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Biology Section Form 4

 CELLS AND LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

 NUTRITION IN HUMANS

 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS

 TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN PLANTS

 TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN HUMANS

 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS IN PLANTS

 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS IN HUMANS

 HEALTH AND DISEASES

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CELLS AND LEVELS OF ORGANISATION

 An ecosystem is a community of living things together with their non-living environment
with which they interact. e. g a pond, garden, soil etc.
 The earth being a large ecosystem with plant and animal species and their physical
surroundings put together

Components of an Ecosystem

Abiotic and Biotic

Abiotic / Physical components

The non-living parts of an ecosystem play a role in providing organisms with a suitable habitat

 Soil-soils support plants. Soils provide plants with nutrients and water. However, not all
ecosystems contain soil. Lakes and ponds contain water.
 Air-oxygen and carbon dioxide are important for respiration and photosynthesis
 Light-is the ultimate source of energy for all living organisms and vital for photosynthesis to
take place.
 Temperature- it varies from season to season and is related to sunlight and its changes is
very important abiotic factor.
 Water- the quantity and quality of water varies from one ecosystem to another. Water affects
the type of plants and animals found in an ecosystem
 Humidity- areas of low and high humidity has an influence on ecosystems. For example,
deserts and coastal areas with low and high humidity respectively.
 Land- the topography can influence rainfall type, amount and sunlight and area receives.

Biological / living / biotic components

 Producers and consumers are two kinds of living things in any ecosystem.
 The plants that make their own food and the animals that feed on them.
 The plants are the producers which supply energy to the consumers in the system.
 Consumers are grouped into primary (leaf eater or herbivores), secondary (carnivores &
omnivores) and tertiary consumers (decomposers).
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 Carnivores feed on other animals

 Predators hunt for food and do not dead organisms
 Scavengers eat dead organisms e.g. vulture
 A lion is a predator at the same time a scavenger
 Omnivores feed on both plants and animals e.g. humans
 Decomposers are organisms which break down dead plants and animal materials and return
the nutrients to the soil e.g. bacteria and fungi and earth worm
 When plants and animals die, their bodies still contain energy and complex chemicals.
 These chemicals are broken down and decomposed by micro-organisms, mostly bacteria and
fungi.

Types of Ecosystems

There are two types of ecosystems: the natural and artificial ecosystem.

Natural Ecosystems

 There are no human interferences.

 Describes the influence of the environment in determining which organisms survive.
 Pests and diseases are part of the ecosystem and no control measures taken.
 Animals graze freely and no fertilizer application.
 There is natural balance of nature.
 In a natural ecosystem there is close interaction between the plants and animals.
 There is a natural balance of nature. Better adapted organisms survive to reach maturity and
produce offspring
 Nutrients are naturally recycled by decomposers
 Pests and disease are part of the natural ecosystem and no control measures are taken to limit
them

Artificial ecosystem

 An artificial ecosystem is one that is heavily influenced by human beings e.g. monoculture,
crop production and animal rearing.
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 Without human intervention; artificial ecosystem cannot survive and function e.g. timber
plantations fish pond; tea estate

 Farming activities destroy equilibrium since the same types of plants are grown over an area.

 Strict control measures are taken to control pests and diseases.

 Nutrients are often added to the soil in the form of artificial fertilizers

 Grazing is controlled by use of paddocks to avoid overgrazing

Food Chains

 A food chain is a feeding relationship in which energy in producers is transferred to

consumers at different trophic levels.
 Food chains start from the producer to consumers. e.g.

Grass → locusts→lizards→birds

 Producers are called autotrophs

 Consumers are called heterotrophs
 Short food chains are advantageous than long food chains as they influence the amount of
energy that gets to the last link in the chain.
 If one organism is removed, the chain is affected to an extent a new source of food is needed
or face extinction.
 Each stage of the food chain is called a trophic level.
 Trophic level is the position of an organism in the food chain.
 The four trophic levels are: producers; primary consumers; secondary consumers and
tertiary Consumers

Food Webs

 Food webs are interconnections of food chains or show a complex feeding relationship
between organisms.
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 An organism may feed on more than one organism and in turn it may be eaten by others

Ecological pyramids

 There are 3 types of ecological pyramids: pyramid of energy; pyramid of numbers and
pyramid of biomass

Pyramid of energy

 Gives the most accurate representation of the actual amount of energy at each level

 The sun is the source of energy.

