LEARNING MATERIAL

HARYANA FOR
STATE BOARD OF
TECHNICAL EDUCATION
APPLIED PHYSICS
(180013)
ST
(FOR 1 YEAR)

LEARNING TEXT BOOKLET

(PHYSICS)
DIPLOMA 1ST SEMESTER
(July, 2022)

a
 PREFACE
Technical Education in polytechnics plays a very vital role in human resource
development of the country by creating skilled manpower, enhancing industrial productivity
and improving the quality of life. The aim of the polytechnic education in particular is to
create a pool of skill based manpower to support shop floor and field operations as a bridge
between technician and engineers. Moreover, a small and medium scale industry prefers to
employ diploma holders because of their special skills in reading and interpreting drawings,
estimating, costing and billing, supervision, measurement, testing, repair, maintenance etc.
Despite the plethora of opportunities available for the diploma pass-out students, the
unprecedented expansion of the technical education sector in recent years has brought in its
wake questions about the quality of education imparted. Moreover, during the last few years
the students seeking admissions in the polytechnics are coming mainly from the rural
background and face the major challenge of learning and understanding the technical contents
of various subjects in English Language.
The major challenge before the Haryana State Board of Technical Education is to
ensure the quality of a technical education to the stakeholders along its expansion. In order to
meet the challenges and requirement of future technical education manpower, consistent
efforts are made by Haryana State Board of Technical Education to design need based
diploma programmes in collaboration with National Institute of Technical Teachers Training
and Research, Chandigarh as per the new employment opportunities.
The Board undertook the development of the learning material tailored to match the
curriculum content. This learning Text Booklet shall provide a standard material to the
teachers and students to aid their learning and achieving their study goals.

Secretary
HSBTE, Panchkula

b
 TEAM INVOLVED IN DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNING TEXTBOOK
(PHYSICS)

Dr. Bhajan Lal, Lecturer Physics, Govt. Polytechnic for Women, Sirsa
Dr. Sarita Maan, Lecturer Physics, Govt. Polytechnic, Ambala City
Sh. Anil Nain, Lecturer Physics, Govt. Polytechnic, Hisar
Smt. Bindu Verma, Lecturer Physics, SJPP Damla

c
 INDEX
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.
NO.
SYLLABUS i-iv
1. UNITS AND DIMENSIONS 1-16
2. FORCE AND MOTION 17-31
3. WORK, POWER AND ENERGY 32-40
4. PROPERTIES OF MATTER 41-47
5. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE 48-54

d
 APPLIED PHYSICS
Semester-I
L T P
2 0 2
RATIONALE
Applied physics includes the study of a large number of diverse topics all related to things
that go on in the world around us. It aims to give an understanding of this world both by
observation and by prediction of the way in which objects will behave. Concrete use of
physical principles and analysis in various fields of engineering and technology are given
prominence in the course content.
Note: Teachers should give examples of engineering/technology applications of various
concepts and principles in each topic so that students are able to appreciate learning of these
concepts and principles. In all contents, SI units should be followed. Working in different
sets of units can be taught through relevant software.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After undergoing this subject, the students will be able to:
 Identify physical quantities, parameters and select their units for use in engineering
solutions
 Write unit and dimensions of different physical quantities
 Use equipment like- vernier calliper, screw gauge, spherometer
 Represent physical quantities as scalar and vector
 Understand basic laws of motion
 Analyse and design banking of road
 Define work, energy and power, their SI units, solve simple numerical problems
based on these
 State law of conservation of energy
 Identify forms of energy, its conversion from one form to another
 Describe surface tension phenomenon, its SI unit, applications, effect of temperature
on surface tension
 Describe viscosity of liquid, its unit
 Define stress and strain, modulus of elasticity, State Hooke‟s law
 Measure temperature on different scales (Celsius, Kelvin, Fahrenheit etc.)
 Distinguish between conduction, convection and radiation

1. Unit and Dimensions

1.1 Definition of Physics, physical quantities- fundamental and derived
1.2 Units: fundamental and derived
1.3 System of units: CGS, FPS, MKS, SI
1.4 Dimension, dimensional formulae and SI units of physical quantities-distance,
displacement, area, volume, density, velocity, acceleration, linear momentum,
force, impulse, work, power, energy, pressure, surface tension, stress, strain)
1.5 Dimensional equations, principle of homogeneity of dimensional equation
i
 1.6 Application of dimensional analysis: checking the correctness of physical
equation, conversion of system of unit (force, work, acceleration)

2. Force and Motion

2.1 Scalar and vector quantities– definition and examples, representation of vector,
types of vector (unit vector, position vector, co-initial vector, collinear vector,
co-planar vector)
2.2 Vector algebra- addition of vectors, Triangle & Parallelogram law (statement
and formula only),
2.3 Scalar and vector product (statement and formula only)
2.4 Force and its units, resolution of force (statement and formula only)
2.5 Newton‟s laws of motion (statement and examples)
2.6 Linear momentum, Law of conservation of linear momentum (statement and
examples), Impulse
2.7 Circular motion: definition of angular displacement, angular velocity, angular
acceleration, frequency, time period; Relation between linear and angular
velocity, centripetal and centrifugal forces (definition and formula only),
application of centripetal force in banking of road
2.8 Rotational motion: definition with examples
2.9 Definition of torque, angular momentum, moment of inertia and its physical
significance

3. Work, Power and Energy

3.1 Work- definition, symbol, formula and SI unit, types of work (zero work,
positive work and negative work) with example
3.2 Friction– definition and its simple daily life applications
3.3 Power- definition, formula and units
3.4 Energy- definition and its SI unit, examples of transformation of energy.
3 . 5 Kinetic energy- definition, examples, formula and its derivation
3.6 Potential energy- definition, examples, formula and its derivation
3.7 Law of conservation of mechanical energy for freely falling bodies (with
derivation)
3.8 Simple numerical problems based on formula of Power and Energy

4. Properties of Matter
4.1 Elasticity and plasticity- definition, deforming force, restoring force, example of
elastic and plastic body
4.2 Definition of stress and strain, Hooke‟s law, modulus of elasticity
4.3 Pressure- definition, atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure, absolute pressure,
Pascal‟s law
4.4 Surface tension- definition, SI unit, applications of surface tension, effect of
temperature on surface tension
4.5 Viscosity: definition, unit, examples, effect of temperature on viscosity

ii
 5. Heat and Temperature
5.1 Definition of heat and temperature (on the basis of kinetic theory)
5.2 Difference between heat and temperature
5.3 Principle and working of mercury thermometer
5.4 Modes of transfer of heat- conduction, convection and radiation with
examples.
5.5 Properties of heat radiation
5.6 Different scales of temperature and their relationship

LIST OF PRACTICALS (08 experiments are compulsory)

1. Familiarization of measurement instruments and their parts (for example - vernier
calliper, screw gauge, spherometer, travelling microscope etc.), and taking a reading.
(compulsory to all students)
2. To find diameter of solid cylinder using a vernier calliper
3. To find internal diameter and depth of a beaker using a vernier calliper and hence find
its volume.
4. To find the diameter of wire using screw gauge
5. To find thickness of paper using screw gauge.
6. To determine the thickness of glass strip using a spherometer
7. To determine radius of curvature of a given spherical surface by a spherometer.
8. To verify parallelogram law of force
9. To determine the atmospheric pressure at a place using Fortin‟s Barometer
10. To determine force constant of spring using Hooke‟s law
11. Measuring room temperature with the help of thermometer and its conversion in
different scale.

INSTRUCTIONAL STATREGY
Teacher may use various teaching aids like models, charts, graphs and experimental
kits etc. for imparting effective instructions in the subject. Students need to be exposed to use
of different sets of units and conversion from one unit type to another. Software may be used
to solve problems involving conversion of units. The teacher should explain about field
applications before teaching the basics of mechanics, work, power and energy, rotational
motion, properties of matter etc. to develop proper understanding of the physical
phenomenon. Use of demonstration can make the subject interesting and develop scientific
temper in the students.

MEANS OF ASSESSMENT
Assignments and quiz/class tests and end-term written tests, model/prototype
Actual laboratory and practical work, exercises and viva-voce

RECOMMENDED BOOKS
1. Text Book of Physics for Class XI (Part-I, Part-II); N.C.E.R.T., Delhi
2. Applied Physics, Vol. I and Vol. II by Dr. HH Lal; TTTI Publications, Tata McGraw
iii
 Hill, Delhi
3. Applied Physics - I by AS Vasudeva; Modern Publishers, Jalandhar.
4. Applied Physics - I by R A Banwait; Eagle Prakashan, Jalandhar.
5. e-books/e-tools/relevant software to be used as recommended by AICTE/ HSBTE/
NITTTR.
6. Practical Physics, by C. L. Arora, S Chand Publication

Websites for Reference:

http://swayam.gov.in

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 Chapter 1
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
Learning objective: After going through this chapter, students will be able to;
- Understand physical quantities, fundamental and derived;
- Describe different systems of units;
- Define dimensions and formulate dimensional formulae;
- Write dimensional equations and apply these to verify various formulations.

1.1 DEFINITION OF PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Physics: Physics is the branch of science, which deals with the study of nature and natural
phenomena. The subject matter of physics includes heat, light, sound, electricity, magnetism
and the structure of atoms.
For designing a law of physics, a scientific method is followed which includes the
verifications with experiments. The physics, attempts are made to measure the quantities with
the best accuracy. Thus, physics can also be defined as science of measurement.
Applied Physics is the application of the Physics to help human beings and solving
their problem, it is usually considered as a bridge between Physics & Engineering.

Physical Quantities: All quantities that can be measured are called physical quantities.
For example: Distance, Speed, Mass, Force etc.

Types of Physical Quantity:

Fundamental Quantity: The quantity which is independent of other physical quantities. In
mechanics, mass, length and time are called fundamental quantities.
Derived Quantity: The quantity which is derived from the fundamental quantities is a
derived quantity. For example, area, speed etc.

1.2 UNITS: FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS

Measurement: In our daily life, we need to express and compare the magnitude of different
quantities; this can be done only by measuring them.
Measurement is the comparison of an unknown physical quantity with a known fixed physical
quantity.

Unit: The known fixed physical quantity is called unit.

or
The quantity used as standard for measurement is called unit.
For example, when we say that length of the class room is 8 metre, we compare the length of
class room with standard quantity of length called metre.

Q = nu

1
Physical Quantity = Numerical value × unit
Q = Physical Quantity
n = Numerical value
u = Standard unit
e.g. Mass of stool = 15 kg
Mass = Physical quantity
15 = Numerical value
kg = Standard unit
Means mass of stool is 15 times of known quantity i.e. kg.

