Chapter 17

Filter networks
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• appreciate the purpose of a filter network
• understand basic types of filter sections, i.e. low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop filters
• define cut-off frequency, two-port networks and characteristic impedance
• design low- and high-pass filter sections given nominal impedance and cut-off frequency
• determine the values of components comprising a band-pass filter given cut-off frequencies
• appreciate the difference between ideal and practical filter characteristics

17.1 Introduction equipment. The bandwidths of filters used in communi-

cations systems vary from a fraction of a hertz to many
megahertz, depending on the application.
Attenuation is a reduction or loss in the magnitude of
There are four basic types of filter sections:
a voltage or current due to its transmission over a line.
A filter is a network designed to pass signals having (a) low-pass
frequencies within certain bands (called passbands)
(b) high-pass
with little attenuation, but greatly attenuates sig- (c) band-pass
nals within other bands (called attenuation bands or
(d) band-stop
stopbands).
A filter is frequency sensitive and is thus composed
of reactive elements. Since certain frequencies are to
be passed with minimal loss, ideally the inductors and 17.2 Two-port networks and
capacitors need to be pure components since the pres- characteristic impedance
ence of resistance results in some attenuation at all
frequencies. Networks in which electrical energy is fed in at one pair
Between the pass band of a filter, where ideally the atten- of terminals and taken out at a second pair of terminals
uation is zero, and the attenuation band, where ideally are called two-port networks. The network between the
the attenuation is infinite, is the cut-off frequency, this input port and the output port is a transmission network
being the frequency at which the attenuation changes for which a known relationship exists between the input
from zero to some finite value. and output currents and voltages.
A filter network containing no source of power is termed Figure 17.1(a) shows a T-network, which is termed
passive, and one containing one or more power sources symmetrical if ZA = ZB , and Fig. 17.1(b) shows a
is known as an active filter network. π-network which is symmetrical if ZE = ZF .
Filters are used for a variety of purposes in nearly If ZA = ZB in Fig. 17.1(a) and ZE = ZF in Fig. 17.1(b),
every type of electronic communications and control the sections are termed asymmetrical. Both networks
 Filter networks 261

impedance for an asymmetrical network and its value

depends on which pair of terminals is taken to be the
input and which the output (there are thus two values of
iterative impedance, one for each direction).
For a symmetrical network there is only one value
for the iterative impedance and this is called the char-
acteristic impedance Z0 of the symmetrical two-port
network.

17.3 Low-pass filters

Figure 17.3 shows simple unbalanced T- and π-section

filters using series inductors and shunt capacitors. If
either section is connected into a network and a con-
Figure 17.1
tinuously increasing frequency is applied, each would
have a frequency-attenuation characteristic as shown in
Fig. 17.4. This is an ideal characteristic and assumes
pure reactive elements. All frequencies are seen to be
passed from zero up to a certain value without attenua-
tion, this value being shown as fc , the cut-off frequency;
all values of frequency above fc are attenuated. It is
for this reason that the networks shown in Fig. 17.3(a)

Section 2
and (b) are known as low-pass filters.

Figure 17.3

Figure 17.2

shown have one common terminal, which may be

earthed, and are therefore said to be unbalanced. The
balanced form of the T-network is shown in Fig. 17.2(a)
and the balanced form of the π-network is shown in
Fig. 17.2(b).
The input impedance of a network is the ratio of volt-
age to current at the input terminals. With a two-port
network the input impedance often varies according to
the load impedance across the output terminals. For
any passive two-port network it is found that a par- Figure 17.4
ticular value of load impedance can always be found
which will produce an input impedance having the same The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a low-pass
value as the load impedance. This is called the iterative filter is shown in Fig. 17.5.
 262 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

Figure 17.5

Summarising, a low-pass filter is one designed to

pass signals at frequencies below a specified cut-off
frequency.
In practise, the characteristic curve of a low-pass
prototype filter section looks more like that shown in
Fig. 17.6. The characteristic may be improved some-
what closer to the ideal by connecting two or more
identical sections in cascade. This produces a much
sharper cut-off characteristic, although the attenuation
in the pass band is increased a little.