 It is converted to chemical energy during photosynthesis.
 As energy moves from one level to another, some is lost.
 From the 100 % energy we will have, about 10% of the energy can be consumed.
 Energy lost through the process of respiration (as heat).
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 Energy used up for movement (to search for food, find a mate, escape from predators…).
 Warm-blood animals (birds and mammals) maintain a standard blood temperature – they lose
heat to the environment.
 Warm-blood animals lose heat energy in faeces and urine.
 Some of the material in the organism being eaten is not used by the consumer, for example a
locust does not eat the roots of maize, and some of the parts eaten are not digestible.
 So, we can say that consumers can pass about 10% of the total energy they receive to the
next trophic level

Pyramid of numbers

 It shows the number of individual organism in each level

 This method doesn’t take into account the size of each trophic level
 As such it can have a shape that is not of a true pyramid

Pyramid of Biomass

 It shows the total mass of organisms in each trophic level

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 Organisms are collected and weighed to determine the mass of the organisms in each trophic
level
 A pyramid of biomass usually gives a more accurate representation of the amount of energy
in each trophic level because mass is closely linked to the amount of energy in an organism

Nutrient Cycles in Ecosystems

Carbon Cycle

 Movement of carbon between the non-living part (air]atmosphere) and living organisms of
the earth

 Carbon is recycled in the form of carbon dioxide and it is present in all organic compounds.
 Processes that circulate carbon in the environment include combustion; photosynthesis;
respiration and feeding
Photosynthesis
 Plants remove carbon dioxide from the air during photosynthesis and use it to build carbon
containing organic compounds.
Feeding
 Animals obtain the carbon by eating organic compounds from plants.
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Death; decay respiration

 Carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere by animals, plants and microorganisms
when they respire and decay.

Combustion[Burning]
 It is also released back into the atmosphere by human activities such as burning fossil fuels
The Nitrogen Cycle
 Nitrogen is present in all proteins of both plants and animals
 Processes that circulate nitrogen in the environment are nitrogen fixation; fertilization;
denitrification; absorption; feeding; death and decay; ammonification; and nitrification
 When animals or plants die the proteins are decomposed by fungus and bacteria.
 The nitrates produced are reabsorbed by plants and then transferred to animals through
ingestion.
 All plants and animal wastes reaching the ground are acted upon by a number of soil
organisms i.e. worms, millipedes, bacteria and fungi which change the materials to
ammonium compounds.
 These are further decomposed by nitrifying bacteria i.e. Nitrosomonas which convert the
ammonium compounds into nitrites and Nitrobacter which converts nitrites to nitrates. It is in
this form that nitrogen is mainly absorbed by plants
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 About 79% of air is Nitrogen. A small portion of this is changed into ammonia by lightning
then to ammonium compounds which can be absorbed by plants.

 A small fraction of the Nitrogen in air is converted into nitrates directly by nitrogen fixing
bacteria called Rhizobium which lives in nodules of some leguminous plants.
 If aeration is poor, certain bacteria use the oxygen in the nitrates and in the process release
nitrogenous gas to the air in a process called de-nitrification

BIODIVERSITY
 Refers to a variety of life in an area (plants and animal species).
 It includes a variety of plants and animals in artificial and natural ecosystems for examples in
grasslands, national parks, farms and plantations.
 Biodiversity is important and needs to be maintained
Human factors and activities which disrupts balance in the ecosystem or Causes of limited
species diversity
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List of examples of unsustainable farming practices

 Slash and burning.
 Hunting and poaching.
 Overharvesting.
 Pollution.
 Open cast mining
 Deforestation
 Increasing urbanization
 Draining wetlands
 Ploughing and cultivation of natural areas to grow timber and cereal crops
 Introducing foreign plants or Invasion by alien species (Kariba weed, water hyacinth and
cherry pie).
Advantages of biodiversity
 Wide variety of food source
 Less chance for pest and diseases to spread
 Tourist attraction
 Self-sustenance of an ecosystem

