Basic Embryology

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 Introduction to Embryology
Literally, embryology means the study of embryos;
however, the term generally refers to prenatal
development of embryos and fetuses.
Why Study Human Embryology?
 All of us were once human embryos.
 The study of human embryology is the study of our own
prenatal origins and experience.
 Human embryology does not always occur normally.
 Surprisingly, 3% to 4% of all live-born children will be
diagnosed eventually (usually within the first two years)
with a significant malformation (i.e., birth defect).
 Introduction to Embryology……….
Teratology
is the division of embryology and pathology that deals
with abnormal development (birth defects).
This branch of embryology is concerned with various
genetic and/or environmental and maternal factors
that disturb normal development and produce birth
defects.

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 Introduction to Embryology……….
 For a student pursuing a career in biology, medicine, or
allied health sciences there are many other reasons to
study human embryology.
1. The best way to understand and remember human
anatomy.
Microscopic anatomy,
Neuroanatomy, and
Gross anatomy
 is to understand how tissues, organs, and the body as a
whole are assembled from relatively simple rudiments.
 Introduction to Embryology……….

2. As you continue your studies and perhaps take courses

such as human genetics, pathology, organ systems, and
reproductive, and study disease processes and aging, your
knowledge of human embryology will continue to benefit
you.
 Cancer is now widely recognized as a disease involving
mutations in genes controlling development and
regulating key cellular events of development, such as
cell division and death (apoptosis).
 Introduction to Embryology……….

3. When you will become medical practitioners.

 Embryology will serve to bridge your basic science and
clinical science courses.
 Once you start your practice, your patients will have
many questions about:
 Pregnancy and birth defects, and
 Abortion and birth control,
 In vitro fertilization,
 Gamete and embryo donation,
4. Finally, we think one of the best reasons to study human
embryology is that it is a fun subject to learn.
Embryologic terminology
 Sperm or spermatozoon −► refers to the male germ cell
produced in the testes.
 Oocyte −► refers to female germ or sex cells, produced in
the ovaries
 Zygote −► refers to a cell results from the union of an
oocyte and a sperm during fertilization
 A zygote is the beginning of a new human being
 Cleavage −► a series of mitotic cell divisions of the
zygote that result in the formation of early embryonic cells,
blastomeres
 Morula −► a solid mass of 12 to 32 blastomeres, formed
by cleavage of a zygote

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Blastocyst −► it is a stage (after 2-3 days by the time the
morula enters the uterus from the uterine tube).
 Implantation −► The process during which the blastocyst
attaches to the endometrium.
 Gastrula −► transformation of a blastocyst into a three-
layered or trilaminar embryonic disc (third week).
 Neurula −► the early embryo when the neural tube is
developing from the neural plate (by 3rd & 4th wks).
 Embryo −► The developing human during its early stages
of development (3rd - 8th wk, embryonic period ).