Figure 17.7

be shown that the cut-off frequency, fc , for each section

is the same, and is given by:
Section 2

1
fc = √ (1)
π LC

When the frequency is very low, the character-

istic impedance is purely resistive. This value of
Figure 17.6 characteristic impedance is known as the design
impedance or the nominal impedance of the section
and is often given the symbol R0 , where
When rectifiers are used to produce the d.c. supplies
of electronic systems, a large ripple introduces undesir-
able noise and may even mask the effect of the signal L
voltage. Low-pass filters are added to smooth the output R0 = (2)
C
voltage waveform, this being one of the most common
applications of filters in electrical circuits.
Filters are employed to isolate various sections of a Problem 1. Determine the cut-off frequency and
complete system and thus to prevent undesired interac- the nominal impedance for the low-pass
tions. For example, the insertion of low-pass decoupling T-connected section shown in Fig. 17.8.
filters between each of several amplifier stages and a
common power supply reduces interaction due to the
common power supply impedance.

Cut-off frequency and nominal

impedance calculations
A low-pass symmetrical T-network and a low-pass Figure 17.8
symmetrical π-network are shown in Fig. 17.7. It may
 Filter networks 263

Comparing Fig. 17.8 with the low-pass section of From equation (1), cut-off frequency,
Fig. 17.7(a), shows that:
1
fc = √
L π LC
= 100 mH,
2
1 106
i.e. inductance, L = 200 mH = 0.2 H, = = √
π (0.4 × 400 × 10−12 ) π 160
−6
and capacitance C = 0.2 µF = 0.2 × 10 F.
i.e. f c = 25.16 kHz
From equation (1), cut-off frequency, From equation (2), nominal impedance,

1 L 0.4
fc = √ R0 = = = 31.62 k
π LC C 400 × 10−12

1 103
= =
π (0.2 × 0.2 × 10−6 ) π(0.2) To determine values of L and C
given R0 and f c
i.e. f c = 1592 Hz or 1.592 kHz
If the values of the nominal impedance R0 and the cut-off
frequency fc are known for a low-pass T- or π-section,
From equation (2), nominal impedance, it is possible to determine the values of inductance and
capacitance required to form the section. It may be
L 0.2 shown that:
R0 = = 1

Section 2
C 0.2 × 10−6 capacitance C = (3)
πR0 f c
= 1000 or 1 k
R0
and inductance L = (4)
πf c

Problem 2. Determine the cut-off frequency and

the nominal impedance for the low-pass Problem 3. A filter section is to have a
π-connected section shown in Fig. 17.9. characteristic impedance at zero frequency of
600 and a cut-off frequency of 5 MHz. Design
(a) a low-pass T-section filter, and (b) a low-pass
π-section filter to meet these requirements.

The characteristic impedance at zero frequency is

the nominal impedance R0 , i.e. R0 = 600 ; cut-off
frequency fc = 5 MHz = 5 × 106 Hz.
Figure 17.9 From equation (3), capacitance,

1 1
C= = F
πR0 fc π(600)(5 × 106 )
Comparing Fig. 17.9 with the low-pass section of
Fig. 17.7(b), shows that: = 1.06 × 10−10 F = 106 pF

C From equation (4), inductance,

= 200 pF,
2 R0 600
L= = H
i.e. capacitance, C = 400 pF = 400 × 10 −12
F, πfc π(5 × 106 )

and inductance L = 0.4 H. = 3.82 × 10−5 = 38.2 µH

 264 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

Figure 17.10

(a) A low-pass T-section filter is shown in Fig. 17.10(a),

L a cut-off frequency of 1 kHz. Design (a) a
where the series arm inductances are each low-pass T-section filter, and (b) a low-pass
2
38.2 π-section filter to meet these requirements.
(see Fig. 17.7(a)), i.e. = 19.1 µH
2 [(a) Each series arm 79.60 mH shunt arm
(b) A low-pass π-section filter is shown in Fig. 17.10(b), 0.6366 µF
C (b) Series arm 159.2 mH, each shunt arm
where the shunt arm capacitances are each
2 0.3183 µF]
106
(see Fig. 17.7(b)), i.e. = 53 pF 3. Determine the value of capacitance required
2
in the shunt arm of a low-pass T-section if
the inductance in each of the series arms is
Now try the following exercise 40 mH and the cut-off frequency of the filter is
2.5 kHz. [0.203 µF]
Section 2

Exercise 98 Further problems on low-pass 4. The nominal impedance of a low-pass π-

filter sections section filter is 600 . If the capacitance in
each of the shunt arms is 0.1 µF determine the
1. Determine the cut-off frequency and the nom- inductance in the series arm. [72 mH]
inal impedance of each of the low-pass filter
sections shown in Fig. 17.11.
[(a) 1592 Hz; 5 k (b) 9545 Hz; 600 ]
17.4 High-pass filters

Figure 17.12 shows simple unbalanced T- and π-section

filters using series capacitors and shunt inductors. If
either section is connected into a network and a con-
tinuously increasing frequency is applied, each would
have a frequency-attenuation characteristic as shown in
Fig. 17.13.

