant, 40, 42, 57
356, 398 of God, 455, 468, 475 Levi/Levites, 48, 65, 119, 124, 176-77,
Judaism, modern, 475 of Solomon, 224-28, 253, 259, 327 178, 214, 265, 384, 423, 470-72
Judea. See Judah, province of. priestly, 114 Leviathan, 297, 298, 364
Judean kingdoms, Daniel's vision of, 429, levirate marriage, 190-91, 485
coast, 196, 198 430, 432, 434 levitical priesthood, 119, 147, 176-77,
hills, 42, 57 King’s Highway, 43-44, 56 265, 423, 470-71, 472
judges, 50, 52, 341 kinsman redeemer, 189, 190, 191 census of, 130
leadership role of, 182, 183 Kiriath-jearim /Baale-Judah, 198, 199, in David’s kingdom, 214
period of, 158 206, 214, 219 in second temple, 265, 270
judgment of God. See also God; jus- Lachish, 169, 244, 246, 338, 399 Libya, 39, 57
tice; oracles against nations; lament life, 317, 334
plagues. Near Eastern, 402, 447 futility of, 295, 326
by disease, 199, 219 prophetic, 402-05, 408, 455, 456 in psalms, 305
by fire, 91 psalms of, 307, 310, 311-12 limited inspiration theory, 24
by natural disaster, 134, 231, 388, lampstand. See menorrah. linen waistband, 388
Land lingua franca, 48, 57
447
by famine, 447 purchase, Jeremiah’s, 394, 397 lion’s den, 429, 430
division of, 138, 423 lioness in Ezekiel, 414, 415
by locust, 443, 444, 447
by siege, 390-91, 398, 403-04, 405,
owned by God, 420 literary
languages Bible background, 292, 476
410, 457
Akkadian, 27, 30, 47, 78, 286 criticism, 72
call for, 310
Ammonite, 27, 30 “Little Apocalypse, the,” 363-64
eschatological, 347, 364, 428,
Amorite, 27, 30 locusts, 443, 444, 447
459-61
Arabic, 27, 30 lots/purim, 273, 275
executioners of, 411
Aramaic, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 love of God, 294, 298-99, 301, 354,
for sins of fathers, 313
Aramaisms, 453, 460 441, 448, 449, 469, 470
in desert, 128, 132, 134
Assyrian, 27, 30, 48 covenantal, 68, 112-13, 150-51, 160
in Isaiah, 357
Greek, 28, 29, 31, 142, 322, 334 sexual/romantic, 287, 331, 333,
on Ahaziah’s soldiers, 238
Hebrew, 23-24, 27, 29, 31, 287, in 334-35
on Israel/Judah, 55, 183, 184, 243,
Daniel, 434, 437 for God/neighbor, 123-24, 143,
354, 385-87, 410, 411, 412,
Moabite, 27, 30 146, 225
458-59, 461
Phoenician, 27, 30 Ludlul bel némeqi, 292
on kings, 201, 430
Ugaritic, 27, 30, 287 Maccabees, 434, 436
on nations, 354, 361-63, 366, 370,
Late Bronze Age. See Bronze Age. Machpelah, 62, 95
374, 394, 403, 418-20, 432, 445,
Late Stone Age. See Neolithic Age. madness of Nebuchadnezzar, 430,
447, 448, 452-53, 454, 458, 460,
Latter Prophets. See Prophets. 432, 435, 437
461, 466
laver, 104, 227 magic, 291
on Saul, 256
law Major Prophets, 23, 24
prophetic warning of, 341, 343, ancient, 47, 122—24 Mamre, 97
344, 346, 347-48, 354, 410-11, books of, 23, 24, 48, 64-73, 129, Manasseh, 171, 176, 177, 178, 186
413, 414, 415 161, 245, 247, 267, 272, 340 manna, 131, 172
justice, 295-99, 470, 471-72 casuistic, 106, 123, 389, 398 manuscripts, 25, 481
Kadesh Barnea, 128, 130, 134, 135, ceremonial, 123, 134 Mari, 94, 99, 344, 345, 348, 349, 350
136, 137, 143 challenge to keep, 177 marriage, 84, 227, 230, 268, 317, 318,
Karnak/Thebes , 48, 57, 456, 460 civil, 123 320-21, 331, 333, 335, 370, 389.
Kassites, 47, 48, 57 cleanness, 119, 121-22, 128, 410, See also divorce; leviriate mar-
Period, 292, 298 464-65 riage.
Kedar, 394, 401, 403 covenant, 340, 341, 349, 386, 387, covenant, 471
Kenites, 110 446, 473 customs, 189-91
kidnapping,106 importance of, 276 Esther’s, 272
Kidron Valley, 217 Job and, 298 Hosea and Gomer, 440, 441-42
king, 184-85, 435, 467 Mesopotamian, 106 to God, 378-79, 385-86, 412, 415,
lists, 223, 230, 233 moral, 119, 120, 123 440, 441
psalms for, 308 natural, 84 Masada, 212
kingdom. See also divided kingdom; “of the king/prophet,” 162 maskil, 306
united kingdom. public reading of, 270 masora, 26
David's, 46, 52, 158, 185, 196, 197, purpose of, 68, 112-13, 122-23 Masoretes, 26-28, 31, 481
200-05, 206, 210-20, 254, teacher of, 266-67 masoretic text, 26-28, 29, 30
258-59, 423, 440, 445 Lebanon, 37, 57, 443 measures, honest, 422-23, 447

494
 Subject Index

meat regulations, 121-22 miracles New Kingdom. See Egypt, New

Medeba, 232 of Elisha, 239 Kingdom.
Media. See Medo-Persia. confirming, 344, 346 Nile River/ Delta, 38, 39, 56, 106, 109,
mediator of covenant, 397 Mishnah, 69, 72, 475 362
Mediterranean miskal, 306 Nineveh, 38, 57, 247, 365, 367
coast, 286 Mizpah, 42, 57, 200, 205, 228 fall of, 246, 349, 351, 419, 459, 460
islands, 85 Moab/Moabites, 27, 30, 57, 218, 444. prophecy concerning, 453-54,
Sea, 36, 38, 39, 40, 42, 447 See also languages. 456-57, 460
Medo-Persia, 348, 402, 434, 435, 437 geography of, 42, 452 Nob, 205
empire, 46, 54, 56, 58, 158, 159, in Exodus wandering, 48, 128, 130, nonliterary prophets, 346, 350
255, 269, 272-73, 350, 351-52, 135-38, 142, 143, 144, 146, 148, northern campaign of Joshua, 168,
371, 429, 433, 436, 464 151 174
liberation of exiles, 224, 257, Israel and, 186, 200, 212, 230, 232 Nubia, 48, 57
264-66, 268 prophesies concerning, 239, 354, numbers, Bible’s use of, 108, 129, 130,
wars of, 160, 246, 349, 362, 401, 362, 366, 394, 400, 403, 417, 320
456 424, 445, 460 Nuzi, 95, 99
Megiddo. See Jezreel Valley. religion of, 136, 137, 400 oak of Mamre, 97
memorial stones, 146, 177 Ruth and, 188, 189, 193 obedience
memorials, 172 monarchy. See kingdom. to God, 106, 113, 119, 143, 145, 222,
monologues in wisdom literature,
225, 249, 254, 329
Memphis, 39
to government, 431
menorrah, 104, 413, 466, 467 290-91, 298
obligations, covenant, 260, 347, 386,
Menzaleh, 108 monotheism, 69, 72, 82, 84, 145, 150,
446
Meribah, 142, 148 WS, 158) POY, P35), PPL Os
offerings. See sacrifices.
Mesha Inscription, 230, 232, 234 292, 295, 298
oil in priestly ritual, 104, 119, 348
Mesolithic Age, 44, 46, 57 moral law, 119, 120, 123, 291
Old Kingdom. See Egypt, Old
Mesopotamia, 44, 46, 47-48, 57, 78 moral relativism. See relativism.
Kingdom.
culture of, 45, 53, 56, 93, 291, 292, morality, twisted, 357
Old Stone Age. See Paleolithic.
299, 316, 411 Moreh, 93, 97, 99
Old Testament, relationship to New,
geographical region of, 37-38, 40, Moresheth/ Moresheth—Gath, 455,
475
43, 66, 86, 224, 246, 348, 350, 460
olive trees, 466
351, 400, 401, 452, 481 Moriah, 97, 98
Olives, Mount of, 412, 422
gods, 408, 411, 415 morning star prophecy, 418-19
omen texts, 344, 346, 349, 350.
literature, 291, 292, 299 “Moses and the Prophets,” 69
omnipotence, 297, 299, 456
travel/trade in, 43, 198 Moses, Mount of. See Jebel Musa.
one-Isaiah view, 371-72
message of Ezekiel, 408, 409-15 Most Holy Place. See Holy of Holies.
oppression of poor. See social justice.
messenger, prophet as, 343, 344, 350 mountains, prophecy to, 408 oracle(s)
Messiah/ Christ, 98, 309-10, 348, 356, music, 283, 284, 286 against nations, 354, 360-63, 366,
373, 468-69, 475, 479 instruments of, 306, 307, 361 394, 403, 418-20, 432, 445, 447,
coming of, 422, 434 Mycenia, 48, 56 448, 452-53, 460
in Isaiah, 375-76 myth, 66, 72, 159, 164 of Ezekiel, 414, 418-20
judgment of, 473 names, changing, 96, 97-98 organization
messianic Naphtali, 360 of Deuteronomy, 146
age, 354, 360, 466 nations. See also oracles against of Ezra—Nehemiah, 266, 270-71
hope, 173, 255, 258, 264, 309, 348, nations. of Psalms, 306
354, 356, 358, 364, 449, 461, table of, 79, 84, 85, 87 of Samuel, 210
465-69, 476 gospel for, 449 origins of Job, 298
kingdom, 420 healing for, 423 Orontes River, 40
line, 211, 360-61 judgment on, 458 ox, goring, 106
names, 360 Nazareth, 378 Paleolithic Age, 44, 46, 57
office, 216, 471-72, 475-76 Nazirite vow, 131, 198, 446 Palestine. See Syria—Palestine.
psalms, 307, 309-11 Nebo, Mount, 148, 153 Palm Sunday, 422
reign, 468, 469 Negeb Desert, 40, 42, 57, 93, 97, 99, Palmyra, 252
meter, poetic, 282, 286 204 parables, 344
Middle Bronze Age. See Bronze Age. Neo-Babylonian Period. See Babylon, parallelism in Hebrew poetry, 282,
Middle Kingdom. See Egypt. new empire. 287, 318
Middle Stone Age. See Mesolithic. neo-orthodox theology, 24, 30, 31 parallels, literary /cultural, 91, 292,
Midian, 105, 110, 186 Neolithic Age, 38, 44, 46, 57 299, 319, 329, 331, 344, 350
mighty men of David, 218-19 New Testament, relationship to Old, Paran, Desert of, 128, 132, 134, 136
millennium, 424, 469 475 parents, principles ton el sly ol!
Minor Prophets, 23, 24 new Jerusalem, 423 Passover, 104, 110, 130, 172