Characteristics of Standard Unit: A unit selected for measuring a physical quantity should
have the following properties
(i) It should be well defined i.e. its concept should be clear.
(ii) It should not change with change in physical conditions like temperature,
pressure, stress etc.
(iii) It should be suitable in size; neither too large nor too small.
(iv) It should not change with place or time.
(v) It should be reproducible.
(vi) It should be internationally accepted.

Classification of Units: Units can be classified into two categories.

Fundamental units: Units of fundamental physical quantities are called Fundamental units.
Physical Quantity Fundamental unit
Mass kg, gram, pound
Length metre, centimetre, foot
Time second
Derived units: the units of derived physical quantity are called as derived units.
For example units of area, speed etc.
Area = Length  Breadth
= Length  Length
= (Length)2
Speed =Distance / Time
=Length / Time

1.3 SYSTEMS OF UNITS: CGS, FPS, MKS, SI

For measurement of physical quantities, the following systems are commonly used:-
(i) C.G.S system: In this system, the unit of length, mass and time are centimetre, gram
and second, respectively.
(ii) F.P.S system: In this system, the unit of length, mass and time are foot, pound and
second, respectively.
(iii) M.K.S: In this system, the unit of length, mass and time are metre, kilogram and
second, respectively.

2
 (iv) S.I System: This system is an improved and extended version of M.K.S system of
units. It is called international system of unit.
With the development of science & technology, the three fundamental quantities like
mass, length & time were not sufficient as many other quantities like electric current, heat
etc. were introduced. Therefore, more fundamental units in addition to the units of mass,
length and time are required.
Thus, MKS system was modified with addition of four other fundamental quantities
and two supplementary quantities.

Table of Fundamental Units

Sr. No. Name of Physical Quantity Unit Symbol
1 Length metre m
2 Mass kilogram kg
3 Time second s
4 Temperature kelvin K
5 Electric Current ampere A
6 Luminous Intensity candela cd
7 Quantity of Matter mole mol

Table of Supplementary unit

Sr. No Name of Physical Quantity Unit Symbol
1 Plane angle radian rad
2 Solid angle steradian sr

Advantage of S.I. system:

(i) It is coherent system of unit i.e. the derived units of a physical quantity are easily
obtained by multiplication or division of fundamental units.
(ii) It is a rational system of units i.e. it uses only one unit for one physical quantity e.g.
joule (J) is unit for all types of energies (heat, light, mechanical).
(iii) It is metric system of units i.e. it‟s multiples & submultiples can be expressed in
power of 10.
(iv) It gives due representation to all branches of physics.

Definition of Basic and Supplementary Units of S.I. system

1. Metre (m): one metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.

2. Kilogram (kg): one kilogram is the mass of the platinum-iridium prototype which was
approved by the Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, held in Paris in 1889, and
kept by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures.

3
3. Second (s): one second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of
Cesium-133 atom.

4. Ampere (A) : The ampere is the intensity of a constant current which, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and
placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal
to 2  10-7 newton per metre of length.

5. Kelvin (K): Kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water.

6. Candela (cd): The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that
emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant
intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.

7. Mole (mol): The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of Carbon-12.

Supplementary units:
1. Radian (rad): It is supplementary unit of plane angle. It is the plane angle subtended
at the centre of a circle by an arc of the circle equal to the radius of the circle. It is
denoted by .
= l / r; is length of the arc and is radius of the circle
2. Steradian (sr): It is supplementary unit of solid angle. It is the angle subtended at the
centre of a sphere by a surface area of the sphere having magnitude equal to the
square of the radius of the sphere. It is denoted by Ω.
Ω = ∆s / r2

SOME IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS

Symbol Prefix Multiplier Symbol Prefix Multiplier
d deci 10-1 da deca 101
c centi 10-2 h hecto 102
m milli 10-3 k kilo 103
µ micro 10-6 M mega 106
n nano 10-9 G giga 109
p pico 10-12 T tera 1012
f femto 10-15 P pecta 1015
a atto 10-18 E exa 1018

4
5
 Some Important Units of Length:
1 micron = 10–6 m = 10–4 cm
1 angstrom = 1Å = 10–10 m = 10–8 cm
1 fermi = 1 fm = 10–15 m
1 Light year = 1 ly = 9.46 x 1015m
1 Parsec = 1pc = 3.26 light year

Some conversion factor of mass:

1 kilogram = 2.2046 pound
1 pound = 453.6 gram
1 kilogram = 1000 gram
1 milligram = 1/1000 gram = 10-3 gram
1 centigram = 1/100 gram = 10-2 gram
1 decigram = 1/10 gram
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 metric ton = 1000 kilogram

1.4 DEFINITION OF DIMENSIONS

Dimensions: The powers, to which the fundamental units of mass (M), length (L) and
time (T) are raised, which include their nature and not their magnitude are called
dimensions of a physical quantity.
For example Area = Length x Breadth
= [ L1] × [L1] = [L2] = [M0L2T0]
Here the powers (0, 2, 0) of fundamental units are called dimensions of area in mass,
length and time respectively.
e.g. Density = mass/volume
= [M1]/[L3]
= [ M1L-3T0]

1.5 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND SI UNITS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Dimensional Formula: An expression along with power of mass, length & time which
indicates how physical quantity depends upon fundamental physical quantity.
e.g. Speed = Distance/Time
= [L1]/[T1] =[M0L1T-1]
It tells us that speed depends upon L & T and it does not depend upon M.

Dimensional Equation: An equation obtained by equating the physical quantity with its
dimensional formula is called dimensional equation.
e.g. the dimensional equation of area, density & velocity are given as under-
Area = [M0L2T0]
Density = [M1L-3T0]
Velocity = [M0L1T-1]

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Dimensional formula & SI unit of Physical Quantities
Sr. Physical Mathematical Dimensional S.I unit
No. Quantity Formula formula
1 Force Mass × Acceleration [M1L1T-2] newton (N)
2 Work Force × Distance [M1L2T-2] joule (J)
3 Power Work / Time [M1L2T-3] watt (W)
4 Energy (all form) Stored work [M1L2T-2] joule (J)
5 Pressure, Stress Force/Area [M1L-1T-2] Nm-2
6 Momentum Mass × Velocity [M1L1T-1] kgms-1
7 Moment of force Force × Distance [M1L2T-2] Nm
8 Impulse Force × Time [M1L1T-1] Ns
9 Strain Change in dimension [M0L0T0] No unit
/ Original dimension
10 Modulus of Stress / Strain [M1L-1T-2] Nm-2
elasticity
11 Surface energy Energy / Area [M1L0T-2] joule/m2
12 Surface Tension Force / Length [M1L0T-2] N/m
13 Co-efficient of Force × Distance/ [M1L-1T-1] N/m2
viscosity Area × Velocity
14 Moment of Mass × (radius of [M1L2T0] kg-m2
inertia gyration)2
15 Angular Velocity Angle / Time [M0L0T-1] rad per sec
16 Frequency 1/Time period [M0L0T-1] hertz (Hz)
17 Area Length × Breadth [M0L2T0] m2
18 Volume Length × Breadth × [M0L3T0] m3
Height
19 Density Mass/ Volume [M1L-3T0] kg/m3
20 Speed or velocity Distance/ Time [M0L1T-1] m/s
21 Acceleration Velocity/Time [M0L1T-2] m/s2
22 Pressure Force/Area [M1L-1T-2] N/m2

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Classification of Physical Quantities on the basis of dimensional analysis

1. Dimensional Constant: These are the physical quantities which possess dimensions and
have constant (fixed) value.
e.g. Planck‟s constant, gas constant, universal gravitational constant etc.

2. Dimensional Variable: These are the physical quantities which possess dimensions but do
not have fixed value.
e.g. velocity, acceleration, force etc.

3. Dimensionless Constant: These are the physical quantities which do not possess
dimensions but have constant (fixed) value.
e.g. e, π, numbers like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.

4. Dimensionless Variable: These are the physical quantities which do not possess
dimensions and have variable value.
e.g. angle, strain, specific gravity etc.

Example1 Derive the dimensional formula of following Quantity & write down their
dimensions.
(i) Density (ii) Power
(iii) Co-efficient of viscosity (iv) Angle
Sol. (i) Density = mass/volume
= [M1]/[L3] = [M1L-3T0]
(ii) Power = Work/Time
= Force x Distance/Time
= [M1L1T-2] x [L1]/[T1]
= [M1L2T-3]
(iii) Co-efficient of viscosity = Force x Distance
Area x Velocity
Mass x Acceleration x Distance x time
length x length x Displacement

= [M1] x [L1T-2] x [L1] [T1]/[L2] x [L1]

= [M1L-1T-1]
(v) Angle = arc (length)/radius (length)
= [L1]/[L1]
= [M0L0T0] = No dimension

Example2 Explain which of the following pair of physical quantities have the same
dimension:
(i) Work & Power (ii) Stress & Pressure (iii) Momentum & Impulse

8
 Sol. (i) Dimension of work = force x distance = [M1L2T-2]
Dimension of power = work / time = [M1L2T-3]
Work and Power have not the same dimensions.

(ii) Dimension of stress = force / area = [M1L1T-2]/[L2] = [M1L-1T-2]

Dimension of pressure = force / area = [M1L1T-2]/[L2] = [M1L-1T-2]
Stress and pressure have the same dimension.

(iii) Dimension of momentum = mass x velocity= [M1L1T-1]

Dimension of impulse = force x time = [M1L1T-1]
Momentum and impulse have the same dimension.

PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY OF DIMENSIONS

It states that the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of an equation must be the
same. According to the principle of homogeneity, the comparison, addition & subtraction of
all physical quantities is possible only if they are of the same nature i.e., they have the same
dimensions.
If the power of M, L and T on two sides of the given equation are same, then the
physical equation is correct otherwise not. Therefore, this principle is very helpful to check
the correctness of a physical equation.
Example: A physical relation must be dimensionally homogeneous, i.e., all the terms on both
sides of the equation must have the same dimensions.
In the equation, S = ut + ½ at2
The length (S) has been equated to velocity (u) & time (t), which at first seems to be
meaningless, but if this equation is dimensionally homogeneous, i.e., the dimensions of all
the terms on both sides are the same, then it has physical meaning.
Now, dimensions of various quantities in the equation are:
Distance, S = [L1]
Velocity, u = [L1T-1]
Time, t = [T1]
Acceleration, a = [L1T-2]
½ is a constant and has no dimensions.
Thus, the dimensions of the term on L.H.S. is S=[L1] and
Dimensions of terms on R.H.S=
ut + ½ at2 = [L1T-1] [T1] + [L1T-2] [T2] = [L1] + [L1]
Here, the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of the equation are the same.
Therefore, the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.

