MINE SURVEY

HMIE205
SURVEYING AND MAPPING OF
UNDERGROUND MINES
T. G. HOVE
Dept. Of Geoinformatics and Surveying
University of Zimbabwe
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SURFACE AND
UNDERGROUND SURVEYING

Schofield differentiated between

surface and underground surveying
by stating that:
 “the essential problem in underground surveying is
that of orientating the underground surveys to the
surface surveys, the procedure involved being termed
a correlation…thus underground control networks
must be connected and orientated into the same co-
ordinate system as the surface networks”
UNDERGROUND SURVEYING
 The essential problem in underground surveying
is that of orientating the underground surveys to
the surface surveys.
 The underground control networks must be
connected and orientated into the same
coordinate system as the surface networks.
 To do this, one must obtain the coordinates of at
least one underground control station and the
bearing of at least one line of the underground
network, relative to the surface network.
UNDERGROUND TRAVERSING: CONTROL
NETWORKS
 Chrzanowski and Robinson ( 1981) recommended that
surveys be performed at three levels of accuracy:
1. Creation and survey of a primary control network for
the mining area and permanent workings,
2. Survey of mine headings and development areas, and
3. Survey of short traverses necessary to map active
mining areas.
TRANSFERRING CONTROL
 If entry to the underground tunnel system is via an
inclined shaft, then the surface survey may simply be
extended and continued down that shaft and into the
tunnel, usually by the method of traversing.
 Extra care would be required in the measurement of
the horizontal angles due to the steeply inclined
sights involved and in temperature corrections to
taped distances due to the thermal gradients
encountered.
 The methods of orientation employed include:
1. Optical
2. Mechanical
3. Gyroscopic
OPTICAL METHODS
OPTICAL METHODS
 If the shaft is shallow and of relatively large
diameter, the bearing of a surface line may be
transferred to the shaft bottom by theodolite.
 A and B are control points, and represent the
direction in which the tunnel must proceed.
 c and d are auxiliary station which are carefully
aligned with A and B using theodolite on both
faces and with due regard to all error sources.
OPTICAL METHODS
 The relative bearing of A and B is then
transferred to A’ B’ at the shaft bottom by direct
observations.
 Observations must be carried out with extra
precaution advocated for steep sights.
 If coordinates of d are known, then the
coordinates of B’ can be fixed by measuring the
vertical angle and distance to a reflector at B’.
 An error in transferring a bearing down the shaft
would result in a position error of the controls
being fixed
MECHANICAL METHODS
 The basic concept is that wires hanging freely in
a shaft will occupy the same position
underground that they do at the surface, and
hence the bearing of the wire plane will remain
constant throughout the shaft
MECHANICAL METHODS SHAFT
PLUMBING
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
 Steel wires with very high tensile strength
(200kg/mm2), (piano wire) should be used.
 As a rule the wire should be as thin as possible
and the load be as heavy as possible
 The weight of the bob is usually selected as being
equal to H/3 in kilograms
 The plumb line must be checked to ensure it does
not touch any obstacles in the shaft
 In shallow shafts when the weight is small the
plumb bob should be submerged in a container of
oil to dampen the oscillations
FACTORS AFFECTING VERTICALITY OF
WIRES
 Ventilation air currents in the shaft All forced ventilation
should be shut off and the plumb-bob protected from
natural ventilation.
 Pendulous motion of the shaft plumb
 The motion of the plumb-bob about its suspension point can be
reduced by immersing it in a barrel of water or fine oil. When
the shaft is deep, complete elimination of motion is impossible
and clamping of the wires in their mean swing position may be
necessary.
 The amplitude of wire vibrations, which induce additional
motion to the swing, may be reduced by using a heavy plumb-
bob, with its point of suspension close to the centre of its mass,
and fitted with large fins.
 3) Spiral deformation of the wire
 Storage of the plumb wire on small-diameter reels gives a
spiral deformation to the wire. Its effect is reduced by using a
plumb-bob of maximum weight. This should be calculated for
the particular wire using a reasonable safety factor.
 • These sources of error are applicable to all wire surveys.
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
 Shaft plumbing through one vertical shaft
 Because a theodolite cannot be set under a plumb line, for
