LWT - Food Science and Technology 117 (2020) 108604

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Effect of drying temperatures and storage on chemical and bioactive T

attributes of dried tomato and sweet pepper
Ramandeep Kaur, Kamaljit Kaur∗, Preeti Ahluwalia
Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study tomato (Punjab Ratta) and sweet pepper (Indira) were subjected to three different drying tem-
Bioactive component peratures (40, 50 and 60 °C) to examine the effect of drying temperatures and storage period (180 days) on the
Chemical component chemical and bioactive parameters of dried tomatoes (T) and sweet peppers (SP). The drying of T and SP at 60 °C
Drying results in better retention of phenolics (738.44 ± 0.10 and 593.78 ± 0.09 mg/100 g db), antioxidant activity
Moisture content
(42.79 ± 0.11 and 27.56 ± 0.07%) and flavonoids (499.56 ± 0.04 and 286.31 ± 0.07 mg/100 g db), re-
Storage
spectively however chemical parameters significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 60 °C except for lycopene. Better
retention of color was observed in T samples dried at 60 °C and SP samples dried at 40 °C. Storage studies
revealed that powders retained polyphenols in T (736.88 ± 0.08 mg/100 g db) and SP (591.85 ± 0.09 mg/
100 g db) even after 90 days of storage that were dried at 60 °C. Significant loss of chemical and bioactive
constituents was observed in stored samples dried at 40 °C due to high initial water activity of T (0.562 ± 0.02)
and SP (0.611 ± 0.01) powders. This study concluded that samples dried at a higher temperature (60 °C)
showed effective retention of the bioactive components after drying and during the storage period.

1. Introduction technologists are increasingly focusing on the development of food

products with higher phenolic content and their maximal retention
In modern days, fruits and vegetables are gaining popularity due to during processing. The high level of bioactive compounds, as well as the
the presence of significant levels of vitamins, minerals and bioactive reported health benefits of tomato and bell pepper, makes it desirable
compounds such as antioxidants, phenolics, and flavonoids. These functional ingredients in food, nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals
functional foods aid specific bodily functions in addition to being nu- (Stratakos et al., 2016).
tritious (Siriamornpun, Kaisoon, & Meeso, 2012). Tomato and sweet However, being climacteric crops fresh tomato and sweet pepper are
pepper are most widely consumed as a component of the diet in India. highly perishable since the fruit show visible signs of deterioration such
These vegetables are cost-effective and have a high nutritional profile. as wilting, shriveling, fungal diseases and decay during storage
Both tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) and sweet pepper (Capsicum (Bayogan, Salvilla, Majomot, & Acosta, 2017). It is necessary to employ
annum) offer phenolic compounds, flavonoids, vitamin C, carotenoids, food processing methods to extend the shelf life along with the reten-
which have the high antioxidant capacity (Bae, Jayaprakasha, Jifon, & tion of nutrients. The enhanced shelf life of tomato and sweet pepper as
Patil, 2012; Georgé et al., 2011). Due to high phytochemicals, tomato a result of water evaporation (Vincente, Manganaris, Ortiz, Sozzi, &
and sweet pepper exhibit extraordinary medicinal value (Igbokwe, Crisosto, 2014) proved to be a promising method of development of
Aniakor, & Anagonye, 2013; Stratakos, Delgado-Pando, Linton, convenience products like powder (Deng et al., 2018) sauces and
Patterson, & Koidis, 2016). These phytochemicals possess various ketchups (Nkhata & Ayua, 2018).
health-promoting properties such as protection against cancer in- Drying, during the main growing season is one of the fundamental
surgence, oxidative damage to cells, cardiovascular disorders, diabetes method of postharvest management and elevates the shelf life of pro-
prevalence, cataracts, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's, disease (Blanco- duct by removal of water to a level at which microorganisms and en-
Ríos, Medina-Juarez, González-Aguilar, & Gamez-Meza, 2013). zymes activity is inhibited (Chiewchan, Mujumdar, & Devahastin, 2015;
Nowadays, consumer demands have been increased for healthy, Sousa et al., 2018; Tang, Zhang, Adhikari, & Mujumdar, 2013). Hot-air
convenient and natural foods, which have led to the development of drying is the most widely used method for the production of dehydrated
food products with higher bioactive compounds. Therefore food vegetables and fruits due to low investment and operating costs. Several

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Kaur).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108604
Received 2 April 2019; Received in revised form 3 September 2019; Accepted 7 September 2019
Available online 09 September 2019
0023-6438/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Kaur, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 117 (2020) 108604