1.6 DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS, APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL

EQUATIONS
Dimensional Analysis: A careful examination of the dimensions of various quantities
involved in a physical relation is called dimensional analysis. The analysis of the dimensions
of a physical quantity is of great help to us in a number of ways as discussed under the uses
of dimensional equations.
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Uses of dimensional equation: The principle of homogeneity & dimensional analysis has put
to the following uses:
(i) Checking the correctness of physical equation.
(ii) To convert a physical quantity from one system of units into another.
(iii) To derive relation among various physical quantities.

1. To check the correctness of Physical relations: According to principle of Homogeneity

of dimensions, a physical relation or equation is correct, if the dimensions of all the terms
on both sides of the equation are the same. If the dimension of even one term differs from
those of others, the equation is not correct.

Example 3 Check the correctness of the following formulae by dimensional analysis.

(i) (ii) t  2 l g
Where all the letters have their usual meanings
Sol.
Dimensions of the term on L.H.S
Force, F = [M1L1T-2]
Dimensions of the term on R.H.S
= [M1][L1T-1]2 / [L]
= [M1L2T-2]/ [L]
= [M1L1T-2]
The dimensions of the term on the L.H.S are equal to the dimensions of the term on
R.H.S. Therefore, the relation is correct.

(ii) t  2 l g
Here, Dimension of term on L.H.S
t = [T1] = [M0L0T1]
Dimensions of terms on R.H.S
Dimension of length = [L1]
Dimension of g (acc. due to gravity) = [L1T-2]
2 being constant have no dimensions.
Hence, the dimensions of terms t  2 l g on R.H.S
= (L1/ L1T-2])1/2 = [T1] = [M0L0T1]
Thus, the dimensions of the terms on both sides of the relation are the same i.e.,
[M0L0T1]. Therefore, the relation is correct.

Example 4 Check the correctness of the following equation on the basis of dimensional
E
analysis, v  . Here v is the velocity of sound, E is the elasticity and d is the density
d
of the medium.
Sol. Here, Dimension of the term on L.H.S

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 v = [M0L1T-1]
Dimension of elasticity, E = [M1L-1T-2]
& Dimension of density, d = [M1L-3T0]
Therefore, dimensions of the terms on R.H.S
E
v = [M1L-1T-2/ M1L-1T-2]1/2 = [M0L1T-1]
d
Thus, dimensions on both sides are the same, hence the equation is correct.

Example 5 Using Principle of Homogeneity of dimensions, check the correctness of

equation, h = 2Td /rgcos .
Sol. The given formula is, h = 2Td /rgcos .
Dimension of term on L.H.S
Height (h) = [M0L1T0]
Dimensions of terms on R.H.S
T= surface tension = [M1L0T-2]
d= density = [M1L-3T0]
r = radius = [M0L1T0]
g = acc. due to gravity = [M0L1T-2]
cos = [M0L0T0] = no dimensions
So, the dimensions of 2Td/rgcos = [M1L0T-2] x [M1L-3T0] / [M0L1T0] x [M0L1T-2]
= [M2L-5T0]
Dimensions of terms on L.H.S are not equal to dimensions on R.H.S. Hence, formula is
not correct.

Example 6 Check the accuracy of the following relations:

(i) E = mgh + ½ mv2; (ii) v3-u2 = 2as2.

Sol. (i) E = mgh + ½ mv2

Here, dimensions of the term on L.H.S.
Energy, E = [M1L2T-2]
Dimensions of the terms on R.H.S,
Dimensions of the term, mgh = [M] ×[LT-2] × [L] = [M1L2T-2]
Dimensions of the term, ½ mv2= [M] × [LT-1]2= [M1L2T-2]
Thus, dimensions of all the terms on both sides of the relation are same; therefore, the
relation is correct.

(ii) The given relation is,

v3-u2= 2as2
Dimensions of the terms on L.H.S
v3 = [M0] × [LT-1]3= [M0L3T-3]
u2 = [M0] × [LT-1]2= [M0L2T-2]
Dimensions of the terms on R.H.S
2as2 = [M0] × [LT-2] ×[L]2 = [M0L3T-2]

11
 Substituting the dimensions in the relations, v3-u2 = 2as2
We get, [M0L3T-3] - [M0L2T-2] = [M0L3T-2]
The dimensions of all the terms on both sides are not same; therefore, the relation is not
correct.

Example 7 The velocity of a particle is given in terms of time t by the equation

b
v = at +
tc
What are the dimensions of a, b and c?

Sol. Dimensional formula for L.H.S

V = [L1T-1]
In the R.H.S dimensional formula of at
[T] = [L1T-1]
a = [LT-1] / [T-1] = [L1T-2]
t +c = time, c has dimensions of time and hence is added in t.
Dimensions of t + c is [T]
b
Now, =v
tc
b = v (t + c) = [LT-1] [T] = [L]
There dimensions of a = [L1T-2], dimensions of b = [L] and that of c = [T]

Example 8 In the gas equation (P + a/v2) (v – b) = RT, where T is the absolute

temperature, P is pressure and v is volume of gas. What are dimensions of a and b?
Sol. Like quantities are added or subtracted from each other i.e.
(P + a/v2) has dimensions of pressure = [M1L-1T-2]
Hence, a/v2 will be dimensions of pressure = [M1L-1T-2]
a = [M1L-1T-2] [volume]2 = [M1L-1T-2] [L3]2
a = [M1L-1T-2] [L6] = [M1L5T-2]
Dimensions of a = [ML5T-2]
(v – b) have dimensions of volume i.e.,
b will have dimensions of volume i.e., [L3]
or [M0L3T0]

2. To convert a physical quantity from one system of units into another.

Physical quantity can be expressed as
Q = nu
Let n1u1 represent the numerical value and unit of a physical quantity in one system and
n2u2 in the other system.
If for a physical quantity Q; M1L1T1be the fundamental unit in one system and
M2L2T2 be fundamental unit of the other system and dimensions in mass, length and time
in each system can be respectively a,b,c.

u1 = [ M1aL1bT1c]

12
 u2 = [ M2aL2bT2c]
As we know
n1u1 = n2u2
n2 =n1u1/u2
 M1a L1bT1c 
n2  n1  a b c 
 M 2 L2T2 
 
 M a  L b  T c 
n2  n1  1   1   1  
 M 2   L2   T2  
While applying the above relations the system of unit as first system in which numerical
value of physical quantity is given and the other as second system
Thus knowing [M1L1T1], [M2L2T2] a, b, c and n1, we can calculate n2.

Example 9 Convert a force of 1 newton to dyne.

Sol. To convert the force from MKS system to CGS system, we need the equation
Q = n1u1 = n2u2
n1u1
Thus n2 
u2
Here n1 = 1, u1 = 1N, u2 = dyne
 M1L1T12 
n2  n1  
 M 2 L2T22 
 
2
 M  L  T 
n2  n1  1  1  1 
 M 2  L2  T2 
2
 kg   m  s 
n2  n1     
 gm   cm  s 
2
 1000 gm   100cm  s 
n2  n1    
 gm   cm  s 
n2  1(1000)(100)
n2  105
Thus 1N= 105 dynes.

Example 10 Convert work of 1 erg into joule.

Sol: Here we need to convert work from CGS system to MKS system
Thus in the equation
n1u1
n2 
u2
n1 =1
u1 = erg (CGS unit of work)
u2 = joule (SI unit of work)

13
 n1u1
n2 
u2
M1L12T12
n2  n1
M 2 L22T22
2 2
 M  L   T 
n2  n1  1  1   1 
 M 2  L2   T2 
2
 gm   cm   s 
2
n2  n1     
 kg   m   s 
2
 gm   cm   s 
2
n2  n1     
 1000 gm   100cm   s 
n2  1(103 )(102 )2 n2  107
Thus, 1 erg = 107 joule.

Example 11 Convert acceleration of 5m/s2 to cm/s2.

Solution Here we need to convert work from MKS system to CGS system.
Thus in the equation
n1u1
n2 
u2
n1 =1
u1 = m/s2 (SI unit of acceleration)
u2 = cm/s2 (CGS unit of acceleration)
n1u1
n2 
u2
L1T12
n2  n1
L2T22
2
 L  T 
n2  n1  1  1 
 L2  T2 
1 2
 m  s
n2  n1    
 cm   s 
2
 100cm  s 
n2  n1   
 cm  s 
n2  5(100) n2  500

******

14
 EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
Q1) Dimensional formula of Acceleration is:
a) M1L1T-1
b) M0L1T-2
c) M1L2T1
d) M0L0T3
Q2 Full form of FPS is given as
a) Mass, Kilogram, Second
b) Foot, Pound, Second
c) Force, Power, Sound
d) Second, Pound, Foot
Q3 SI system of units is also known as
a) International system of units
b) Intelligent system
c) Integrated system
d) none
Q4) Which is not a system of units?
a) FPS
b) MKS
c) SI
d) MLT
Q5) SI unit of temperature is_______
a) Celsius
b) Fahrenheit
c) Kelvin
d) Reumer
Q6 Pascal is the SI unit of
a) Force
b) Pressure
c) Work
d) Power
Q7) The quantity which has same dimension as that of energy is
a) Work
b) Power
c) Force
d) Stress
1 2 -3
Q8) M L T is the dimensional formula of
a) Force
b) Work
c) Power
d) Velocity
15
Q9) Which of the following is not a derived unit
a) Mole
b) Joule
c) Newton
d) m/s
Q10) The fundamental unit which is common in FPS and CGS system is
a) Foot
b) Gram
c) Pound
d) second

Answers: 1 (b), 2 (b), 3 (a), 4 (d), 5 (c), 6(b), 7 (a), 8 (c), 9 (a), 10 (d)

Fill in the blanks:

1. The dimensional formula for coefficient of friction is ……………..
2. The dimensional formula for Modulus of elasticity is ……………..
3. 105 fermi is equal to ……………..angstrom.
4. The unit of angular velocity is…………………….
5. The unit for measuring the luminous intensity is ………………..
6. The displacement of particle moving along x-axis with respect to time is x=at+bt2-ct3.
The dimension of c is ……………..
7. Dimensional formula of Strain is ______.
8. Full form of MKS is __________.
9. The dimensional formula of work is__________.
10. S.I. unit stress is_______
11. Dimensional formula for force is _____________
12. The unit for measuring the luminous intensity is ___________
13. A quantity which has same dimension as pressure is _____________
14. The displacement of particle moving along x-axis with respect to time is x=at+bt2-ct3.
The dimension of c is __________
15. ___________is a dimensionless quantity.
16. SI unit of electric current is__________

Short Answer Questions

1. Define Physics.
2. Define physical quantity.
3. Differentiate between fundamental and derived unit.
4. Write full form of the following system of units
(i) CGS (ii) FPS (iii) MKS
5. Write definition of Dimensions.
6. What is the suitable unit for measuring distance between sun and earth?
7. Write the dimensional formula of the following physical quantity -
16
 (i) Momentum (ii) Power (iii) Surface Tension (iv) Strain v) density
8. State principle of Homogeneity of Dimensions.
9. Write the S.I & C.G.S units of the following physical quantities-
(a) Force (b) Work

Long Answer Questions

1. Check the correctness of the relation = h /mv; where is wavelength, h- Planck‟s
constant, m is mass of the particle and v - velocity of the particle.
2. Explain different types of system of units.
3. Convert 1 dyne to newton.
4. Check the correctness of the following relation by using method of dimensions
(i) v = u + at
(ii) F = mv / r2
(iii) v2 – u2 = 2as
5. Convert an acceleration of 100 m/s2 into km/h2.