Figure 17.12

Figure 17.11
Once again this is an ideal characteristic assuming
2. A filter section is to have a characteristic pure reactive elements. All frequencies below the cut-off
impedance at zero frequency of 500 and frequency fc are seen to be attenuated and all frequencies
above fc are passed without loss.
 Filter networks 265

Figure 17.13
Figure 17.15

It is for this reason that the networks shown in

Figs. 17.12(a) and (b) are known as high-pass filters.
The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a high-pass Cut-off frequency and nominal
filter is shown in Fig. 17.14. impedance calculations
A high-pass symmetrical T-network and a high-pass
symmetrical π-network are shown in Fig. 17.16. It may
be shown that the cut-off frequency, fc , for each section
is the same, and is given by:

Section 2
Figure 17.14 1
fc = √ (5)
4π LC

Summarising, a high-pass filter is one designed to

pass signals at frequencies above a specified cut-off
frequency.
The characteristic shown in Fig. 17.13 is ideal in that
it is assumed that there is no attenuation at all in the
pass-bands and infinite attenuation in the attenuation
band. Both of these conditions are impossible to achieve
in practice. Due to resistance, mainly in the inductive
elements the attenuation in the pass-band will not be
zero, and in a practical filter section the attenuation in
the attenuation band will have a finite value. In addition
to the resistive loss there is often an added loss due to
mismatching.
Ideally when a filter is inserted into a network it is
matched to the impedance of that network. However
the characteristic impedance of a filter section will vary
with frequency and the termination of the section may
be an impedance that does not vary with frequency in
the same way.
Figure 17.13 showed an ideal high-pass filter sec-
tion characteristic of attenuation against frequency. In Figure 17.16
practise, the characteristic curve of a high-pass proto-
type filter section would look more like that shown in When the frequency is very high, the character-
Fig. 17.15. istic impedance is purely resistive. This value of
 266 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

characteristic impedance is then the nominal imped-

ance of the section and is given by:

L
R0 = (6)
C

Problem 4. Determine the cut-off frequency and

the nominal impedance for the high-pass Figure 17.18
T-connected section shown in Fig. 17.17.

Comparing Fig. 17.18 with the high-pass section of

Fig. 17.16(b), shows that:

2L = 200 µH,

i.e. inductance, L = 100 µH = 10−4 H,

and capacitance, C = 4000 pF = 4 × 10−9 F.

Figure 17.17 From equation (5), cut-off frequency,

1
Section 2

fc = √
4π LC
Comparing Fig. 17.17 with the high-pass section of
Fig. 17.16(a), shows that: 1
= = 1.26 × 105
2C = 0.2 µF, 4π (10−4 × 4 × 10−9 )

i.e. capacitance, C = 0.1 µF = 0.1 × 10−6 , i.e. f c = 126 kHz

and inductance, L = 100 mH = 0.1 H.
From equation (6), nominal impedance,
From equation (5), cut-off frequency,
1 L 10−4
fc = √ R0 = =
4π LC C 4 × 10−9
1 103
= =
4π (0.1 × 0.1 × 10−6 ) 4π(0.1) 105
= = 158
i.e. f c = 796 Hz 4

From equation (6), nominal impedance,

To determine values of L and C
L 0.1
R0 = = given R0 and f c
C 0.1 × 10−6
= 1000 or 1 k If the values of the nominal impedance R0 and the cut-off
frequency fc are known for a high-pass T- or π-section,
it is possible to determine the values of inductance and
capacitance required to form the section. It may be
Problem 5. Determine the cut-off frequency and shown that:
the nominal impedance for the high-pass
π-connected section shown in Fig. 17.18. 1
capacitance C = (7)
4πR0 fc
 Filter networks 267