researchers have worked on the hot air drying of vegetables (Demiray & 2.3.2. Determination of total phenolic content
Tulek, 2012). However, the processing and storage of fruits and vege- Total phenolic content (TPC) was measured by the Folin–Ciocalteu
tables at high temperature can cause changes in the physical properties colorimetric method with gallic acid as the standard (Flores, Singh,
(color and structure), as well as the deterioration of bioactive com- Kerr, Pegg, & Kong, 2014). Methanolic extract (0.5 ml) was dispensed
pounds, thus resulted product obtained is of reduced nutritional quality into the test tube and then 5 ml of 10% (v/v) Folin–Ciocalteu reagent
(Cui, Xu, & Sun, 2003; Davoodi, Vijayanand, Kulkarn, & Ramana, was added. After 5 min, 4 ml of saturated sodium carbonate was added
2007). Hot air drying of fruits and vegetables at different temperatures to this mixture. This mixture was vortexed and allowed to stand for
influences the final moisture content and water activity of the product. 15 min in dark and absorbance was measured at 765 nm using UV–vis
Quality attributes of stored products are also closely linked to the spectrophotometer. Results were expressed as gallic acid equivalent
moisture content and water activity of the product (Sousa et al., 2018). (GAE) mg/100 g of dry weight (DW) of powder.
Thus, the drying temperature of the product can be considered as a
critical step since it might induce significant changes in the chemical 2.3.3. Determination of antioxidant activity by DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-
and bioactive components of the food product. Moreover, less docu- picryl hydrazyl)
mented work is available on the storage of tomato (var. Punjab Ratta) The ability of the extract to scavenge DPPH free radicals was as-
and sweet pepper powder (var. Indira). Therefore, in the present study sessed (Kiranmai, Kumar, & Mohammed, 2011). The extract (1.0 ml)
efforts were made to evaluate the effect of variable drying temperatures was mixed with 1.0 ml of tris buffer in a test tube. In this mixture, 2 ml
in relation to the final obtained water activity and storage on chemical of DPPH was added and incubated for 30 min in dark at room tem-
and bioactive parameters of dried tomatoes and sweet peppers. perature. Methanol was used as control and the absorbance was mea-
sured at 517 nm.
2. Materials and methods
2.3.4. Reducing power assay
2.1. Plant materials The ability of extracts to reduce ferric ions (Fe+3) was evaluated
(Gupta, Naraniwal, & Kothari, 2012). The Methanol extract (1 ml) was
Fresh and good quality tomatoes (var. Punjab Ratta) were procured mixed with 2.5 ml of phosphate buffer (pH 6.6) and 2.5 ml of 1% po-
from the Department of Vegetable Sciences, Punjab Agricultural tassium ferricyanide, then the mixture was incubated at 50 °C (20 min).
University, Ludhiana and green sweet peppers (var. Indira) were pro- About 2.5 ml of trichloroacetic acid (10%) was added to it and cen-
cured from the commercial greenhouse. The fresh tomatoes and sweet trifuged at 3000 rpm (10 min). Finally, 2.5 ml of the supernatant solu-
peppers were sorted, washed and finally cut into slices of 5–8 mm tion was mixed with 2.5 ml water and 0.5 ml FeCl3 (0.1%) and the
thickness. After that sliced tomatoes were blanched in boiling water (10 absorbance was measured at 700 nm. The results were expressed as mg
х volume of water) for 15 s and then dipped in (0.5%) citric: ascorbic ascorbic acid equivalent (AAE)/100 g DW of powder.
acid (1:1) solution for 10 min. Similarly, green sweet peppers slices
were blanched (10 х volume of water) at 85 °C for 3–4 min and further 2.3.5. Determination of total flavonoids
dipped in (0.5%) citric: ascorbic acid (1:1) solution for 10 min before To determine the total flavonoid content 1 ml of methanol extracts
drying. of dried powders were added into a test tube and 1.5 ml pure methanol,
0.1 ml 10% aluminium chloride, 0.1 ml potassium acetate solution and
2.1.1. Drying of tomato and sweet pepper 2.8 ml distilled water were added and mixed well. The absorbance of
Tomato and sweet pepper slices were dried (500 g/tray) by con- the mixture was measured at 415 nm. The flavonoids were represented
vection hot air cabinet dryer with an air velocity of 1.5 m/s. Tomato as mg of quercetin equivalent (QE)/100 g DW of powder (Kiranmai
and sweet pepper were subjected to three different temperatures (40, et al., 2011).
50 and 60 °C) until a constant weight was reached. Dried slices were
ground to a fine powder using cyclotec mill and further sieved through 2.3.6. Determination of ascorbic acid content
315 μm sieve. Ascorbic acid was evaluated according to the standard method
(Ranganna, 1999) with slight modifications. Briefly, the sample was
2.2. Chemical analysis extracted (1.0 g) with 2% metaphosphoric acid. Extract (1.0 ml) was
pipetted into a tube and mixed with 9 ml of dye solution (2, 6 di-
To determine the effect of different drying temperatures on the chlorophenolindophenol dye and sodium bicarbonate) and the mixture
quality of tomato and sweet pepper various chemical parameters such was incubated for 10 min in the dark and then absorbance was recorded
as non-enzymatic browning index (NEB), lycopene, total carotenoids at 515 nm. The calibration curve of L-ascorbic acid was used to calculate
and total chlorophylls of fresh and dried samples were studied as per ascorbic acid concentration. Results were expressed as mg AAE/100 g
standard procedures (Ranganna, 1999). The colour of fresh and dried DW of powder.
samples were determined by the Colour Flex meter using 45°/0° geo-
metry and standard illuminant C (Hunter Lab Colour Flex 150 Hunter 2.4. Packaging and storage studies
Associates Inc., USA) by measuring L* (0–100, dark to light), a* ( ± ,
green/red), and b*( ± , blue/yellow) values. Water activity was mea- Tomato and sweet pepper powder obtained after drying at 40, 50
sured by water activity meter (PREAQUA LAB, Water activity analyzer, and 60 °C were packed in 200 gauge HDPE packaging material (50 g/
SN: PRE000197). package) having 10.16 × 17.78 cm dimensions and stored under re-
frigerated conditions for 180 days. The effect of storage on chemical
2.3. Bioactive analysis and bioactive compounds was studied at an interval of 30 days for 180
days.
2.3.1. Preparation of extract
Dried powders (1 g) were extracted separately for 4 h at 30 ± 1 °C 2.5. Statistical analysis
with 50 ml of 80% (w/v) methanol in an orbital shaker. The extract
obtained after shaking was further centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for The results were expressed as mean ± S.D. of three replicates. The
10 min. The supernatant was collected and stored at 4 ± 1 °C in amber data were subjected to ANOVA followed by Duncan's multiple range
coloured bottles until further analysis. All types of powders were ex- tests with p ≤ 0.05 significance level on SPSS 18.0 statistical software
tracted and stored under similar conditions (time and temperature). (SPSS Inc.).