17
 Chapter 2
FORCE AND MOTION
Learning objective: After going through this chapter, students will be able to
- Understand scalar and vector quantities, addition of vectors, scalar and vector
products etc.
- State and apply Newton’s laws of motion.
- Describe linear momentum, circular motion, application of centripetal force.

2.1 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Scalar Quantities:
Scalar quantities are those quantities which have only magnitude but no direction.
Examples: Mass, length, density, volume, energy, temperature, distance, speed,
electric charge, current, electric potential etc.

Vector Quantities:
Vector quantities are those quantities which are having both magnitude as well as
direction.
Examples: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, electric intensity, magnetic
intensity etc.

Representation of Vector: A vector is represented by a straight line with an arrow head.

Here, the length of the line represents the magnitude and arrow head gives the direction of
vector.

Figure: 2.1

Types of Vectors
Negative Vectors: The negative of a vector is defined as another vector having same
magnitude but opposite in direction.
i. e. any vector ⃗ and its negative vector [– ⃗] are shown in Fig.2.2.

Figure: 2.2 Figure: 2.3

Equal Vector: Two or more vectors are said to be equal, if they have same magnitude and
same direction. If ⃗ and ⃗⃗ are two equal vectors then

18
Unit Vector: A vector divided by its magnitude is called a unit vector. It has a magnitude one
unit and direction same as the direction of given vector. It is denoted by ̂ (A cap).
⃗
̂
Collinear Vectors: Two or more vectors having equal or unequal magnitudes, but having
same direction are called collinear vectors

Figure: 2.4
Zero Vector: A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary direction (be not fixed) is called
zero vector. It is denoted by O.

Co-initial Vector: are two or more vectors which have the same initial point. Vector OA and
OB are co-initial vector here.

Figure: 2.5
Co-Planner Vector: the vectors which lie on the same plane, in a three-dimensional space.
These are vectors which are parallel to the same plane.

Figure: 2.6
Position Vector: straight line having one end fixed to a body and the other end is used to
describe the position of the point relative to the body. E.g. “OP” is shown as position vector
in fig.

19
 Figure: 2.7

2.2 LAWS OF ADDITION OF VECTORS

(i) Triangle law of vector addition.

It two vectors can be represented in magnitude

and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in the
same order, then the resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction, by third side of the triangle
taken in the opposite order (Fig. 2.8).

Magnitude of the resultant is given by

Figure: 2.8
√
And direction of the resultant is given by

(ii) Parallelogram (||gm) law of vectors addition:

It states that if two vectors, acting simultaneously at a point, can have represented both in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, the resultant is represented
by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point (Fig. 2.9).

Magnitude of the resultant is given by

√
And direction of the resultant is given by

Figure: 2.9

20
2.3 SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCT
Multiplication of Vectors
(i) Scalar (or dot) Product: of two vectors is defined as the product of magnitude of two
vectors and the cosine of the smaller angle between them. The dot product of vectors ⃗ and ⃗⃗
can be represented as

Figure: 2.10

(ii) Vector (or Cross) Product: of two vectors is defined as a vector having a magnitude
equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the angle between them
and is in the direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors.
Thus, the vector product of two vectors A and B is equal to
⃗ ⃗⃗ ̂

2.4 DEFINITION OF DISTANCE, DISPLACEMENT, SPEED, VELOCITY,

ACCELERATION
Distance: The path covered by an object during it motion is called distance. Distance is a
scalar quantity. SI unit is metre (m).

Displacement: The shortest distance between the two points is called displacement. It is a
vector quantity.
SI unit is metre.
Dimension formula: [L]

Speed: The rate of change of distance is called speed. Speed is a scalar quantity.
distance
speed 
time
-1
Unit: ms .

Linear Velocity: The time rate of change of displacement.

Units of Velocity: ms-1

Dimension formula = [M0L1T-1]

Acceleration: The change in velocity per unit time. i.e. the time rate of change of velocity.

21
 If the velocity increases with time, the acceleration „a‟ is positive. If the velocity decreases
with time, the acceleration „a‟ is negative. Negative acceleration is also known as
retardation.
Units of acceleration:
C.G.S. unit is cm/s2 (cms-2) and the SI unit is m/s2 (ms-2).
Dimension formula = [M0L1T-2]

FORCE
Force: Force is an agent that produces acceleration in the body on which it acts.
Or
It is a push or a pull which change or tends to change the position of the body at rest or in
uniform motion. Force is a vector quantity.
For example,
(i) To move a football, we have to exert a push i.e., kick on the football
(ii) To stop football or a body moving with same velocity, we have to apply push in a
direction opposite to the direction of the body.
SI unit is newton.
Dimension formula: [MLT-2]

Concept of Resolution of a Force

The phenomenon of breaking a given force into two or more forces in different
directions is known as resolution of force. The forces obtained on splitting the given force are
called components of the given force.
If these are at right angles to each other, then these components are called
rectangular components.

Let a force F be represented

by a line OP. Let OB (or Fx)
is component of F along x-axis
and OC (or Fy) is component
along y-axis (Fig. 2.11).

Let force F makes an angle θ

with x-axis.
In Δ OPB
OB Figure: 2.11
sin =
OP
or PB = OP sin
Fy = F sin
OB
cos =
OP
OB = OP cos
Fx = F cos

22
 Vector ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
So, resultant: √

2.5 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

Sir Isaac Newton gave three fundamental laws. These laws are called Newton's laws of
motion. These are

Newton’s First Law: It states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line until some external force is applied on it.
For example, the book lying on a table will not move at its own. It does not change its
position from the state of rest until no external force is applied on it.

Newton’s Second law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the applied force and the change takes place in the direction of force applied.
Or
Acceleration produced in a body is directly proportional to force applied.
Let us consider a body of mass m is moving with a velocity u. Let a force F be applied so
that its
velocity changes from u to v in t second.
Initial momentum = mu
Final momentum after time t second = mv
Total change in momentum = mv-mu.
Thus, the rate of change of momentum will be

From Newton's second law

mv  mu m(v  m)
F or F 
t t

v  u Change in velocity
but = = acceleration (a)
t time
Hence, we have
F  ma
or F = k ma
Where k is constant of proportionality, for convenience let k = 1.
Then F = ma

Units of force:
One dyne is that much force which produces an acceleration of 1cm/s 2 in a mass of 1
gm.
1 dyne = 1 gm x 1 cm/s 2
= 1 gm cm s-2

23
 One newton is that much force which produces an acceleration of 1 m/s 2 in a mass of
1kg.
Using F = ma
1N = 1 kg x 1 m/s 2
or = 1 kgm/s2
IN =1000 gm×100 cm/s 2 = 10 5 dyne

Newton’s Third law: it state that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction or
action and reaction are equal and opposite.
When a body exerts a force on another body, the other body also exerts an equal force
on the first body but in opposite direction.
From Newton's third law these forces always occur in pairs. If two bodies A and B applies
force on each other, then
FAB (force on A by B) = -FBA (force on B by A)

2.6 LINEAR MOMENTUM, CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM, IMPULSE

Linear Momentum (p): The quantity of motion contained in the body is linear
momentum. It is given by product of mass and the velocity of the body. It is a vector and its
direction is the same as the direction of the velocity.
Let m be the mass and v is the velocity of a body at some instant, then its linear
momentum is given by p = mv
Example, a fast-moving cricket ball has more momentum in it than a slow moving one. But a
slow-moving heavy roller has more momentum than a fast cricket ball.

Units of momentum:
The SI unit is kg m/s i.e. kgms-1
Dimension formula = [M1L1T-1]

Law of conservation of Momentum

It states that if external force acting on a system of bodies is zero then the total linear
momentum of a system always remains constant. As we know from newton‟s second
law of motion
dp
F=
dt
i.e. If F=0
dp
Thus, F= 0
dt
Hence, p (momentum) is constant.

24
Application of law of conservation of momentum
Recoil of the Gun: When a bullet is fired with a gun the bullet moves in forward direction
and gun is recoiled/pushed backwards. Let
m = mass of bullet
u = velocity of bullet
M = mass of gun
V = velocity of gun
The gun and bullet form an isolated system, so the total momentum of gun and bullet
before firing = 0
Total momentum of gun and bullet after firing= mu + MV
Using law of conservation of momentum
0 = m.u + M.v
MV = -mu

This is the expression for recoil velocity of gun.

Here negative sign shows that motion of the gun is in opposite direction to that of the
bullet. Also, velocity of gun is inversely proportional to its mass. Lesser the mass,
larger will be the recoil velocity of the gun.

Impulse
Impulse is defined as the total change in momentum produced by the impulsive force.
OR
Impulse may be defined as the product of force and time and is equal to the total
change in momentum of the body.
F.t = p2– p1= total change in momentum

Example: A kick given to a football or blow made with hammer.

SI unit: Ns

2.7 CIRCULAR MOTION

The motion of a body in a circle of fixed radius is called circular motion.
For example, the motion of a stone tied to a string when whirled in the air is a circular
motion.

Angular Displacement (θ): The angle subtended by a body while moving in a circle is
called angular displacement.
Consider a body moves in a circle, starting from A to B so
that BOA is called angular displacement

The SI unit of angular displacement is radian (rad.)

25
 Figure: 2.12
Angular Velocity: Angular velocity of a body moving in a circle is the rate of change of
angular displacement with time. It is denoted by ω (omega)
If θ is the angular displacement in time t then


t
SI unit of angular velocity is rad/s

Time Period: Time taken by a body moving in a circle to complete one cycle is called time
period. It is denoted by T

Frequency (n): The number of cycles completed by a body in one second is called
frequency. It is reciprocal of time period;

Angular Acceleration: The time rate of change of angular velocity of a body.