R0 are each 2C (see Fig. 17.16(a)), i.e. 2 × 5.305 =

and inductance L = (8)
4πfc 10.61 nF
(b) A high-pass π-section filter is shown in
Problem 6. A filter section is required to pass all
Fig. 17.19(b), where the shunt arm induc-
frequencies above 25 kHz and to have a nominal
tances are each 2L (see Fig. 17.6(b)), i.e.
impedance of 600 . Design (a) a high-pass
2 × 1.91 = 3.82 mH.
T-section filter, and (b) a high-pass π-section filter
to meet these requirements.
Now try the following exercise
Cut-off frequency fc = 25 kHz = 25 × 103 Hz, and
nominal impedance, R0 = 600 . Exercise 99 Further problems on
From equation (7), capacitance, high-pass filter sections

1 1 1. Determine the cut-off frequency and the nom-

C= = F inal impedance of each of the high-pass filter
4πR0 fc 4π(600)(25 × 103 )
sections shown in Fig. 17.20.
1012 [(a) 22.51 kHz; 14.14 k
= pF (b) 281.3 Hz; 1414 ]
4π(600)(25 × 103 )

= 5305 pF or 5.305 nF

From equation (8), inductance,

Section 2
R0 600
L= =
4πfc 4π(25 × 103 )

= 0.00191 H = 1.91 mH
(a) A high-pass T-section filter is shown in
Fig. 17.19(a), where the series arm capacitances

Figure 17.20

2. A filter section is required to pass all fre-

quencies above 4 kHz and to have a nominal
impedance 750 . Design (a) an appropriate
high-pass T section filter, and (b) an appro-
priate high-pass π-section filter to meet these
requirements.
[(a) Each series arm = 53.06 nF,
shunt arm = 14.92 mH
(b) Series arm = 26.53 nF, each
shunt arm = 29.84 mH]
Figure 17.19
 268 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

3. The inductance in each of the shunt arms of

a high-pass π-section filter is 50 mH. If the
nominal impedance of the section is 600 ,
determine the value of the capacitance in the
series arm. [69.44 nF]
4. Determine the value of inductance required
in the shunt arm of a high-pass T-section filter
if in each series arm it contains a 0.5 µF capac-
itor. The cut-off frequency of the filter section
is 1500 Hz. [11.26 mH]

Figure 17.23
17.5 Band-pass filters

A band-pass filter is one designed to pass signals with defined bandwidth must be maintained for good
frequencies between two specified cut-off frequen- performance.
cies. The characteristic of an ideal band-pass filter is
shown in Fig. 17.21. Problem 7. A band-pass filter is comprised of a
low-pass T-section filter having a cut-off frequency
of 15 kHz, connected in series with a high-pass
T-section filter having a cut-off frequency of
Section 2

10 kHz. The terminating impedance of the filter is

600 . Determine the values of the components
comprising the composite filter.

For the low-pass T-section filter:

fCL = 15 000 Hz
Figure 17.21 From equation (3), capacitance,
Such a filter may be formed by cascading a high-pass 1 1
C= =
and a low-pass filter. fCH is the cut-off frequency of the πR0 fc π(600)(15 000)
high-pass filter and fCL is the cut-off frequency of the
= 35.4 × 10−9 = 35.4 nF
low-pass filter. As can be seen, for a band-pass filter
fCL > fCH , the pass-band being given by the difference From equation (4), inductance,
between these values.
R0 600
The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a band-pass L= =
filter is shown in Fig. 17.22. πfc π(15 000)
= 0.01273 H = 12.73 mH
Thus, from Fig. 17.7(a), the series arm inductances are
L
each i.e.
2
Figure 17.22
12.73
= 6.37 mH,
A typical practical characteristic for a band-pass filter 2
is shown in Fig. 17.23. and the shunt arm capacitance is 35.4 nF.
Crystal and ceramic devices are used extensively as
For the high-pass T-section filter:
band-pass filters. They are common in the intermediate-
frequency amplifiers of v.h.f. radios where a precisely fCH = 10 000 Hz
 Filter networks 269

Figure 17.24

From equation (7), capacitance,

2. A band-pass filter is comprised of a low-pass
1 1 π-section filter having a cut-off frequency of
C= =
4πR0 fc 4π(600)(10 000) 50 kHz, connected in series with a high-pass
π-section filter having a cut-off frequency of
= 1.33 × 10−8 = 13.3 nF 40 kHz. The terminating impedance of the
filter is 620 . Determine the values of the
From equation (8), inductance,
components comprising the composite filter.
R0 600 [Low-pass π-section: series arm 3.95 mH,
L= = each shunt arm 5.13 nF
4πfc 4π(10 000)
High-pass π-section: series arm 3.21 nF,
= 4.77 × 10−3 = 4.77 mH. each shunt arm 2.47 mH]

Thus, from Fig. 17.16(a), the series arm capacitances

Section 2
are each 2C,
17.6 Band-stop filters
i.e. 2×13.3 = 26.6 nF,
A band-stop filter is one designed to pass signals with
and the shunt arm inductance is 4.77 mH. The compos- all frequencies except those between two specified
ite, band-pass filter is shown in Fig. 17.24. cut-off frequencies. The characteristic of an ideal band-
The attenuation against frequency characteristic will stop filter is shown in Fig. 17.25.
be similar to Fig. 17.23 where fCH = 10 kHz and
fCL = 15 kHz.