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R. Kaur, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 117 (2020) 108604

Table 1
Effect of drying temperatures on the chemical attributes of tomato and sweet pepper.
Sample Drying temperature Drying time Water activity NEB OD at 440 nm Total carotenoids (mg/ Total chlorophyll (mg/g Lycopene (mg/
(OC) (min) 100 g db) db) 100 g db)

Fresh tomato – – 0.889 ± 0.02a – 120.21 ± 0.09a 9.53 ± 0.11a 119.11 ± 0.07a
Dried Tomato 40 780 0.562 ± 0.02b 0.271 ± 0.11a 102.57 ± 0.08b 8.44 ± 0.08b 123.53 ± 0.06b
50 630 0.498 ± 0.02c 0.445 ± 0.09b 97.53 ± 0.07c 8.39 ± 0.09b 126.44 ± 0.08c
60 360 0.421 ± 0.01d 0.617 ± 0.06c 89.23 ± 0.05d 8.27 ± 0.05b 131.11 ± 0.04d
Fresh bell pepper – – 0.846 ± 0.02a – 11.31 ± 0.09a 15.08 ± 0.11a 6.73 ± 0.11a
Dried Bell 40 900 0.611 ± 0.01b 0.142 ± 0.05a 9.32 ± 0.11b 13.98 ± 0.08a 6.95 ± 0.03ab
pepper 50 750 0.565 ± 0.01c 0.394 ± 0.09b 7.88 ± 0.05c 12.47 ± 0.09b 7.19 ± 0.05b
60 420 0.519 ± 0.01d 0.563 ± 0.07c 6.11 ± 0.04d 12.32 ± 0.04b 8.44 ± 0.07c

NEB: Non enzymatic browning.

Mean value ± standard deviation of three replicates, Mean in the same column with different alphabetical letters is significantly different (p < 0.05).

Fig. 1. Sweet pepper powder and Tomato powder dried at 60 °C (a) 0 day (b) after 180th day of storage.

3. Results and discussion respectively. Hence, it was concluded that rapid drying that employs
high-temperature results in lowering the water activity of the resulted
3.1. Effect of drying temperature on the chemical and bioactive attributes of product and vice-versa. Jayathunge et al. (2012) reported a decrease in
tomato and sweet pepper water activity from 0.84 to 0.61 during the drying of tomatoes at 55 °C.
Browning is also a major quality parameter aside colour and flavour in
3.1.1. Effect on chemical attributes the processing of fruits and vegetables. The drying process usually
Drying temperature and drying time is one of the most important elevates the non-enzymatic browning reactions (Chou & Chua, 2001).
factors that affect the quality of the resulted dried product. Tomato and The powders dried at the lowest temperature showed the lowest value
sweet pepper were subjected to different drying temperatures (40, 50 of NEB irrespective to commodity. The NEB increased with the con-
and 60 °C) and their effect on various chemical parameters such as comitant increase in drying temperature and results were in con-
water activity, NEB, total carotenoids, total chlorophylls, lycopene and cordance with the studies of Cernîşev (2010) and Abano, Ma, and Qu
colour parameters of fresh and dried samples were studied. (2011). Carotenoids and chlorophyll are also essential pigments, which
The water activity of fresh tomato and sweet pepper samples was provide colour to fruits and vegetables. The result obtained concerning
0.889 ± 0.02 and 0.846 ± 0.02, respectively. Table 1 shows the to total carotenoids and chlorophyll content revealed that the fresh
variation in water activity with the drying temperatures. At 40 °C, due tomato and sweet pepper had higher carotenoids (120.21 ± 0.09 and
to low drying temperature and more drying time, tomato and sweet 11.31 ± 0.09 mg/100 g db) and chlorophyll content (9.53 ± 0.11 and
pepper powders displayed high water activity values (0.562 ± 0.02 15.08 ± 0.11 mg/g db), respectively as compared to the dried product.
and 0.611 ± 0.01) as compared to the powders dried at higher tem- The carotenoids and chlorophyll retention is very essential in de-
perature. Water activity attained at 60 °C drying temperature was termining the final quality of the dehydrated product. However, both
0.421 ± 0.01 and 0.519 ± 0.01 for tomato and sweet pepper, carotenoids and chlorophyll are sensitive to heat, light, oxygen and

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R. Kaur, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 117 (2020) 108604

Fig. 2. Effect of drying temperatures (40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C) on the colour of fresh and dried (a) tomato (b) sweet pepper. The error bars indicate the standard deviation
of means n = 3 (p ≤ 0.05); the same letter indicates no significant difference.