It is denoted by α. Let angular velocity of a body moving in a circle change from ω1
to ω2 in time t, then

SI unit of „‟ is rad/s2

Relationship between linear and angular velocity

Consider a body moving in a circle of radius r Let it start from A and reaches to B after
time t, so that BOA = θ (Fig. 2.9). Now

Dividing both sides by time (t), we get

s
Here  v is linear velocity
t

And   is angular velocity
t
Hence

CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES

Centripetal Force: The force acting along the radius towards the centre of circle to keep a
body moving with uniform speed in a circular path is called centripetal force. It is denoted by
FC.

26
 For example, a stone tied at one end of a string whose other end is held in hand, when
round in the air, the centripetal force is supplied by the tension in the string.

Centrifugal Force:
A body moving in circle with uniform speed experience a force in a direction away from
the centre of the circle. This force is called centrifugal force.
For example, cream is separated from milk by using centrifugal force. When milk is
rotated in cream separator, cream particles in the milk being lighter, experience less
centrifugal force.

APPLICATION OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE IN BANKING OF ROADS

Banking of Roads: While travelling on a road, you must have noticed that the outer edge of
circular road is slightly raised above as compared to the inner edge of road. This is called
banking of roads (Fig. 2.13).

Angle of Banking: The angle through which the outer edge of circular road is raised above
the inner edge of circular roads is called angle of banking.

Application of centripetal force in banking of roads

Let m = mass of vehicle
r = radius of circular road
v = uniform speed (velocity) of vehicle
θ = angle of banking
At the body two forces act. Figure 2.10
(i) Weight (mg) of vehicle vertically downwards.
(ii) Normal reaction (R).
R makes an angle θ and resolves the forces into two components
(i) Rsinθ towards the centre
(ii) Rcosθ vertically upwards and balance by weight of (mg) vehicle
mv 2 Figure: 2.13
Rsinθ provides the necessary centripetal force ( )
r
mv2
Rsin  - - - - - (1)
r
and R cosθ = mg - - - - -(2)
Divide equation 1 by 2
mv 2
RSin
 r
R cos  mg

27
 ( )

2.8 ROTATIONAL MOTION

The rotation of a body about fixed axis is called Rotational motion. For example,
(i) Motion of a wheel about its axis
(ii) Rotation of earth about its axis.

2.9 DEFINITION OF TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Torque ()
It is measured as the product of magnitude of force and perpendicular distance of the line
of action of force from the axis of rotation.
It is denoted by τ,
  Fxr
Where F is external force and r is
perpendicular distance.

Unit: newton (N)

Dimension Formula: [M1L2T-2]

Figure: 2.14
Angular Momentum (L)
Angular momentum of a rotating body about its axis of rotation is the algebraic sum of
the linear momentum of its particles about the axis. It is denoted by L. It is vector
quantity.

L = momentum × perpendicular distance

L= p × r

or L= mvr

Unit: Kg m2/sec

Dimensional Formula = [ML2T–1]

MOMENT OF INERTIA AND ITS PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Moment of Inertia of a rotating body about an axis is defined as the sum of the product
of the mass of various particles constituting the body and square of respective
perpendicular distance of different particles of the body from the axis of rotation.

28
Expression for the Moment of Inertia:
Let us consider a rigid body of mass M having n number of
particles revolving about any axis. Let m1, m2, m3 ..., mn be
the masses of particles at distance r1, r2, r3... rn from the
axis of rotation respectively (Fig. 2.15).

Moment of Inertia of whole body

I = m1r12 + m2r22 + ... mnrn2 Figure: 2.15
n
or I   mi ri2
i 1

Physical Significance of Moment of Inertia

It is totally analogous to the concept of inertial mass. Moment of inertia plays the
same role in rotational motion as that of mass in translational motion. In rotational motion, a
body, which is free to rotate about a given axis, opposes any change in state of rotation.
Moment of Inertia of a body depends on the distribution of mass in a body with respect to the
axis of rotation.

Example 1. What torque will produce an acceleration of 2 rad/s2 in a body if moment of

inertia is 500 kg m2?
Sol. Here, I = 500 kg m2
α = 2 rad/s2
Now, torque τ = I× α
= 500 kgm2 × 2 rad/s2 = 1000 kg m2s–2
= 1000 Nm or J
Example2. An engine is rotating at the rate of 1500 rev. per minute. Find its angular velocity.
Sol. Here, Revolution per minute of engine, n= 1500
Angular velocity   2 n
22 1500
Or   2 
7 60
  157.1 rad/s
Example 3. How large a torque is needed to accelerate a wheel, for which I = 2 kgm2,
from rest to 30 r.p.s in 20 seconds?
Sol. Here, Moment of inertia, I = 2 kgm2
R.P.S after 20 sec, n = 30

Initial velocity, ω1 = 0

Final velocity, ω2 = 2 x π x 30 = 188.4 rad/s.

2  1 188.4  0
Angular acceleration = = = 9.43 rad/s2.
t 20
Now, torque, τ = I× α
= 2 kg m2× 9.43 rad/s2
= 18.86 Nm or J

29
Example 4. If a point on the rim of wheel 4 m in diameter has a linear velocity of 16 m/ s,
find the angular velocity of wheel in rad/sec.
Diameter 4
Sol. Radius of wheel (R) = = =2m
2 2
From the relation v  r
v 16
  = 8 rad/s.
r 2

Angular velocity of wheel is 8 rad/s.

*****

EXERCISES

Q1) SI unit of force is

a) Joule
b) Newton
c) dyne
d) Pascal
Q2) Identify the vector quantity
a) Time
b) Work
c) Heat
d) Angular momentum
Q3) Newton‟s second law is also known as
a) Law of inertia
b) Law of action
c) Gravitational law
d) Real law of motion
Q4) Swimming is possible on account of Newton‟s
a) First law of motion
b) Third law of motion
c) Second law of motion
d) Law of gravitation
Q5) The rate of change of momentum is proportional to
a) Force
b) Impulse
c) Acceleration
d) None of them
Q6) To rotate a body, we need
a) Torque
b) Momentum
c) Velocity

30
 d) None of them
Q7) Momentum has same dimension as that of
a) Force
b) Pressure
c) Impulse
d) None of the above
Q8) The maximum possible number of rectangular components of a vector are

a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
Q9) The acceleration of the particle performing uniform circular motion is
a) 1
b) 0
c) Maximum
d) Minimum

Answers: 1 (b), 2 (d), 3 (d), 4 (b), 5 (a), 6 (a), 7 (c), 8 (b), 9 (b)

Fill in the blanks:

1. Force is ______ a quantity.
2. Time is a ______ quantity
3. Dimensional formula of velocity is ____.
4. Recoil of gun is an example of conservation of ______.
5. Formula for angular momentum is ___________.
6. The unit of angular velocity is____________
7. Torque has same dimensional formula as that of ___________.
8. Centripetal force always acts ____________ the centre of the circle.
9. Railway tracks are banked at the curves so that the necessary ___________force
may be obtained from the horizontal component of the reaction on the train.
10. The angle through which the outer edge of a circular road is raised above its inner
edge is called ___________
11. A force which acts for a small time and also varies with time is called__________
12. The formula for radius of gyration is_______________

Short Answer Type Questions

1. State and explain laws of vector addition.
2. Explain resolution of a vector.
3. How is impulse related to linear momentum?
4. Define circular motion. Give examples.
5. Define banking of roads.
3. Define scalar and vector quantities with examples.
4. Define resolution and composition of forces.

31
 5. Define impulse.
6. Why does a gun recoil when a bullet is fired?
7. Differentiate between centripetal and centrifugal forces.
8. An artificial satellite takes 90 minutes to complete its revolution around the earth.
Calculate the angular speed of satellite. [Ans. 2700 rad/sec]
9. Define Force. Give its units.
10. Define Triangle law of vector addition.
11. State parallelogram law of vector addition.
12. Define torque.
13. Define rotational inertia or moment of inertia. Give its SI unit.

Long Answer Type Questions

1. Explain Newton‟s Law of Motion.
2. Explain Banking of Roads.
3. State law of conservation of momentum.
4. Derive relationship between linear and angular velocity.
5. Define moment of inertia. Explain its physical significance.

32
 Chapter 3
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Learning objective: After going through this chapter, students will be able to;
- Understand work, energy and power, their units and dimensions.
- Describe different types of energies and energy conservation.
- Solve relevant numerical problems

3.1 WORK (DEFINITION, SYMBOL, FORMULA AND SI UNITS)

Work: is said to be done when the force applied on a body displaces it through certain
distance in the direction of applied force.
Work = Force × Displacement
 
In vector form, it is written as F . S = FS Cos
It is measured as the product of the magnitude of force and the distance covered by the
body in the direction of the force. It is a scalar quantity.

Unit: SI unit of work is joule (J). In CGS system, unit of work is erg.
1J = 107 ergs
Dimension of work = [M1L2T–2]

POSITIVE, NEGATIVE AND ZERO WORK

Positive work- If the angle between force and displacement vector is less than 900, then work
done is said to be positive. For example-in case of push or pull of an object, work done is
positive.

Negative work- If the angle between force and displacement vector is 1800, then work done
is negative as force acts opposite to displacement. For example, work done by frictional force
is negative as it opposes the motion.

Zero work-If the angle between force and displacement vector is 900, then their dot product
is zero and hence work done is zero. For example, if a coolie moves with a load on his head,
then work done is zero as the force acts downward and displacement is in horizontal
direction.

Example1. What work is done in dragging a block 10 m horizontally when a 50 N force is

applied by a rope making an angle of 30° with the ground?
Sol. Here, F = 50 N, S = 10 m, = 30
W = FS Cos θ
W = 50 × 10 × Cos 30°
W  50x10x 3 2
= 612.4 J

Example2. A man weighing 50 kg supports a body of 25 kg on head. What is the work done

33
when he moves a distance of 20 m?
Sol. Total mass = 50 + 25 = 75 kg
θ = 90°
Distance = 20 m
W = FS × 0 (Cos 90o = 0)
W =0
Thus, work done is zero.

Example3. A man weighing 50 kg carries a load of 10 kg on his head. Find the work done
when he goes (i) 15 m vertically up (ii) 15 m on a levelled path on the ground.
Sol. Mass of the man, m1= 50 kg
Mass carried by a man, m2 = 10 kg
Total mass M = m1 + m2 = 50 + 10 = 60 kg.
When the man goes vertically up,
Height through which he rises, h = 15 m
W = mgh = 60 × 9.8 × 15 = 8820 J
When the man goes on a levelled path on the ground
W= FS Cosθ
As θ =90 , therefore, Cos 90o= 0
o

Hence W= F×S×0 =0

3.2 FRICTION– DEFINITION AND ITS SIMPLE DAILY LIFE APPLICATIONS

It is that opposing force which comes into play when a body tends to slide or actually sliding
over the surface of another body.

