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Chapter Two
Basics of C++

The parts of a C++ Program

 To understand the basic parts of a simple program in C++, let’s have a look at the
following code:
#include<iostream.h>
int main()
{
cout<<”\n Hello World!”;
return 0;
}

 Any C++ program file should be saved with file name extension “ .CPP ”
 Type the program directly into the editor, and save the file as hello.cpp, compile it and
then run it. It will print the words Hello World! on the computer screen.
 The first character is the #. This character is a signal to the preprocessor. Each time you
start your compiler, the preprocessor runs through the program and looks for the pound
(#) symbols and act on those lines before the compiler runs.
 The include instruction is a preprocessor instruction that directs the compiler to include a
copy of the file specified in the angle brackets in the source code.
 When the program starts, main() is called automatically.
 Every C++ program has a main() function.
 The Left French brace “{“signals the beginning of the main function body and the
corresponding Right French Brace “}” signals the end of the main function body. Every
Left French Brace needs to have a corresponding Right French Brace.
 The lines we find between the braces are statements or said to be the body of the
function. A statement is a computation step which may produce a value or interact with
input and output streams.
 The end of a single statement ends with semicolon (;).
 The statement in the above example causes the sting “Hello World!” to be sent to the
“cout” stream which will display it on the computer screen.
A brief look at cout and cin
Cout is an object used for printing data to the screen.
 To print a value to the screen, write the word cout, followed by the insertion operator also
called output redirection operator (<<) and the object to be printed on the screen.
 Syntax: Cout<<Object;
 The object at the right hand side can be:
• A literal string: “Hello World”
• A variable: a place holder in memory

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Cin is an object used for taking input from the keyboard.

 To take input from the keyboard, write the word cin, followed by the input redirection
operator (>>) and the object name to hold the input value.
 Syntax: Cin>>Object
 Cin will take value from the keyboard and store it in the memory. Thus the cin statement
needs a variable which is a reserved memory place holder.
 Both << and >> return their right operand as their result, enabling multiple input or
multiple output operations to be combined into one statement. The following example
will illustrate how multiple input and output can be performed:
E.g.: Cin>>var1>>var2>>var3;
Here three different values will be entered for the three variables. The input
should be separated by a space, tan or newline for each variable.
Cout<<var1<<”, “<<var2<<” and “<<var3;
Here the values of the three variables will be printed where there is a “,”
(comma) between the first and the second variables and the “and” word
between the second and the third.

Putting Comments on C++ programs

 A comment is a piece of descriptive text which explains some aspect of a program.
 Program comments are text totally ignored by the compiler and are only intended to
inform the reader how the source code is working at any particular point in the
program.
 C++ provides two types of comment delimiters:
 Single Line Comment: Anything after // {double forward slash} (until the end
of the line on which it appears) is considered a comment.
o Eg: cout<<var1; //this line prints the value of var1
 Multiple Line Comment: Anything enclosed by the pair /* and */ is considered
a comment.
o Eg:
/*this is a kind of comment where
Multiple lines can be enclosed in
one C++ program */

 Comments should be used to enhance (not to hinder) the readability of a program.

The following two points, in particular, should be noted:
 A comment should be easier to read and understand than the code which it
tries to explain. A confusing or unnecessarily-complex comment is worse than
no comment at all.

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 Over-use of comments can lead to even less readability. A program which

contains so much comment that you can hardly see the code can by no means
be considered readable.
 Use of descriptive names for variables and other entities in a program, and
proper indentation of the code can reduce the need for using comments.

A brief look at functions

 In general, a function is a block of code that performs one or more actions.
 Most functions are called, or invoked, during the course of the program, which is
after the program starts execution.
 Program commands are executed line by line, in the order in which they appear in
the source code, until a function is reached. The program then branches off to
execute the function. When the function finishes, it returns control to the line of code
immediately following the call to the function.
 Functions consist of a header and a body. The header, in turn is made up of the
return type, the function name, and the parameters to that function.
 Functions return either a value or void (i.e. they return nothing).
 A function that adds two integers might return the sum, and thus would be defined
to return an integer value. A function that just prints a message has nothing to return
and would be declared to return void.
 A function may return a value using a return statement; a return statement also
causes the function to exit.
 If there is no return statement at the end of a function, the function will
automatically return void.

Identifiers: also called programmer defined words used to represent and reference certain
program entities.
 A valid identifier is a sequence of one or more letters, digits or underscores symbols. The
length of an identifier is not limited.
 Neither space nor marked letters can be part of an identifier.
 Only letters, digits and underscore characters are valid.
 Variable identifiers should always begin with a letter or an underscore. By any means
they should not begin with a digit.
 Key words should not be used as names for identifiers.
 C++ is case sensitive. Small letter and capital letters are different for C++. Eg: variable
Age is not identical with variable age

Example: For Valid identifier: my_name, myname, MYNAME, _sex, x, section3, etc.
For Invalid identifier: my name, 3section, float, my-name, etc.