Table 2
Effect of drying temperatures on the bioactive attributes of tomato and sweet pepper.
Sample Drying temperature Total phenols (mg/ Antioxidant activity Reducing power assay (mg/ Total flavonoids (mg/ Vitamin C (mg/
(OC) 100gdb) (%) 100 g db) 100 g db) 100 g db)

Fresh tomato – 743.21 ± 0.07a 46.12 ± 0.19a 376.64 ± 0.18a 512.27 ± 0.09a 107.59 ± 0.17a
Dried Tomato 40 724.12 ± 0.10b 39.11 ± 0.08b 311.23 ± 0.10b 414.32 ± 0.07b 99.45 ± 0.11b
50 728.49 ± 0.09b 40.56 ± 0.10b 329.36 ± 0.11c 473.23 ± 0.08c 83.87 ± 0.09c
60 738.44 ± 0.10c 42.79 ± 0.11a 355.65 ± 0.09d 499.56 ± 0.04d 61.34 ± 0.11d
Fresh bell pepper – 618.73 ± 0.11a 29.58 ± 0.15a 375.29 ± 0.08a 301.55 ± 0.11a 120.34 ± 0.15a
Dried Bell pepper 40 542.22 ± 0.12b 21.12 ± 0.10b 277.23 ± 0.09b 250.31 ± 0.04b 103.45 ± 0.06b
50 561.32 ± 0.11c 24.45 ± 0.06c 321.56 ± 0.11c 267.25 ± 0.09c 88.41 ± 0.08c
60 593.78 ± 0.09d 27.56 ± 0.07d 351.57 ± 0.10d 286.31 ± 0.07d 69.32 ± 0.09d

Mean value ± standard deviation of three replicates, Mean in the same column with different alphabetical letters is significantly different (p < 0.05).

enzymes (Onwude, Hashim, Janius, Nawi, & Ebdan, 2016). Therefore from 60 to 40 °C, all coordinates L*, a* and b* tend to decrease. The
more loss of carotenoids and chlorophyll were observed in samples overall colour change was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) at low tem-
dried at 60 °C for both tomato (26 and 9%, respectively) and sweet perature than at high temperature. This may be due to prolonged ex-
pepper (11 and 18%, respectively). Saini, Shetty, Prakash, and Giridhar posure to oxygen at 40 °C. These results were in concordance with the
(2014) also reported the effect of hot air drying on carotenoids and results of Kerkhofs, Lister, and Savage (2005) and Toor and Savage
chlorophyll content of Moringa oleifera leaves. (2006). Whereas, in the case of sweet pepper significant changes in L*,
Drying temperatures affected the lycopene content and was found a* and b* coordinates were observed at high temperature (60 °C) as
higher at the high temperature of drying (60 °C) as compared to low compared to 40 and 50 °C drying temperature. In this case, L* and a*
drying temperature (40 °C). The increase was from 123.53 ± 0.16 to coordinates elevate whereas, b* coordinate decreased with an increase
131.11 ± 0.14 mg/100 g db in tomato and from 6.95 ± 0.19 to in temperature, which means colour turned more yellowish as com-
8.44 ± 0.14 mg/100 g db in sweet pepper. This increase in the lyco- pared to fresh sweet pepper due to degradation of chlorophyll at high
pene may be due to the destruction of the cell membranes, cell walls temperature. These findings were in agreement with the findings of
and breakage of the lycopene-protein complex by high drying tem- Guiné and Barroca (2012). It can be concluded that suitable drying
perature (Dewanto, Adom, & Liu, 2002). The observation was in temperature used for the dehydration of fruits and vegetables depends
agreement with results reported by Mendelová, Fikselová, and Mendel upon the type of commodity.
(2013) who studied the effect of hot air drying on lycopene content.
Color is an important product characteristic, which has a significant 3.1.2. Effect on bioactive attributes
effect on the consumer acceptability of the product. The impact of To study the effect on bioactive attributes, tomato and sweet pepper
drying conditions on colour of tomato and sweet pepper powders was samples were subjected to three different drying temperatures 40, 50
assessed. The lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) of dried and 60 °C. From Table 2 it can be seen that retention of TPC, anti-
powders were determined. Fig. 2 shows the effect of drying tempera- oxidant activity (by DPPH and reducing power assay) and flavonoids
tures on the colour values of fresh and dried tomato and sweet pepper were high at 60 °C drying temperature as compared to 50 and 40 °C for
samples. The values for the L*, a* and b* coordinates of the fresh to- both tomato and sweet pepper samples. In case of tomatoes, TPC (mg/
mato and sweet pepper were 38.03 ± 0.11, 16.51 ± 0.14, 100 g db) decreased to 738.44 ± 0.10 (at 60 °C), 728.49 ± 0.09 (at
17.22 ± 0.13 and 36.89 ± 0.11, −15.14 ± 0.13, 23.69 ± 0.11, 50 °C) and 724.12 ± 0.10 (at 40 °C) as compared to fresh samples
respectively. In the case of tomatoes, the air drying at 60 °C resulted in (743.21 ± 0.07). Further, the antioxidant activity in terms of DPPH
no remarkable changes in the colour and as the temperature decreased and reducing power assay was also found to be higher at 60 °C viz,

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 R. Kaur, et al.