The surface of a solid body is never perfectly smooth. Even a surface which appears
smooth to the naked eye, when highly magnified, shows considerable roughness. Thus when a
body B is placed over another body A, the irregularities of
the two surfaces get interlocked as shown in Fig. 3.1- To
remove this interlocking, we have to apply a force. Thus
when two bodies are in contact and one moves or tends to
move over the other, there is always a force which opposes
the motion. Such resistance to motion is called friction.
Figure: 3.1
LAWS OF FRICTION

The following are the four laws of limiting

friction:

1. The force of friction always acts in a

direction opposite to the direction of motion.
2. The force of limiting friction (F) is directly
proportional to the normal reaction (R)
between the two surfaces in contact i.e. F α
R.
3. The force of limiting friction depends upon the material and nature of the surfaces in

34 Figure: 3.2
 contact.
4. The force of limiting friction is independent of the apparent area of contact, so
long as normal reaction between the two bodies in contact remains the same.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
We know that FaR

or F=μR

Here μ (mu) is a constant of proportionality and is called the co-efficient of friction.

Thus, co-efficient of friction for any pair of surfaces in contact is equal to the ratio of the
limiting friction and the normal reaction. Since it is a pure ratio, has got no units and its value
depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact. Further, μ is always less than unity and is
never equal to zero.

Daily Life Examples

1. Driving of a vehicle on a surface
2. Applying brakes to stop a moving vehicle
3. Skating
4. Walking on the road
5. Writing on notebook/ blackboard
6. Flying of aeroplanes
7. Drilling a nail into wall
8. Sliding on a garden slide
9. Lighting a matchstick
10. Dusting a foot mat/ carpet by beating it with a stick

3.3 POWER (DEFINITION, FORMULA AND UNITS)

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done by a force. The work done per unit
time is also called power.
W
If a body do work W in time t, then power is P 
t
Units of Power: SI unit of power is watt (W)
1J
1W 
1s
Power is said to be 1 W, if 1 J work is done in 1 s.

Bigger units of power are:

kilowatt (kW) = 103W
Megawatt (MW) = 106 W
Horse power (hp) = 746 W

Dimension of power = [M1 L2T-3]

35
36
3.4 ENERGY
Energy of a body is defined as the capacity of the body to do the work. Like work, energy is
also a scalar quantity.
Unit: SI system – joule (J), CGS system - erg
Dimensional Formula: [ML2 T–2].

Transformation of Energy
The phenomenon of changing energy from one form to another form is called transformation
of energy. For example-
 In a heat engine, heat energy changes into mechanical energy
 In an electric bulb, the electric energy changes into light energy.
 In an electric heater, the electric energy changes into heat energy.
 In a fan, the electric energy changes into mechanical energy which rotates the fan.
 In the sun, mass changes into radiant energy.
 In an electric motor, the electric energy is converted into mechanical energy.
 In burning of coal, oil etc., chemical energy changes into heat and light energy.
 In a dam, potential energy of water changes into kinetic energy, then K.E rotates the
turbine which produces the electric energy.
 In an electric bell, electric energy changes into sound energy.
 In a generator, mechanical energy is converted into the electric energy.

3.5 KINETIC ENERGY (FORMULA, EXAMPLES AND ITS DERIVATION)

Kinetic Energy (K.E.): the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motions is called
kinetic energy.
For example (i) running water (ii) Moving bullet.

Expression for Kinetic Energy

Consider F is the force acting on the body at rest (i.e., u = 0), then it moves in the
direction of force to distance (s).

Figure: 3.3
Let v be the final velocity.
Using relation v2  u 2  2aS
v2  u 2
a
2S
v2  0
a
2S

37
 v2
a --------------(1)
2S
Now, work done, W= FS
or W= maS (using F =ma) ------------- (2)
By equation (1) and (2)
v2
W  m. .S
2S
or W  2 mv2
1

This work done is stored in the body as kinetic energy. So kinetic energy possessed by the
body is (K.E.) = 12 mv2

3.6 POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential Energy (P.E.): the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position is called
potential energy. Example
(i) Water stored in a dam
(ii) Mango hanging on the branch of a tree

Expression for Potential Energy (P.E)

It is defined as the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position above the surface of
earth.
W = FS m
Work done = Force × height
= mg × h = mgh
h
This work done is stored in the form of gravitational potential energy.
Hence Potential energy =mgh.

Figure: 3.4

38
3.7 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be converted from one form to
another.

CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY OF A FREE FALLING BODY

Let us consider K.E., P.E. and total energy of a body of mass m falling freely under gravity
from a height h from the surface of ground.

According to Fig. 3.5

At position A:
Initial velocity of body (u) = 0
K.E = 12 mv2
P. E. = mgh

Total Energy = K.E + P.E

= 0 + mgh
= mgh ------------- (1)
At position B
Potential energy = mg(h – x) Figure: 3.5
Velocity at point B = u
From equation of motion K.E. = 1
2 mu2
As V 2  U 2  2aS
Hence u2  02  2gx
or u2  2gx
Putting this value we get, KE= 12 m(2gx)
or K.E. = mgx
Total Energy = K.E + P.E
= mgx + mg(h – x)
= mgh --------(2)
At position C
Potential energy = 0 (as h = 0)
Velocity at Point B = v
From equation of motion K.E. = 12 mv2

As V 2  U 2  2aS
Hence v2  02  2gh
or v2  2gh
Putting this value we get KE= 12 m(2gh)
or K.E. = mgh

39
 Total Energy = K.E + P.E
= mgh + 0
= mgh ---------(3)
From equations (1), (2) and (3), it is clear that total mechanical energy of freely falling body
at all the positions is same and hence remains conserved.

Example 4 A spring extended by 20 mm possesses a P.E. of 10 J. What will be P.E., if the

extension of spring becomes 30 mm?
Sol. h = 20 mm = 20 × 10–3 m
g = 9.8 ms–2, m =?
P.E = mgh = 10 J
i.e., m × 9.8 × 20 × 10–3 = 10 J
10
m
9.8x20x103
m =51.02 kg
When extension is 30 mm i.e., 30 × 10–3 m, then
P.E =mgh
= 51.02 × 9.8×3 × 10–3= 15.0 J

Example 5 A man weighing 65 kg lifts a mass of 45 kg to the top of a building 10 metres

high in 12 second. Find;
(i) Total work done by him. The power developed by him.

Solution Mass of the man, m1 = 65 kg

Mass lifted m2 = 45 kg
Height through which raised h = 10 m
Time taken t = 12 seconds.
(i) Total work done by the man, W = mgh
= 110 × 9.81 × 10 = 10791.0 J
W 10791J
(ii) Power developed P   899.25 W
t 12s
******

40
 EXERCISES

Multiple Choice Question

Q.1 SI unit of power is ______

a) Newton
b) Watt
c) Erg
d) None
Q2) One horse power in terms of watt is
a) 7.46
b) 746
c) 74.6
d) 7460
Q3) Moment of inertia is analogy as term to_______ in linear momentum.
a) Mass
b) Momentum
c) Intertia
d) None
Q4) Running water possess___________
a) Kinetic energy
b) Potential energy
c) Electrical energy
d) Thermal energy
Q5) If velocity of a body doubles, then its kinetic energy gets
a) Doubled
b) Halved
c) 4 times
d) Does not change
Q6) SI unit of electrical energy is
a) joule
b) volt
c) watt
d) kwh
Q7) When a string is stretched, its potential energy
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) does not change
d) none of the above
Q8) The formula for power is
a) P=F.S
b) P=F.V
c) P=F.t
d) P=F/t

41
Answers: 1 (b), 2 (b), 3 (a), 4 (a), 5 (c), 6(d), 7 (d), 8 (b)

Fill in the blanks:

1. There are two bodies X and Y with equal kinetic energy but different masses m and
4 m respectively. The ratio of their linear momentum is……
2. When a spring is stretched, its potential energy ………….
3. 1 kWH= ……. J
4. SI unit of work is ……………
5. Formula of Kinetic Energy is ______.
6. Formula of Potential Energy is ______.
7. The sum of kinetic and potential energy is called ____________
8. When an object goes up its potential energy ____________
9. Coolie is an example of ______work.
10. Work is force multiplied by _______________in the direction of force.
11. Kinetic energy is energy possessed by a body by virtue of its___________.
12. Potential energy is energy possessed by a body by virtue of its___________.
13. ____________ is the rate of doing work
14. 1joule =______ergs

Short Answer Type Questions

1. Define potential energy, Derive expression for gravitational potential energy.
2. Define work and write its unit.
3. Define power. Give it S.I unit and dimensions.
4. A person walking on a horizontal road with a load on his head does not work.
Explain.
5. Give some examples of transformation of energy.

Long Answer Type Questions

1. State and explain the law of conservation of energy for free falling body.
2. Define kinetic energy with examples. Obtain an expression for kinetic energy of body
moving with uniform speed.

42
 Chapter 4
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Learning objective: After going through this chapter, students will be able to;
- Understand elasticity, deforming force, restoring force etc.
- Define stress, strain, Hook’s law, modulus of elasticity, pressure etc..
- Describe surface tension, viscosity and effect of temperature on these.
- Understand fluid motion and nature of flow.

4.1 DEFINITION OF ELASTICITY, DEFORMING FORCE, RESTORING FORCE,

EXAMPLE OF ELASTIC AND PLASTIC BODY
Elasticity: It is the property of solid materials to return to their original shape and size
after removal of deforming force.
Deforming Forces: The forces which bring the change in configuration of the body are
called deforming forces.
Restoring Force: It is a force exerted on a body or a system that tends to move it
towards an equilibrium state.
Elastic Body: It is the body that returns to its original shape after a deformation.
Examples are Golf ball, Soccer ball, Rubber band etc.
Plastic Body: It is the body that do not return to its original shape after a deformation.
Examples are Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC).

4.2 DEFINITION OF STRESS AND STRAIN WITH THEIR TYPES

Stress: It is defined as the restoring force per unit area of a material. Stress is of two types:
1. Normal Stress: If deforming force acts normal (perpendicular) to the surface of the
body then the stress is normal stress.

2. Tangential Stress: If deforming force acts tangentially to the surface of the body
then the stress is tangential stress.

Strain: It is defined as the ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration, when
a deforming force is applied to a body. The strain is of three types:

(i) Longitudinal strain:

If the deforming force produces a change in length only, the strain produced is called
longitudinal strain or tensile strain. It is defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length.