direct measurement of orientation angles, the theodolite
should be positioned next to the shaft and one of the
following special geometrical solutions should be used to
determine the orientation of the plane passing through the
plumb lines
 Coplaning or aligning. The instrument is set exactly on
the line passing through both plumblines.
 Weisbach triangle. A triangle is used to link both plumb
lines and the instrument station.
 The instrument is positioned close to one of the plumb lines in
such a way that the angle at the instrument station is acute
(<10°) and measured with utmost accuracy.
 Hause quadrilateral. When the instrument cannot be set
at or close to the line passing through both plumb lines, a
quadrilateral can be used to link both plumb lines and two
instrument stations.
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
(MECHANICAL METHODS) SHAFT
PLUMBING
 For optimal orientation accuracy, standard shaft
plumbing should be performed in two shafts that
are far apart from one another. The procedure is
as follows:
 Conduct a simple surface traverse survey to give the
location of each wire in the official map grid system.
 Then conduct an underground traverse survey to
connect the two plumblines. Initially calculate
coordinates of this traverse in a local, arbitrary
coordinate system.
 Then, because the map grid coordinates of the
traverse endpoints (plumblines) are known from
surface surveys, recalculate the coordinates of all
other points to the surface coordinate system by
means of coordinate transformation.
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
 WEISBACH METHOD
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
 In this method the orientation angles β1 and β2
are determined from measuring α1, distances a,
b1 and c1 in the surface triangle and α2 and
distances b2 and c2 in the underground triangle.
 The distance a between wires is also measured
underground to approximately check the
verticality of the wires
 To complete the orientation measurements d1
and d2 are measured at station B and C . β1 and
β2 are calculated from the simple trigonometric
relationships:
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
 Co-planing
 The triangle of the previous method is
eliminated by aligning the theodolite at Ws
exactly with the wires W1 andW2. This
alignment is easily achieved by trial and error,
focusing first on the front wire and then on the
back. Both wires can still be seen through the
telescope even when in line. The instrument
should be set up within 3 to 4m of the nearer
wire
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
 Shaft plumbing through, single wires in two vertical
shafts
 Where two shafts are available, orientation can be
achieved via a single wire in each shaft.
 This method gives a longer wire base, and wire deflection
errors are much less critical.
 Single wires are suspended in each shaft at A and B and
coordinated from the surface control network, most
probably by multiple intersections from as many surface
stations as possible. From the coordinates of A and B, the
bearing AB is obtained.
 A traverse is now carried out from A to B via an
underground connecting tunnel
 However, as the angles at A and B cannot be measured it
becomes an open traverse on an assumed bearing for AX
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
 if the assumed bearing for AX differed from the ‘true’ (but
unknown) bearing by
 α, then the whole traverse would swing to apparent
positions X’, Y’ , Z’ and B’)
 The value of α is the difference of the bearings AB and AB’
computed from
 surface and underground coordinates respectively. Thus if
the underground bearings are rotated by the amount α, this
will swing the traverse almost back to B.
 There will still be a small misclosure due to linear error
and this can be corrected by multiplying each length by a
scale factor equal to length AB/length AB;.
 Now, using the corrected bearings and lengths the
corrected coordinates of the traverse fitted to AB can be
calculated.
 These coordinates will be relative to the surface coordinate
system
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
 Alternatively, the corrected coordinates can be
obtained directly by mathematical rotation and
translation of AB/AB; the corrected coordinates
are obtained from:
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
 Hause Quadrilateral
 This method may be adopted when it is
impossible to set up the theodolite, even
approximately, on the line of the wire base
W1W2. Theodolites are set up at C and D
forming a quadrilateral CDW1W2.
 The bearing and coordinates of CD are obtained
relative to the surface base, the orientation of the
wire base being obtained through the
quadrilateral.