Table 3
Effect of storage on chemical attributes of tomato and sweet pepper powder.
Drying temperature (oC) Storage period (days) Water activity NEB OD at 440 nm Total carotenoids (mg/100 g db) Total chlorophyll (mg/g db) Lycopene (mg/100 g db)

TP* SP** TP* SP** TP* SP** TP* SP** TP* SP**

40 0 0.562 ± 0.02a 0.611 ± 0.01a 0.271 ± 0.11a 0.142 ± 0.05a 102.57 ± 0.08a 9.32 ± 8.44 ± 0.08a 13.98 ± 0.08a 123.53 ± 0.06a 6.95 ± 0.03a
0.11a
30 0.566 ± 0.01b 0.617 ± 0.02b 0.275 ± 0.02a 0.149 ± 0.01b 100.98 ± 0.10b 9.0 ± 0.11b 8.30 ± 0.09b 13.71 ± 0.07b 122.83 ± 0.09b 6.75 ± 0.10b
60 0.573 ± 0.01c 0.627 ± 0.02c 0.296 ± 0.01b 0.166 ± 0.03c 97.24 ± 0.09c 8.5 ± 0.09c 8.06 ± 0.11c 13.49 ± 0.09c 122.03 ± 0.10c 6.59 ± 0.11c
90 0.579 ± 0.02d 0.632 ± 0.01d 0.312 ± 0.04c 0.188 ± 0.02d 96.39 ± 0.11d 8.0 ± 0.10d 7.76 ± 0.09d 13.20 ± 0.07d 121.25 ± 0.09d 6.33 ± 0.12d
120 0.587 ± 0.03e 0.641 ± 0.02e 0.343 ± 0.07d 0.202 ± 0.01e 93.89 ± 0.10e 7.8 ± 0.09e 7.54 ± 0.11e 12.55 ± 0.05e 120.31 ± 0.08e 6.03 ± 0.08e
150 0.5.96 ± 0.02f 0.649 ± 0.01f 0.391 ± 0.06e 0.211 ± 0.05f 91.02 ± 0.09f 7.2 ± 0.12f 7.11 ± 0.07f 12.03 ± 0.08f 119.94 ± 0.06f 5.81 ± 0.07f
180 0.617 ± 0.01g 0.660 ± 0.01g 0.425 ± 0.07g 0.237 ± 0.07g 87.12 ± 0.08g 6.5 ± 0.19g 6.58 ± 0.09g 11.78 ± 0.10g 119.23 ± 0.07g 5.54 ± 0.09g
50 0 0.498 ± 0.02a 0.565 ± 0.01a 0.445 ± 0.09a 0.394 ± 0.09a 97.53 ± 0.07a 7.88 ± 0.05a 8.39 ± 0.09a 12.47 ± 0.09a 126.44 ± 0.08a 7.19 ± 0.05a

5
30 0.505 ± 0.01b 0.570 ± 0.03b 0.457 ± 0.04b 0.397 ± 0.03b 96.03 ± 0.04b 7.5 ± 0.02b 8.21 ± 0.01b 12.29 ± 0.02b 126.17 ± 0.05ab 7.11 ± 0.04a
60 0.512 ± 0.01c 0.574 ± 0.01c 0.464 ± 0.02c 0.406 ± 0.01c 95.87 ± 0.06c 7.2 ± 0.06c 8.04 ± 0.03c 12.08 ± 0.01c 125.96 ± 0.06b 7.03 ± 0.03ab
90 0.525 ± 0.02d 0.579 ± 0.01d 0.470 ± 0.03d 0.415 ± 0.02d 94.88 ± 0.07d 6.9 ± 0.07d 7.88 ± 0.02d 11.82 ± 0.04d 125.43 ± 0.02c 6.94 ± 0.02b
120 0.533 ± 0.01e 0.585 ± 0.01e 0.488 ± 0.02e 0.429 ± 0.01e 94.02 ± 0.03e 6.7 ± 0.08e 7.54 ± 0.04e 11.27 ± 0.05e 124.12 ± 0.04d 6.89 ± 0.03c
150 0.547 ± 0.02f 0.592 ± 0.02f 0.509 ± 0.04f 0.441 ± 0.02f 92.87 ± 0.02f 6.5 ± 0.05f 7.12 ± 0.03f 10.71 ± 0.06f 123.96 ± 0.02e 6.77 ± 0.06d
180 0.556 ± 0.01g 0.602 ± 0.02g 0.531 ± 0.02g 0.462 ± 0.02g 90.09 ± 0.04g 6.0 ± 0.04g 6.75 ± 0.07g 9.78 ± 0.07g 123.24 ± 0.01f 6.64 ± 0.04e
60 0 0.421 ± 0.01a 0.519 ± 0.01a 0.617 ± 0.06a 0.563 ± 0.07a 89.23 ± 0.05a 6.11 ± 0.04a 8.27 ± 0.05a 12.32 ± 0.04a 131.11 ± 0.04a 8.44 ± 0.07a
30 0.428 ± 0.02a 0.524 ± 0.02a 0.629 ± 0.08a 0.569 ± 0.02a 89.15 ± 0.09a 5.8 ± 0.08b 8.10 ± 0.08b 11.98 ± 0.11b 131.02 ± 0.01a 8.40 ± 0.06a
60 0.434 ± 0.01a 0.529 ± 0.01b 0.641 ± 0.10b 0.578 ± 0.03a 88.69 ± 0.07b 5.5 ± 0.05c 7.79 ± 0.06c 11.66 ± 0.10c 130.87 ± 0.02ab 8.34 ± 0.03b
90 0.439 ± 0.01b 0.534 ± 0.02b 0.659 ± 0.07b 0.586 ± 0.02b 87.32 ± 0.06c 5.2 ± 0.03d 7.52 ± 0.07d 11.43 ± 0.12d 130.11 ± 0.02b 8.22 ± 0.07c
120 0.461 ± 0.02c 0.541 ± 0.01c 0.667 ± 0.09c 0.600 ± 0.01c 86.89 ± 0.05d 5.0 ± 0.07e 7.25 ± 0.10e 11.29 ± 0.07e 129.75 ± 0.01c 8.19 ± 0.06d
150 0.478 ± 0.01d 0.547 ± 0.02d 0.679 ± 0.10c 0.611 ± 0.01d 84.11 ± 0.04e 4.8 ± 0.08f 6.99 ± 0.09f 10.75 ± 0.10f 129.11 ± 0.03d 8.09 ± 0.09e
180 0.486 ± 0.01e 0.554 ± 0.01e 0.686 ± 0.04d 0.625 ± 0.02e 82.89 ± 0.05f 4.7 ± 0.09g 6.83 ± 0.08g 9.15 ± 0.11g 128.93 ± 0.02e 8.01 ± 0.10e