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Variables and Constants

Variables
 A variable is a reserved place in memory to store information in.
 Variables are used for holding data values so that they can be used in various
computations in a program.
 All variables have three important properties:
 Data Type: a type which is established when the variable is defined. (e.g.
integer, real, character etc). Data type describes the property of the data and the
size of the reserved memory.
 Name: a name which will be used to refer to the value in the variable. A unique
identifier for the reserved memory location
 Value: a value which can be changed by assigning a new value to the variable.

Fundamental Data types

 Several other data types are built into C++. They can be conveniently classified as
integer, floating-point or character variables.
 Floating-point variable types can be expressed as fraction i.e. they are “real numbers”.
 Character variables hold a single byte. They are used to hold 256 different characters
and symbols of the ASCII and extended ASCII character sets.
 The type of variables used in C++ program are described in the next table, which lists
the variable type, how much room

Data Types
Type Length Range
unsigned char 8 bits 0 to 255
char 8 bits -128 to 127
enum 6 bits -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 16 bits 0 to 65,535
short int 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767
int 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned long 32 bits 0 to 4,294,967,295
long 32 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
-38 +38
float 32 bits -3.4x10 to 3.4x10
-308 +308
double 64 bits -1.7x10 to 1.7x10
-4932 +4932
long double 80 bits -3.4x10 to 1.1x10
bool 8 bits true or false (top 7 bits are ignored)

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Signed and Unsigned.

 Signed integers are either negative or positive. Unsigned integers are always
positive.
 Because both signed and unsigned integers require the same number of
bytes, the largest number (the magnitude) that can be stored in an unsigned
integer is twice as the largest positive number that can be stored in a signed
integer.
 E.g.: Lets us have only 4 bits to represent numbers

 In the above example, in case of unsigned, since all the 4 bits can be used to
represent the magnitude of the number the maximum magnitude that can be
represented will be 15 as shown in the example.
 If we use signed, we can use the first bit to represent the sign where if the value of
the first bit is 0 the number is positive if the value is 1 the number is negative. In
this case we will be left with only three bits to represent the magnitude of the
number, where the maximum magnitude will be 7.

Declaring Variables
 Variables can be created in a process known as declaration.
o Syntax: Datatype Variable_Name;
 The declaration will instruct the computer to reserve a memory location with the
name and size specified during the declaration.
 Good variable names indicate the purpose of the variable or they should be self
descriptive. E.g. int myAge; //variable used to store my age
 Certain words are reserved by C++ for specific purposes and cannot be used as
identifiers.

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 These are called reserved words or keywords and are summarized in the
following table.

asm continue float new signed try

auto default for operator sizeof typedef
break delete friend private static union
case do goto protected struct unsigned
catch double if public switch virtual
char else inline register template void
class enum int return this volatile
const extern long short throw while

Initializing Variables
 When a variable is assigned a value at the time of declaration, it is called
variable initialization.
 This is identical with declaring a variable and then assigning a value to the
variable immediately after declaration.
 The syntax:
DataType variable name = initial value;
e.g. int a = 0;
or: int a;
a=0;

Defining a data type (User defined data type)

 The “typedef” Keyword is used to define a data type by the programmer as the
user of a programming language is a programmer.
 It is very difficult to write unsigned short int many times in your program if
many variables need such kind of declaration.
 C++ enables you to substitute an alias for such phrase by using the keyword
typedef, which stands for type definition.
E.g.:
#include<iostream.h>
typedef unsigned short int USHORT;
void main()
{
USHORT width = 9;
…
}
 Immediately after the second line, whenever the compiler encounters the
word USHORT it will substitute is with “unsigned short int”.

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Characters
 Characters variables (type char) are typically one byte in size, enough to
hold 256 different values. A char can be represented as a small number (0
- 255).
 Char in C++ are represented as any value inside a single quote.
E.g.: ‘x’, ‘A’, ‘5’, ‘a’, etc.
When the compiler finds such values (characters), it translates back the
value to the ASCII values. E.g. ‘a’ has a value 97 in ASCII.

Special Printing characters

 In C++, there are some special characters used for formatting. These are:
\n new line
\t tab \’ single quote
\b backspace \? Question mark
\”double quote \\ backslash

Constants
 A constant is any expression that has a fixed value.
 Like variables, constants are data storage locations in the computer memory.
But, constants, unlike variables their content cannot be changed after the
declaration.
 Constants must be initialized when they are created by the program, and the
programmer can’t assign a new value to a constant later.
 C++ provides two types of constants: literal and symbolic constants.
 Literal constant: is a value typed directly into the program wherever it is
needed. E.g.: int num = 43;
43 is a literal constant in this statement:
 Symbolic constant: is a constant that is represented by a name, similar to that of
a variable. But unlike a variable, its value can’t be changed after initialization.
E.g.:
Int studentPerClass =15;
students = classes * studentPerClass;
studentPerClass is a symbolic constant having a value of 15.
And 15 is a literal constant directly typed in the program.
 In C++, we have two ways to declare a symbolic constant. These are using the
#define and the const key word.

