Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation & Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

State of the art in recycling waste thermoplastics and thermosets and their
applications in construction
Mohammadjavad Kazemi a, Sk Faisal Kabir a, Elham H. Fini a, *
a
Arizona State University, 660 S. College Avenue, Tempe, AZ, 85287

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Polymeric products such as plastics and rubbers are in widespread use, and the recycling of these polymeric
Recycling materials has not kept pace with the increased production. There are serious environmental consequences to
Thermoplastics disposing of waste polymeric materials in landfills or incinerating them. Their low biodegradability makes it
Thermosets
unpopular for both large and small industries to recycle them. This study reviews recycling strategies for waste
Asphalt
thermoplastic and thermoset materials undertaken by industries and researchers. The primary objective is to
Concrete
Soil review these techniques and identify those that can be applicable to the construction industry. There are three
Rubber conclusions from this review: (1) Recycling of polymeric waste materials can be helpful to limit landfilled or
Plastic incinerated waste plastic. (2) Proper selection of a recycling method for waste plastics and rubbers can effectively
address the recycling problem without compromising the mechanical properties of the construction material. (3)
The majority of the published articles in construction materials research have overlooked the importance of pre-
treatment of waste polymeric materials to ensure compatibility with construction materials. Accordingly, there is
an urgent need for understanding the science of functionalization of polymers to be able to tune surface prop­
erties of the recycled granules for targeted applications. This paper highlights critical research needs to facilitate
the recycling of thermosets and thermoplastics to promote resource conservation and sustainability.

1. Introduction thermoplastics, and amorphous or semi-crystalline thermoplastics)

make them favorable for various applications in industry (Grigore,
In the past few decades, population increases, consumerism, and 2017). A common example of thermoplastics is polyethylene tere­
changes in modern human lifestyle have caused increase in demand for phthalate (PET) in clothing fibers and in packaging of beverages and
new materials to fulfill their needs. A wide range of polymeric materials foods.
has been manufactured to satisfy this demand (Subramanian, 2000). But In contrast, thermosets are highly three-dimensional cross-linked
with poor management and a lack of recycling technologies, these vast structures that do not melt or soften during heating cycles. Conse­
quantities of polymeric materials have created a waste problem. quently, the material’s shape remains unchanged even at high temper­
To better understand the obstacles to recycling these polymeric atures (Sharuddin et al., 2016; Müller et al., 2001) and the material
materials, we first need to know their types and features. Polymeric cannot be decomposed by heating (Okan et al., 2019). Examples of
materials are mainly divided into two categories: thermoplastics and widely used thermosets are vulcanized rubber, polyurethane foams,
thermosets (Pascault et al., 2002). Thermoplastics are materials that can unsaturated polyester and epoxy, and phenolic resins. The schematics of
undergo multiple heating and cooling cycles, becoming soft and hard thermoplastics and thermosets are shown in Fig. 1.
during these cycles (Sharuddin et al., 2016). Atoms and molecules in About 80% of consumed plastics are thermoplastics, mainly used as
thermoplastics consist of long and short carbon chains that work inde­ packaging or textile fibers. About 50% of them are in single-use appli­
pendently. This structure makes these materials non-biodegradable due cations (Al-Salem et al., 2009). Between 20% and 25% are used in
to their resistance to degradation or hydrolytic cleaving of chemical long-term infrastructures like pipes, cable coatings, and structural ma­
bonds (Zheng et al., 2005). The unique physical, thermal, and electrical terials. The remainder are used for durable consumer applications with
properties of different types of thermoplastics (e.g., crystalline intermediate lifespan, such as electronic goods, furniture, and vehicles

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E.H. Fini).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105776
Received 18 April 2021; Received in revised form 16 June 2021; Accepted 24 June 2021
Available online 29 July 2021
0921-3449/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