 Interdependence

 Less spread of disease

 It provides shelter, medicine and resources to mankind

Consequences of limited species diversity in artificial ecosystem

 Soil erosion.
 Overgrazing
 Soil infertility.
 Need for the use of artificial fertilizers.
 Plants and animals’ pests and diseases built up.
 Extinction of some species.
 Loss of ecosystems and land degradation.
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 Much human and fuel energy and water is spent in maintaining an artificial productivity
level which is intended to produce more biomass than a natural ecosystem would.
BALANCED DIET
 Balanced Diet - Is a diet that contains all the main nutrients in the correct amounts and
proportions to maintain good health.
 Everyone, whether involved in sport or not should try to eat a healthy balanced diet.
Components of a Balanced Diet and Functions
Carbohydrates
 They are needed for energy to do all types of work and are required in large quantities.
 Sugars and starch are important carbohydrates in a diet.
 Starch includes maize, rice and other cereals.
 Sugars are in fruits such as mangoes and apples and biscuit and sweet drinks.
Proteins
 These are for building of tissue (growth) and repair of worn out tissues or cells.
 Are also used to speed up chemical reactions in the body.
 Proteins are obtained from lean meat, fish, milk, eggs, round nuts, peanut butter, cow peas
and e.tc.
 When proteins are digested, they are broken down into amino acids.
 These acids are absorbed into blood stream and build up the cytoplasm of cells and tissues.
 The unused amino acids are changed to glycogen and then stored or oxidized to provide
energy.
Lipid [Fats and oils]
 Fats help the body from losing heat therefore, one feels warmer.
 Fats also provide energy
 They contain higher energy values per gram than carbohydrates.
 Help the body to absorb certain vitamins
 Form structural components of cell membranes
 Help in blood clotting
 Stored fats help to cushion internal organs and protect the body from extreme cold
 Sources of fats are peanut butter, cooking oil, fat meat and margarine.
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Mineral salts
 Are used to build hard and soft tissues include calcium; iron; zinc; iodine etc
 Calcium is for building bones and teeth; helps muscles to relax and contract; important in
nerve functioning and blood pressure
 Iron makes up blood (forms a part of haemoglobin molecule found in red blood cell).
 Iodine produces a hormone called thyroxin that is needed for growth. Food such as fish,
eggs, dried vegetables, liver meat, ishwa contain mineral salts and dairy products.
Vitamins
 They are for health of the body and protection against diseases.
 Vitamins do not form body structures or provide energy but are needed in the body for
chemical reactions in cells.
 Once a diet lacks vitamins people may suffer from vitamin- deficiency diseases.
 Vitamin A [retinol] is needed for good eye sight, health skin, growing bones and immune
system.
 Vitamin C; [ ascorbic acid] is an antioxidant that protects the body from harmful radicals
and help in absorption of iron. Maintains healthy teeth and gums and helps wound healing
 Vitamin D or califerol -It is stored in bones it is needed to help absorption of calcium and
iron ‘Helps the body to use calcium and phosphorus.
 When exposed to sunlight, the skin produces vitamin D.
 It is from plants and animals for example from cabbages, butter, cheese, tomatoes okra, milk,
fruits, eggs and carrots.
Water
 It is an important part of cytoplasm.
 Substances are carried around the body in watery solution in blood e.g. nutrients, oxygen
and wastes.
 It is also important in the digestion of food by softening it and moving it.
 Soft tissues and joints rely on the cushioning that water provides for them.
 It activates chemical reactions within cells
 In addition, water is obtained from fruits such as oranges and cucumbers and melons.
Roughage
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 It is the indigestible parts of plant foods food in cereals such as oats and bran.
 It absorbs water, providing bulk to faeces.
 It binds with cholestrol to reduce cholestrol levels in blood.
 Helps in digestion i.e. help movement of waste matter in the colon and the rectum (making
them softer) so that constipation is prevented and also absorbs poisonous substances and are
ejected as faeces.
Malnutrition
 It is the result of not eating a balanced diet.
 It is caused by eating Wrong amount of food; too little or too much; incorrect proportion of
main nutrients; lacking in one or more key nutrients.
Effects of malnutrition
Obesity
 Is caused by eating too much food (carbohydrate, fat or protein) and not doing exercising
result in obesity
 An excess of these food is stored under the skin as fats
 Overweight people suffer from heart attacks; high Bp; shortage of breath
 Extra weight put strain on the skeleton which has to support more weight
Anorexia nervosa.
 Dieting to lose weight can sometimes can lead to anorexia nervosa
 People with this disorder suffer from starvation even if they have access to the food
Sign and symptoms include
 They pretend to eat
 They lie about eating; the person’s body tissue is wasted away and become very thin
 Suffer from health complication at times damage their lungs and kidney and reproductive
system
Deficiency Diseases
 A deficiency disease is a disease caused by the lack of an element in the diet, usually a
particular protein, vitamin or mineral salts possibly stemming from insufficient intake,
absorption or utilization of a nutrient.
Kwashiorkor
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 Is due to lack of protein.

Signs and symptoms include
 Underweight
 enlarged abdomen
 the children is inactive.
 Underweight
 Change in hair texture and odour
 Eating foods high in proteins help to cure kwashiokor
Rickets
 Are skeletal disorder as a result of lack of calcium and vitamin D which is made in animal
cells with the help of sunlight
 It results in weak bones hence the bones bend under the body weight, resulting in rounded
legs and deformities of the pelvis, skull and ribcage.
Bleeding gums
 This occurs when one lacks vitamin A.
 The symptoms are weak gums and bleeding gums especially when one is brushing the teeth.
 Eating of fruit such as oranges help to prevent bleeding of gums.
Anemia
 lack of iron in the body results in lack of haemogolobin formation hence low oxygen is
transported to cells hence less energy is made in cells, leading to tiredness and weakness.
 Iron supplements can treat anaemia
Goiter
 Is due to lack of iodine since iodine is needed by the thyroid gland in the neck.
 The swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck is goiter.
In children it causes; mental; physical development and sexual maturity is retarded;
 Lack of iodine can also lead to stunted growth; squint eyes; deafness;
 People must include iodine in their diets and use iodine salt in food.
Night blindness
 It is caused by lack of vitamin A rich food.
 A person cannot see proper during the night.
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 One should eat liver, green vegetables and carrots.