43
(ii) Volumetric strain: It is defined as the ratio of the change in volume to the original volume.

(iii) Shearing strain:

It is defined as the ratio of lateral displacement of a surface under the tangential force to the
perpendicular distance between surfaces

Figure: 4.1
The shearing strain is also defined as the angle in radian through which a plane perpendicular to the fixed
surface of a rectangular block gets turned under the effect to tangential force.

Units of strain:
Strain is a ratio of two similar physical quantities, it is unitless and dimensionless.

HOOK’S LAW, MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Hook’s law: Within elastic limits, the stress and strain are proportional to each other.
Thus, Stress ∝ Strain
Stress = E × Strain
Where E is the proportionality constant and is known as modulus of elasticity.

Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of stress and strain is always constant and called as
modulus of elasticity.

Young’s Modulus (Y): The ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain is defined as
Young’s modulus and is denoted by the symbol Y.
F A F l
Y =
l l A  l
The unit of Young‟s modulus is the same as that of stress i.e., Nm–2 or pascal (Pa)

Bulk Modulus (K): The ratio of normal (hydraulic) stress to the volumetric strain is called
bulk modulus. It is denoted by symbol K.
F A F V
K =
V V AV
SI unit of bulk modulus is the same as that of pressure i.e., Nm–2or Pa

44
Shear Modulus or Modulus of rigidity ( ): The ratio of shearing stress to the
corresponding shearing strain is called the shear modulus of the material and is represented
by . It is also called the modulus of rigidity.
Tangential stress

Shear strain
F A FL
 =
L L A L

The SI unit of shear modulus is Nm–2or Pa.

4.3 PRESSURE
It is defined as the force acting per unit area over the surface of a body.
F
P=
A
SI unit is Nm–2 or Pa

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The atmosphere exerts pressure on the earth‟s surface. This pressure is known as
atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at any point is numerically equal to the
weight of an air column of unit cross-sectional area from that point to the top of the
atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure = 1.013xl0 6 dyne/cm 2
or = 1.013xl0 5 N/m 2 (Pa)

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
The total pressure at any point inside a liquid is called absolute pressure. The total
pressure at a point A is equal to the sum of the atmospheric pressure at the surface of
liquid and the pressure due to liquid column of height h at A.
Total pressure P A = P0+hdg
Where P0 = atmospheric pressure.

Hence absolute pressure= atmospheric pressure + hdg

Figure: 4.2
GAUGE PRESSURE:
The difference of absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure e.g.
Pressure measured in car tyre is called gauge pressure.

i.e. gauge pressure = Absolute pressure - atm. pressure

= PA - P0 = hdg

45
Pascal Law: A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is
transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of its container.
Or it states that liquid enclosed in a vessel exerts equal pressure in all the directions.

4.4 SURFACE TENSION

The property of a liquid due to which its free surface behaves like stretched membrane
and acquires minimum surface area. It is given by force per unit length.

Surface tension allows insects (usually denser than water) to float and
stride on a water surface.

SI unit is N/m.

Applications of surface tension in daily life

It plays an important role in many applications in our daily life.
 Washing clothes Figure: 4.3
 Cleaning
 Cosmetics
 Lubricants in machines
 Spreading of ink, colours
 Wetting of a surface
 Action of surfactants
 Paints, insecticides
 Creating fuel-spray in automobile engines
 Passing of liquid in porous media
 Spherical shape of water droplets.

Effect of Temperature on Surface Tension

In general, surface tension decreases when temperature increases and vice versa.
This is because cohesive forces decrease with an increase of molecular thermal activity. The
influence of the surrounding environment is due to the adhesive action liquid molecules have
at the interface.

4.5 VISCOSITY
The property of liquid due to which it opposes the relative motion between its layers. It
is also known as liquid friction.
SI unit of viscosity is pascal-second (Pas) and cgs unit is poise.

Daily life uses

 Lubrication in vehicles.
 Some viscous fluids add texture to foods; honey, for example, is quite viscous and can
change the "mouth feel" of a dish.
 Lubricants that are too viscous can jam and clog pipelines. Lubricants that are too thin
provide too little protection for moving parts.
46
  Brake Oil
 Super Glue
 Paint

Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

In liquids the source for viscosity is considered to be atomic bonding. As we
understand that, with the increase of temperature the bonds break and make the molecule free
to move. So, we can conclude that the viscosity decreases as the temperature increases and
vice versa.
In gases, due to the lack of cohesion, the source of viscosity is the collision of
molecules. Here, as the temperature increases the viscosity increases and vice versa. This is
because the gas molecules utilize the given thermal energy in increasing its kinetic energy
that makes them random and therefore resulting in more the number of collisions.

***********

47
 EXERCISES
1. S.I. unit of stress is
(A) Newton (B) Newton/m2
(C) Joule (D) None of the above
2. Ratio of Normal stress to the longitudinal strain is called
(A) Bulk modulus (B) modulus of rigidity
(C)Hook‟s law (D) Young‟s modulus
3. Change in length per unit original length is called
(A) Longitudinal strain (B) Volumetric strain
(C) Normal stress (D) None of above
4. Force per unit area is called
(A) Strain (B) Pressure (C) Viscosity (D) Surface Tension
5. Difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure is called______
(A) Stress (B) Strain (C) Gauge Pressure (D) None
6. Atmospheric pressure is measured by_________
(A) Barometer (B)Manometer (C)Thermometer (D)None
7. Pascal is the unit of
(A) Force (B)Work (C)Pressure (D)Energy
8. Ratio of stress to the strain is called
(A) Normal Stress (B) Modulus of Elasticity
(C) Volumetric Stress (D) None of the above.
9.Which of the following has no units
(A) Stress (B) Pressure (C) Strain (D) All of these
10. Pressure is defined as Force per unit
(A) Length (B) Volume (C) Mass (D) Area.
11. Small Rain drops are spherical due to
(A) Viscosity (B)Surface Tension (C) Density (D) Gravity.
12. Force per unit length is called_________
(A) Surface Tension (B) Pressure (C) Strain (D) None of these
13. According to Hooks Law stress is directly proportional to.
(A) Strain (B) Length (C) Volume (D) Area.
14. Soaps are based on the application of
(A) Viscosity (B) Elasticity (C) Surface Tension (D) All of above.
15. S. I. unit of surface Tension is
(A) N/M2 (B) N/M (C) J/sec (D) None of above
16. Viscosity of any liquid increase with
(A) Increase in temperature (B) Decrease in temperature
(C) Increase in Pressure (D) None of above

Answers (MCQ): 1 (B), 2 (D), 3 (A) , 4 (B), 5 (C), 6 (A), 7 (C), 8 (B), 9 (C), 10 (D), 11 (B),
12 (A), 13 (A), 14 (C), 15 (B), 16 (B)

48
Fill in the blanks
1. Stress is defined as the ………………. per unit area of a material.
2. ……………………is the ratio of change in dimensions to the original dimensions.
3. For small deformations the stress and strain are proportional to each other. This is
called …………………
4. Pressure is defined as the force per unit ………………. over the surface of a body.
5. A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every portion of the fluid to the walls of its container. It is
called………………….
6. The property of solid materials to return to their original shape and size after the
removal of deforming forces is called ................
7. Surface tension of a liquid______________ with rise in Temperature. (Increase)
8. Small insects can walk on the surface of water due to________. (surface Tension)
9. Newton/m2 is the S.I. unit of _____________ (Stress)
10. Force due to which a body regains its original shape and size is called________.
(Restoring Force)
11. Atmospheric Pressure is measured by_____________. (Barometer)
12. Change in length per unit original length is called __________ . (Longitudinal Strain)
13. S.I. unit of surface tension is _________. Newton/m
14. Newton/m2 is equal to one Pascal (T/F)
15. Absolute Pressure is the total pressure at any point inside a liquid. (T/F)

Short Answer Type Questions

1. Define elasticity.
2. Define viscosity.
3. Define turbulent flow.
4. Define surface tension.
5. What is Young‟s modulus of elasticity?
6. State and explain Hooks Law.
7. State and explain Pascal‟s Law.
8. What is the effect of temperature on surface tension?
9. What is the effect of temperature on viscosity?
10. Give any five applications of surface tension.
11. Write difference between elastic and plastic bodies.
12. Which is more viscous honey or oil? Honey

Long Answer Type Questions

1. Explain different kind of modulus of elasticity.
2. Define surface tension. Give formula, units and applications of surface tension.
3. Explain streamline flow, laminar flow and turbulent flow.
4. Explain different types of stress.
5. Explain Young‟s modulus of elasticity and its units.

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 Chapter 5
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Learning Objectives: After going through this chapter, the students will be able to:
- Define heat and temperature; understand the difference between heat and temperature;
- Describe principles of measuring temperature and different temperature scales,
- Enlist properties of heat radiations and various modes of transfer of heat.

5.1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

All objects are made of atoms or molecules. These molecules are always in some
form of motion (linear, vibrational or rotational) and possess kinetic energy by virtue of their
motion. The hotter an object is, faster will be the motion of the molecules inside it and hence
more will be its kinetic energy. Heat of an object is the total energy of all the individual
molecules of which the given object is made. It is a form of thermal energy. When the object
is heated, its thermal energy increases, means its molecules begin to move more
violently. Temperature, on the other hand, is a measure of the average heat or
thermal energy of the molecules in a substance.
Heat is the form of energy which produces the sensation of warmth or coldness.
The cgs unit of heat is the calorie (cal) - defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1g of water through 1oC. The S.I. unit of heat energy is the joule (J) The
relation between these two units is:
1 cal = 4.18 J.

Heat on the basis of kinetic theory: According to the kinetic theory, heat of a body is total
kinetic energy of all its molecules. If a body have „n’ number of molecule having mass m and
velocities v1, v2, v3, --------, vn respectively, then

Total heat energy in the body (H) = Sum of kinetic energy of all molecules
1 1 1 1 
H  K  mv12  mv22  mv32  ........  mvn2  ; where K is thermal constant.
2 2 2 2 
When the body is heated, the kinetic energy of each molecule inside it increases due to
increase in their velocity. This results in the increase of total kinetic energy of the body and in
turn represents total heat of the body.

Temperature
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body. It is the average kinetic
energy of all the molecules of which the given body is made and is given by the expression;
1 1 1 1 
K  mv12  mv22  mv32  ........  mvn2 
T  
2 2 2 2
n
Units of temperature are; fahrenheit ( F), celsius (oC) and kelvin (K). Kelvin is the S.I. unit of
o

temperature.