(Hopewell et al., 2009). Fig. 2 shows the worldwide annual production volatiles can be separated into condensable hydrocarbon oil and
of plastics from 1950 to 2019; annual production is expected to grow to non-condensable gasses of high calorific value (Siddique et al., 2008).
over 1100 million tons by 2050 (Geyer et al., 2017; Geyer, 2020; Qur­ This method can be used to recycle low-purity products(28). Pyrolysis is
eshi et al., 2020). discussed further after the sections on chemolysis.
In contrast, thermosets are generally used in durable applications Continuous mechanical recycling could yield low-quality, sub­
with longer lifetimes, such as composites used in the aeronautics and standard products, which is known as downcycling. Also, chemical
automotive industries, wind-turbine blades, and structural components recycling needs a high amount of chemicals and is not possible for all
(Geyer, 2020). Similar to thermoplastics, the demand for thermoset plastic types, making these processes uneconomical and detrimental for
composites is increasing, and the global market size for thermoset the ecosystem (Kakil, 2020). Thus, these plastics eventually find their
composites is projected to reach USD 54,360 million by 2026, from USD way to landfills. However, there is one other solution. These types of
43,510 million in 2020 (Thermoplastic Composites Market by Resin plastics can be used for energy production. They are used as feedstock
Type (Polypropylene, Polyamide, Polyetheretherketone, Hybrid) 2020; for incineration plants that use plastics as fuel. The main drawback of
B Thermoplastic Composites Market by Resin Type (Polypropylene, this method is releasing considerable amounts of pollutants into the air
Polyamide, Polyetheretherketone, Hybrid) 2017). (Ragaert et al., 2017).
Consequently, the accumulation of waste plastics, rubber, etc. dis­ This article aims to extensively review recent advances in recycling
carded in landfills is causing severe environmental issues for people and thermoplastic and thermoset materials, since they are materials highly
other species (Cholake et al., 2017). Furthermore, the fabrication of new consumed by different industries. Furthermore, the use of polymeric
products needs raw materials, and since these polymers typically are waste materials is becoming popular for paving roads, in materials for
petroleum-based products, that has led to the depletion of nonrenewable building construction, and even in stabilizing soils. So, studies of using
natural resources (Andrady, 2003; Álvarez-Chávez et al., 2012). waste materials to improve the performance of asphalt, concrete, and
Recycling is a viable solution for reducing the need for new raw soil are reviewed.
materials and decreasing the discarded materials in landfills (da Cruz In order to provide an in-depth review of waste thermoplastic and
et al., 2014). Other beneficial effects of waste recycling are preventing thermoset materials and their applications in civil engineering, more
the environmental pollution from extraction of raw materials, saving than 800 articles were collected. These articles were then screened
energy, and even providing domestic jobs (Psomopoulos et al., 2009). based on their relevancy to recycling of waste polymers, their publica­
The life cycle of polymeric materials is shown in Fig. 3. tion status, and the ranking of the journal. Only journal papers published
In recent years, several small-scale (research-based) or large-scale in English in high-ranked journals (within Q1 and Q2 with a peer-review
(industrial) attempts have been made to investigate new recycling system) were selected in the first stage. Furthermore, among the related
methods or optimize past approaches (Thiounn and Smith, 2020). The papers for each section, the most recent articles (published during the
available methods for recycling waste plastics are mechanical recycling, last decade) were chosen for review, to focus on the advances in recy­
chemical recycling, and energy recovery (Di et al., 2021). Mechanical cling and reusing in civil engineering. Finally, the papers were reviewed
recycling reuses waste material as the raw material of second-grade and analyzed, then summarized to improve the review’s comprehen­
products without any significant change in the material’s chemical siveness and perception.
structure (Ignatyev et al., 2014) or uses it as fillers in composites
(Angelone et al., 2016; Sabău and Vargas, 2018). This method 2. Thermoplastics recycling
commonly consists of these steps: sorting, cutting or shredding,
contaminant separation, processing, and milling (Ragaert et al., 2017). As mentioned earlier, thermoplastics can undergo melting and
Chemical recycling typically includes chemolysis or pyrolysis, which hardening cycles through heating, and all three recycling methods
are defined as how polymers are chemically converted to monomers or (mechanical, chemical, and incineration) are used for their recycling.
oligomers through chemical reactions and chemical structure changes. Since the mechanical approach and incineration have simple and
The produced monomers can be used as fuel or in the production of somewhat fixed steps, our focus in this section is on advances in
polymeric materials (Wong et al., 2015; Mohanraj et al., 2017). Che­ chemical recycling methods.
molysis is a process of depolymerizing with chemicals that includes First, let’s get familiar with the recycling classification used by the
glycolysis, hydrolysis, methanolysis, alcoholysis, and aminolysis (Thio­ plastics industry for the most consumable thermoplastic materials in the
unn and Smith, 2020; Kakil, 2020). Each of these is discussed in Table 1. world. According to the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) classifi­
Pyrolysis is the decomposition of polymers to smaller molecules cation, not all produced plastics are recyclable. The SPI differentiates the
through heating (500 – 800 ◦ C at high pressure) in the absence of oxy­ available plastics into seven categories according to their polymer type,
gen, using end-chain scission, random-chain scission, chain-stripping, or and each category is assigned a numeric code representing its type
cross-linking (Kakil, 2020; Kumagai and Yoshioka, 2016). The byprod­ (Rahimi and García, 2017). Table 2 presents this classification along
ucts of this process are carbonized char and fractions of volatiles. The with the applicability in the construction industry.