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 Conceptus (derivatives of zygote) −► The embryo and its
adjacent parts.
 Primordium −► The beginning or first discernible
indication of an organ.
 Fetus −► the developing human from 9th wk to birth (
fetal period)
 Trimester −► A period of three calendar months during a
pregnancy.
 Abortion −► A premature stoppage of development and
expulsion of
 A conceptus from the uterus
 An embryo or fetus before it is viable-capable of living
outside the uterus.
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 Periods of Human Embryology
✽ Development
Growth (↑ in mass of tissues)
Differentiation (↑ in complexity)
✽ Divided into:
☞ The Prenatal Period
The first 38 weeks of human development b/n
fertilization and birth.
From a medical or prospective parent’s viewpoint, human
prenatal development is subdivided into three main
intervals called the 1st , 2nd ,and 3rd trimesters, each
consisting of three-month periods.
From an embryologist’s viewpoint there are also
three main subdivisions of human prenatal
development,
The period of the egg,
The period of the embryo, and
The period of the fetus.
 The period of the egg or ovum,
is generally considered to extend from the time of
fertilization until formation of the blastocyst and
implantation of the blastocyst into the uterine wall
about one week after fertilization.
During the period of the egg, human embryologists
identify three stages of development:
1. Fertilization
2. Cleavage
3. Implantation
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 The conceptus during this period may also be called the
period of the preimplantation embryo.
The use of the terms egg or embryo for the conceptus at
these stages is particularly helpful for those conducting
in vitro fertilization.
Embryonic period:
The exact beginning of the period of the embryo is
poorly defined,
There is no universal agreement about when the period
begins.
Some call the cleaving morula, or even the zygote, the
embryo.
Others use the term embryo only after the conceptus
starts implanting into the uterine wall at the end of the
1st week of gestation or becomes fully implanted into
the uterine wall at the end of the 2nd week of gestation.
The period of the embryo could also be called the period
of the postimplantation embryo or conceptus,
Despite the lack of agreement about when the period of
the embryo begins, it is generally considered to end at
the end of the 8th week of gestation.
All major organ systems appear.
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The Fetal Period:
Includes the remaining weeks of development
prior to birth
The period of the fetus extends from the 9th
week to birth and involves rapid growth of the
fetus and functional maturation of its organ
systems.

The embryonic period terminates at the end of the eighth week; by this time, the beginnings (primordia) of all essential structures are
present. The fetal period, extending from 9 weeks to birth, is characterized by growth and elaboration of structures. Sex is clearly
distinguishable by 12 weeks. Fetuses are viable 22 weeks after fertilization, but their chances of survival are not good until they are
several weeks older. The 11- to 38-week fetuses shown are approximately half of their actual sizes.
 The main developmental changes occurring before birth
are illustrated in the Timetable of Human Prenatal
Development.
 Examination of the timetable reveals that the most
visible advances occur during the third to eighth weeks
of embryonic development.
 During the fetal period, differentiation and growth of
tissues and organs occur. The rate of body growth
increases during this period.

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Early stages of development. Development of an ovarian follicle containing an oocyte, ovulation, and the phases of the menstrual
cycle are illustrated. Human development begins at fertilization, approximately 14 days after the onset of the last normal menstrual
period. Cleavage of the zygote in the uterine tube, implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium (lining) of the uterus, and early
development of the embryo are also shown. Beginning students
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Mengistu.D not attempt to memorize these tables or the stages (e.g.,
20 that
stage 3 begins on day 4 and stage 5 on day 7).
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•Changes occurring during the embryonic period are very important
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BDU they make it possible for the tissues and organs22
to
function. The rate of body growth is remarkable, especially during the third and fourth months, and weight gain is phenomenal during
Human Development
Human development is a continuous process that
begins when an oocyte (ovum) from a female is
fertilized by a sperm (spermatozoon) from a male.
At birth, the baby or neonate breathes on its own,
but development does not cease simply because
birth has occurred.
It is important remember that development is not
just a prenatal experience; rather, development is a
lifelong process, with aging and involving further
developmental events.

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Important changes, in addition to growth, occur after
birth.
Cell division, cell migration, programmed cell death,
differentiation, growth, and cell rearrangement
transform the fertilized oocyte, a highly specialized, a
zygote, into a multicellular human being.
☞ Postnatal period
✹ Infancy (neonate – 1st yr)
✹ childhood (13 mo – 12 yrs)
✹ puberty (12 – 15 ♀ , 13 – 16 ♂ yrs)
✹ adolescence (12 – 17 yrs)
✹ adulthood (18 – 21 yrs)

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Age of Fetus
 A “full-term” human pregnancy ranges from 216 to
306 days with a modal length of 266 days.
 Fertilization age of the fetus uses the event of
fertilization as time zero.
 Menstrual age uses the start of the mother’s last
normal menstrual period (LNMP) as time zero,
meaning that menstrual age is approximately two
weeks older than fertilization age.