495
Subject Index

patriarchs, 44-47, 48, 90-100, 143-44 pot, rusty, 408, 415 prophecy,
covenant and, 340 potter’s house, 389 classical, 341, 346
genealogies of, 255 pouring out of spirit, 444 predictive, 160, 372, 475
retribution theology and, 163 praise, 218 prophets
peace/shalom, 347, 349 in Psalms, 307, 311 Christ among, 344
in Isaiah, 356-57 in suffering, 311-12 Elijah among, 231-34, 238-39
in messianic kingdom, 468 prayer, 297, 379, 397, 456 Elisha among, 239-40, 241
offering, 120, 124 for intervention, 370 false, 342, 388, 394, 395-96, 398,
Peleset. See Philistines. for judgment, 310 403, 404, 405, 408, 412, 455
penitential psalms, 307-08, 310, 311 for lost, 398-99 former, 160, 164
Pentateuch, 23, 28, 47, 63-75, 129, 167, Hezekiah’s, 367 in pagan cultures, 344, 350
267, 340, 482. See also in Daniel, 429, 431 Jeremiah among, 385-91, 394,
Samaritan Pentateuch. intercessory, 386-87, 388 403-04
authorship of, 68-75 of complaint, 387-88 judgment by, 391
emphases of, 66-68 preamble, suzerain treaty, 149, 150, judges among, 158, 161, 182, 196
structure of, 72 N52 miracles by, 231, 243-44
Pentecost, day of, 444 predictive prophecy, 342, 344, 372, Moses among, 148, 242
people of God, 356, 373, 378-79, 454 373, 380, 397, 428 nonliterary, 346
persecution premillennialism, 379 office of, 231, 233, 235, 240, 266,
of God’s people, 272-75, 429, 431 preparation theme 341-42, 343, 344, 350, 409-20,
of prophets, 389-92, 410 in Numbers, 130 455
Persia. See Medo-—Persia. in Exodus, 115 persecution against, 389-90, 410
Persian Age. See Iron Age III. presence of God, 107, 112, 134, 226, post-exile, 159
Persian Gulf, 36, 57, 350 259, 260, 411-12, 453 Samuel among, 242
Pharaoh, 48, 57, 104 in Exodus, 113-15 “seers,” 341, 349
Philistia/ Philistine, 40, 247, 446 in Numbers, 128, 131 symbolic acts by, 388, 394, 397,
Coast, 40-42, 57, 109, 452 pride, 432-33 398, 410, 415
Israel and, 196, 197, 198, 199, priesthood, 119. See also Aaronic tradition of, 240
202-06, 210-12, 218, 244, 340, priesthood; high priest; leviti- watchmen, 420
440 cal priesthood. prophetic books, 22
origins, 46, 49-50, 56 in documentary hypotheses, 69, creativity of, 343
prophesies concerning, 354, 362, 71 Former, 160
366, 394, 400, 403, 418, 424, of Christ, 125, 126, 398 in Hebrew Bible, 23, 24, 64
445, 460, 468 Samaritan, 340 protection by God, 430
religion of, 238 priestly kingdom, 114 proverbs, 319-21
philosophical essays, 290-91 primeval history, 78-79, 84 providential care, 131, 132, 142, 297
philosophy of wisdom literature, 291, prologue of Job, 293, 294, 298 psalms of David, 30, 304-12
298-301 promised land, 65-66, 99, 100, 108, pseudonymous biblical books, 428,
Phoenicia / Phoenician, 27, 30, 40, 48, M12) 4; 123; 1128) 144 436, 437
363, 418-19, 452, 468, 471 conquest of, 46, 64, 130, 132, 134, purging sin, 347-48
Phoenician. See Languages. 135, 137, 158, 163, 168-76, 178, Purim, feast of, 272-75
pilgrimage, 309 182, 183, 245, 340 purity, call to, 65, 317, 318, 322, 378,
Pisgah, Mount, 135 entering, 138, 142 412-13
plagues in Egypt, 48, 67, 68, 104, failure to enter, 132, 137 Purpose for writing
105-06, 112, 481. See also judg- life in, 151 Chronicles, 252, 253, 254-55
ment of God. prophecies concerning Ecclesiastes, 286, 287, 327
plan of God, 433, 434, 455, 458, 468, Babylon, 354, 362, 367, 394, Ezra, 266
475 401-02, 403, 411, 458 Job, 286, 298, 301
plenary verbal inspiration theory, Damascus, 354, 360, 362, 366, 394, Kings, 240
25-26, 30, 31. See also Bible; 400-01, 403, 445 Proverbs, 286, 288, 314-16
inspiration of Scripture. Edom, 354, 362, 394, 400, 403, 418, Psalms, 286, 288
pluralism. See intermarriage 419, 424, 445, 452-53 Song of Songs/Solomon, 286, 288
relativism. Egypt, 354, 362, 394, 400, 403, 413, purpose of God, 388, 429, 453-54, 455
poetry 419, 424, 443, 467 Qarqar, 348, 349
books, 23, 24 Jerusalem, 354, 362-63, 366, Qumran, 27, 28, 30, 372-73, 436-38,
Hebrew, 282 376-77, 380-81, 391, 395, 409, 459
Ugaritic, 286-87 468, 469
polytheism, 80, 84, 146, 152, 153, 227, Messiah, 354, 358, 360, 366, 374, Ramah, 199, 205, 228
230, 286, 292, 319 375-76, 380, 381, 396, 423, 443, ram’s horn trumpet. See shofar.
postexile period, 69-70, 253, 255, 259, 455, 465, 468-69 rape, 217, 219
264, 269 new Jerusalem, 423, 424 Ras Safsaf, 110

496
 Subject Index

Ras Shamra. See Ugarit. revelation of God, 22, 24, 26, 31, 134, Scripture. See Bible; biblical.
rationalism, 295, 298 143 scrolls, 25, 396
rebellion against God, 138, 142, 238, direct, 198 flying, 466
356, 377, 385, 386 in creation, 454 of sins, 409
final, 432 to Israel, 475, 476 Sea of Galilee. See Chinnereth.
in desert, 131-35, 137, 176, 388 rhyme, poetic, 282, 286 Sea of Reeds, 108-9, 112, 115, 482. See
in Israel/Judah, 147-48, 400 rib, 442 also Red Sea.
of Jeroboam, 222 righteousness, 68 sea peoples, 46, 49-50, 56, 57. See also
of Saul, 200-201, 202, 205, 206 | river in Ezekiel, 423 Philistia /Philistines.
of Zedekiah, 413 romantic love, 287 “second law,” 66
romantic literary forms, 271-72, 274, “seer,” prophet as, 341, 349
Rechab/Rechabites, 212, 398
records, ancient, 223-24, 233, 235, 402,
| 331 Sela, 453
| Rome, 54, 400, 433, 434, 436 selah, 306
435, 457
route of Exodus, 109, 110 Septuagint, 28, 29, 30, 31, 142, 312,
Red Sea, 36, 40, 57, 64, 104, 108-9, 130
royal 322, 334, 481
redaction criticism. See source criti-
psalms, 307, 308-09, 310, 311 serpents of judgment, 135
cism.
responsibility, 320 servant. See also Suffering servant.
redemption. See also salvation.
rusty pot, 408, 415 in Isaiah, 356, 370, 372-76, 380,
from Babylon, 370, 374
Sabbath, 104, 123, 378, 379, 447 378, 375
from Egypt, 112-13 “rest,” 138 leaders, 420
reforms, 222, 270
| Year, 119 role of, 374-75
under Hezekiah, 222, 240, 244 | sacrifice, 117-25, 424, 443, 472 seventy weeks of Daniel, 429, 431,
under Josiah, 240-41, 244, 246, animal, 118, 124, 470, child, 96, 433-34, 436, 437, 490
351, 384-85, 459 387, 390 sexual
regency of Belshazzar, 435 covenant, 106-7
expression, 84, 331, 333, 334-35
regnal formula of Kings, 222-23, 228, cursed, 470-71
immorality, 123, 137, 138, 184, 196,
DL, Weis), Devil failure of, 403-04
216, 217, 219, 318, 322-23, 357,
relativism, 185, 268, 357 false, 356, 446-47
440, 441, 457
remnant in Leviticus, 124-25
purity, 317, 318, 322, 412-13
faithful, 356, 375, 373, 470, 473 messianic, 376
shalom, 67, 72, 347
theology, 355, 356, 365-66, 370 priests and, 65, 200
Sharon Plain, 40, 57
remote context. See context, scriptural. | purpose of, 118
Sheba, nation of, 226
renewal of covenant, 265, 270, 274, tabernacle, 104
Shechem, 42, 57, 146, 149, 176, 187
341, 351 types of, 120-21, 124
sheep herding, 444, 448
repent/repentance, 257, 379 | sages, 290, 298
Shem /Shemites, 79, 85, 86
call to, 342, 348, 356, 370, 376, 380, _ “Saints of the Most High,” 431, 436
shema, 145
388, 394, 408, 413, 440, 443, | salvation
sheol, 419, 424
449, 473 | by God, 275, 276, 296, 354, 444
Shephelah/“Low hills,” 40, 57
call for nations to, 184, 389, 410, for nation, 142, 404
shepherd, God as, 456
history, 67-68, 91, 160, 164, 211,
466 Shiloh, 42, 57, 183, 187, 196, 198, 205,
465, 475, 476
in Daniel, 429 386-87
in Chronicles, 158-59
true/false, 444, 468 Shunamumite, 240
in Exodus, 65-66, 112, 115
Rephaim, Valley of, 212, 218 Sidon, 230, 232, 240, 419, 424
in Messiah, 211, 378, 380-81, 454
Rephidim, 104 shiggaion, 306
of remnant, 365-66, 375
restoration shofar, 131, 174, 307
offer of, 375, 446
appeals for, 307 siege. See by city.
to people of God, 67, 458
archetype of, 256-57, 258 ultimate plan of, 364, 378, 380 sign, 366, 367
covenant of, 404, 416 of the virgin, 358
Word of, 25, 454
of Israel, 370, 373, 421, 424-25, 460 | Samaria/Samaritans, 27-28, 30, 52, Simeon, 183
of remnant, 443 54, 200, 230, 232, 243, 247, 266, sin. See also retribution theology.
of temple, 421 349, 413, 415, 441, 442, 455. See Achan’s, 162, 182
of Zion, 378-81 also Israel, northern kingdom atonement for, 466-67
resurrection, 96, 239, 446 of. cleansing from, 347, 356
retribution theology, 147, 162, 163, Samaritan Pentateuch, 27-28, 29, 30, confession of, 216, 219, 265, 270,
222, 226, 234, 247, 258, 291, | 31 307-08, 311
292, 295, 296, 298-99, 309 | satisfaction, search for, 326 consequences of, 64-65, 147,
return from Babylonian exile, 56-58, Saudi Arabia, 109 216-17, 219, 220, 222, 238, 248,
159, 252, 253, 255, 258, 264-70, scapegoat, 122, 124 295-96, 390-91, 413
376-77, 380, 396, 413, 420, 422, scribes, 27, 58, 266, 459 David's, 162, 216-17, 219, 220, 253,
423, 424, 464, 465, 466, 468 Egyptian, 105 308
return of Christ, 433 prophetic assistants, 347 excusing, 357

497
Subject Index

final destruction of, 472 spies into Canaan, 132-33, 139, prophecy against, 395
forgiveness of, 122, 456 168-69, 171 reconstruction of, 159, 164, 240-41,
freedom from, 375, 376, 380 spiritism, 134, 205, 206 255, 257, 264-66, 269, 351-52,
national, 270, 377, 388-89, 409 St. Catherine, Basilica of, 49, 110, 113 421, 464-67
offering, 120-21, 124 stipulations, suzerain treaty, 150, 152 sacked by Jehoash, 241
original, 82-84, 86 structure Scroll, 459
prophetic condemnation of, 231, Judges, 163 second, 46, 265, 266, 424
233 Joshua, 163 spiritual, 421-24, 464, 467
sacrifice for, 120-21, 124-25 Kings, 163 treasures of, 265
sexual, 137, 138, 184, 196, 216, 219, Samuel, 163 worship, 119, 386
318, 322-23 Succoth,108 Ten Commandments, 64, 68, 106,
slavery to, 138 Suez Canal. See Suez, Gulf of. 122-23, 145, 152, 153, 340
sorrow for, 307-08 Suez, Gulf of, 39, 57, 109 tent of meeting, 104
temptation to, 317 suffering, 294-98 “Testament of Moses,” 143
under judges, 184 for faith, 456 Tetrateuch, 161, 162, 163, 164
Sinai, Mount, 65, 66, 104, 106, 107, of Jeremiah, 391-92, 395, 399 texts
109, 110, 112-13, 118, 119, 130, problem of, 291-92 Akkadian, 344, 345-46, 349
136, 137, 143, 144, 168, 177, servant, 356, 370, 375-76, 380 Mari, 344, 345, 348, 349, 350
340, 341, 347 Sumer/Sumerians, 38, 44, 46, 47, 268 omen, 344-45, 349
Sinai Peninsula, 48, 49, 67, 104, 109, sun, worship of, 408, 411, 415 thanksgiving sacrifice,120
110, 128, 130, 396 Susa, 272, 273, 275 Thebes. See Karnak /Thebes.
Sinaitic covenant. See covenant, suzerain treaty, 149-52, 153, 163 theocracy, 206
Mosaic/Sinaitic. sycamore trees, 445, 490 theodicy, 83, 292, 294, 298
Sirbonis, Lake, 108 symbolic acts of prophets, 388, 394, theophany, 109, 113, 225, 226, 234
Sisters, story of two, 384, 386 397, 398, 400, 415 Tigris River, 37, 38, 53, 57, 350
Sitz im Leben, 70, 72 syncretism, 268, 274, 340, 390 timeline, biblical. See Dating.
slavery synonymous parallelism, 282-83, 286 Timnath-serah, 174, 176
debt, 106, 269, 340, 398 synthetic parallelism, 282, 283-84, 286 tithe, 119, 470, 472
Egyptian, 47, 48, 64, 65, 105, 107, Syria, 37, 57, 93, 94, 198, 200, 212-13, titles, psalm, 306
112 218, 240, 241, 242, 249, 252, “To the Choir Master,” 306
laws regarding, 93, 94-95, 296, 389 346, 350, 351, 358, 366, 400, tools, 44
of Jerusalem, 403 440, 452, 468, modern, 286 topography, Near East, 36-44
social justice, 241-42, 269, 270, 320, Syria—Palestine, 37, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, Torah, 23, 27, 30, 64, 72, 267, 379
326, 328, 357-58, 374, 377, 386, 47, 48, 49-50, 53, 56, 98, 242, authority of, 247-48
390, 405, 445-46, 454, 455, 458, 332, 340, 349 blessings to Gentiles, 377, 380-81
461 Syro—Ephraimite War, 358-59, 360 keeping, 347
Sodom, 91, 356, 362, 400, 401, 413 tabernacle, 104, 112, 114, 119, 120, 128, tradition criticism, 70-72
soliloquies, 291 131, 147 transcendence of God, 24, 30, 69, 72
Solomonic proverbs, 319-20 at Shiloh, 386, 387 Transjordan, 135, 178; Highlands, 40,
Son construction of, 104, 119 42, 43, 56, 57; Plateau, 43
of David, 475 God’s presence in, 134 transmission of text, 24, 26-28, 30
“of Man,” 414, 431, 432, 436 in time of Judges, 187, 190 travel, 56
“of dawn” prophecy, 418-19 purpose of, 107-8 highway, 42-44
“Song of Moses,” 142, 143, 148 Tabernacles, Feast of, 270 sea, 254
songs of Israel, 286, 287, 304-12 tablets of the law, 104, 396 treaty ceremonies, 94, 143, 161
sons of Korah, 304-05 Tabor, Mount, 182, 443 trees, 443, 445, 466
sorrow Talmud, 69, 72, 475, 484 tribes of Israel, 52
for sin, 307-08 targums, 28, 29, 30, 31, 481 land-division among, 168, 170,
fasting in, 379 Tarshish, 453 175, 176-77, 178
source criticism, 69-72 taxes, 269 spiritual, 423
southern campaign of Joshua, 168, Tekoa, 444 tribulation, great, 421, 424
173-74 Tel Abib, 409 tribute, vassal, 212-13, 240, 242, 243
Sovereignty of God, 68, 72, 82, Tel Aviv, 452. See also Joppa. Trito—Isaiah, 371, 379, 380
105-06, 158, 159, 164, 187, temple, 52, 257, 265-66, 356 Troy, 48
294-98, 356, 385, 388, 389, 432, first, 211, 214, 218, 219, 227, 255, trumpet. See shofar.
437, 446, 458, 467 256, 259-61 truth claims, 268
speeches construction of, 226, 253 Tyre, 213, 214, 226, 240, 354, 363, 366,
judgment, 357 destruction of, 56 418-19, 424, 445
of Job, 293-98 glory of God in, 226, 411-12 Ugarit/Ras Shamra, 285, 286
speeches of Moses, Joshua: See failure of, 403-04 Ugaritic. See languages.
Farewell. “new,” 422-24 uncleanness. See cleanness laws.