Now try the following exercise

Exercise 100 Further problems on

band-pass filters
1. A band-pass filter is comprised of a low-pass
T-section filter having a cut-off frequency of
20 kHz, connected in series with a high-pass
T-section filter having a cut-off frequency of
8 kHz. The terminating impedance of the fil- Figure 17.25
ter is 600 . Determine the values of the
components comprising the composite filter. Such a filter may be formed by connecting a high-
[Low-pass T-section: each pass and a low-pass filter in parallel. As can be seen, for
series arm 4.77 mH, shunt arm 26.53 nF a band-stop filter fCH > fCL , the stop-band being given
High-pass T-section: each by the difference between these values.
series arm 33.16 nF, shunt arm 5.97 mH] The electrical circuit diagram symbol for a band-stop
filter is shown in Fig. 17.26.
 270 Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

5. A network designed to pass signals at fre-

quencies below a specified cut-off frequency
Figure 17.26 is called a . . . . . . filter.
6. A network designed to pass signals with all
frequencies except those between two spec-
A typical practical characteristic for a band-stop filter
ified cut-off frequencies is called a . . . . . .
is shown in Fig. 17.27.
filter.
7. A network designed to pass signals with
frequencies between two specified cut-off
frequencies is called a . . . . . . filter.
8. A network designed to pass signals at fre-
quencies above a specified cut-off frequency
is called a . . . . . . filter.
9. State one application of a low-pass filter.
10. Sketch (a) an ideal, and (b) a practical
attenuation/frequency characteristic for a
low-pass filter.
11. Sketch (a) an ideal, and (b) a practical
attenuation/frequency characteristic for a
high-pass filter.
Section 2

Figure 17.27
12. Sketch (a) an ideal, and (b) a practical
Sometimes, as in the case of interference from 50 Hz attenuation/frequency characteristic for a
power lines in an audio system, the exact frequency of band-pass filter.
a spurious noise signal is known. Usually such interfer- 14. State one application of a band-pass filter.
ence is from an odd harmonic of 50 Hz, for example,
250 Hz. A sharply tuned band-stop filter, designed to 13. Sketch (a) an ideal, and (b) a practical
attenuate the 250 Hz noise signal, is used to minimise attenuation/frequency characteristic for a
the effect of the output. A high-pass filter with cut- band-stop filter.
off frequency greater than 250 Hz would also remove 15. State one application of a band-stop filter.
the interference, but some of the lower frequency
components of the audio signal would be lost as well.
Filter design can be a complicated area. For more,
see Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology.
Exercise 102 Multi-choice questions on
filters
Now try the following exercise (Answers on page 399)
1. A network designed to pass signals with
Exercise 101 Short answer questions all frequencies except those between two
on filters specified cut-off frequencies is called a:
(a) low-pass filter (b) high-pass filter
1. Define a filter.
(c) band-pass filter (d) band-stop filter
2. Define the cut-off frequency for a filter. 2. A network designed to pass signals at fre-
3. Define a two-port network. quencies above a specified cut-off frequency
is called a:
4. Define characteristic impedance for a (a) low-pass filter (b) high-pass filter
two-port network. (c) band-pass filter (d) band-stop filter
 Filter networks 271

3. A network designed to pass signals at fre- (c) 98.68 µH in each series arm, 256.7 pF
quencies below a specified cut-off frequency in shunt arm
is called a: (d) 49.34 µH in each series arm, 128.4 pF
(a) low-pass filter (b) high-pass filter in shunt arm
(c) band-pass filter (d) band-stop filter