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Phases of Human Embryology

Embryologists also subdivide human embryology into

phases.
These phases are introduced here to help you keep
developmental events in context as you pursue your
study of human embryology.
 The first phase of human embryology is gametogenesis.
This process occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) of
females and males and involves meiosis.
In females, gametogenesis occurs in the ovaries and is called
oogenesis;
The final cells produced by oogenesis are the eggs or
oocytes.
In males, gametogenesis occurs in the testes and is called
spermatogenesis;
The final cells produced by spermatogenesis are the sperm
or spermatozoa.
Thus, as a result of gametogenesis, gametes undergo
morphologic differentiation that allows the second phase of
human embryology to occur.
 The second phase of human embryology is fertilization.
This process occurs in one of the oviducts of the female
after the egg has been ovulated and enters an oviduct,
and sperm have been deposited in the vagina at coitus.
Sperm move from the vagina into the uterus and finally
into the oviducts, where, if an egg is encountered,
fertilization can occur.
Because the egg and sperm chromosomes are united in a
single cell at fertilization, establishing a new cell called
the zygote.
The third phase of human embryology is cleavage.
During cleavage the zygote divides by mitosis into two
cells, each of which quickly divides into two more cells.
The process continues to repeat itself, rapidly forming a
solid ball of cells called a morula.
Cleavage differs from the conventional cell division that
occurs in many cell types throughout an organism’s life
in that during cleavage, each daughter cell formed by
cleavage is roughly half the size of its parent cell.
 The fourth phase of human embryology is gastrulation.
 During gastrulation, cells undergo extensive movements
relative to one another, changing their positions.
 A purpose of gastrulation is to establish primitive
tissue layers, called germ layers.
 Three primary germ layers are formed, called the
endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.
 These germ layers give rise to tissues and organ rudiments
during subsequent development.
 The three major axes of the embryo become identifiable
during gastrulation: the dorsal-ventral axis, cranial-
caudal axis, and medial-lateral axis (including the left-right
axis).
The fifth phase of human embryology is formation of the body
plan.
The purpose of this folding, called body folding, is to
separate the embryo from its extraembryonic
membranes (that is, amnion and yolk sac) and
To convert the flat disc into a three-dimensional body
plan, called the tube-within-a-tube body plan.
The tube-within-a-tube body plan consists of an outer
tube (formed from the ectodermal germ layer) and an
inner tube (formed from the endodermal germ layer),
with the two tubes separated by the mesoderm.
With the completion of formation of the body plan
and the formation of organ rudiments, what remains to
occur is the last phase of human embryology, the phase
of organogenesis.
During organogenesis, organ rudiments undergo growth
and differentiation to form organs and organ systems.
With continued growth and differentiation these organs
and organ systems begin to function during intrauterine
life.
Primordial Germ Cells in Yolk Sac
Cells that give rise to gametes in
both males and females can be
identified during the 4th week of
gestation within the yolk sac.
Between four and six weeks, PGCs
migrate by ameboid movement
from the yolk sac to the wall of the
gut tube, and from the gut tube via
the mesentery of the gut to the
dorsal body wall.
PGCs continue to multiply by
mitosis during their migration.
PGCs stimulate formation of a pair
genital ridges

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Development
of the genital
system

migration of primordial germ

cells from the umbilical vesicle Transverse section showing the
(yolk sac) into the embryo. gonadal ridges and migration of
location and extent of primordial germ cells into the
the gonadal ridges developing gonads

Transverse section of a 6-
week embryo showing the
gonadal cords
35

showing the indifferent gonads and

paramesonephric ducts.
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During the 6th week, cells from
the coelomic epithelium form
aggregates of somatic
supporting cells that
completely invest the germ
cells.
Somatic support cells are
essential for germ cell
development within the
gonad; if these cells do not
invest the germ cells, the germ
cells degenerate.
After the 6th week, these
somatic support cells pursue
different fates in males and
females.