498
 Subject Index

understanding plan of God, 458 warfare women in Proverbs, 317, 320-31

united kingdom of Israel, 52, 158, 196, as judgment, 184, 349 word meaning, 286-87
197, 199-200, 210, 211-20, civil, 212, 219, 228 works, salvation by, 454
222-28, 254-60, 460 holy, 169 worship, 65
unity of God, 145-46 trumpets in, 131 calendar of, 119, 137-38
Upper Egypt, 39 weaponry, 50 call to, 389
Upper Galilee, 42 | warning of judgment, 341, 343, 344, correct, 120
Ur, 47, 66, 67, 83, 93, 97, 99, 402 346, 347-48, 354, 410-11, 413, covenant, 122, 123
Urartians, 54 414, 415 false, 364, 384, 286, 442, 446, 447
Uruk, 84 watchman, prophet as, 420 half-hearted, 470-71
vassal, 360 | water, living, 385 need to, 68
vaticinium ex eventu, 345-46, 428 Way of the Sea. See Via Maris. proper, 126
verbal inspiration. See plenary verbal Western Wall, 314, 361
Psalms in, 304, 305, 307-12
inspiration theory. wicked, 388, 455
regulations, 137-38, 146
Via Maris, 42-43, 44, 48, 56, 57, 109 widows, 188, 446
sacrifices in, 118, 119, 125
vine of Israel, 357, 408, 412, 413, 415, wife of Ezekiel, 408, 409, 415-16
Samaritan, 340
442, 443 wind, chasing after, 327
trumpets in, 131
violence, 378 wine, symbol in Jeremiah, 388
temple, 119, 256, 259-60, 266,
virgin, sign of, 358-60 wisdom literature, 23, 24, 159, 287,
true, 347, 349, 378, 455
visions, 266, 345. See also dreams. 290-301
Writings, 23, 24, 428
Amos’s, 447-49 Egyptian, 290, 291, 297, 299, 315,
Yahwism, 52, 57, 228, 234, 268, 275
apocalyptic, 428 316, 319
Yarmuk, 42, 57
Daniel’s, 429, 430, 432, 434, 489 in Job, 290, 292
Ezekiel’s, 409-10, 411, 420, 424 in Psalms, 290, 307-08, 310-11 Yafo. See Joppa.
night, 465, 466, 472 solomonic, 225, 233, 290, 292, yoke, in Jeremiah, 394, 395-96, 403
volcanos, 109-110 314-23, 330 Zagros Mountains, 36, 37, 47, 57
vows, 119, 120, 131, 446 wisdom personified, 296, 316, 317, Zebulun, 360, 453
Vulgate, 42, 326, 334 318 Zered, 42, 57
walls, rebuilding Jerusalem’s, 58, 265, witness ziggurat, 83, 84, 85
268-70, 274 scriptural, 24, 377 Ziklag, 196, 205, 210, 211
wanderings in desert, 48, 66, 68, for God, 390 Zin, Desert of, 134, 136
106-08, 110, 118, 128-38, to nations, 455 Zion, 362, 364, 370, 375, 378, 380, 387
143-45, 340, 388, 414 woe oracles, 357-58, 364-65, 366 Mount, 308, 403, 405

499
 1:1-15:21 104 20-24 149

Scripture Index
1:8 47 20-25 484
1:8-22 104 20:1-17 106
1:11 108, 109 20:1-23:33 104
2 Mis 20:3 342,412
2:1-10 104 21=23, 127123,
2:11-15a 105 PER Bis
Genesis 10:21-32 86 24:1-67 91 2:11-25 104 21:2-11 106
1 80 11 66,85 24:3-8 148 21522 0S Diels 106
1-2 66 11:1-9 79 251-18) 9 2:23-25 105 21:16 106
1-11 64,77, 78, 87, 11:9 86 25:19-34 91 2:24 105 21:23-25 106
90 11:10-32 79, 86 | 25:19-36:43 91,97 2:24-25 112 21:28-36 106
IEIL 7A) ey 11:27-32 92, 482 | 25:24-26 97 3-4 105 22:21-24 446
1:1-2:3 79,81 12 90, 93, 148 | 25:26 483 | 3:1 110 Ie \ KOs)
1:3-5 80 12-25 92 26:1-35 91 3:14:17. 104 Amalia
1:3-31 79 12-50 65, 89, 90, 91, 26:2-5 100 Beer 24:1-18 104
ks) 67 98 2OOmmLe 3:13 114 24:3-8 107,112
1:9-10 67,80 12:1-25:18 91 | 26:23-35 490 3:14 114 24:4,7 68
Ie fl 1292796 | 27:1-46 91 4:13 105 24:6 107
EE XS Bil 12:1-3 90, 482 27:41-43 97 4:18-31 104 24:7-8 107
1:26 80 12:14 9% 27:47-29:14 91 5:1-23 104 24:13 168
E27 oe 12:1-9 91 28:10-22 97 6:1-13 104 24:17 109
1:28 81 12:23 96,99, 100 28:18-19, 977 100 6:33 114 25-31 107
1:29-30 121 12:4 6 | 28:15 113 6:14-30 104 25:1-9 104
2 81 12:7. 168, 170 28:18-20, 97 7:1-13 104 25:1-31:18 104
2:4-25 79,81,91 12:10-20 91 | 29:15-30:24 91 7:14-10:29 104 25:8 107
27 eel ils; 6} 29:34 119 11:1-10 104 25:10-22 104
D2Vim Ol Oe 13:1-18 91 30:25-31:55 91 12 106 25:16 482
2:24 334 14 93 31:47 489 | 12:1-27 104 25:21-22 482
2:24-25 84 14:1-24 91 31:47b 27 12:28-51 104 25:23-30 104
DIS MOOE 15 93, 94, 95, 96, | 32 97 12:37 SOS 29 25:31-40 104
3 64, 67 100, 107, 148, 483 32:1-33:20 91 12:37-18:27 N05 26:1-37 104
3-11 82, 87, 228 ise eee | 341-31 91 13:1-16 104 27:1-8 104
3:14,5, 83 15:1-21 91 Bon =29 91 SEN ik’) 27:9-19 104
3:1-24 79 1S:25093 | 36:1 400, 445, 452 13:17-14:31 104 27:20-21 104
o7 82784 15:6 93,95 | 36:1-43 91 13:18 109 28:143 104
3:8-10 82 15:7-21 112 Seley Sil 13:21-22 107 29:146 104
S:1959329 15:13-16 169 | 37:1-50:26 91,98 | 14-15 112 30:1-10 104
S238 eoZ 15:18 226 So: 13092 14:3-31 106 30:11-16 104
411 83 16 94 | 38:24 490 15:1-21 104 30:17-21 104
4:1-26 79 16:1-15 91 CP =28) Bx 1S:2 ie 30:22-38 104
4:7 83 17 92,95, 100, 148 | 39:2 113 15:22-19:2 104 31:1-11 104
5 84, 256 IZA Gey MOM, 40:1-41:57 92 15:22-27 104 31:12-18 104
Beil sill 171-5 9% | 421-38 92 iy 185i 325) IAB?
5:1-32 79 17:1-27 91 | 43:1-34 92 16:1-36 104 32-34 107
5:22-24 239 17:17 96 44:1-34 92 16:13-35' 172 32:1-33:23 104
6 84 18:1-33 91 45:1-28 92 17:1-16 104 32:1-33:6 104
6-9 66 19:1-38 91 46:1-50:14 92 17:9-14 168 33:7-23 104
6:1-8 84 19:36-37 400 | 48:3-4 100 17:14 68 33:11 168, 341
6:1-8:22 79 19:36-38 445 | 48:21-22 176 18:1-27 104 34:1-35 104
6:5-8 84 19:37. 9362 sil Cy 19 66, 100, 106 34:27 68
6:9" 8) 19:38 400 | 50:20 98 19-40 105, 112, 113 35-39 107
6:9-9:29 84 19-40 65 30:22 —26m 92. 19:1-2 104, 130 35:1-40:38 104
7:4 85 20:1-18 91 50:24 100 19:3-24:18 104 40 107
TNO SS 21:1-34 91 50:24-25 178 19:3-25 104 40:17 119
TEA BS iS 21:55 96 50:25 98 19:4-5 112 40:34 107, 114, 226
9:1-29 79 22:1-24 91 Loom OG
9:34 121 22296 Exodus 19:6 114, 119 Leviticus
10 84 22:33 96 | 1-18 Tt, ls} 19:16-25 106 120
10:1-32 79, 85, 87 23:1-20 91 | 1:1-7 104 19:18 109, 110 1-7 69,120, 122
10:10-12 488 23:17-18 100 1:1-12:36 104 20-23 68, 112, 142 1:1-2 119