NEB- Non-enzymatic browning, *TP- Tomato powder, **SP- Sweet-Pepper Powder. Mean value ± standard deviation of three replicates, Mean in the same column with different alphabetical letters is significantly
different (p < 0.05).
LWT - Food Science and Technology 117 (2020) 108604
R. Kaur, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 117 (2020) 108604

Table 4
Effect of storage on colour of tomato and sweet pepper powder.
Drying temperature (oC) Days Sample

Tomato Sweet pepper

L* a* b* L* a* b*

40 0 32.72 ± 0.13a 17.12 ± 0.12a 16.39 ± 0.12a 38.23 ± 0.14a −16.24 ± 0.14b 21.45 ± 0.13a
30 32.03 ± 0.15a 16.92 ± 0.09a 16.22 ± 0.13a 38.31 ± 0.11a −16.19 ± 0.11b 21.36 ± 0.11a
60 31.85 ± 0.11a 16.81 ± 0.10a 16.04 ± 0.15ab 38.37 ± 0.09a −16.15 ± 0.10b 21.17 ± 0.09a
90 31.57 ± 0.09a 16.69 ± 0.12ab 15.89 ± 0.11b 38.46 ± 0.08a −16.07 ± 0.09b 21.08 ± 0.09a
120 31.15 ± 0.10ab 16.40 ± 0.14b 15.60 ± 0.09b 38.51 ± 0.10b −15.98 ± 0.11b 20.97 ± 0.08ab
150 30.41 ± 0.11b 16.12 ± 0.15b 15.39 ± 0.10b 38.63 ± 0.11b −15.89 ± 0.08b 20.91 ± 0.12b
180 29.85 ± 0.13c 15.89 ± 0.13c 15.10 ± 0.11b 38.72 ± 0.12b −15.80 ± 0.10b 20.85 ± 0.10b
50 0 34.29 ± 0.16a 20.49 ± 0.11a 19.63 ± 0.11a 43.16 ± 0.12a −13.65 ± 0.13a 19.12 ± 0.11a
30 34.19 ± 0.12a 19.98 ± 0.13a 19.49 ± 0.15a 43.23 ± 0.11a −13.54 ± 0.11a 19.03 ± 0.12a
60 34.02 ± 0.10a 19.84 ± 0.12ab 19.39 ± 0.13a 43.31 ± 0.12a −13.48 ± 0.10a 18.96 ± 0.09a
90 33.87 ± 0.11a 19.70 ± 0.10b 19.31 ± 0.12a 43.39 ± 0.13b −13.37 ± 0.10a 18.89 ± 0.13a
120 33.71 ± 0.13b 19.57 ± 0.11b 19.24 ± 0.09ab 43.45 ± 0.10b −13.22 ± 0.12ab 18.82 ± 0.11ab
150 33.58 ± 0.12b 19.49 ± 0.10b 19.13 ± 0.10b 43.51 ± 0.11b −13.14 ± 0.11b 18.75 ± 0.10b
180 33.42 ± 0.10b 19.31 ± 0.14c 19.01 ± 0.12b 43.59 ± 0.09c −13.03 ± 0.09b 18.68 ± 0.12b
60 0 36.13 ± 0.11a 27.59 ± 0.10a 25.56 ± 0.14a 48.54 ± 0.12a −8.36 ± 0.11a 14.35 ± 0.14a
30 36.02 ± 0.13a 27.43 ± 0.11a 25.48 ± 0.11a 48.59 ± 0.10a −8.29 ± 0.10a 14.28 ± 0.11a
60 35.93 ± 0.09a 27.36 ± 0.13a 25.41 ± 0.12a 48.66 ± 0.11a −8.20 ± 0.12a 14.22 ± 0.12a
90 35.86 ± 0.12a 27.24 ± 0.11a 25.39 ± 0.10a 48.76 ± 0.13a −8.12 ± 0.13a 14.16 ± 0.09a
120 35.72 ± 0.09a 27.10 ± 0.10ab 25.21 ± 0.09a 48.83 ± 0.09b −8.03 ± 0.10b 14.10 ± 0.08ab
150 35.65 ± 0.10a 27.02 ± 0.09b 25.14 ± 0.10a 48.91 ± 0.12b −7.94 ± 0.12b 14.05 ± 0.09b
180 35.52 ± 0.12a 26.93 ± 0.12b 25.03 ± 0.12a 48.99 ± 0.11b −7.86 ± 0.10b 13.98 ± 0.10b

Mean value ± standard deviation of five replicates, Mean in the same column with different alphabetical letters is significantly different (p < 0.05).