 Angles 1, 2, 3 and 8 are measured directly, and
angles 4 and7 are obtained as follows:
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
 Hause Quadrilateral
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
MECHANICAL METHODS (SHAFT
PLUMBING)
GYROSCOPIC METHODS
GYROSCOPIC METHODS
 An alternative to the use of wire methods is the
gyrotheodolite.
 This is a north-seeking gyroscope integrated with a
theodolite, and can be used to orientate underground base
lines relative to true north.
 A theodolite is an instrument that enables the user to
observe the difference in bearing, i.e. the angle, between
two distant stations.
 Although angles are observed, it is often a bearing (relative
to grid north) or azimuth (relative to true north) which is
actually required. The suspended gyroscope is a device that
may be attached to a theodolite to allow observations of
azimuth rather than angle, to be taken, for example, to
check an unclosed traverse in mining or tunnelling work.
 A gyroscope is a north seeking instrument, whereas a
theodolite enables readings of different bearings.
 The angles observed are bearings (relative to the grid
north) or azimuth (relative to true north).
GYRO-THEODOLITE
 Azimuth determination Azimuth determinations
with the gyro attachment are usually classified
as approximate and accurate.
 The approximate or quick method is employed
when there is no azimuth available from the
existing survey records.
 The results of this determination arethen used as
the initial setting for the second classification
type, the accurate method
 Task
 Research on the operation of the gyro-theodolite,
focus on the observation procedures used to
determine the orientation of underground control
networks.
UNDERGROUND TRAVERSING
 In many cases the configuration and geometrical
characteristics of the mine entrances require use of
traverses as an underground control network.
 Traverses usually have many short (40-50 m) traverse
legs and direction is difficult to maintain.
 Traverses are carried out in hot, dark, dusty and
confined areas
 It is advisable to perform surveys using quality
theodolites or total stations that are maintained and
checked regularly.
 When an underground control network extends over a
large area and traverses are long with many legs, the
use of gyro-theodolites may significantly improve their
directional accuracy.
UNDERGROUND TRAVERSING:
EQUIPMENT
 Equipment used for surveying in underground traverses is
not too different from that used on the surface.
 Electronic total stations, the primary angle- and distance-
measuring instruments, enable automatic reading and
storage of directions and distances.
 Distances are measured electronically with the help of
EDM devices that are coaxially mounted in a telescope.
 For use underground, instruments should be protected from
dust and moisture.
 For use in gassy mines, instruments must be certified for
use in such environments; that is, they must be explosion-
proof. Most theodolites and total stations today have been
properly sealed at the factory and can be used In such
environments.
 If, for safety reasons, EDM devices cannot be used, a steel
tape can be used for distance measurements.
UNDERGROUND TRAVERSES:
SURVEY STATIONS
 Underground survey stations are usually stabilized in the
backs (Roof) of underground drives by the following means
to protect them from damage:
 Standard spads driven into wooden plugs set in holes
drilled in native rock (spads are hooks for attaching plumb
bobs and have defined spots for sighting)
 Power-driven studs driven directly into rock by a stud gun
using an explosive charge
 Adhesive spads attached to the rock by adhesive plastic
cement or epoxy
 Spads with clamps attached to steel arches or roof bolts
UNDERGROUND TRAVERSES:
SURVEY STATIONS
UNDERGROUND TRAVERSES:
MEASUREMENTS
 Most underground levelling is performed while
traversing, due in part to time constraints,
generally by means of the trigonometric
levelling technique.
 Vertical angles can be measured with high
accuracy. and thus trigonometric levelling
provides similarly accurate results. During
traversing and leveling, it is important that
instrument height and target or signal height
also be measured accurately.
UNDERGROUND TRAVERSES:
MEASUREMENTS
UNDERGROUND TRAVERSES:
MEASUREMENTS
 VERTICAL CONTROL SURVEYS AND
LEVELLING

o Special steel tapes of length up to 100m are

available for the transfer of heights from the
surface to the underground workings
o The tape is slowly lowered to the required level
and a weight is suspended at its end the weight
should preferably be equal to the tension used
during standardisation of the tape
o A benchmark tied to the existing levelling
network on surface, is established near the
collar of the shaft.
QUESTIONS??