500
 Scripture Index

1:1-6:7 119 17:1-16 119 10:11 119, 130 25:1-3 137 6:24 484
1:1-7:38 119 17:1-26:46 119 10:11-12 484 25:1-9 138 TAg 227,
iA ila) IZA PL Tp! 10:11-12:16 130 USES) ANSE TES) eA
Ay 124 17:13-14 121 10:11-20:21 128, 2628 MS7, Wi WX
OR 120 17-27 120,122 160 IGIH ASS Ae 1129) 7:9 484
1:13 120 18 123 1OBS5PV1ST 27:12-23 138 TA N29
ili 120 18-26 122 ik asl Paso) ||3¥7/ 8:6 484
2120 18:1-20:27 119 11-14 137 28-36 138 10:4 106
BO Wary, ees: BB) iileil Ail, ep Sse, 1137 10:12 484
2:9 120 18:3-5 123 MksSs 162 32:28-32 171 10:20 484
B20 18:6-18 123 12 Tiss, le 33:2 68 11:1 484
6:2) 124 18:20 123 12:8 341 S59 Some 76 11:13 484
3:8 124 18:22 123 IZM6= M32) 36:13 142 11:22 484
S718.) 124 iee2S Ws 13-14 132,176, 484 12 WAY
18:24-25 123,170 Deuteronomy 145, 146, 152,
4:1 68 13:1-20:21 130 12-26
18:24-30 169 1:1-4:43 142, 153,
4:1-5:13 120 ieE2 GS 153
18:25 123 162 12:1-26:19 143
4:4 124 13:8,16 168
18:28 123 11-5 143, 150
4:15 124 13:25-33 132 12:13-14 177
19:2 1227 1255126 24s
4:20 121 13:26 134 13:1-5 342
19:9 188 1:3 143
4:24 124 13:28-29 168 13:1-14:21 147
20:25 1:5 143
4:26 121 TeiSomeloe 14:14-20 162
20:26 25 1:6=3:29 eea0
4:29 124 14:1-10 169 14:22-16:17 147
21:1-22:33 119 1:6-4:43 143, 153
4:31 121 14:2 134, 138 16:18-18:22 147
23:1-44 119 1:6-7 144
4:33 124 14:4 134 17:14-20 485
23:22 188 1:6-8 143
AS35121 14:6-8 132 W227,
23:26-32 122 1:2646 144
5:60 21 14:10 134 17:18 484
24:1-23 119 2:1-3:22 144
50 121 14:39-45 134 18:9-22 162
25:1-55 119 2:2-3:29 143
5:14-6:7 120 15 134, 138 18:15 341
26:1-46 119 2:55 144
6:8-7:38 119 15-20 134 18:15-19 148
26:46 122 2:6-7 144
6:14-7:38 490 16-17 304, 487 18:21-22 342
27:1-34 119 2:9 144
7:38-39 120 16:1 134 19:1-24:7. 147
2:19 144
8-10 120, 121, 122 16:31-43 134 DAG 29
Numbers 2:24 145
8:1-10:20 119 16:44-50 134 23:3-4 377
ik KOO 2:24-3:17 144
8:1-36 119 VA 1S: 24:8 73
1-4 128 PES WAS
9:1-24 119 17:1-13 128 24:8-16 147
1:1-10:10 128, 130, 2:33 145
Ox 21 18-19 134, 138 24:17-26:15 147
138 3:2 145
10:1-3 130 20 142,145, 148 3238-29 SAS 25:4 490
1:1-54 130
10:1-20 119 20:1 134 4 145 25:5-6 191
12 131
10:35 121 20:2-12 134 4-26 150 27-28 247,248
1:46 129
OMG» 27. 20:10-11 134 4:140 143 27:1-26 143
2:1-4:49 130
iit al 20:12 134 4:9,23 145 27:1-31:30 142, 143,
3-6 131
1S) 22, 20:14-21:35 135 4:13 396 146, 153
3,4 130
11-16 121 3:4 130 20:17 437135 4:35-40 142 27:4 146
11:1-15:33 119 3:5-10 119 20:22-29 130 4:41-43 143 27:5-6 161
11:1-16:34 119 4:3 384 20:22-36:13 128, 4:44 145 27:12 146
EAD 27, Sei 130, 135, 138 4:44—26:19 142, 143, 28 69, 147, 150, 162,
11:44 68 5:1-8:26 130 21:14 130 145, 153, 222, 298
11:44-45 125 6 131 21:4-9 135 4:44-49 143,145 28:1-68 143
12) 12) 6:1-21 198, 446 21-5) W188 5-11 145, 146 28:58 482
13-14 121 6:22-27 131 21:5-9 130 5-26 69, 145, 146, 29-31 177
oye 121 HE Ahi 210) 135 153 29:1 142
16 122, 467 7-10 131 21:10-20 130 5:1-3 145 29:1-30:14 143, 147,
16:1-34 119 We sil 21:21-35 130 5:1-11:32 143 153
16:2-3 122 iil PAE PS) IBS) 5:2-3 145 29:20 396, 482
16:8-10 122 Oe 131 22-24 128, 135, 136, 5:29 484 29:21 482
16:10 122 9:1-10:10 130 138 6:2 484 29:27 482
16:14-15 122 9:15 131 22:1-36:13 130 6:4 145 | 29:29 482
16316.) 122. 10:1-10 131 22:22-30 136 6:4-9 321 30:10 482
16:20-22 122 10:5-6 131 22-330 166 6:5 95, 96, 146, 484 30:15-20 143, 147
16:22) 22. 10:9 131 24:2 136 6:6-7 291 SURI) alate) atsy2
16:30 122 10:10 131 Posy 1lSvig iets! 6:13 484 31 147, 153

501
Scripture Index

31:1-30. 143 1206 3:12-30 184 oR) IY) 19:9-11 203

31:3. 147,170 11:21 170 | 3:31 184 | 9:8-12 199 19:20-21 346
31:7-8 170 13 168 4:1-5:31 184 6:4-5 199 19:23-24 342
SI) ge 13-21 167, 168, 176 6:1-8:28 184 6:12-16 199 _ 20:24-34 203
31:9-13 147, 150 13-24 170 | 10:1-2 184 6:19-21 199 20:32-33 204
31:9, 19, 22,24 68 13:1-13 183 10:3-5 184 | 7:1-2 214 | 21:1-9 204
31:14 170 13:6 170 | 10:6-12:7 184 7:7-14 199 22:7-19 204
31:14-23 147 14-19 168,176 11:26 108, 109 | 8-12 196, 199 | 23:7-8 203
31:19 147 14:6-15 176 _ 12:8-10 184 8:4-5 199 | 23:19=23 203
31:19-22 150 14:7 484 | 12:11-12 184 | 8:6-7 197 24:1-2 203
31:23 147, 170 14:8 176 12:13-15 184 | 8:7 200 24:3-6 204
31:24-26 150 14:10 484 13:1-15:20 184 8:10-22 200 24:6 348
SS) EY/ 15-19 176 | 17-18 183, 184 |} 8:19b-20 50 24:16-22 204
31:26 245 15:63 169, 176 17-21 183, 184 9:9 488 25 161, 204
32 142, 148, 162 16-17 176 17:1-21:25 183 10:1 200 | 26:1-2 203
62 150 16:10 169, 176, 183 | 17:6 182, 184, 186 10:10 342 26:6-16 204
32:1-32:47 147 17:12-13 176, 183 ie il 182, 184 10:10-12 346 26:21 204
32:1-34:12 143, 147 17:16-18 183 | 19-21 183, 184 10:17-26 200 27:1-3 204
32:147 143 18:1 196 19:1 182, 184 11 206 27:6 196
32:47 26 18:1-6 198 21:25 182, 184, 186, 11:1-2 400 28 205
32:48-33:29 143 18:2-4 183 196 11:14-15 200 28-31 196
32:48-52 148 18:23 388 IZ 1key? 29 204, 205
33 142 19 174 Ruth 30 205
12:1-5 341
33:1-29 148 19:13 453 igs) 1lGshe} Sle el
12:3-5 200
| 1:6-22 188
34 142 19:49-51 176
1:11 188
| 12:8-18 200 i Sit25 203
34:1-12 143, 148 20-21 168
1:16-17 188
| 12:17-18 197, S1:11-13 212
34:4 148 20:1-9 176 12:20-25 200 SHES SY
34:8 170 LAVAS) 1:19 188
13-15 200
34:10 148, 242 21:18 384 1:20-21 192 2 Samuel
13:8-14 197, 200,
21:43-45 170,177 2 183 1 2A Ail
341
Joshua 22-24 167, 168, 177 2:1-23 188 14 210, 211
13:14 50, 203
1-5 168, 170 23 162 2:2 188 1:14 348
1-12 167, 168, 170 13:19-22 50
23:1-16 177 2:3 188 eis: PAG
| 14:19-23 200
igs 1G) 23:1-24:27 168, 177 | 2:4-17 189 14:24-25
24 210,212
201
Ney HS) 171 23:12-13 471 2:18-23 189 [Paveu S57
1:8 64 14:24—46 200
24 149, 484 2:20 189 3:3" 2177485
1:12-18 171 14:47 200 | 5 210/212
24:1-28 177 3:1-18 188
1:16-18 177 Vl5ye200 0-6 2107213
24:11 214 3:10 190
2:1-24 171 15:1-3 169 5-24 210, 212
PENS) AGE 3:10-13 189
3-4 172 15:1-31 197 eKe) |2I/
24:26 169 | 3:12-13 190
3:1-5:15 W/Z. 15:10-31 341 5:4 210
24:28-33 168, 178 4 190
Se A740) ISpS) ALO 5:5-9 210
24:29-31 169 | 4:1-17 188
4:9 169 Aeey il 15:20 201 5:6-10 169
24:31 178
5) 72 | 4:6 191 15:23ee20il | Seilsl 445
59169 Judges 4:13 ii | 16 196, 304 9:17-25 212
5:10-12 130 ei PRey hess), 13S) 4:17 ID | 16-31 196, 201 CHI 210
5:13-15 172 1:8 210 1 "4:18=99 188 Oso 7; 6:6-8 214
6-9 167, 168, 172 TO RISS 16:1-13 197, 201, 7 100, 210, 211, 214,
7 162, 182 21-5 184 | 1 Samuel 210 258, 308, 386
7:11-8:35 173 2:2-3 184 1-15 196, 198 16:7 203 | 7:1-11 214
7:26 169 2:6-15 184 Iei=sevil iC, 1s 16:14-23 197, 202 7:12-13 214
8:18 241 2:6-3:6 183, 184 1:10-11 198 16:18 202 7:13 214, 216
8:30-35 146, 161, 2:6-16:31 183, 184, 1:19-20 198 7 LOG 202 | 7:14 ‘216
WZ 186 2:12-17 196 WAA18:5 9197 7:14-15 216
8:32 482 2:13-14 184 2:22-25 196 17:26 203 8 210,212
QD DNs 2:16 182 2:27-36 198 17:34-37 203 pil — 22
9:1-27 173 2:16-23 184 | 3:10 198 1736) 92.08: 9 218
10 168, 173 2:19 184 3:20 198 17:46-47 203 10> 210212 18
11:1-15 168, 174 3:1-6 184 | 4:1 198 17:47 203 10:1-4 400
11:16-12:24 168, 39-6 7268 | 4:1-7:17 196, 198 18-27 196, 203 il AIL, 28S:
176 3:7-11 184 4:10-11 199 18:1 203 11-12 210, 216
11:18-20 169 3:7-16:31 183, 184 | 5:3-4 199 18:6-9 203 127 26

502
 Scripture Index

1221379 10:13 226 18:36-38 231 11:4-21 240 | 21:11-15 245, 247
13-14 210, 217 10:23 226 19 162 12:2 240 21:19-26 238, 244
13-20) 2107217 11 224, 226, 228 LOD 25 12:3-5 241 22:1-23:30 238, 245
13:4 217 11:1-43 224 19:3-4 231 13-17 241 | 22:3-23:7 459
15-19 210, 217 ee 27, 195-8" ©2311 13:14-19 240 22:8 384
16:23 218 S227, 19:9-18 231 13:14-20 241 22:8-10 245
19:41-43 218 11:4 52,227 IER 2sy2 13:19 249 22:14-20 346
202107 217; W135 2277253 II i SY) 13:20-21 240 | 22:19 245
21-24 210,218 11:14-22 227 20:1-43 232 13:25 249 23:22 245
21:1-14 218 11:23-25 227 20:42-43 232 14:3 241 23205297,
2i15=22" 218 11:26-40 227 D235 232. 14:23-29 241 23:29-30 246, 400
BD PING 11:29-39 346 21:3 191, 234 14:25 440, 453 23:31-25:21 246
221—23:7 218 11:41 223 21:4 234 14:25, 28 241 | 23:31-34 395, 414
23:8-39 218 11:41-43 228 21:17-24 234 14:6 64, 482 23:31-35 238, 246
24:1 219 225 21:21 240 14:8-14 241 | 23:36-24:7 238, 246
12-14 228 DED OMeOA, 15 247 24:2 249
1 Kings PINE SYS)
12-22 228 15:1-7 242 24:2-4 245, 247
220) 22 234
IPA 238 15:8-31 242 24:8-17 238, 246
1-2 224,225 22:24 234
12:1-16:28 224, 228 15:19-20 242 24:10-15 395
1-11 224, 256 22:7-28 346
12:1-22:53 224 15:29 524 24:18-25:21 246
1:1-2:46 224 22:3) 235
12:25-29 490 15:29-30 360 | 24:18-25:26 238
1:1-11:43 224 22:39-40 231
12:25-33 228 15:32-38 242 24:20-25:7 169
1:5-2:24 253 22:52 238
12-17 224 16:3 242 25:1-21 246
2:3 482
13 346 16:7 243 25:8 467
2:3-4 386 2 Kings
S223 16:7-8 358, 360 25:22-26 246
2:4 216 il PBs 8k
13:1-10 346 16:8 243 25:27-30 163, 224,
2:26-27 384 1-17 238
132 S72 16:9 360 238, 246, 395, 402
3 PRs 1:1-9:37 238
13:4-10 228 17:1-6 243, 362
3-10 224 1:1-13:21 346
14:1-18 228 17:5-6 243 1 Chronicles
Cxl69) 227, 1:1-17:41 238
14:9 228 17:6-7 169 1-9 255, 256
3:1-10:29 224 igs) 2Bhe}
14:10-11 228 17:7-23 243,375 1:1-2:2 255
ge) 2025) 2-8 239
14:15-16 247 WA3—23 9238 2:3-4:23 255
8:>) 225 2:1-18 239
14:19 223 iVEllsy) 223} 4:24-8:40 255
3312-13" 225 2:8" 239
14:21-16:28 228 17:15-16 243 6:33-34 485
S18) 226 2:9 239
14:22-24 228 17:18, 20,23 243 8 256
3:14 225 2:13-14 239
14:29 223 2:19-22 239
17:22-23 247 9 255
3:16-28 225
iWeRil Was) WBS) PY) 17:23 249 1OMEZ 55
6285225
152226: 3:1-27 239 17:24 266 10:1-11:3 256
4 226
15:35 9223 3:4 444 17:24-41 243 10:13-14 256
41-6 226
152/28 7228 4:1-7 239 17:29 243 10-20 256
4:7-19 226
15:899)223; 4:8-37 240 17:41 228, 238 10-29 255, 256
4:20-28 226
421 226 15165225 4:38-44 240 18-20 244 | 10-36 256
15:16-33 223 5:1-27 240 18-25 224 11-12 255
A265, 527226
15:17-22 228 6:1-7 240 18:1-20:21 238 13-22 255
4:29-34 226, 290,
15:13 232 6:8-23 240 18:13-16 367 15-16 304
il
4:32 305 15:31 223: 6:24-7:20 240 18:13-19:37 244 15:4-5 304
5:1-12 445 15:33-34 222 8:1-6 240 18:4 257 /ae25 7258
5:1-8:66 226 16:21-28 230 8:7-15 240 18:4-6 244 17:7-14 255
6-7 226 16:25-26 222 8:18 240 18:7 244, 367 We l7G R259
6:1 108, 109 16:29-8:29 228 8:26-27 240 18:8 244 21-29 256
8 226 16:29-22:53 224, 9-10 240, 241 19:15-19 244 Zigie219
8:10-11 226 230 9-17 228 19:20-34 244 22:1-5 253
8:14 245 16:29-33 222 9:1-10:28 240 19:35 245 22:8-9 214
8:23-24 226 16:29-34 23] 9:1-13 240 19:35-37 244 23:1-29:20 255
8:25-26 226 16:31-33 231 9:22 490 20:1-11 244 28:9 258
9:2 226 17-19 231 9:22-26 234 20:12-19 244 29:23-30 255
9:3 226 7A 2317341 9:27 240 PAM “akoyi/
9:4-5 226 18 341 9:30-37 234 21:1-18 238, 244 2 Chronicles
9:16 169 18:12 10:1-17:41 238 21:8 482 19255
9:26 483 ikegIY 2sHIl 10:32-33 240 21:9 245 1-9 255, 256
10:10 226 | 18:21 231 11:1-20 240 21:10-16 238 2-7 255