42.79 ± 0.11 (%) and 355.65 ± 0.09 (mg/100 g db), respectively as that high temperature leads to the oxidation of vitamin C.
compared to samples dried at 40 °C (39.11 ± 0.08% and
311.23 ± 0.10 mg/100 g db). Similarly, for sweet pepper more de-
gradation of phytochemicals was observed in samples dried at 40 °C. 3.2. Effect of storage on chemical and bioactive attributes of tomato and
The loss of TPC at 40, 50 and 60 °C was 12, 9 and 4%, respectively. sweet pepper powder
These results corroborate with the findings of Azeez, Adebisi, Oyedeji,
Adetoro, and Tijani (2017), as well Hu, Tang, Liu, Zhu, and Shao 3.2.1. Changes in chemical parameters
(2017), who reported that drying at high temperature results in the During storage, tomato and sweet pepper powders were packed in
more retention of TPC and antioxidants however, as drying time pro- HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene), kept under refrigerated conditions
gressed, TPC and antioxidant activity decreased. This retention was for 180 days and were evaluated for chemical (water activity, NEB,
related to the increase in the release of bound phenolics from the cell lycopene, carotenoids, chlorophyll and colour) parameters and bioac-
wall due to heat treatment that breaks down the esters between phe- tive (TPC, antioxidant activity, flavonoids and vitamin C content)
nolic and cell wall. The decrease in total phenolic with increasing parameters at the regular interval of 30 days. Drying conditions, storage
drying time at all temperatures could be due to the long drying time, period and hygroscopic nature of product significantly affected the
which has been investigated by other studies that long drying times quality of the end product. Fig. 1 shows the dried powders at 0 and 180
have destroyed some phenolic compounds (Gupta, Cox, & Abu- days of storage.
Ghannam, 2011; Ling, Yasir, Matanjun, & Bakar, 2015). Better pre- The quality of stored tomato and sweet pepper powders were
servation of phenolic compounds at 60 °C indicated that low water evaluated based on the water activity of powders, measured at the in-
activity may also have a relation with the thermal stability of enzymes terval of 30 days during 6 months of storage. The initial water activity
particularly polyphenol oxidase that degrade phenolic compounds. of powders was in the order of drying temperatures 40 > 50 > 60 °C
Reduction in water activity leads to a reduction in molecular diffusion irrespective to commodity. Moreover, at lower drying temperature the
in the medium and thus prevents chemical reactions such as oxidation impact of the water activity on chemical and bioactive attributes of
reactions (Kurozawa, Terng, Hubinger, & Park, 2014). Similarly, the powders were more pronounced during storage (Table 3). The increase
destruction of flavonoids in tomato was 19, 7 and 2% and in sweet in water activity was observed in sweet pepper samples dried at 40 °C
pepper was 17, 11 and 4% at 40, 50 and 60 °C, respectively. During from 0.611 ± 0.01 at 0 days to 0.660 ± 0.01 after the 180th day of
drying flavonoids degradation happened due to the enzymatic (glyco- storage. Similarly, in tomato samples water activity increased from
sidase, polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase) and non-enzymatic reac- 0.562 ± 0.02 to 0.617 ± 0.01 at 40 °C, from 0.498 ± 0.02 to
tions (Terefe, Matthies, Simons, & Versteeg, 2009). 0.556 ± 0.01 at 50 °C and from 0.421 ± 0.01 to 0.486 ± 0.01 at
Vitamin C is also a vital nutritional parameter, which is a heat- 60 °C after 6 months of storage. Sloan et al. (2016) also reported that
sensitive vitamin thus, it is important to determine the vitamin C con- water activity at or below 0.54 results in better shelf stability of de-
tent after any thermal treatment. Among all the drying temperature, the hydrated taro slices during Storage.
highest concentration of ascorbic acid was found in samples dried at Doubtless, browning also is the main cause of powder quality de-
40 °C followed by 50 and 60 °C. In comparison with fresh tomato gradation during storage. NEB index significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased
(107.59 ± 0.17 mg/100 g db) and sweet pepper (120.34 ± 0.15 mg/ in tomato and sweet pepper dried at 40 °C. From Table 3, it can be seen
100 g db) significant destruction of vitamin C was obtained for tomato that NEB in tomato and sweet pepper powder dried at 60 °C showed
and sweet pepper samples that were hot air-dried at 60 °C temperatures non-significant variation after 180 days (0.686 ± 0.04 and
viz, 43 and 42%, respectively. These results were similar to the findings 0.625 ± 0.02) as compared with 0 day powders (0.617 ± 0.07 and
of Marques, Prado, and Freire (2009) on tropical fruits, who concluded 0.563 ± 0.01), respectively. This study indicated that high moisture
content and oxidation of vitamin C contributed to non-enzymatic