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 Sex Determination NB: If they fail to reach the
 Chromosomal and genetic sex ridges, the gonads do not
depends on whether an X-bearing develop. Hence, the primordial
sperm or a Y-bearing sperm germ cells have an inductive
fertilizes the X-bearing oocyte. influence on development of the
 Before the seventh week, the gonad into ovary or testis.
gonads of the two sexes are
identical in appearance and are
called indifferent gonads. Influence of primordial germ
 Development of the male cells on indifferent gonad
phenotype requires a Y
chromosome.
 Two X chromosomes are required
for the development of the female
phenotype. A number of genes and
regions of the X chromosome have
special roles in sex
determination.
Gametogenesis:
• In both males and females, PGCs undergo further
mitotic divisions within the gonads and then
commence gametogenesis, the process that
converts them into mature male and female
gametes (spermatozoa and definitive oocytes,
respectively).
• In males, PGCs remain dormant from the 6th
week of embryonic development until puberty.
• At puberty, seminiferous tubules mature and
PGCs differentiate into spermatogonia.
•

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 In contrast in females, PGCs undergo a few more
mitotic divisions after they are invested by the
somatic support cells.
 They then differentiate into oogonia, and by the
5th month of fetal development all oogonia
begin meiosis, after which they are called
primary oocytes.
• The sequence of gametogenesis is the same, but
the timing of events during meiosis differs in
the two sexes.

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• This process, involving the chromosomes
and cytoplasm of the gametes, prepares
these sex cells for fertilization.
• During gametogenesis, the chromosome
number is reduced by half and the shape of
the cells is altered.
• Spermatozoa are produced continuously
from puberty until death.

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DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF SPERMATOGENESIS?
 Spermatogenesis is the sequence of events by which
primitive spermatogonia are transformed into mature
sperms.
 This maturation process begins at puberty.
 Spermatogonia, which have been dormant in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes since the fetal period,
begin to increase in number at puberty.
 After several mitotic divisions, the spermatogonia grow and
undergo changes.
Stages of spermatogenesis:
A. Spermatocytogenesis
B. Sermiogeneses:

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A. Spermatocytogenesis:
 It is the process by which the spermatogonia (44
autosomes + 2sex chromosomes X & Y) differentiate into
spermatids as follows:
 Each spermatogonium undergoes Mitotic division to give
2 daughter spermatogonia, (each of which contains 44
+XY chromosomes.)
 Each daughter spermatogonium grows to give primary
spermatocyte.
 The primary spermatocyte undergoes meiotic division to
give 2 secondary spermatocytes (each of which contains
the haploid number of chromosome 22+ X (female) or 22
+Y(male))
 Each secondary spermatocyte divides and re divides
mitotically to spermatids.
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B. Spermiogeneses
The spermatids are gradually transformed into four
mature sperm by a process known as spermiogenesis.
The entire process of spermatogenesis, which includes
spermiogenesis, takes approximately 2 months and
Approximately 300 million sperm cells are produced
daily.
When spermiogenesis is complete, the sperms enter
the lumina of the seminiferous tubules.
Sertoli cells lining the seminiferous tubules support
and care for the germ cells and may be involved in the
regulation of spermatogenesis.

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 Spermiogenesis is the
morphological and structural
changes of the spermatid to be
transformed into the mature
sperm as follows:
1. The nucleus of the spermatid forms
most of the sperm head.
2. Golgi apparatus forms the head
cap (acrosome)
3. The centriole elongates to form
the axial filament
4. The mitochndria form spiral
sheath

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WHAT ARE THE RESULTS OF SPERMATOGENESIS?
Reduction of the number of chromosomes from the
diploid number (46) (in the spermatogonia) to the
haploid number (23) (in the mature sperms).
Change in the shape of the male germ cell to produce
motile sperms.
Increase in the number of sperms, so one mother cell
(spermatogonium) my produce 12 up to 16 sperms.