 Can be treated by vitamin A supplements
Scurvy
 Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy. A person with scurvy bruises easily, has joint and
muscle pains
 It can lead to anaemia; exhaustion; swelling in the gums and loss of teeth; continuous
bleeding
 It is treated by taking vitamin C tablets and eating a lot of fruits.
Diabetes mellitus 2
 Is a condition caused by malfunctioning of the hormone insulin
 Insulin is the hormone that controls the concentration of glucose in the blood
 It is a condition that occurs in people who do not secrete insulin; secrete too little of it or
have cells that are resistant to insulin
 When this happens; excess glucose builds up in the blood and the concentration of glucose in
the blood increases
 If the glucose concentration in the blood is too high over a long period of time; it can lead to
kidney damage; blindness and even death
 Diabetes that develops later on in life is largely due to bad eating habits; being overweight
and lack of exercises
 Occurs as a result of obesity and not enough exercise
Balanced meal for different groups of people
Toddler
 Breast feeding can continue until two years and even beyond
 The child needs extra protein for making new tissues as the child grow.
 Large amounts of starchy foods such as cassava, potatoes or rice should be avoided because
the child soon feels full up yet may not have taken in sufficient protein.
 The child should be given protein rich food such as meat, chicken, fish or eggs every day.
These will help build strong muscles.
 Give a variety of fruits everyday these provide vitamin and healthy fibre
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 Give dark green and yellow vegetables, as they are rich in vitamins for protection against
diseases
 They need extra Calcium for growing bones, iron for their RBC
 Encourage the toddler to drink clean, fresh water throughout the day
Adolescent
 Person between 12 years and 18 years developing into adult
 Vigorously active, playful and growing.
 Needs a balanced diet with increased protein, calcium, vitamin D and phosphates for rapid
growth, bone and teeth development.
 They need high quality of body building foods and starchy foods to provide energy and
dietary fibre.
 Drink clean safe water
Manual worker
 Is a person who does physical work for most of the day e.g. builder, road worker
 Uses a lot of energy and sweats a lot therefore need a balanced diet with higher energy giving
foods, more salts and water to replace lost energy, water and salts.
 Increase the amount of proteins eaten to provide for strong muscles
 Sugary foods can be eaten in moderation, as they will provide quick energy.
 Drink lots clean safe water if working in hot sun
 Eat plenty of vegetables and fruits everyday
Sedentary worker (office worker)
 Usually office workers do not move around a lot at work. Needs a balanced diet with less
energy giving foods to avoid overweight.
 Avoid sugary and high fat foods as this can cause obesity.
 Eat plenty of different varieties of vegetables, fruits, legumes and small portions of protein
 Nutrients are needed for normal functioning of the body

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Cellular respiration occurs in the cells of animals and plant and can take place with or
without oxygen
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 When respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen it is called aerobic respiration
 When respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen it is called anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration
 Involves the use of oxygen in the breakdown of carbohydrates or fats which are eventually
oxidized completely to carbon dioxide, water and energy
 Glucose is the most common food used for energy
 In plants glucose is converted and stored as starch; while in animals’ glucose is stored as
glycogen
 When the cells need energy; the storage molecules are broken into glucose for use in
respiration
 Carbon dioxide and water vapour are released as waste products
Equation for aerobic respiration
𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒+𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 →𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒+𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟+𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Anaerobic respiration
 Is the breakdown of carbohydrates to release energy without the use of oxygen
 Glucose is broken down incompletely and only some (less) of the energy is released.
 The intermedia compounds such as lactic acid or alcohol are produced.
glucose→ lactic acid + little energy
glucose→ carbon dioxide + alcohol + energy
Lactic acid fermentation
 Anaerobic respiration in animal cells is called lactic acid fermentation
 Occurs in animal cells that need energy eg muscles but they don’t have enough oxygen
 Glucose is broken down into lactic acid and a small amount of energy
 Lactic acid in our muscles cause stiffness and pain
glucose→ lactic acid + little energy
 Glucose is not completely broken so most of the energy that is stored in the glucose is not
released
 When the body finally gets enough oxygen the lactic acid that has built up is broken down
into carbon dioxide and water
Alcoholic Fermentation
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 Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi that live in places where there is no oxygen
respire anaerobically
 This type of anaerobic respiration is called alcoholic fermentation and it occurs in plants
Glucose → carbon dioxide + alcohol [ethanol] + energy
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Aerobic Anaerobic
Raw materials Glucose and oxygen Glucose
Products Carbon dioxide and water Lactic acid in animals
vapour Alcohol +water vapour+
alcohol in plants and yeast
Relative amount of energy More energy Less energy

Experiment
Aim : Experiments to show release of energy from germinating seeds
Apparatus
Two vacuum [thermos flasks] ; 2 thermometers; cotton wool; germinating seeds; bleach; boiling
water; paper towel;
Diagram