Defining constants with #define:

 The #define directive makes a simple text substitution.
 The define directive can define only integer constants

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E.g.: #define studentPerClass 15

 In our example, each time the preprocessor sees the word studentPerClass, it
inserts 15 into the text.

Defining constants with the const key word:

 Here, the constant has a type, and the compiler can ensure that the constant is
used according to the rules for that type.
E.g.: const unsigned short int studentPerClass = 15;

Expressions and Statements

 In C++, a statement controls the sequence of execution, evaluates an expression, or does
nothing (the null statement).
 All C++ statements end with a semicolon. E.g.: x = a + b;
The meaning is: assign the value of the sum of a and b to x.
 White spaces: white spaces characters (spaces, tabs, new lines) can’t be seen and
generally ignored in statements. White spaces should be used to make programs more
readable and easier to maintain.
 Blocks: a block begins with an opening French brace ({) and ends with a closing French
brace (}).
 Expressions: an expression is a computation which yields a value. It can also be viewed
as any statement that evaluates to a value (returns a value).
E.g.: the statement 3+2; returns the value 5 and thus is an expression.
 Some examples of an expression:
E.g.1:
3.2 returns the value 3.2
PI float constant that returns the value 3.14 if the constant is defined.
secondsPerMinute integer constant that returns 60 if the constant is declared

E.g.2: complicated expressions:

x = a + b;
y = x = a + b;
The second line is evaluated in the following order:
1. add a to b.
2. assign the result of the expression a + b to x.
3. assign the result of the assignment expression x = a + b to y.

Operators
 An operator is a symbol that makes the machine to take an action.
 Different Operators act on one or more operands and can also have different kinds of
operators.

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 C++ provides several categories of operators, including the following:

 Assignment operator  Conditional operator
 Arithmetic operator  Comma operator
 Relational operator  The size of operator
 Logical operator  Explicit type casting
 Increment/decrement operators, etc
operator

Assignment operator (=)

 The assignment operator causes the operand on the left side of the assignment statement
to have its value changed to the value on the right side of the statement.
o Syntax: Operand1=Operand2;
o Operand1 is always a variable
o Operand2 can be one or combination of:
• A literal constant: Eg: x=12;
• A variable: Eg: x=y;
• An expression: Eg: x=y+2;
Compound assignment operators (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=, &=, ^=)
 Compound assignment operator is the combination of the assignment operator with other
operators like arithmetic and bit wise operators.
 The assignment operator has a number of variants, obtained by combining it with other
operators. E.g.:
value += increase; is equivalent to value = value + increase;
a -= 5; is equivalent to a = a – 5;
a /= b; is equivalent to a = a / b;
price *= units + 1 is equivalent to price = price * (units + 1);
And the same is true for the rest.

Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %)

 Except for remainder or modulo (%), all other arithmetic operators can accept a mix of
integers and real operands. Generally, if both operands are integers then, the result will be
an integer. However, if one or both operands are real then the result will be real.
 When both operands of the division operator (/) are integers, then the division is
performed as an integer division and not the normal division we are used to.
o Integer division always results in an integer outcome.
o Division of integer by integer will not round off to the next integer
E.g.:
9/2 gives 4 not 4.5
-9/2 gives -4 not -4.5

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To obtain a real division when both operands are integers, you should cast one of the operands to
be real. E.g.:
int cost = 100;
int volume = 80;
Double unitPrice = cost/(double)volume;
module(%) is an operator that gives the remainder of a division of two integer values. For
instance, 13 % 3 is calculated by integer dividing 13 by 3 to give an outcome of 4 and a
remainder of 1; the result is therefore 1.
E.g.:
a = 11 % 3
a is 2
Relational operator (==, !=, > , <, >=, <=)
 In order to evaluate a comparison between two expressions, we can use the relational
operator.
 The result of a relational operator is a bool value that can only be true or false according
to the result of the comparison.
E.g.:
(7 = = 5) would return false or returns 0
(5 > 4) would return true or returns 1
 The operands of a relational operator must evaluate to a number. Characters are valid
operands since they are represented by numeric values. For E.g.:
‘A’ < ‘F’ would return true or 1. it is like (65 < 70)
Logical Operators (!, &&, ||)
 Logical negation (!) is a unary operator, which negates the logical value of its operand. If
its operand is non zero, it produce 0, and if it is 0 it produce 1.
 Logical AND (&&) produces 0 if one or both of its operands evaluate to 0 otherwise it
produces 1.
 Logical OR (||) produces 0 if both of its operands evaluate to 0 otherwise, it produces 1.
E.g.:
!20 //gives 0
10 && 5 //gives 1
10 || 5.5 //gives 1
10 && 0 // gives 0
N.B. In general, any non-zero value can be used to represent the logical true, whereas only zero
represents the logical false.