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DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF OOGENESIS?
OOGENESIS
Oogenesis is the sequence of events by which oogonia
are transformed into mature oocytes.
This maturation process begins before birth and is
completed after puberty.
Oogenesis continues to menopause, which is permanent
cessation of the menses.

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Steps of Oogenesis:
Prenatal Maturation of Oocytes
Once primordial germ cells (PGCs) have arrived in the
gonad of a genetic female, they differentiate into oogonia.
During early fetal life, oogonia proliferate by mitosis.
Oogonia enlarge to form primary oocytes before birth.
During the next few months, oogonia increase rapidly in
number, and by the fifth month of prenatal development,
the total number of germ cells in the ovary reaches its
maximum, estimated at 7 million.

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By the seventh month, the
majority of oogonia have
degenerated except for a few
near the surface.
Cell death begins, and many
oogonia as well as primary
oocytes degenerate and
become atretic.
All surviving primary oocytes
have entered prophase of
meiosis I, and most of them
are individually surrounded by
a layer of flat follicular
epithelial cells.
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The primary oocyte enclosed by this layer of cells
constitutes a primordial follicle.
As the primary oocyte enlarges during puberty, the
follicular epithelial cells become cuboidal in shape and
then columnar, forming a primary follicle.
The primary oocyte soon becomes surrounded by a
covering of amorphous acellular glycoprotein material,
the zona pellucida.

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Postnatal Maturation of Oocytes
There are approximately two million primary oocytes
in the ovaries of a newborn female, but most regress
during childhood so that by adolescence no more than
40,000 remain.
Of these, only approximately 400 become secondary
oocytes and are expelled at ovulation during the
reproductive period.
No primary oocytes form after birth in females, in
contrast to the continuous production of primary
spermatocytes in males.
The primary oocytes remain dormant in the ovarian
follicles until puberty. As a follicle matures, the primary
oocyte increases in size and, shortly before ovulation,
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 Completes the first meiotic division to give rise to a
secondary oocyte and the first polar body.
 Unlike the corresponding stage of spermatogenesis,
however, the division of cytoplasm is unequal.
 The secondary oocyte receives almost all the cytoplasm,
and the first polar body receives very little.
At ovulation, the nucleus of the secondary oocyte begins
the second meiotic division,
If a sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte, the second
meiotic division is completed

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Result of Oogenesis:
 Reduction of the number of chromosomes from the
diploid number (46) in the oogonia to the haploid
number (23) in the secondary oocyte and mature ovum.

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Meiosis
 is a special type of cell division that involves two meiotic
cell divisions; it takes place in germ cells only.
 Diploid germ cells give rise to haploid gametes (sperms
and oocytes).
 The first meiotic division
 is a reduction division because the chromosome number
is reduced from diploid to haploid by pairing of
homologous chromosomes in prophase and their
segregation at anaphase.
 The second meiotic division
 is similar to an ordinary mitosis except that the
chromosome number of the cell entering the second
meiotic
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division is haploid.
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Significance of meiosis:
Provides constancy of the chromosome number from
generation to generation by reducing the chromosome
number from diploid to haploid, thereby producing
haploid gametes.
Genetic variability is enhanced through
 crossover, which redistributes genetic material.
 random distribution of homologous chromosomes to
the daughter cells.

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Abnormalities in chromosome number may originate
during meiotic or mitotic divisions.
In meiosis, two members of a pair of homologous
chromosomes normally separate during the first meiotic
division, so that each daughter cell receives one member
of each pair.
Sometimes, however, separation does not occur
(nondisjunction), and both members of a pair move into
one cell.
As a result of nondisjunction of the chromosomes, one
cell receives 24 chromosomes, and the other receives 22
instead of the normal 23.