503
Scripture Index

Beil PAS 6 266 12:27-47 270 8:3-17 275 15:2-4 292, 296
714 256, 257. 6-7 276 13 270 8:8 273 15:5-6 292
8-9 255 6:1-14 265 13:1 482 | 9:1-10:3 272 52/295)
10-13 256 6:1-22 265 13:23-29 471 | 91-19 275 15:7-8 296
10-36 256, 257, 260 6:14-15 255 | 3 Wee 9:16-19 275 15:17-35 296
18:3 259 6:14-18 266 4 270 9:20-28 275 16:33-4 296
14:1-21:3 256 6:15-19 265 4:1-6:19 269 9:22 275 16:19 296
20:15-23 169 6:17 270 4:2-3. 270 10:1-3 276 18:3 296
20:19 304 6:18 482 4:7 269 19:25-27 296
21:4-22:12 256 7-8 267 4:7-8 270 Job 20195296
PETE Pail 7-10 58, 265, 266 4:9 269 1-2 293,294 20:29 296
22:3-5 240 7-13 265 4:15 269 1:1-2:13 293 21:2-3 292
23-27 256 7:1-5 266 4:16 269 1:1-5 293 | 21:7-16 292
24:17-25 241 7:1-8:36 265 a Aes 1:6-12 293 21:23-26 296
26:1-23 242 7:1-10 265 5:14-19 269 1:8 294
21:34 296
26:6-15 440 7:1-73 265 6 270 1:9-11 294
22-2 6me295)
28 256 7:6 266 Cail 270 | 1:13-19 293
D2A-2723 298
29-31 257,320 Ti 9 W267; 7-13 270 1:20-22 293
22:4-7 296
29-32 244 7:7-8 271 7:4 270 1:22) 294
[2223296
29-36 256 LAO 2679276 | 7:5 270 | 2:1-5 293
23:4 296
By2 D5y/ 7:11-26 265, 489 8-10 270 | 2:4-5 294
23:10-12 296
2:6-8 293
33:1-20 245 7:12-26 27 8:1 276
2:8 294
| 27:1-6 296
35:25 402 7:27-28 265 8:1-12 270
2:9 294
| 28 296
36:22-23 58, 224, 123 270 8:6 270 | 28-31) 296
252) 254,257 8:1-9 265 8:13-18 270 2:9-10 293
28:1-28 293
8:1-10:39 265 99270 | 2:10b 294
28:20-28 296
Ezra 8:1-14 265 ke 2) | 2:11 294
| 28:28 326
1-6 58, 265, 271 8:10-18 265 968-10 9ee 270 2:11-13 293
22226
e276 8:15-20 265 3-31 294
lus) 23}
1:1-11 265 8:21-32 267 _ Esther | 3:1-26 293
29 SAO 293,
1:1-2:70 265 8:21-36 265 | i 7) 3:1-27:23 293
1:1-3 252, 265 | Wel2 2272 | 3:1-42:6 293
| 30 296
9:14 268
301-31 293
1:1-4 58, 265 91-15 265 Wes) 272 4-27 294
1:2-3° 257 Oe 273, 4:1-14:22 293
Sle 296
9:1-37 265
1:2-4 265, 266 | 2:14. 272 4:17 295 31:1-40 293
9:5-15 268
1:4-11 265 9:6 268 PESNEMe} 227/22 57 295 | 31:35 296
1:5-11 265 9:14 268 PY YD 5:18-27 295 | 32-37 296
1:8 265 210 272 5:19-27 445 321-5, 293
9:38-10:39 265
2 270 PIE PDD 6:24,30 295 32:1-37:24 293
10:14 268
2:1-20 265 2:19-23 272 7:16-21 295 327296
10:1-17 265
2:1-70 265 220 272 8:2 295 | 32:35296
10:1-44 265
PIMD6S 221-23 273 | 8:3 295 | 32:6-33:33 293
10:12-44 268
3:1-6 265, 266 3 20S 8:3-7 295 eels) Z8)/
10:18-44 265
3:1-6:22 265 | SpE 272 8:20 295 33:14 445
11:1-36 265
3:1-7:3 265 11:1-12:26 265 | SHz, 13 2783 9:2 295 SREY 28)/
3:1-32 265 12:1-26 265 4-10 273 | 9:10 295 | 33:26-30' 297
3:7-13 265 12:27-47 265 | 4:1-17 272 9:22 295 sehey, 297/
3:7-6:22 266 13:1-31 265 4:11 273 9:25-31 295 34:1-37 293
3:10-11 266 4:14 273 10:18-22 295 Soll 165293
S276 Nehemiah 4:16 273 11:3 295 35:13-16 297
3:12-13 266 1-6 268 5:1-14 272 1:4 295 36:1-37:24,, 293
A 276 1-7 271 oD) 28} 11:6b 296 oe? DY
4:1-5 265, 266 1-13 58 | Sel 2S: ley Sy 36:10-12 297
4:1-23 265 ilgili) 6:1 273 11:14 296 posi 97,
4:6-23 266 1:3 269 | G14 272 11:17 296 38:1-39:30° 293
4:6-24 265 1:11 269 6:7-9 274 12:3 296 38:1-42:6 293, 297,
4:8-6:18 27, 489 2:8 269 | 6:11 274 12:7-10 296 300
4:23-24 269 2:10 269 | 71-10) 272 13:2 296 Stok} 2AS)/
D266 2:17-18,19 269 7:3-6 274 13:13-19 296 | 38:4 297
5:1-2 265 [2720 | 7:9-10' 275 13:24-27 296 38:8 297
5:1-19 265 1218 27a 81-2) 275 14:13 296 S86 le207;
53/265 12:1-26 270 8:1-17 272 15:1-21:34 293 40:1-2 297

504
 Scripture Index

40:1-42:6 293 WPM Al 6:27 318 SUBIC iI) sty CE sys)

40:15-41:34 297 73 290, 308 71-5 318 SG) SIF 3207622. 9:7-9 329
40:3-5 297 73-83 304 7:1-27 318 S1:2359321 9:7-10 326, 328
40:6 297 73-89 306,311 7:6-27 318 SIIEAS=Sil hil S23
40:9 297 85 305 78-9 318 931-12:8 328
ADD 297, 89:3 214 L222 ONS Ecclesiastes 9-18" 326
42:3 297 90 305 7:24-27 318 1:19 326 9:13-18 329
42:5-6 298 90-106 306 8:1-21 318 1:1-11 326, 327 1ONS29
42:7-17 293, 298 98-106 311 8:1-36 316,318 122 Boxe, ay 10:1-20 326
42:12 298 107-150 306, 311 8:22-31) 318 1:2-11 326 11:1 284, 329
110 310 8:35-36 318 1:3-11 327 11:1-6 326, 329
Psalms INGE sie) 1:5-6 327
91-18 316 11:7-12:8 326
1 290, 308 110:5 309 1:9-10 327
DOMZ827 322 12 328
1-41 306, 311 IN) Weis), Svaw 1:12-2:26 326
10-22 321 IRI Bye)
30 119:9-16 285 1:12-4:16 326, 327
LOTS 1773187 321) 121-8 329
1:1-2 185 WAY B05 1:13-18 327
330 IES) BPS
Lom 284 WIEN SPzsl L427)
10:1-22:16 316, 318, I BYXy
1:6 283 136 305, 307 1:16-17 329, 330
321 WAS) Soy, SV27/
2 308 137 310 ely BSw7/
O2a283; 12:9-14 326, 329
2:6 284 137:7 453 2:1-3 327
10:4 283 IPRS) Sve)
2:7 309 150 306, 307 2:4-11 327
10:7 283 12:13-14 326
3 304, 305, 306, 311, Deo 27,
ITS 2()
SD Proverbs 2:12-16 327 Song of Solomon
12:4 317
4 306, 312 1-9 321 PAE Syy7h ie Swit, Seis"
13:24 315
4:8 312 iL S80) 2:24-25 327,328 ISSA ahertl
LUGAR RSIS
6 BulD 1:1-7 316 DDE OLY. E2338
16:24 315
8 285, 307 1:2-6 316 SH=15 326,327 2:8-3:5 331
IPQ) sss)
8:1-9 284 1:4 316 Bo GW 3:6-5:1 331
20:20 315
8:2-3 284 Iss) SUG BES) S7/ 41-5 332
22-24 292
8:4 285 E7292 S6p oily SHLD By 41-7 331
22=28 321
SipEZo> 322, 326 Sis) SPX} 4:2 331
22:6 314
8:6-8 285 Nes AN Sy 3:14 328 4:9-11 333
14 308 1:8-9 317 22:17-21 318
3:16-22 326 5:2-8:4 331
15 306 1:8-19 316 22:17—23:11 319
3:19-20 328 5:9-16 33]
Oa 282. 1:8-9:18 316, 317, 22:17-23:14 319
3227328 jis) 38)
16 309 318, 319, 322, 487 22:17-24:34 316, 4:1-3 326 8:5-14 33]
19:1 282 1:10-19 317 318 4:2-3 328
19:7-10 113 1:20-33 316, 317 ABOM) he, 4:4 328 Isaiah
22 309, 310 1:28-32 317 PHJIN HIS) BINS) 4:4-12 326 1-12 367
22:12 446 iS) Bly 23:13 291 4:6 328 1-39 353, 355, 366,
22:14-18 310 2:1-5 291 23:22-25 321 4:7 328 Syl, Sy
237305 2:1-22 317 24:27 315 4:13-16 326 Hi So4ee55
24:1 283 2:1-4:27 316 25-29 321 4:16 328 1:1-31 354, 356
33:6,9 80 DAN; PSE Bil) SAI 5:1-7 326, 328 1:4 356
35 310 DG 25:1=29:27 316, 319, 5:1-12:8 326, 328 ON S56
37 ©6290 3:1-35 317 B22 5:8-9 326 1:10 356
38 307 3:5-6 317 25:2-3 320 5:8-17 328 Sie 56
42-72 306, 311 Se Sue! 25:6-8 320 5:10-6:9 326 | 1:16-20 356
44 305 4:1-27 317 Paseiis) 222)iI Spits} Sys} 12 50)
45 310 4:3-4 318 SUNROLS 6:3-6 328 1:2-15 356
45:1 308 4:18-19 318 G0 3207 6:10-12 326 |) 1-21-23, 856
45:3-5 308 4:23-24 315 30:1-9 320 Te O28 1:27-31 356
45:6 309 5:1-14 318 30:1-33 3116; 320, 71-14 326 2 eeoo
45:7-9 309 5:1-23 316 322 7:5-14 328 2:1-4 354, 356
49 290 5:3-5 318 30:15b-16 445 ENS, BPRS} 2:1-5:30 354, 356
50 304 5:15-23 318 30:18 320 7:15-24 326 25-21 9357
51 304, 308 5:7-14 318 30:18-20 445 7:25-8:1 326 | 2:5-4:6 354, 357
57 304 6:1-19 316 30:21-23 445 8:2-8 326, 328 2:13 446
62:11-12 445 6:16-19 445 30:29-31 445 | 8:9-17 326 | 2:22-3:15 357
69 310 6:20-35 318 Sil SHUG), Sil 8:9-9:10 328 3:16-4:1 357
7422 *306 6:20-7:27 316 SHIGE RS20 SiS 7328 4:2-6 357
i 305 6:23-29 291 SII-9 3167320 | 9:1-6 326 | S:1-7 354, 357
505
Scripture Index