Method
 Soak the seeds overnight so as to soften the coat and boil half of the soaked seeds for
15minutes
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 Rinse them in a mild disinfectant e.g. sodium hydrochlorite to prevent the seeds from rotting
as a result of bacterial of fungal activity.
 Place each set of seeds in thermos flasks and insert a thermometer. Plug cotton wool and
clearly label A and B. Flasks are insulated with a cotton lagging to prevent heat loss by
conduction
 Flasks are inverted so that the bulb of each thermometer is surrounded by seeds allowing the
reading of the thermometers to be taken more easily
 Record the temperature of each flask and leave for a week. Record the temperature daily
Observations and results
 Temperature rise was high in A than B
 Rise in temperature in flask A is caused by heat produced by respiring germinating seeds
while in B seeds did not germinate hence no heat was produced because boiling killed the
seeds
Experiment
Aim : To show that small animals release carbon dioxide during respiration

THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM

 Transpiration is the flow of water vapour from the plant through the surface; water vapour
diffuses out of the leaves through stomata
 Leaves are involved in the regulation of the water content in the plant through the process of
transpiration
 Plant leaves are adapted in different ways to prevent water loss
Adaptations of plant leaves to reduce transpiration
Cuticle
 IS a water proof layer covering the outer surface of the leaf
 Leaves may have thick cuticle making the leaf more waterproof
Leaf size and surface area
 Reduced leaf size in some plant species is meant to reduce transpiration.
 Smaller leaves have a smaller surface area than large leaves.
 The smaller leaves will lose less water.
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 Plants with small folded or rolled leaves loose water vapour slowly
Leaf arrangement
 Some plants can move their leaves to different positions at different times of the day
 When its hottest the leaves move closer together and hang vertically
 In the early morning and late afternoon, the leaves are positioned to absorb as much light as
possible
 Some grass curl up (fold/roll) their leaves inwards to reduce the surface area exposed to air
and water vapour
Stomata
 Fewer stomata per unit surface area will result in less water being lost by the leaf.
 More stomata are found on the lower surface of leaves to prevent them from being exposed
to the sun and wind to reduce transpiration rate.
 The stomatas are often sunken or situated in grooves and furrows
 Are generally opened during the day and closed at night and when plant does not have
enough water
 Plants in drier areas often have few stomata than those in wet areas
Presence of hairs
 Some leaves have tiny hairs covering the whole leaf surface
The hairs reduce transpiration by
 Reflecting sunlight so the leaves do not heat out as much
 As tiny wind breakers slowing the movement of wind around the leaves
 Also trap water vapour on the boundary of the leaf; this decreases the concentration of water
vapour inside the leaf and around the stomata thereby reducing the rate of transpiration
Experiment
Aim : To demonstrate the distribution of stomata in water loss
Method
Take four similar leaves from a plant and label them as follows
W – put Vaseline on both surfaces of the leaf
X – put Vaseline on the lower leaf surface only
Y – put Vaseline on the upper leaf surface only
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Z – no Vaseline
Results
W loses almost no water
X loses only little water
Y loses much water
Z dries out
 This experiment shows that the lower surface of leaf loses much more water vapour than the
upper side because there are more stomata on lower surface.
 The top is covered by a waxy cuticle that reduces water loss. Water is lost from plants
through the stomata
BLOOD AND BLOOD VESSELS

Blood
 It is pumped by the heart to different parts of the body through the transport system
 The transport system is also known as the circulatory system and consist of the heart the
blood vessels and blood carrying oxygen to different parts of the body
 Blood is the means by which nutrients gases and waste products are carried through the body
Functions of blood
Transport i.e.
 Carbon dioxide from respiring cells to lungs
 Oxygen from lungs to cells
 Products of digestion from ileum to cells
 Excreta from all metabolizing cells to liver
 Hormones from endocrine glands to the target organs e.g. liver
 Heat from main heat producing organs (liver and muscles) to all body parts
Homeostasis i.e.
 It is the bodys ability to keep the environment inside the body stable even though the
conditions outside the body may change
 Maintenance of a constant internal environment i.e. water, glucose, temperature; ph; oxygen;
carbon dioxide
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Defence i.e.
 Carry white blood cells to defend the body against invading microorganisms i.e. virus and
bacteria
 Some types of white blood cells engulf and digest invading microorganisms while other
types produce anti bodies that help immune system to destroy pathogens
 Blood also carry platelets to site of infection for blood clotting to stop infection and
excessive bleeding after a minor injury
Components of blood
 Blood is made up of plasma and the blood cells (red; white blood cells and platelets)