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When, at fertilization, a gamete having 23 chromosomes
fuses with a gamete having 24 or 22 chromosomes, the
result is an individual with either 47 chromosomes
(trisomy) or 45 chromosomes (monosomy).
Nondisjunction, which occurs during either the first or
the second meiotic division of the germ cells, may involve
the autosomes or sex chromosomes.
In women, the incidence of chromosomal abnormalities,
including nondisjunction, increases with age, especially at
35 years and older.
The number of oocytes that ovulate is greatly reduced in
women who take oral contraceptives because the
hormones in them prevent ovulation from occurring.
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 Figure 2.10 Child with trisomy
18. Note the low-set ears, small
mouth, deficient mandible
(micrognathia), flexion of the
hands, and absent and/or
hypoplasia of the radius and
ulna.

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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES
 Commencing at puberty, females undergo reproductive
cycles (sexual cycles), involving activities of the
hypothalamus of the brain, pituitary gland, ovaries,
uterus, uterine tubes, vagina, and mammary glands.
 These monthly cycles prepare the reproductive system
for pregnancy.
 A gonadotropin-releasing hormone is synthesized by
neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus and is
carried by the hypophysial portal system to the anterior
lobe of the pituitary gland.

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 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone stimulates the release
of two hormones produced by this gland that act on the
ovaries:
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the
development of ovarian follicles and the production of
estrogen by the follicular cells.
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) serves as the "trigger" for
ovulation (release of secondary oocyte) and stimulates
the follicular cells and corpus luteum to produce
progesterone.
NB: stimulate and control cyclic changes in the ovary.

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WHAT IS THE OVARIAN CYCLE?
OVARIAN CYCLE
 It is the periodic changes (every 28 days) which occur in
the cortex of the ovary from puberty till menopause.
 FSH and LH produce cyclic changes in the ovaries  the
ovarian cycle.
 It is under the control of the pituitary gland.
 It is divided into 3 phases:
Development of follicles,
Ovulation, and
Corpus luteum formation.

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Follicular Development
 It is the development of the primary follicle and its
transformation into mature graafian follicle.
Development of an ovarian follicle is characterized by:
• Growth and differentiation of primary oocyte
• Proliferation of follicular cells
• Formation of zona pellucida
• Development of the theca folliculi

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRAFIAAN FOLLICLE?
The F.S.H stimulates a number of primary follicles to
develop into mature graafian follicles as follows:
 Under the effect of F.S.H the simple flat epithelil cells
which surround the primary oocyte start to enlarge and
become cuboidal, then columnar which divide forming
many layers around oocyte.
 The follicular cells deposit a glycoprotein substance
which form zona pellucid, and the follicular cells now are
called granulose cells.
 The follicular cells which is closed to oocyte is called
cumulus Oophorus.

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 Small irregular spaces appear between the granulose
cells and later join to form one large cavity (the follicular
cavity). This structure is called mature grrafian follicle.
 The fibrous capsule covering the follicle is called theca
folliculi.
 The follicle increases in size until it ruptures (and changes
into corpus luteum).
 The other follicles degenerate, and form atretic follicles.

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• As the primary follicle increases in size, the adjacent
connective tissue organizes into a capsule, the theca
folliculi.
The theca soon differentiates into two layers
– an internal vascular and glandular layer, the theca
interna, and
– a capsule-like layer, the theca externa.

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Subsequently, fluid-filled spaces appear around the
follicular cells, which to form a single large cavity, the
antrum, which contains follicular fluid.
After the antrum forms, the ovarian follicle is called
secondary follicle.
• The primary oocyte is pushed to one side of the follicle,
where it is surrounded by a mound of follicular cells, the
cumulus oophorus, that projects into the antrum.