5:8-10 _ 357 17:1-14 354, 362 CSVER 355) S25 B76 71-15 346
5:8-30 354, 357 17:6-8 362 C72 =/mmoO | 53:1-3 375 | 7:1-8:3 384, 386
511-17 357 18:1-20:6 354, 362 | 37:6-7 342 | 53:3 376 7:4 386
SS o7, 18:7 362 | 37:3-13 9367 | 53:46 375,376 | 7:12 386
Ge) Siey// 19:4 362 37:14-29 367 53:7 376 7:29 490
Sell sists) 19:5-8 362 i) 37-21 355 | 53:7-9 375 8:4-10:25 384, 387
5:22-23 358 20:1-6 362 37:21-35 342, 355 | 53:8 376 9:10 490
6:1-8 354, 356, 358 PAY) S355) SPS) S118 | eH) siko 10:11 27, 489
6:1-13 354, 358 21:1-10 362 SESS). B107/ 5310 S76 10:17-25 387
6:9-13 354, 358 21:1-17 354, 362 | 38-39 366, 367 53:10-12 356 11-20 387, 388
7 243 22 ASO? Seeil Bias 53/6 11:1-12:17 384, 388
el OOS 221-25 354, 362 38:1-8 342, 355 54:1-17 370, 376 11:1-20:18 384, 387
71-9 354, 358 22:15-19 362 38:1-22 354, 367 54:1-59:21 370, 376 11:18-20 387
7:1-14 346 22:20 356, 372 38:4 355 55:1-13 370, 376 11:18-23 388
71-17 354, 358 22:20-25 362 SIL Ba0) S522 930 12:1-6 387
JES) 1013), 8/19 23:1-18 354, 363 | 39:1-8 354, 367 56-66 371 13:1-27 384, 388
73-9 342 24-27 364, 428 OS) 3185) | 56:1-8 370,377 14:1-17:27 384, 388
Vro=iiey 31a15) 24:1-6 364 398-08 O42, OOD | 56:9-57:21 370, 377 14:13-16 388
74-9 358 24:1-23 354, 364 40-55 370 58:1-14 370, 378 | 14:17-22 388
710-12 358 24:1-27:13 354, 363 40-66 355, 356, 366, | SSD / oo 15:1 388
7:10-17 354, 358 24:14-16 364 | 367, 369, 370, 372, | 58:6-7 446 soo
7:14 358, 360 24:23 364 373 59:1-21 370, 378 15:10 384, 389
718-25 360 25:1-12 354, 364 40:1-11 373 59:20-21 378 15:10-21 387
7:18-8:22 354, 360 25:6-9 364 40:1-31 370, 373 60:1-22 370, 378 15:15-18 384, 389
8:1-4 360 26:1-6 364 41:1-29 370, 373 60:1-66:24 370, 378 15:19-21 389
Ske) Bisley, eiste) 26:1-21 354, 364 41:8 356, 373 61:1-3 378 16:1-4 384
8:5-22 360 26:11-18 364 42:14 372, 374 61:1-11 370,378 16:1-9 389
8:16 347 27:1 364 | BPE) sys} | 61:4-11 378 17:1-18 389
9:1 42 27:1-13 354, 364 42:1-25 370, 374
| 62:1-12 370,378 17:14-18 387
62:4 378
SRIEPS “G)a0) 27:2-6 364 42:18-25 374 17:19-27 389
63:65 93707379
9:1-7 354, 360 27:9 364 42:23-25 375 18:1-12 389
Coy / shi), VW? 2712-13 364 43:1-44:8 374
| 63:7-64:12 370,379 18:1-19:15 384, 389
9:8-10:4 354, 360 28:1-29 354, 364 43:1-45:25 370, 374
| 65:1-25 370, 379
18:18-23 387
69:17-25) 9379
SRIVD Biei0) 28:1-33:24 354, 364 44:9-23 374 19:1-2 390
66:1-2 380
917 360 28:9-13 364 44:24-45:25 374 | 20:1-6 384
66:1-24 370, 379
CEPAL Sio0) 28:15 364 44:28 371, 374 20:1-18 384, 391
| 66:20 378
10:4 360 28:16-22 364 45:1 356, 371, 374 | 20:7-10 384
10:5 360 29:1 364 45:5-6 374 Jeremiah | 20:7-13 391
10:5-34 354, 360 29:1-24 354, 364 46:1-13 374 1-20 383 | 20:7-18 387
10:12-23 360 29:9-16 364 46:1-47:15 370, 374 1:1 342, 384 | 20:14-18 384, 392
O16 372 29:17-24 364 471-15 374 1:1-3 386 21529393
10:20 372 30:1-31:9 354, 364 47:8 374 1:1-19 384, 386 21:1-2 394
10:20-21 356 32:1-20 354, 365 48:1-22 370, 374 1:4-5 343 21:1-23:8 394
I1:1-16 356, 372 32:3-4 365 48:1-52:12 370, 374 | 1:5 386 ee 29 32 oe
11:1-12:6 354, 360 Sepll—2 6ies 49:1-7 370, 373,374 || 1:6 384 21:1-52:34 394
13-23 356, 367, 418, 33:1-24 354, 365 | 49:3 356, 373, 374 IES) she | 21:3-9 394
432 33:14-16 365 49:5 374 1:10 396 222-5) 394
13:1-14:23 354, 362 34:1-17 354, 365 | 49:6 374 TI7-19 389 22:10-12 394
13:1-23:18 354, 361 34:1-35:10 354, 365 49:8-26 370, 375 21=3:5 384,386 2213-235 395
VON 7 ao 62 34:4 365 49:14-16 375 2:1-10:25 384, 386 | 22:19 395
13:19-20 362 34:16-17 365 | 50:1-11 370, 375 | 2:13 386 | 22:24-30 395
14 418, 419 35:1-10 354, 365 50:4-11 373,375 | 2:28 386 | 23:5-6 395, 397
14:3-21 362 35:4-6 366 | 50:6 375 3:6-4:4 384, 386 23:9-40 394, 395
14:4 362 390i 360 S116) 3707375 4:5-6:30 384, 386 23:13-14 395
14:12-15 362 35:8-10 366 51:17-52:12 370, 4:19-22 386 24:1-3 395
14:13-14 362 Sle=8y/ Soy 3/5 5:1 386 24:1-25:38 394, 395
14:24-27 354, 362 36-39 244, 367 | 52:13 356/373, 376 | 5:18-19 386 25:1-14 395
14:28-32 354, 362 36:1-37:38 354, 367 5231S 75, | 6:9-15 386 25:9 400
1519 362 36:1-39:8 354, 366 92:13-53:12 370, 6:13 466 2512396
15:1-16:14 354, 362 36:4-20 367 9/27,3/ 37910) O76 | 6:13-14 384 25:15-38 395
16:14 362 36:6) 99, 865 52:14 376 | 6:22-23 401 25:21 400

506
 Scripture Index

26:1-24 386, 394, 48:11 400 10:1-22 408, 411 40-48 423, 424, 425 8 431, 435
595 48:29-30 400 11 422 40:14 422 8-12 434, 436
26:2 24 48:47 400 11:1-21 408, 411 40:1-48:35 421 8:1-27 429
26:24 399 49:1-6 394 11:22-25 408, 411 40:5-47 422 | 9:1-27 429
27:1—28:17 394,395 49:7-22 394, 400 12:1-20 408, 412 40:48-41:26 422 9:3 431
28:14 396 49:9 400 12:1-24:27 408, 412 42:1-14 422 | 9:11-13 482
28:1-17 384 49:14-16 400 12:21-28 408, 412 42:15-20 422 9:20-23 431
29:1-32 394, 396 49:23-27 394, 400 13:1-23 408, 412 43:1-12 422 9:24-27 431, 433,
29:8-9 384 49:28-33 394, 401 14:1-11 408, 412 43:13-27 422 434, 490
29:11 402 49:34-39 394, 401 14:12-23 408, 412 44:1-45:8 422 10-12 431
30:1-31:40 394, 396 50:1-51:64 394, 401 14:14 490 44:2 422 10:1-11:45 429
30:1-33:26 394, 396 50:29 401 14:20 490 45:9-46:24 422 11:36-45 433, 490
30:99396 50:34 401 15:1-8 412 47:1-12 423 121-3 431, 432, 433
OES 396 50:40 401 15:1-17:24 408, 412 47:12 423 12:1-13 429
Slel5 9396 50:41-42 401 16:1-63 412 47:13-48:29 423 12:4 347
31:28° 396 51:11 401 We 203} 48:30-35 423
31:31-34 396 52:1-34 394, 402 Hosea
17:1-24 412
Daniel 1:1 440
O34 397 18:1-32 408, 413
Lamentations 1 430 1:1-3:5 440, 441
OES I-37 O97 18:23 413
32:144 394, 397
1:1 403
18:32 413
1-6 429, 430, 432, | 1:2 441
Oreo 7)
1:1-22 402, 403
19:1 490
433, 437, 465 | 110-11 442, 443
1:2 403 1:1-2:4a 434 2:2 490
SY BI 19:1-14 408, 414
2:1-22 402, 403 1:1-21 429 2:2-3 441
Oe 9897. 20:1-44 408, 414
3 320) iE ale) 2:4 490
3331-26 394, 397 20:45-21:32 408,
3:1-66 402, 404 1:8 430 2:6-23 442
SH =8) Sh 414
4:1-22 402, 405 1:9 430, 432 2:8 441
33:15-16 397 22:1-31 408, 414
5:1-22 402, 405 1:17 430, 432 2:10 441
33:17-18 398 23:1-49 408, 415
2 430, 434 2:15 441
34:1-22 394, 398 Ezekiel 23:11 490
2:1-49 429 2:23 443
34:1-39:18 394, 398 era? 23:29 490
2:4b-7:28 27, 434, 3:1-5 442
34:18 94 1-24 407,418 24:1-14 408,415
436, 489 4:1 442
35:1-19 394, 398 1:1-3 408, 409, 464 24:15-27 408, 409,
2:18 431 4:1-3 441
36:1-32 394, 398 1:1-5:17 408, 409 415
2:19 430 4:1-5:15 440, 442,
36:2 347 1:3 408 25-32 424,425
3 430 455
36:4-6 347 1:4-28 408, 409 25-48 417,418 3:1-30 429 | 4:6 441
36:4-21 385 2:1-10 409 25:1-7 418 4 430, 432 4:12 490
36:21-23 384 2:1-3:27 408, 409 25:1-32:32 418 4:1-37 429 4:15 490
36:26 384 2:2 464 25:1-48:35 418 4:27 431 5:4 490
37:1-38:28 394, 398 2:5 409 25:8-14 418 4:32-33 435 5:5 490
37:5 400 2:64-65 464 25:15-17 418 4:33 432 5:10 490
37:17 384 3:1-15 409 26:1-28:19 418 5 430, 432, 435 5:13 441
37:17-20 346 3:2 464 26:17 490 5:1-31 429 6:11 490
38:14-23 384 3:16-21 409 27:2 490 5:6 430, 432 | 6:1-11:1 442
38:17-23 413 3:22-27 410 27:32 490 Bye 2B 6:1-11:11 440
39 402 4:1-3 410 28 418,419 5:16 435 | 6:3 441
39:1 467 4:1-5 464 28:2 418 5:20 432 6:4 490
39:1-18 394, 399 4:1-5:17 408, 410 28:12 490 5:29 435 6:6 443
39:2 467 4:4-8 410 28:20-26 419 Seell 44836) 71 444
40:1-41:18 394, 399 4:9-17 410 29:1-32:32 419 6 430 9:10-11:11 442
40:1-45:5 394, 399 5:1 464 29:17 409 6:1-28 429 10:11 490
40:5 399 5:1-17 410 32:2 490 6:8 273 | 1:1 443
40:7-41:9 246 6:1-7:27 408, 410 33-39 424 O12 278 | 11:12-13:16 440,
41:2 467 6:1-14 408, 410 33:1-33 420 6:15; 273 442
42:1-43:13 394, 399 7:1-27 408, 410 33:1-39:29 420 6:28 435 | 12:3 490
43:4-7 384 8:1-6 408, 411 33:30-33 425 7 430, 431, 432, 434, | 12:7 422
44:1-45:5 394, 400 8:1-11:25 408, 411 33:33 409 435 | 14:1-9 440, 443
46-51 418, 432 8:7-13 408, 411 34:1-31 420 7-12 429, 431, 432,
46:1-28 394, 400 8:14-15 408, 411 35:1-15 420 433, 436, 437, 438, Joel
46:1-51:64 394, 400 8:16-18 408, 411 36:1-37:28 421 465 1:1-20 443, 444
47:1-7 394, 400 9-10 471 38:1-39:20 421 T2829 1:13-14 444
48:1-47 394, 400 9:1-11 408, 411 39:17 421 7:8 432 1:15 443
48:7 400 9:7 All 39:18 446 7:14 433 2:1 443