Increment/Decrement Operators: (++) and (--)

 The auto increment (++) and auto decrement (--) operators provide a convenient way of,
respectively, adding and subtracting 1 from a numeric variable. E.g.:
if a was 10 and if a++ is executed then a will automatically changed to 11.

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Prefix and Postfix:

 The prefix type is written before the variable. Eg (++ myAge), whereas the postfix type
appears after the variable name (myAge ++).
 Prefix and postfix operators cannot be used at once on a single variable: Eg: ++age-- or --
age++ or ++age++ or - - age - - is invalid
 In a simple statement, either type may be used. But in complex statements, there will be a
difference.
 The prefix operator is evaluated before the assignment, and the postfix operator is
evaluated after the assignment.

E.g.
int k = 5;
(auto increment prefix) y= ++k + 10; //gives 16 for y
(auto increment postfix) y= k++ + 10; //gives 15 for y
(auto decrement prefix) y= --k + 10; //gives 14 for y
(auto decrement postfix) y= k-- + 10; //gives 15 for y
Conditional Operator (?:)
 The conditional operator takes three operands. It has the general form:
Syntax:
operand1 ? operand2 : operand3
 First operand1 is a relational expression and will be evaluated. If the result of the
evaluation is non zero (which means TRUE), then operand2 will be the final result.
Otherwise, operand3 is the final result.
E.g.: General Example
Z=(X<Y? X : Y)
This expression means that if X is less than Y the value of X will be
assigned to Z otherwise (if X>=Y) the value of Y will be assigned to Z.
E.g.:
int m=1,n=2,min;
min = (m < n ? m : n);
The value stored in min is 1.
E.g.:
(7 = = 5 ? 4: 3) returns 3 since 7 is not equal to 5
Comma Operator (,)
 Multiple expressions can be combined into one expression using the comma operator.
 The comma operator takes two operands. Operand1,Operand2
 The comma operator can be used during multiple declaration, for the condition operator
and for function declaration, etc
 It the first evaluates the left operand and then the right operand, and returns the value of
the latter as the final outcome.

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E.g.
int m,n,min;
int mCount = 0, nCount = 0;
min = (m < n ? (mCount++ , m) : (nCount++ , n));
Here, when m is less than n, mCount++ is evaluated and the value of m is stored in min.
otherwise, nCount++ is evaluated and the value of n is stored in min.
The sizeof() Operator
 This operator is used for calculating the size of any data item or type.
 It takes a single operand (e.g. 100) and returns the size of the specified entity in bytes.
The outcome is totally machine dependent.
E.g.:
a = sizeof(char)
b = sizeof(int)
c = sizeof(1.55) etc
Explicit type casting operators
 Type casting operators allows you to convert a datum of a given type to another data
type.
E.g.
int i;
float f = 3.14;
i = (int)f; �
Then variable i will have a value of 3 ignoring the decimal point

Operator Precedence
 The order in which operators are evaluated in an expression is significant and is
determined by precedence rules. Operators in higher levels take precedence over
operators in lower levels.
Precedence Table: Level Operator Order
Highest ++ -- (post fix) Right to left
sizeof() ++ -- (prefix) Right to left
*/% Left to right
+- Left to right
< <= > >= Left to right
== != Left to right
&& Left to right
|| Left to right
?: Left to right
= ,+=, -=, *=, /=,^= ,%=, &= ,|= ,<<= ,>>= Right to left
, Left to right

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The following table shows some important mathematical library functions and their purpose.
Function Purpose
ceil(x) Returns the smallest integer larger than or equal to x.
floor(x) Returns the largest integer smaller than or equal to x.
abs(x) Returns the absolute value of x, where x is an integer.
fabs(x) Returns the absolute value of x, where x is a floating-point
value.
sqrt(x) Returns the square root of x, where x >= 0.
pow(x , y) Returns x raised to the y power; if x is zero, y should be
positive, and if x is negative, y should be an integer.
cos(x) Returns the cosine of x, where x is in radians.
sin(x) Returns the sine of x, where x is in radians.
tan(x) Returns the tangent of x, where x is in radians.
exp(x) Returns the exponent of x, with the base e, where e is
2.718282.
log(x) Returns the natural logarithm of x.
log10(x) Returns the base-10 logarithm of x.

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