 Platelets-they are fragments of cells without a nucleus; play a role in blood clotting and
therefore prevent excessive blood loss after a minor injury or cut
 White blood cells- much larger than red blood cells but are few; some white blood cells
engulf and digest invading microorganisms while other types produce antibodies that help the
immune system to destroy invading micoorganisms
Blood vessels
 Blood vessels from a system of continuous tubes throughout the body
 They are different types of vessels namely veins; arteries and capillaries
 Capillaries deliver substances ie oxygen and nutrients to the cells and remove waste from the
cells
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 Substances diffuses in or out of the blood capillaries through the endothelium

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
VEGETATIVE/ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Asexual reproduction is the production of new individual plants from vegetative structures
without the use of seeds
 Many plants are capable of producing new separate plants from their existing non seed parts
such as stems, roots and leaves
Methods of asexual reproduction in plants
Rhizomes e.g. grass
 Main part of the stem remains below the ground and grow horizontally.
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 Some of the terminal buds may produce an erect stem that emerges above the ground.
 These manufacture foods which is stored in the part below
 New shoots develop from lateral buds
Runners
These are side way shoots which grow above ground and touch the ground away from the parent
plant and then make a root eg strawberry plant

Tubers e.g. Irish potato

 Are short, thick underground stems or roots of plants


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 These frequently bear buds from which new identical plants may grow using food stored in
the tuber
 Stem tubers have tiny scale leaves and lateral buds. A root tuber is a lateral root that has been
modified to function as a storage organ
Cuttings e.g. sugar cane, cassava, sweet potato
 These are portions of stems, roots or leaves that are removed and planted in sand, loose soil
or even in water.
 Roots grow from the base of the stem into the soil while the shoot continues to grow and
produce leaves.
Bulbs
 A bulb consists of a relatively large usually globe –shaped underground bud with fleshy
overlapping leaves arising from a short stem
 The fleshy leaves function as food reserves

Corms
 These are globe – shaped fleshy underground stems
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Advantages of asexual reproduction

 All plants obtained are exactly the same as the parent hence favourable and desired
characteristics are obtained
 No gametes are needed
 Plants can grow quickly
 Plants have more chances of survival since food is readily available
 New plants established over large areas very rapidly
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction
 All plants obtained are exactly the same as the parent, hence the favorable/desirable
characteristics are retained
 Plants are crowded and usually compete for light, water and nutrients
 There is no genetic variation, so adaptation to a changing environment is unlikely.
 All plants are identical and may be viable to attack by same pests and diseases
Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction in plants
Sexual Asexual
Male and female sex cells fuse to form an Involves one parent organism that give rise to
offspring a new organism
Pollination and fertilization takes place No pollination and fertilization takes place
All individuals are different All individuals are the same
High survival rates Low survival rates
Spread quickly but close to the parent Spread slowly but far away from parent
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REPRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN HUMANS

METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION
 Contraception is any action taken to prevent pregnancy
 Methods can be divided into 5 main groups’ namely: natural, chemical, physical, hormonal
and surgical methods
Natural methods of birth control
They do not involve any hormones or devices but take into account of women’s fertility at different
times of menstrual cycle
Method How it works Advantages Disadvantages
Rhythm method Involves not having sex in No side effects Not very reliable as the
the days before, during, after timing of ovulation
the woman ovulates. It may be in accurate.
involves monitoring and High risks of STIs or
understanding her monthly STDs
periods and when ovulation
takes place
Withdrawal The man pulls out his penis No side effects Highly unreliable
method before ejaculation (release of (semen may leave the
sperms) penis before ejaculation
occurs)

Douching Water or other fluids are No side effects Not effective as the
used to wash the semen out liquid can push the
of the vagina semen up the uterus
thereby increasing the
possibilities of
pregnancy
High risks of
contracting STIs

Barrier methods of contraception

Involves having a physical barrier between the sperm and the ovum
Method How it works Advantages Disadvantages
Male condom Sheath of strong latex rubber No prescription is Can be used only once
is placed over the erect penis needed Interrupts love making
before sexual intercourse, it Provides protection Tearing can lead to
traps the semen preventing it against HIV and other fertilization taking
from entering the vagina STIs place
Female condom A tube with a ring at each No side effects, it is Female condom is not
end is inserted into the reversible unlike as effective as the pill
vagina before sexual surgical methods and can be difficult to
intercourse, prevent sperms Up to 98% effective use
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from entering the vagina when used correctly Reduces sensations and
can be irritating or itch
The Diaphragm The rubber cap is placed into No health concerns Needs training for
the vagina to cover cervix May be reused up to 2 proper use
and prevent entry of sperms years Possible discomfort
into the uterus. Must be used Some protect against Irritation from
with spermicides to kill STIs spermicides
sperms On average up to 90% Can cause bladder
effective infection
Can be damaged during
sexual intercourse
Does not allow for
spontaneous sexual
intercourse
Intra-Uterine Is a T shaped or coiled is very effective 98% Does not offer
Device(IUD) device made of plastic and success rate protection against STIs
(loop) copper. is placed inside the Can last up to five to Can cause increased
uterus and prevents ten years menstrual flow and
implantation of fertilized egg uterine infections