507
Scripture Index

2:1-17 443, 444 4:1-11 453, 454 1:4-5 459 1:6-2:9 469, 470 26:56 469
2:11 443 4:2 453 1:12 460 2:10-16 469, 471 | 26:64 431
2:12-13 444 | 2:1-3 460 2:14 471 26:67 376
2:18-3:21 443, 444 Micah 2:4-11 460 2:16 471 | 26:67-68 375
2:28-32 444 1:1-3:12 454 | 2:4-15 459, 460 2:17-3:6 470, 471 DifOXe: SHS:
2:31 443 1:1-5:15 454, 455 2:12 460 3:1 471, 474 27:46 309
3 428 1:8-16 455 2:13 459 3:7-12 470, 472
| 3:13-4:3 470, 473 Mark
3:1-3 444 3:1-3. 455 | 2:13-15 460
| 4:4 482 7:24-30 446
3:11 455, 466 | 3:1-8 459, 460
4:4-6 470,473 8:34 433
Amos 4:1-5:15 454,455 | 3:9-20 459, 460
8:38 431
1-2 432, 447 4:1-8 455
4:9-13 455 Haggai Matthew 9:36-37 344
1:1 444, 445
1:1 464, 466 iil PNG 11:15-17 344
1:1-2 444 52 455
1:1-15 464 1:1,12 465 12:26 482
1:3-2:16 444, 445 5:5 445
1:4 464 1:1-16 246, 474 13:3-27 344
1:11-12 400 6:1-5 455
2:1-9 464 1:1-17 256 13:26 431
1:13 400 6:1-7:20 455
2:3 464 ies 78s, Se | 14:60-61 376
2:6-7 446 6:1-16 455
| 1:6 216 15:27-28 376
3:1-6:14 444, 446 6:6-7 455 2:10-19 464
| 1:22 474 15:43-46 376
3:3-6 446 6:6-8 346 2:20-23 464, 465
Bey yD 6:11-12 455 2:23 266 IG2S)oieis'
3:9-15 446 6:16 455 | 1:24-25 360
Luke
41-3 446 7:1-20 455, 456 Zechariah 2:4-6 455
1-82=33 11396)
4:4-5 446 7:6 456 1-8 465, 472 | 215 443
398, 449, 465, 467
4:6-11 447 7:14-20 456 1:1 465, 466 | 3:3 372
2:1-7 455
5:1-3 447 7:19 456 1:1-6 465, 466 4:15-16 360
3:23-28 256, 474
5:4-17 447 | 1:7-17 466 | 5 123 | 4:16-30 378
5:18-24 447 Nahum 1:7-6:8 465, 466 5:11-12 390
4:21 378
6:1-14 447 1:1 456 1:18-21 466 S113 6431
4:25 231
7:1-9 447 1:1-2:2 456 | 2:1-13 466 5:14-16 390, 431
7:27 471
7:1-9:10 444, 447 1:2-8 456 3:1-10 466 5:17-19 344
Ceol 1
7:9 490 1:9-13 457 3:10) 226 5:17-28 424
12:15 457
7:10-13 445 1:9-2:2 456 4:1-14 466 5:43-47 390
13:4-5 147
1:14-15 457 4:6 466 5:48 126
7:10-17 447 | 15:3-16:31 344
7:12,14 488 2:1-2 457 4:14 266 | 6:16-18 379
16:16 64
7:14 342,445 2:3-13 456, 457 5:1-4 466 6:33 470
17:11-19 446
7:14-15 343 3:1-19 456, 457 5:5-11 466 9:13 443
22:20 100, 397
7:16 490 3:4 490 6:1-8 467 11:13-14 473
23:34 344
8:1-3 448 3:4-5 457 | 6:9-15 465, 467 12:7. 344
23:54-62 344
8:4-14 448 3:8 456 | 7:1-8:23 465, 467 12:18-21 374
24:27,44 69
8:5 422 3:8-19 457 Te) Sof) | 12:41 25, 453 24:44-47 474
9:1-6 448 8:19 467 | 15:1-7 344
9:11-15 444, 449 Habakkuk 9-14 465, 472 16:18 467
1:1 458 | 9:1-8 468 16:21-23 344 John
Obadiah 1:1-11 458 9:1-14:21 465, 458 16:27 431 1:14 114
14 452 1:1-2:20 458 9:9-17 468 17:10-13 473 | 3:3 421
1:1-5 400 1:12-2:1 458 10:2-11:17 468 19:3-9 471 | 3:5 421
3 453 1:12-2:20 458 11:2 446 19:8 482 SAIS) 1SIs)
5-9 452 1:2 458 | 11:8 468 21:1-5 344 WOlOMGS
10-14 400, 418, 453 1:5-11 458 11:16 468 | 21:1-11 468 3:36 454
16 395 2:2-3 396 12-14 468 22:35-37 146 4:7-26 446
11-14 452 2:2-5 458 121-9 468 22:35-40 152 | 4:9 244
15-21 452,453 2:4 458, 461 12:10-13:6 468 22:36-40 123 4:19-20 244
2:6-20 458 | 12:16 465 22:41-46 310 | 5:30 344
Jonah 3:1-19 458 13:7-9 468 23:16-28 344 5:46-47 482
1:1 453 S22 458 14:1-21 469 | 23:27-28 412 7:19 482
1:1-16 453 3:3-15 458 | 14:5 490 24:3 412 Does U47.
1:2 453 3:16-19 459 14:6-21 469 | 24:30 431 9:2-3 299
1:17-2:10 453 3:19 458 26:28 107 10:10 378
3:1-10 453, 454 Malachi 26:31 469 11:47-50 376
3:3 454 Zephaniah | 1:1 469, 470 | 26:31-32 344 14:6 397, 454
3:4 346, 454 1:1 459 1:2-5 469, 470 | 26:39 395 14:15 101, 152, 186
ks) VX) 1:1-2:3 459 1:3 400 26:42 395 19:37 468

508
 Scripture Index

Acts O11 99 DOA 454: | Hebrews 2 Peter

2:14-21 444 9:25-26 443 3:1 24 1:1-2 344 1:20-21 24
2:24-34 309 9:27-29 372 3:1-6 31 1:3-4 376 Bo) AN
3:22 482 9:33 364 3:11 458 1143. S310)
4:12 454 10:5 482 3:28-29 377, 424 2:14 68 1 John
7:2-4 483 11:25-27 468 4:4 474 3:7-4:13 139
is) 2a
722, “48; 105 11:26=27° 378 6:7 298 SHI 1168
8:26-40 377 2:1-2 125
13:13-14 217 4:2 139
11:27-30 446 13:14 414 4:9 139 3:1-3 364
13:3 379 16:22° 347 Ephesians 4:11 139 | 3:2=3 365
13:33) 309 2:8-9 31 Exo. Sil)
13:47 374 1 Corinthians 2:11-18 381 7:24-28 398, 467 Revelation
15:13-18 449 D993 79 2:11-22 423 8:1-9:15 114 1-3 465
DED O12 2:14 374 8:7-13 397 1:1-2 372
3:16 464, 467 Philippians
9:11-12 122 1:7 468
Romans 6:19-20 464 1:3,4,8 24
QD Sy iI By
e458 10 138
6s 392
9:26 125
1:18-23 454 10:1-13 138
1:21-24 239 2:1,8 24
9:28 473
2:11-12 454 2:13 220, 396, 466 | Zellée “ilsy/
10:6,11 139 10:38 458
2:14-15 454 2:9-11 »376 4-22 465
10:8 138 11:3 80
3:21-22 364 4:8 388
10:9 138 11:19 96 7:9-14 378
3:21-24 397 4:13 466
10:10 138 18833 177/ 12:9 82, 488
3:21-31 94 10:12 139 Colossians 19:7-9 378
B28 ol Oa 220 James
3:1-3 388 19:11-16 398, 467
4 94 IDES. alley! 2:14-26 446
4:11 94 22AS Si 19:16 216
15335376 2 Thessalonians
4:19-21 94 15:12-19 161 19:17 421
3:10) Bi5
5:1-2 397 1 Peter 20:2 488
Be) By 2 Corinthians 1 Timothy 1:15. 389 20:8 421
5:12-19 82 1:10 170 29-10) 357 1:15-16 126
20:11-15 +396
5:12-21 25 4:4 374 4:12 412 2:6 364
21:12 423
6:17-18 467 5:14-15 376 291376
8:3-4 397,472 2 Timothy 3:12 298 21:22 464
8:28 301, 396, 456 Galatians 2:24-26 399 SrlSan 125 | 22 423
8:29 446 1:6 24 3:16 24, 123, 158 Sea, 22:2 423

509
 430, 435, 436, 437, 464, 471
Ill, 352

Name Index Dathan, 134

David, 50, 228, 242, 247, 260, 342
conquests of, 169, 210-14, 340
covenant with, 94, 97, 226, 252,
255, 257, 258-59, 358, 367, 386,
455
Aaron, 97, 104, 119, 128, 130, 132, Amoz, 355 kingdom of, 46, 52, 158, 185, 197,
134, 137, 177, 178, 266, 304 Antiochus IV Epiphanes, 431, 436 200-06, 215, 218-20, 254, 423,
Abdon, 184 Anu, 402 440, 445
Abednego, 430, 431 Ariel, Jerusalem as, 354, 364 line of, 56, 192, 225, 246, 256, 326,
Abel, 79 Arinna, 149 330, 357, 360, 396-98, 449, 465,
Abiathar, 384 Artaxerxes I, 269, 271, 349, 352 467, 472, 475-76
Abigail, 204 Asa, 223) 228) 230) 256, 257 psalms of, 30, 304, 305, 307-12
Abihu, 130 Asaph, 304, 308, 311 sin of, 162, 216-17, 253, 308
Abijah, 223, 228, 230, 256, 259 Ashlakka, 94 De Wette, W. M. L., 71, 72
Abimelech, 91, 183 Ashurbanipal, 54, 57 Deborah, 184
Abiram, 134 Ashurnirari V, 94 Delitzsch, Franz, 71, 72
Abishai, 204 Astruc Jean, 71, 72 Dinah, 91
Abishalom, 223 Astyages, 349, 351 Driver om key /alee2
Abner, 212, 218, 219 Aten, 48 Duppi-Tessub, 149
Abraham/ Abram, 45, 47, 65, 86, 92, Athaliah, 230, 240, 256 Ebal, 153, 161, 176
177, 178, 272, 362, 400, 412 Azariah. See Uzziah. Ehud, 184
call of, 67, 68 Azazel, 122 El, 285
covenant with, 98, 99, 100, 107, Baanah, 212 Eleazar, 178
112, 114-15, 148, 168, 170, 226, Baasha, 223, 228, 230 Eli, 196, 198, 199, 200, 384
272, 340 Balaam, 128, 136, 137 Eliakim, 362-63
faith of, 32, 65, 66, 90, 92-97, 428, Balak, 136 Eliezer of Damascus, 93, 96, 177
436 Ballah, 108 Elihu, 296-97
Absalom, 210, 217-18, 219, 225, 304, Barak, 182 Elijah, 162, 231-34, 237-39, 242, 247,
305, 311 Barth, Karl, 24 341, 346, 473
Achan, 173, 182 Baruch, 347, 385, 398-99 Elimelech, 186
Adam, 64, 67, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, Bathsheba, 210, 211, 216, 218, 219, Eliphaz, 294-96
256 253, 304, 308 Elisha, 231, 232, 237, 239-41, 249, 346
Adonijah, 225, 253 Beeri, 440 Elkanah, 198
Agur, 316, 319, 321, 322 Belshazzar, 430, 432, 435, 437 Elkosh, 456
Ahab, 52, 222, 230-35, 238, 242, 240, Ben-Hadad II, 228, 232, 348 Elon, 184
268, 340, 341, 346, 348, 455 Bezalel, 104 Enlil, 402
Ahasuerus/ Xerxes I, 272-74, 276, Bildad, 294-96, 300 Enoch, 239, 428, 436
349, 352 Boaz, 187-92 Esarhaddon, 54, 57
Ahaz, 222, 230, 242, 243, 244, 256, Brunner, Emil, 24 Esau, 47, 91, 97, 340, 400, 470
355, 358, 360, 362, 366, 455 Cain, 79, 84 Esther, 158, 159, 269, 272-75, 277
Ahaziah, 230, 238, 239, 256 Caleb, 132, 168, 169, 176, 177 Eve, 64, 67, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84
Ahijah, 228, 346 Cambyses, 268, 349, 352 Evil-merodach, 402
Ahigar, 315 Chemosh, 232, 400 Ewald) Ae 772
Ahithophel, 218 Childs, Brevard, 128, 136 Ezekiel, 55, 350, 351, 408-25
Akhenaten. See Amenhotep IV. Christ. See Jesus Christ. Ezra, 58, 94, 274, 352, 428, 436, 470,
Alexander the Great, 56-57, 349, 352, Cross, Frank Moore, 162, 164 471
418 Cyrus, 57, 257, 356, 371-73, 380 temple restoration, 46, 264-66, 267,
Allis, Oswald, 70, 72 defeat of Babylon, 46, 56-58, 265, 424
Amaziah, 230 351, 362, 402, 435, 464 writings of, 71, 161, 252, 263,
Amenemope, 291, 292, 319, 320 reconstruction of temple, 265, 266, 270-71
Amenhotep 351-52 Gedaliah, 246, 399, 467
IL, 48 restoration of Israel, 56-58, 224, Gibil, 402
IV/Akhenaten, 48, 57 234, 254, 258, 265, 274 Gideon, 184, 186
Amittai, 453 Dagon, 199 Gilgamesh, 334
Amnon, 210, 213, 217, 218, 219, 225 Daniel, 269, 350, 351, 412, 429-35, Gilimninu, 95
Amon, 230, 238, 244, 245 436 Gog/Magog, 421, 424
Amos, 53, 241, 342, 349, 350, 440, Darius Goliath, 196, 197, 202-3, 206
444-49 I/Darius the Mede, 349, 351, 352, Gomer, 440-42