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 During each cycle, FSH promotes growth of several
primordial follicles into 15 to 20 primary follicles;
however, only one primary follicle usually develops into a
mature follicle and ruptures through the surface of the
ovary, expelling its oocyte.
• Each month, 15 to 20 follicles selected from this pool
begin to mature, passing through three stages:
(1) primary or preantral,
(2) secondary or antral, and
(3) preovulatory (Graafian follicle).
• The antral stage is the longest, whereas the preovulatory
stage encompasses approximately 37 hours before
ovulation.
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Ovulation
 It is the rupture of the mature graafian follicle and
release of the ovum into the uterine tube.
 It occurs nearly in the middle of the cycle – on the 14th
day.

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Ovulation is triggered by
 The LH surge, elicited by the high estrogen level in the
blood, appears to cause the stigma to balloon out,
forming a vesicle . The stigma soon ruptures, expelling
the secondary oocyte with the follicular fluid.
 Expulsion of the oocyte is the result of intrafollicular
pressure and possibly contraction of smooth muscle in
the theca externa owing to stimulation by
prostaglandins.

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 Corpus luteum

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An ovulation:
 Some women do not ovulate (cessation of ovulation-
anovulation) because of an inadequate release of
gonadotropins.
 In some of these women, ovulation can be induced by
the administration of gonadotropins or an ovulatory
agent.
 This drug stimulates the release of pituitary
gonadotropins (FSH and LH), resulting in maturation of
several ovarian follicles and multiple ovulations.
 The incidence of multiple pregnancy increases as much
as tenfold when ovulation is induced.
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THE HORMONAL CONTROL OF OVARIAN CYCLE?
In the first half of the cycle, the anterior pituitary
secretes a hormome called follicle stimulating hormone
(F.S.H). this hormone causes:
1. Growth of the primary follicle.
2. Liberation of hormone called estrogen by the follicle

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In the middle of the cycle secretion of F.S.H. stops and
the anterior pituitary secretes a new hormone in the
second half of the cycle. This hormone is called
luteinizing hormone (L.H). the hormone cause:
1. Ovulation (rupture of the graafian mature follicle)
2. Changes the ruptured follicle into a corpus luteum.
3. Causes liberations of a new hormone called
progesterone and a small amount of estrogen by the
corpus luteum.

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 Mengistu.D BDU

03/10/2006 87
 Corpus Luteum
• Shortly after ovulation, the walls of the ovarian follicle
and theca folliculi collapse and are thrown into folds.
• It is the transformation of the ruptured follicle in to 
corpus luteum (yellow body) due to the effect of the
luteininsing hormone of the anterior pituitary.
• Under LH influence, they develop into a glandular
structure, the corpus luteum, which secretes
progesterone and some estrogen, causing the
endometrial glands to secrete and prepare the
endometrium for implantation of the blastocyst.

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If the oocyte is fertilized, the corpus luteum enlarges to
form a corpus luteum of pregnancy and increases its
hormone production.
 Degeneration of the corpus luteum is prevented by
human chorionic gonadotropin, a hormone secreted by
the syncytiotrophoblast of the blastocyst.
 The corpus luteum of pregnancy remains functionally
active throughout the first 20 weeks of pregnancy.
 By this time, the placenta has assumed the production of
the estrogen and progesterone that is necessary for the
maintenance of pregnancy.

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• If the oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum
involutes and degenerates 10 to 12 days after ovulation.
It is then called a corpus luteum of menstruation.
• The corpus luteum is subsequently transformed into
white scar tissue in the ovary, a corpus albicans.
If fertilization occurs
 blastocyst formation
If fertilization not occurs
 To ischemic phase
Then menstruation occurs

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MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• The menstrual (endometrial) cycle is the time during
which the oocyte matures, is ovulated, and enters the
uterine tube.
• The hormones produced by the ovarian follicles and
corpus luteum (estrogen and progesterone) produce
cyclic changes in the endometrium.
• These monthly changes in the internal layer of the uterus
constitute the endometrial cycle, commonly referred to
as the menstrual cycle or period because menstruation
(flow of blood from the uterus) is an obvious event.