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R. Kaur, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 117 (2020) 108604

Fig. 3. Effect of storage on the bioactive attributes of tomato powder dried under different conditions (A-40 °C, B-50 °C, C-60 °C) – (a) Total phenols (mg/100gdb) (b)
Antioxidant activity (% inhibition) (c) Reducing power assay (mg/100gdb) (d) Flavonoids (mg/100gdb). The error bars indicate the standard deviation of means
n = 3 (p ≤ 0.05); the same letter indicates no significant difference.

browning index. Significant impact of moisture content on the non- temperature (Liu, Cao, Wang, & Liao, 2010; Li et al., 2018). The sta-
enzymatic browning index of powders was earlier reported by bility of lycopene might be attributed to the thermal inactivation of
Pischetsrieder, Larisch, and Severin (2005). enzymes that might expose lycopene to oxidants by destroying the cell
Carotenoids and chlorophyll are predominant phyto-compounds wall (Lockwood, 2007). As seen in Table 4 and Fig. 1, minimal change
that exhibit the highest antioxidant activity. Thus it is of practical in colour was observed during storage. In general, the storage of
significance to study the changes of carotenoids and chlorophyll con- powder under refrigeration conditions induced no remarkable changes
tent during the storage period. Total carotenoids and chlorophyll con- in the colour of tomato and sweet pepper powder. In the case of to-
tent significantly decreased during storage in the tomato and sweet matoes non-significant (p ≤ 0.05) increase was observed in L*, a* and
pepper samples dried at 40 °C but more retention was observed at 60 °C b* coordinates whereas, in case of sweet-pepper L* and a* coordinates
as compared with 50 and 40 °C after 180 days in both powders. The loss increases and b* coordinate decreased due to loss of some colour during
of carotenoids and chlorophyll may be due to exposure to oxygen and storage.
light, which resulted in the oxidation of carotenoids and chlorophyll.
During storage, the stability of carotenoids was mainly dependent on
the water activity of the product. In comparison with other drying 3.2.2. Changes in bioactive parameters
temperatures, samples dried at 40 °C showed higher degradation. Bioactive compounds such as polyphenol, antioxidants, flavonoids
A marginal drop in lycopene contents was seen after 180 days in and vitamin C have antioxidant properties, which can lower the risk of
tomato (128.93 ± 0.02 and 123.24 ± 0.01 mg/100 g db) and sweet carcinogenic and cardiovascular diseases (Harborne & Williams, 2000).
pepper (8.01 ± 0.10 and 6.64 ± 0.04 mg/100 g db) samples dried at Figs. 3 and 4 depicted the effect of storage on the phenolic, antioxidants
60 and 50 °C, respectively as depicted in Table 3, whereas slightly lower and flavonoids of dehydrated tomato and bell pepper samples. Data
values of lycopene were recorded in tomato and sweet pepper powders obtained revealed substantial stability of polyphenols in dried powders
dried at 40 °C that was due to its high initial water activity. Lycopene stored under refrigeration conditions regardless of drying conditions.
remains relatively stable during storage under refrigeration conditions. From Figs. 3 and 4, it can be seen that the total phenolic content in
Similar results have been observed by other scientists who observed no tomato and sweet pepper showed a significant difference (p < 0.05)
changes in the lycopene content of tomatoes after storage under low during storage. In the case of tomato powder, significant degradation
was observed in samples dried at 40 °C (713.81 ± 0.08 mg/100 g db)

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R. Kaur, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 117 (2020) 108604

Fig. 4. Effect of storage on the bioactive attributes of sweet pepper powder dried under different conditions (A-40 °C, B-50 °C, C-60 °C) – (a) Total phenols (mg/
100gdb) (b) Antioxidant activity (% inhibition) (c) Reducing power assay (mg/100gdb) (d) Flavonoids (mg/100gdb).The error bars indicate the standard deviation of
means n = 3 (p ≤ 0.05); the same letter indicates no significant difference.

Fig. 5. Effect of drying temperatures (A-40 °C, B-50 °C, C-60 °C) on the vitamin C content of fresh and dried (a) tomato (b) sweet pepper.The error bars indicate the
standard deviation of means n = 3 (p ≤ 0.05); the same letter indicates no significant difference.

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R. Kaur, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 117 (2020) 108604

and 50 °C (717.03 ± 0.07 mg/100 g db), whereas, samples dried at Funding

60 °C showed minimal change even after 180 days. In contrast, sweet
pepper powder showed slight degradation after 60 days for samples This research did not receive any specific grants from funding
dried at 40 and 50 °C whereas, retention of polyphenols was observed agencies in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
even after 90 days in the samples dried at 60 °C. Our results are in
accordance with the findings of Sonawane and Arya (2013) as well Acknowledgements
Klimczak, Malecka, Szlacchta, and Gliszczynska, (2007), who reported
a decrease in the total phenol content after four months storage, fol- Laboratory facilities provided by Head, Department of Food Science
lowed by an increase after 6 months storage of orange juice. and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India to
Antioxidant activity by the DPPH method and reducing power assay execute the present work are duly acknowledged.
also significantly decreased during storage in both tomatoes and sweet
pepper samples dried at 40 °C from 39.11 ± 0.08% and References
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