510
 Name Index

Graf, K. H., 70, 71 Izezi, 291, 298 135, 468

Gubaru, 435 Jabin, 174 teaching of, 299, 457, 470
Gunkel Hermann, 70, 72, 307, 310 Jacob/Israel, 340, 356, 400, 442 Jezebel, 230-31, 234, 240
Habakkuk, 55, 246, 350, 351, 458-59, as Israel, 45, 47, 50, 66, 90, 91, 92, Jezreel, 242
460, 461 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 113, 119, Joab, 212, 213, 218
Hadad, 227 148 Joash/Jehoash, 230, 240, 241, 256
Hagar, 91, 94-95 descendants of, 470 Job, 293-99, 301, 412
Haggai, 58, 255, 259, 265-66, 350, figurative, 453 Joel, 350, 352, 440, 443-44
351-52, 464-65, 466, 472 Jair, 184 John the Baptist, 471-73
Ham, 85 Jakeh, 320 Jonadab, 398
Haman, 272-77 Japheth, 85 Jonah, 25, 349, 350, 452, 453-54, 460
Hammurapi, 47, 57, 95, 99, 345, 350, Jeconiah. See Jehoiachin/Jeconiah. Jonathan, 203, 206, 211, 212, 218
456 Jehoahaz, 230, 238, 241, 244, 246, Joram, 230
Hanamel, 397 394, 414, 415 Joseph, 47, 66, 91-92, 98, 176
Hananiah, 396 Jehoash, 230, 241, 249 Josephus, 69, 72, 166, 400
Hannah, 198 Jehoiachin/Jeconiah, 55, 56, 230, 238, Joshua. See Jeshua.
Hattushili ILL, 48, 57 246, 265, 395, 396, 402, 409, Josiah, 230, 238, 240, 257, 384-85,
Hazael, 240 413, 414 394, 395, 400, 414
Hengstenberg, E. W., 70, 71, 72 Jehoiada, 240, 241 reforms under, 69, 71, 162, 222,
Hephzibah, 378-79 Jehoiakim, 230, 238, 351, 384, 395, 244, 245-46, 346
Herodotus, 159-60, 164 398, 399, 415, 442 Jotham, 230, 242, 256, 455
Hezekiah, 245, 257, 316, 319-20, 321, Jehoram, 230, 239, 256 Kaufman, Stephen A., 146, 153
322, 388 Jehoshaphat, 230, 234, 254, 256, 257 Korah
reforms of, 222, 240 Jehu, 222, 230, 240, 241, 348 Moses’ challenger, 134, 135
reign of, 54, 230, 240, 242, 244, 349, Jephthah, 108, 109, 184 psalmist, 304, 311
354, 355, 365, 367-68, 455, 459 Jeremiah, 55, 58, 342, 350, 351, Laban, 91, 97
tunnel of, 261 384-85, 403, 408, 413 Leah, 91, 97
Hilkiah, 384, 390 message, 55, 246, 386-91, 394-402 Lemuel, 316, 320, 321
Hiram, 214, 224 writings of, 160, 222, 347, 401-02 Levi, 48, 119, 124
Hophni, 196, 198, 199 Jeroboam Lo-ammi, 442, 446
Hophra, 400 If, BD, MOD DAR, PIB), PMT, Rey, PEE. Lo-ruhamah, 442, 446
Hosea, 53, 241, 349, 350, 440-43, 445, 340, 346, 447 Lot, 91, 93, 96, 362, 400
448 IL, 53, 222, 230, 241, 242, 348, 440, Maacah, 217, 223
Hoshea, 230, 243, 349, 360 441, 453 Magog. See Gog.
Huldah, 346 Jeroboam, 228 Magor-Missabib, 391
Hupfeld, V., 70, 71 Jerubbabel, 56 Maher-shalal-hash-baz, 355, 358, 360
Hushai, 217, 218 Jehoshaphat, 235, 346 Malachi, 350, 352, 469-73
Hormah, 134 Jeshua, 354, 440. See also Jesus Manasseh
Ibzan, 184 Christ. Joseph's son, 97
Idamaras, 94 in conquest of Canaan, 48, 50, 132, king, 54, 162, 222, 230, 238, 244-45,
Iddo, 465 136, 158, 168-78, 182, 183, 196, 247, 257, 351, 367, 388
Imlah, 234 340, 384 Marduk, 78-79, 268, 401
Immanuel, 354, 358 Moses’ successor, 48, 73, 142, 149, Massa, 320
Isaac/Israel, 47, 66, 96. See also 161, 162, 170, 185, 198, 340 Mati‘ilu, 94
Israel. priest, 58, 266, 464, 465, 466, 467, Menahem, 230, 242
descendants of, 47, 98, 99, 100, 148, 471 Mephibosheth, 218
340 Jesse, 192, 360 MernePtah, 109
patriarch, 45, 90, 91, 92-93, 95 Jesus Christ, 309-10, 354, 388, Merodach-baladan II, 349, 350, 354,
Isaiah, 30, 53, 354-55, 428, 440 423-24, 433-34, 446, 449, 456, 366, 367-68
Assyrians and, 54, 349, 350 458 Mesha, 230, 232, 444
authorship, 370-73 covenant and, 94 Meshach, 430, 431
judgment of, 368 importance of, 111, 301, 356, 397, Micah
message, 244, 354-66, 370, 373-81 420, 454, 458, 473 idolator in Judges, 183
mission of, 242 incarnation of, 36, 68, 467 prophet, 53, 184, 349, 350, 395,
Ishbosheth, 210, 212, 218, 219 line of, 173, 211, 358 455-56, 460
Ishmael messianic office of, 216, 471-72, Micaiah, 235, 346
Abraham’s son, 91, 95, 96 475-76 Miriam, 132
assassin of Gedaliah, 399 prophets and, 344, 358, 360, 366, Mitinti, 365
Ishtar, 149, 411, 414, 457 374, 375-76, 380, 381, 396, 423, Molech, 459
Israel. See Abraham; Isaac; Jacob; 443, 455, 465, 468-69 Mordecai, 159, 164, 166, 272-77
Moses. Sacriticelof, Ill, 12279123) 125,126, Moses

511
Name Index

books of, 64, 68-75, 104, 151 Orr, James, 70, 71, 72 Shem, 85, 86
call of, 65, 66, 68, 105, 172, 174 Othniel, 184 Shennima, 95
covenant with, 47, 94, 106-07, 114, Padi, 365 Sheshbazzar, 265
GIL, Wey, WA Pashhur, 391 Sihon, 144, 145
death of, 128, 143, 148, 168, 170 Paul, 94, 378 Sillibel, 365
life of, 39, 46, 48, 68, 97, 105, 110, Pekah, 230, 242, 358, 360 Sisera, 182
IND, 1Sy2, BEE SV/ Pekahiah, 230, 242 Solomon, 46, 51, 52, 56, 73, 108, 158,
speeches of, 142, 143-48, 222, 226, Peninnah, 198 169, 185, 210, 216, 222-28, 233,
239) DAD DAT, 266; 270.305, Peter, 309, 444 238, 245, 252, 253, 255-60, 266,
311, 340, 341, 349, 388, 396, Pethuel, 443 268, 290, 299, 305, 311, 316,
436 Phinehas, 177, 196 319, 321, 327, 329, 330, 332-33,
Mursilis, 149 Potiphar, 92 340, 346, 423, 445
Naaman, 240 Ptahhotep, 291, 298 Spinoza, Benedict, 71, 72
Nabal, 204 Pul. See Tiglath-Pileser III. Talmai, 217
Nabonidus, 268, 435, 436 Qohelet, 326, 329 Tamar, 92, 210, 217, 218, 219
Nabopolassar, 54, 57, 349, 350-51, Rachel, 91, 97 Tammuz, 411, 414
385, 391, 456, 460 Rahab, 32, 171-72, 173 Terah, 47, 86, 93
Naboth, 232, 234 Ramesses II, 48, 57, 108, 109 Thutmose III, 48, 57
Nabu, 268 Rebekah, 47, 91, 442 Tiamat, 78-79
Nadab, 130, 230 Rehoboam, 228, 230, 244, 256, 257 Tiglath-Pileser II/Pul, 53, 55, 57,
Nahar, 285 Reuben, 171, 177, 178 242-43, 247, 348-49, 355, 358,
Nahum, 349, 350, 351, 460, 456-57 Rezin, 227, 242, 358, 360 360, 362, 366, 441
Naomi, 187-92 Ruth, 187-93 Timsah, 108
Nathan, 214, 216, 242, 304, 308 Samson, 184 Tola, 184
Nebamun, 297 Samuel, 50, 52, 73, 160, 162, 165, 196, Urartia, 54-55
Nebuchadnezzar IIL, 57, 246, 349, 402 197, 198, 205, 206, 210, 242, Uriah, 211, 216, 218, 308
Babylonian empire under, 46, 54, 341, 388 Utnapishtim, 84
55, 351, 385, 400, 430, 432, consecrating kings, 199-200 Uzziah/ Azariah, 53, 222, 230, 242,
435, 437, 456 Sanballat, 269 342, 358, 440, 445
captivity under, 244, 368, 395, 399, Sarai/Sarah, 47, 91, 93, 94-95, 96 Vashti, 272, 277
403, 413, 414, 422 Sargon II, 349, 362 Vateralis. 7p
destruction of Jerusalem, 158, 210, Satan, 82, 293-94, 362, 419, 466 Vatke, Wilhelm, 71, 72
394, 396, 397, 398, 409, 410, Saul, 46, 50, 158, 162, 186, 196-97, Wellhausen, Julius, 69-70, 71, 72
e
a
a
415, 452 200, 202-06, 210-14, 216, 219, Xerxes. See Ahasuerus.
Nebuzaradan, 399 242, 254-58, 340, 342 Yahweh, 69, 114, 119, 261, 298, 317,
Necho II, 246, 247, 394, 400, 414 Sennacherib, 54, 57, 244, 245, 247, 319, 432
Nehemiah, 46, 56, 161, 264, 265, 315, 349, 354, 365-67 Yamm, 285
268-71, 274, 352, 424, 471 Seriah, 401 Young, E. J., 70, 72
Neriah, 385 Seth, 84, 90 Zechariah, 58, 230, 242, 255, 259,
Noah, 79, 81, 84, 85, 86, 412 Shadrach, 430-31 265-66, 350-52, 464-69, 472
Noth, Martin, 70, 72, 161, 162, 163, Shallum, 230, 242, 394, 395 Zedekiah, 55, 230, 238, 246, 351, 384,
186 Shalmaneser 394, 395, 398-99, 413
Obadiah, 350, 351, 400, 452-53, 460 Ill, 240, 241, 348, 349 Zephaniah, 349-51, 459-61
Obed, 192 V, 54, 57, 243, 247, 349 Zerubbabel, 58, 265-67, 270, 271,
Og, 144, 145 Shalmaneser, 244 424, 464-67, 471
Oholah, 408, 415 Shamgar, 184 Zimri, 230
Oholiab, 104 Shamshi-Addu, 348, 349 Zimri-Lim, 345, 349
Oholibah, 408, 415 Shear-Jashub, 355, 356 Zophar, 294, 295, 296
Omri, 52, 222, 230, 231-32, 240, 247, Sheba, 210, 217, 218, 219
455 Shebna, 362-63

512
 221.61 A752¢e

| Arnold, Bill T.

| Encountering the Old

Testament

DATE DUE

nuy $0 08
Hee i 8 ag

GAYLORD PRINTED IN U.S.A.

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“For “tee students who a arefaarere) ntering the old Testament for the first
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Cshedesering the Old Testament iisie with data, but is not igeed
An abundance oe visuals,
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-_explicating the geofthe Old Testament in clear, readable style. A
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> — David M. Howard Jr,New Orleans aptsteculag setninary
Bill T. Arnold Go )., Hebrew Union (@olleval professor of gfOld
Testament vara Semitic languages at Asbury Theological Seminary.
Bryan E. Beyer (Ph.D., Hebrew Union College) teaches Old Testament
pestis dean ofthe college at Columbia International University,

Biblical Studies
ISBN 0-8010-2176-6

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