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Phases of the Menstrual Cycle
 Although the menstrual cycle is divided into three main
phases for descriptive purposes,
1. Menstrual phase
 The functional layer of the uterine wall is sloughed off
and discarded.
 This phase lasts from 4 to 5 days.
 Amount of blood lost: about 50-60 cc.
 it consists of blood and pieces of endometrium.
 This blood does not clot
 After menstruation, the eroded endometrium is thin.

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2. The proliferative (follicular, estrogenic) phase,
 lasting approximately 9 days, coincides with growth of
ovarian follicles and is controlled by estrogen secreted
by these follicles.
 The endometrium grows so that by the end of this phase:
A. The endometrium becomes 4mm thick.
There is a two to three fold increase in the thickness
of the endometrium
B. The cells become cuboidal.
C. The uterine glands become longer and straight
N.B: The Regenerative and proliferative phases are under
the effect of the hormone estrogen secreted by the
developing
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3. Secretory (Luteal) phase
 The luteal (secretory, progesterone) phase, lasting
approximately 13 days,
 coincides with the formation, functioning, and growth of
the corpus luteum.
 The endometrium becomes thicker (5-7mm.) and forms 3
layers:
Superficial compact layer
Middle spongy layer
Deep basal layer.
 The cells become columnar.

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 The uterine glands become more convoluted and full of
secretion (mucous and glycogen).
 The spiral arteries (supplying the compact and spongy
layers) become dilated and tortuous.
 Direct arterio venous anastomosis are prominent
features of this stage
N.B This stage is under the effect of the hormone
progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum.
If fertilization does not occur:
 The corpus luteum degenerates
 Estrogen and progesterone levels fall and the secretory
endometrium enters an ischemic phase
 Menstruation
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Ischemic Phase
• The ischemic phase occurs when the oocyte is not
fertilized. Ischemia (reduced blood supply) occurs as the
spiral arteries constrict, giving the endometrium a pale
appearance.
• This constriction results from the decreasing secretion of
hormones, primarily progesterone, by the degenerating
corpus luteum.
• In addition to vascular changes, the hormone
withdrawal results in the stoppage of glandular
secretion, a loss of interstitial fluid, and a marked
shrinking of the endometrium.

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• Toward the end of the ischemic phase, the spiral arteries
become constricted for longer periods.
• This results in venous stasis and patchy ischemic necrosis
(death) in the superficial tissues. Eventually, rupture of
damaged vessel walls follows and blood seeps into the
surrounding connective tissue.
• Small pools of blood form and break through the
endometrial surface, resulting in bleeding into the
uterine lumen and from the vagina.

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• As small pieces of the endometrium detach and pass into
the uterine cavity, the torn ends of the arteries bleed into
the uterine cavity, resulting in a loss of 20 to 80 mL of
blood.
• Eventually, over 3 to 5 days, the entire compact layer and
most of the spongy layer of the endometrium are
discarded in the menses.
• Remnants of the spongy and basal layers remain to
undergo regeneration during the subsequent
proliferative phase of the endometrium.

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 If fertilization occurs
• Cleavage of the zygote and blastogenesis (formation of
blastocyst) occur.
• The blastocyst begins to implant in the endometrium on
approximately the sixth day of the luteal phase (day 20
of a 28-day cycle).
• Human chorionic gonadotropin, a hormone produced by
the syncytiotrophoblast, keeps the corpus luteum
secreting estrogens and progesterone.
• The luteal phase continues and menstruation does not
occur.

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Pregnancy Phase
• If pregnancy occurs, the menstrual cycles cease and the
endometrium passes into a pregnancy phase. With the
termination of pregnancy, the ovarian and menstrual
cycles resume after a variable period (usually 6 to 10
weeks if the woman is not breast-feeding her baby).
• If pregnancy does not occur, the reproductive cycles
normally continue until menopause.

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