Spermicides Can also be classified under Do not require High failure rates.
barrier and chemical prescription. Used with every sex
contraceptive methods. Jelly Does not need medical act.
cream placed into the vagina supervision Must be applied at least
before sexual intercourse. Few side effects 3 minutes but not more
Contains chemicals that will Easy to use. than 30 minutes before
kill sperms Improves effectiveness sexual intercourse
of condoms,
diaphragms on other
methods

Hormonal Contraceptive Methods

Contains artificial hormones, estrogen and progesterone.
Hormones control the menstrual cycle
When the level of the hormones are higher than normal, the ovaries do not release an ovum. they also
thin the lining of the uterus making it difficult for the egg to implant
Contraceptive pill It contains hormones They are effective, easy No protection against
estrogen and progesterone to use STIs
which prevent ovulation. One They are expensive
Pill is taken every day at the Have various side
same time effects which include
Contraceptive A progesterone injection Weight gain, weight
injection given to women every 3 loss, headaches, mood
(depo) months. Hormone prevents swings, sore breast
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ovulation
Contraceptive A sheet like plastic that
patch contains estrogen and
progesterone stuck to the
skin on the buttocks,
abdomen or upper arm. It is
worn for 3weeks.
Contraceptive A small flexible tube that
impants contains progesterone
inserted under the skin of a
woman’s upper arm. Can last
up to 3- 5 years

Surgical contraceptive methods

Are also known as sterilization?
Are permanent contraceptive methods
Vasectomy The sperm ducts from the Effective and It does not offer
testis are cut or tied during permanent protection protection against STIs
surgery against pregnancy Must be done by a
Semen is still produced but it No side effects doctor/surgeon
does not contain sperms It is expensive
Tuba-ligation The oviducts or the fallopian The procedure is
tubes are tied, clamped or cut permanent
during surgery. An ovum is
released during ovulation but
cannot travel to the uterus.
Semen cannot also not travel
to the oviduct

HEALTH AND DISEASES

Immunity
 Immunity is the ability of an organism such as humans to resist diseases.
Types of immunity
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Natural immunity
 It is the body’s natural ability to fight disease.
 Everyone is born with this immunity
 It includes the external barriers of the body like the skin and the mucus membranes
Artificial immunity
 It happens when the body is deliberately exposed to a pathogen or receives antibodies
produced outside the body through injection or oral means
Types of natural immunity
Natural acquired active immunity
 Is the normal process whereby an individual gets an infection and their immune system
response by producing a specific antibody targeting the invading pathogen?
 Exposure to the pathogen is through natural means.
Natural acquired passive immunity
 Is when a body attain immunity through obtaining antibodies from an outside source through
a natural process such as breast feeding
 During breast feeding antibodies are transferred from mother to the baby.
 Another example is transmission of antibodies from the mother to the developing embryo
through the placenta.
 Immunity is immediately passed down to the baby however the immunity is not permanent
and may only last a few days.
Types of artificial immunity
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Artificial acquired active immunity

 An individual is deliberately exposed to a weakened form of a particular pathogen (antigen)
without being attacked by the disease.
 The body then produces antibodies which are ready to attack that particular pathogen if the
body is infected in the future.
 An example of artificial active immunity is immunization.
Artificial acquired passive immunity
 An example is the use of antidot where specific antibodies are injected
 Artificial passive immunity is given to a person who has already been exposed to a
pathogen/antigen
 The person may already be showing signs or symptoms of the disease and needs to be
provided with an antidote
 An antidot provides antibodies that reduces the harmful effect.
 Examples of infections that require antidots are tetanus and rabies.
Immunity in infants
Breastfeeding
 Once the baby is born the breast feeding helps the babies’ immune system
 Breast milk contains white blood cells and antibodies from the mother.
 This protects the baby against a wide variety of diseases and infections even when the baby
has stopped breast feeding.
 The immunity the child gets protects the baby during its early months in its new environment
where bacteria and virus are ready to attack its undeveloped immune system
Immunization
 Immunization or vaccination is an effective way of stimulating active immunity
 A vaccine is a substance that is injected into the body or given orally to prevent a specific
diseas
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 It is made from a weakened form of a disease causing organism e.g. tetanus

Immunization schedule
Recommended childhood immunization schedule

Age weeks Months 5 years

Birth 6 10 14 9 18

Polio     

BCG 
(tuberculosis)

DPT      Only
(diphtheria,pertussis,tetanus) DT
HBV (Hepatitis B)    

MMR  
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(Measles,mumps and
Rubella)

NB
Antidote is a substance that provide antibodies against an antigen
Antigen is a substance that stimulates the production of antibodies.