9. A high-pass T-connected symmetrical filter

4. A network designed to pass signals with
section has capacitances of 400 nF in each of
frequencies between two specified cut-off
its series arms and an inductance of 200 mH
frequencies is called a:
in its shunt arm. The cut-off frequency of the
(a) low-pass filter (b) high-pass filter
filter is:
(c) band-pass filter (d) band-stop filter (a) 1592 Hz (b) 1125 Hz
(c) 281 Hz (d) 398 Hz
5. A low-pass T-connected symmetrical filter
section has an inductance of 200 mH in each
of its series arms and a capacitance of 0.5 µF 10. A high-pass π-connected symmetrical filter
in its shunt arm. The cut-off frequency of the section has a capacitance of 5000 pF in its
filter is: series arm and inductances of 500 µH in each
(a) 1007 Hz (b) 251.6 Hz of its shunt arms. The cut-off frequency of the
(c) 711.8 Hz (d) 177.9 Hz filter is:
(a) 201.3 kHz (b) 71.18 kHz
6. A low-pass π-connected symmetrical filter (c) 50.33 kHz (d) 284.7 kHz
section has an inductance of 200 mH in its

Section 2
series arm and capacitances of 400 pF in each The following refers to questions 11 and 12.
of its shunt arms. The cut-off frequency of the
filter is: A filter section is required to pass all frequencies
(a) 25.16 kHz (b) 6.29 kHz above 50 kHz and to have a nominal impedance of
(c) 17.79 kHz (d) 35.59 kHz 650 .

The following refers to questions 7 and 8. 11. A high-pass T-connected symmetrical filter
section is comprised of:
A filter section is to have a nominal impedance of (a) Each series arm 2.45 nF, shunt arm
620 and a cut-off frequency of 2 MHz. 1.03 mH
(b) Each series arm 4.90 nF, shunt arm
7. A low-pass T-connected symmetrical filter 2.08 mH
section is comprised of: (c) Each series arm 2.45 nF, shunt arm
(a) 98.68 µH in each series arm, 128.4 pF 2.08 mH
in shunt arm (d) Each series arm 4.90 nF, shunt arm
(b) 49.34 µH in each series arm, 256.7 pF 1.03 mH
in shunt arm
(c) 98.68 µH in each series arm, 256.7 pF
in shunt arm 12. A high-pass π-connected symmetrical filter
(d) 49.34 µH in each series arm, 128.4 pF section is comprised of:
in shunt arm (a) Series arm 4.90 nF, and each shunt arm
1.04 mH
8. A low-pass π-connected symmetrical filter (b) Series arm 4.90 nF, and each shunt arm
section is comprised of: 2.07 mH
(a) 98.68 µH in each series arm, 128.4 pF (c) Series arm 2.45 nF, and each shunt arm
in shunt arm 2.07 mH
(b) 49.34 µH in each series arm, 256.7 pF (d) Series arm 2.45 nF, and each shunt arm
in shunt arm 1.04 mH
 Chapter 18
D.C.transients
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• understand the term ‘transient’
• describe the transient response of capacitor and resistor voltages, and current in a series C − R d.c. circuit
• define the term ‘time constant’
• calculate time constant in a C − R circuit
• draw transient growth and decay curves for a C − R circuit
• use equations vC = V (1 − e−t/τ ), vR = V e−t/τ and i = Ie−t/τ for a C − R circuit
• describe the transient response when discharging a capacitor
• describe the transient response of inductor and resistor voltages, and current in a series L − R d.c. circuit
• calculate time constant in an L − R circuit
• draw transient growth and decay curves for an L − R circuit
• use equations vL = V e−t/τ , vR = V (1 − e−t/τ ) and i = I(1 − e−t/τ )
• describe the transient response for current decay in an L − R circuit
• understand the switching of inductive circuits
• describe the effects of time constant on a rectangular waveform via integrator and differentiator circuits

18.1 Introduction 18.2 Charging a capacitor

When a d.c. voltage is applied to a capacitor C and (a) The circuit diagram for a series connected C − R
resistor R connected in series, there is a short period of circuit is shown in Fig. 18.1 When switch S is
time immediately after the voltage is connected, during closed then by Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
which the current flowing in the circuit and voltages
across C and R are changing. V = vC + v R (1)
Similarly, when a d.c. voltage is connected to a circuit
(b) The battery voltage V is constant. The capacitor
having inductance L connected in series with resistance
voltage vC is given by q/C, where q is the charge
R, there is a short period of time immediately after the
on the capacitor. The voltage drop across R is given
voltage is connected, during which the current flow-
by iR, where i is the current flowing in the circuit.
ing in the circuit and the voltages across L and R are
Hence at all times:
changing.
These changing values are called transients. q
V = + iR (2)
C