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5.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE:
Heat Temperature
Heat is energy that is transferred from Temperature is a measure of degree of
one body to another as the result of a hotness or coldness
difference in temperature
It is total kinetic energy of all the It is average kinetic energy of all the
molecules molecules
It depends on quantity of matter It does not depend on quantity of
matter
It is form of energy (Thermal) It is measure of energy
S.I. unit is joule S.I. unit is kelvin

5.3 PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE:

Measurement of temperature depends on the principle that properties (physical/
electrical/ chemical) of material changes with change in temperature. A device that utilizes a
change in property of matter to measure temperature is known as thermometer. Temperature
is a principle parameter that needs to be monitored and controlled in most engineering
applications such as heating, cooling, drying and storage. Temperature can be measured via a
diverse array of sensors. All of them infer temperature by sensing some change in a physical
characteristic; be it a thermal expansion, thermoelectricity, electrical resistance or thermal
radiation. There are four basic types of thermometers, each working on a different principle:
1. Mechanical (liquid-in-glass, bimetallic strips, bulb & capillary, pressure type etc.)
2. Thermo-electric (Thermocouples)
3. Thermo-resistive (RTDs and thermistors)
4. Radiative (Infrared and optical pyrometers).
Each produces a different scale of temperature which can be related to one another.
Commonly used thermometers are mercury thermometer, platinum resistance thermometer,
thermo-electric and pyrometers. Liquid thermometers can measure temperature upto 300oC.
Resistance thermometers can go upto 1200oC while thermo-electrics are used for measuring
temperature as high as 3000oC. For still higher temperatures pyrometers (very hot furnaces) are
used.

MERCURY THERMOMETER (PRINCIPLE AND WORKING)

The working principle of a mercury thermometer is the expansion of matter on heating
In a mercury thermometer, a glass tube is filled with mercury and a standard temperature
scale is marked on the tube. With changes in temperature, the mercury expands and contracts,
and the temperature can be read from the scale.

Figure 5.1: Mercury Thermometer

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Uses of a mercury thermometer:
 It is used for determining the body, liquid and vapor temperature.
 It is used in power plants and piping.
 It is used in Bakeries and for candy making.
 It is used in heating and cooling equipment, etc.

6.4 MODES OF TRANSFER OF HEAT

When two bodies having different temperatures are brought close together, the heat
flows from body at higher temperature to body at lower temperature. Heat may also flow
from one portion of body to another portion because of temperature difference. The
process is called transfer of heat. There are three modes by which heat is transferred from
one place to another. These are named as conduction, convention and radiations.

(i) Conduction: It is defined as that mode of transfer of heat in which the heat travels from
particle to particle in contact, along the direction of fall of temperature without any net
displacement of the particles.

For example, if one end of a long metal

rod (iron or brass) is heated, after some time
other end of rod also become hot. This is due to
the transfer of heat energy from hot atoms to the
nearby atoms. When two bodies have different
temperatures and are brought into contact,
they exchange heat energy and tend to
equalize the temperature. The bodies are said to
be in thermal equilibrium. This is the mode of
heat transfer in solids. Figure 5.2: Conduction

ii) Convection: The process of transmission of heat in which heat is transferred from one point to
another by the physical movement of the heated particles is called convection.

For example, if a liquid in a vessel is

heated by placing a burner below the vessel,
after some time the top surface of liquid also
become warm. This is because the speed of
atoms or molecules increases when liquid or
gases are heated. The molecule having more
kinetic energy rise upward and carry heat with
them. Liquids and gases transfer heat by
convection. Examples are heating of water,
cooling of transformers, see breeze, heating of
Figure 5.3: Convection

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rooms by heater etc.

(iii) Radiation: The process of heat transfer in which heat is transmitted from one place to
another in the form of Infra-Red radiation, without heating the intervening medium is called
radiation.
Thermal radiations are the energy emitted by a body in the form of radiations on account
of its temperature and travel with the velocity of light. We receive heat from sun by radiation
process. All the bodies around us do emit these radiations. These radiations are the
electromagnetic waves.

5.5 PROPERTIES OF HEAT RADIATIONS

1. They do not require a medium for their propagation.
2. Heat radiations travel in straight line.
3. Heat radiations do not heat the intervening medium.
4. Heat radiations are electromagnetic waves.
5. They travel with a velocity 3 × l08 m/s in vacuum.
6. They undergo reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization.
7. They obey inverse square law.

5.6 DIFFERENT SCALES OF TEMPERATURE AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP

In general, there are three scales of temperature measurement. The scales are usually
defined by two fixed points; temperature at which water freezes and the boiling point of
water as defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure.

a) Fahrenheit Scale: It was given by

physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in
1724. It uses the degree
fahrenheit (symbol: °F) as the unit. On this
scale, freezing point of water is taken as
the lower fixed point (32°F) and boiling
point of water is taken as upper fixed point
(212°F). The interval between two points
is divided into 180 equal parts. Each
division is 1o F.
This scale is used for clinical and
meteorological purpose.
b). Celsius Scale: This scale was given by
Anders Celsius in 1742. On this scale,
freezing point of water is taken as the
lower fixed point (marked 0°C) and boiling
point of water is taken as upper fixed point
(marked 100°C). The interval between two Figure 5.4 Temperature scales
points is divided into 100 equal parts. Each
division is 1oC.
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 This scale is used for common scientific, clinical, meteorological and technological work.

c). Kelvin Scale: This scale defines the SI base unit of temperature with symbol K. On this
scale freezing point of water is taken as the lower fixed point (273K) and boiling point of
water is taken as upper fixed point (373K). The interval between two points is divided into
100 equal parts. Each division is 1K.
On scale 1oC = 1 K
This is the natural scale of temperature also called the absolute temperature scale. The
scale is based on ideal gas thermometer.

RELATION AMONG THE SCALES OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature of a body can be converted from one scale to the other.
Let, L = lower reference point (freezing point)
H = upper reference point (boiling point)
T = temperature read on the given scale.
T L
Now = Relative temperature w.r.t. both reference point.
H L
Let us take a body whose temperature is determined by three different thermometers
giving readings in oC, oF and K respectively.
Let T1 = C = Temperature in oC, L1 = 0°C H1 =100°C
o
T2 = F = Temperature in F, L2 = 32°F H2 = 212°F
T3 = K = Temperature Kelvin, L3 =273 K H3 = 373K
We can write,
 T1  L1   T2  L2   T3  L3 
   
 H1  L1   H2  L2   H3  L3 
 C  0   F  32   K  273 
 100  0    212  32    373  273 
     
C F  32 K  273
 
100 180 100
C F  32 K  273
 
5 9 5

******

54
 EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Two Bodies are solid to be in thermal equilibrium if they have the same
a) Temperature b) Amount of Heat
c) Specific Heat d) Thermal Capacity.
2. If temperature of a body is 40˚C, its value on Fahrenheit scale is
a) 96˚F b) 100˚F c) 104˚F d) 72˚F.
3. Value of 0˚6 on Kelvin scale is -------
a) 273K b) -273K c) 283 K d) none of the above.
4. Temperature of a body measures the
a) Amount of heat contained in a body
b) Degree of hotness or coldness of a body
c) Kinetic energy of molecules
d) None of the above
5. Absolute Zero means temperature on Kelvin scale is--------
a) 0 K b) 273K c) -273K d) None
6. On Celsius scale Boiling temp. of water is
a) 200˚C b) 100˚C c) 150˚C d) 273˚C
7. Velocity of heat radiation in vaccum is_______
a) 3 m/sec b) 3 m/sec
c) m/sec d) Both A and B
8. S. I. Unit of Heat energy is
a) Erg b) Joule c) Joule/Sec d) None
9. Temp of a body is the
a) Total Kinetic energy b) Average kinetic energy
c) Degree of Hotness d) Both b and c
10. Value of 50˚C on reumer scale is
a) 40˚R b) 50˚R c) 25˚ R d) None.
11. In conduction method transfer of heat is due to
a) Vibration of molecule b) Motion of molecules
c) Displacement of molecules d) All of above
12. Hot gasses coming out from chimney are example of
a) Conduction method b) Convection method
c) Radiation d) all of above
13. Example of conduction process is
a) Tradition of vehicles b) Heating of liquids
c) Cooking utensils d) None of these
14. Which of the following is not a mode of heat transfer
a) Conduction b) radiation c) Reverberation d) Convection
15. Lower Fixed point on Kelvin scale is
a) 273K b) 373K c) 173K d) None
16. Mercury thermometer is based upon the Principle
a) Expansion of solids b) Expansion of liquids
c) Resistance d) Expansion of gases
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Answers: 1 (a), 2 (b), 3 (a), 4 (b), 5 (a), 6(b), 7 (d), 8 (b), 9 (d), 10 (a), 11 (a), 12 (b), 13 (c),
14 (c), 15 (a), 16(b)

Fill in the blanks and true/false

i. Heat of an object is the …………………. (total/average) energy of all the molecular
motions inside that object.
ii. Temperature is a measure of the …………………. energy of the molecules.
iii. Transfer of heat from a fluid to a solid surface or within a fluid is called ............ .
iv. Matter that is at finite temperature emits energy in space in the form of
electromagnetic waves. The process is known as ……………....
v. Heat radiation travels at the same speed as sound. (True/ False).
vi. The Kelvin scale is an absolute scale. (True/ False)
vii. Heat radiations cannot travel through a vacuum. (True / False)
viii. Air conditioner is an example of radiation. (True / False)
ix. Transfer of Heat without actual motion of molecules is called________.(Conduction)
x. Degree of Hotness or coldness of a body is called _____________. (Temperature)
xi. S.I. unit of temperature is ______________.(Kelvin)
xii. Heat waves always travel in _________.(Straight Ling)
xiii. Heat flows from a body at ________ temperature to a body at __________
temperature. (higher to lower).
xiv. Average kinetic energy of molecules of a body is called_______.(Temperature)

Short Answer Questions

1. Define heat. Give SI unit of heat.
2. Define temperature. Give SI unit of temperature.
3. What are heat radiations? Whether these travel in straight line or not?
4. What is principle of measurement of temperature?
5. Give two examples of convection.
6. Define the process of conduction in metals.
7. Give relationship between celsius and fahrenheit scales of temperature.
8. Temperature of a patient is 40oC. What will be the corresponding temperature on
Fahrenheit scale?
9. Name any two mode of transfer of heat.
10. Heat from sun reaches to earth by which method?

Long Answer Questions

1) Explain heat and temperature on basis of kinetic theory.
2) Describe principle of temperature measurements and name two such devices.
3) Describe with example different modes of transfer of heat.
4) Explain principle and working of Mercury thermometer.
5) Explain different scales of temperature and establish relationship between them.
6) Give any five properties of heat radiations.

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