HIV AND AIDS

 The virus that causes AIDS is the Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus (HIV)
 The virus weakens the immune system by destroying important cells that fight diseases and
infection
 A person living with AIDS has no protection against infection
 AIDS is an incurable disease has no cure.
 HIV lives in body fluids which include blood semen, saliva and tears
HIV is transmitted or spread through
 Having unprotected sex with someone who has been infected with HIV
 An infected mother can transmit to her child during pregnancy, birth or through breast
feeding
 Through blood transfusion with contaminated blood.
 Sharing of sharp needles, syringes or when sharing razors that have been contaminated with
blood.
Being HIV positive
 The individuals blood is tested for antibodies produced by the body when exposed to HIV,
and if found present, the individual is HIV.
 The person can be looking health and recovers from infections normally
Effects of HIV on the body`
 HIV enters the white blood cells especially the T –lymphocytes and multiplies.
 In the process it destroys the T cells and the process is repeated until the virus weakens the
immune system
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 If the T- lymphocytes count (the number of T-lymphocytes in the blood) in the blood of the
infected person is low the person’s immune system does not work effectively and the person
becomes infected with opportunistic infections such as thrush, TB, bacterial pneumonia,
meningitis and certain cancers.
 If untreated the person eventually dies
Treatment of HIV/AIDS
 There is no cure for HIV/AIDS
 It can only be controlled using drugs known as anti-retroviral drugs (ARVs)
 ARVs slow down the reproduction of the HIV by interfering with its life cycle
 By using ARVs the HIV numbers are reduced
 Drug is taken for life
 This means the immune system can still fight infections.
 ARVs restore and protect the immune system, control the production of the virus and
improve the health of people with HIV/AIDS allowing them to live longer.

Controlling HIV /AIDS

 Get tested early and know the status of your partner
 Stop sharing sharp objects
 Stick to one faithful partner
 Use of condoms during sexual intercourse and using them correctly
 Use sterilized needles and syringes
 Abstain from sexual intercourse
 Use of nevera pine drug to prevent mother to child transmission.

Malaria

 Is a disease caused by a parasite called plasmodium parasite

 Plasmodium cause disease by destroying the red blood cells of the host or the infected person
 The plasmodium parasite is transmitted through the female anopheles’ mosquito
 The infected female mosquito is called the vector.
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Signs and symptoms of malaria

 The signs of malaria begin approximately two weeks after infection.
 Symptoms include
 Headaches
 Muscle aches
 Shivering
 Sweating etc
The life cycle of the malaria parasite

 The plasmodium parasite has two host

 Humans
 Mosquito
 It lives in the mosquito during the sexual stage and in humans during the asexual stage, when
a mosquito bites a person, it injects saliva into the person, and if the mosquito is infected
with plasmodium, the parasite will be in the saliva and is passed into the person
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 Plasmodium can also pass across the placenta

Inside the mosquito

 When the mosquito feeds on an infected host, they absorb the parasites gametes
 The gametes fuse and develop
 They develop in the mosquitoes’ gut and then move to the mosquitoes’ salivary glands
 When the mosquito feeds, again they pass out into the blood together with an anticoagulant
in the saliva in the humans
In Humans

 The parasite enters the persons red blood cells where they multiply
 Plasmodium multiplies in both hosts
 At each stage, there is a huge increase in the number of parasites and this increases the
chances of infecting either a mosquito or the human hosts.
Life cycle of the anopheles’ mosquito

 The female mosquito lays eggs in stagnant water

 The egg hatch into tiny larvae which must come to the water surface to breathe through the
tube
 Larvae changes into a pupae which swims in the water
 The pupae changes and develop into the adult mosquito
 The female need to feed on blood from human host to allow eggs to develop
 Two or three days after the first blood meal, the female lays eggs in water and then seeks
another human host
Controlling methods at different stages

Egg stage

 Remove any stagnant water where mosquitoes can breed

 Keep all other water containers closed
Larvae stage

 Use larvaecides in all areas where mosquitoes can breed especially drains. e.g. of larvaecides
 Chemical-sand or granular insecticides
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 Biological –certain fish, bacteria or fungi

 Oil- anti malarial sprays
Pupae stage

 Oil kills the pupae stage

Adult stage

 Use insecticides that specifically target the adult mosquitoes

Preventing breeding sites of mosquitoes

 This can be done by identifying places in which mosquitoes breed

 Then removal of conditions favorable for breeding
 Use of appropriate insecticides for killing mosquitoes at different stages of the life cycle
 Bury empty containers
 Drain stagnant water
 Spray oily insecticides onto stagnant water bodies to kill larvae and pupa
 Inactivating adult mosquito by spraying insecticides on walls and roofs of houses
 Use of mosquito nets, treated or untreated
 Having wire mesh screens on windows and doors to prevent entry of mosquitoes into the
homes
 Wearing thick long sleeved shirts, tops and trousers
 Use of mosquito repellant jelly
 Use of anti-malarial drugs to kill malaria parasite eg chloroquine
 Use of prophylactic drugs, meant to prevent one from getting malaria.