Fig. 1. The schemes of thermoplastic and thermoset polymeric materials: (left) thermoplastics, with weak intermolecular forces between polymer chains; (right)
thermosets, with strong covalent bonds.

2
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Fig. 2. Worldwide annual fabrication of plastics from 1950 to 2019 and its projection in 2050 (Geyer et al., 2017; Geyer, 2020; Qureshi et al., 2020).

Fig. 3. Life cycle of waste polymeric materials.

Following are some recent studies of the chemical recycling of from 300 to 150 for ethylene glycol (EG), from 65 to 20 for diethylene
plastics and the progress to improve the efficiency of the recycling. glycol (DEG), and from 855 to 480 for propylene glycol (PrG). The
synthesized catalyst led to a higher yield of Bis[2(2-hydroxyethoxy)-
ethyl] terephthalate (BHEET) compared to using zinc acetate, a com­
2.1. Glycolysis mon catalyst for glycolysis. Comparing the final yield of recycled fibers
and bottles indicated that PET fibers degraded completely and produced
Among the available approaches, glycolysis is the most favorable, higher BHEET (Troev et al., 2003).
especially for PET decomposition, due to its efficiency and having mild Unfortunately, typical catalysts are hard to isolate from the recy­
reaction conditions. It can be described as a molecular depolymerization cling’s final products. Ionic liquids (IL) are an environmentally friendly
process by transesterification between PET ester groups and a diol. In solvent and catalyst that caught scientists’ attention due to their
this process, ester linkages are broken and replaced with hydroxyl ter­ adjustable physical and chemical properties and their cost-saving reus­
minals (López-Fonseca et al., 2010). ability (Pham et al., 2010). Yue et al. investigated the effect of adding
However, a glycolysis reaction is sluggish in the absence of catalysts. three ionic liquids (1-methyl-3-butylimidazolium chloride [Bmim]Cl,
Thus, different catalysts have been used to increase the efficiency of the 1-methyl-3-butylimidazolium zinc chloride [Bmim]ZnCl3, and 1-meth­
reaction. To improve the recycling of PET fibers and bottles, Troev et al. yl-3-butylimidazolium manganese chloride [Bmim]MnCl3) on the ac­
synthesized a novel catalyst called titanium (IV)-phosphate from a re­ celeration of waste PET glycolysis. They optimized catalyst dosage,
action between titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) and triethyl phosphate; reaction time, and temperature. [Bmim]Cl with 5 Wt% of PET showed
the optimum percent of titanium (IV)-phosphate was 0.3 Wt% of PET. 100% PET conversion and 57.1% bis(hydroxyethyl) terephthalate
This catalyst reduced the degradative decomposition time in minutes

3
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Table 1
Summary of the chemical recycling processes for waste plastics.
Chemical Main degradative Temperature Advantage Disadvantage Reference
process (C)

Hydrolysis NaOH, KOH 120–200 High purity Needs chemical substance, (Achilias and Karayannidis, 2004; Singh et al.,
(alkaline) longer time, and higher 2018; Ügdüler et al., 2020)
temperature than the acidic
method
Hydrolysis Concentrated sulfuric, nitric, or 70–120 High purity Needs high amount of acid (Mancini and Zanin, 2007)
(acid) phosphoric acid separation of ethylene glycol
from acid is difficult
Hydrolysis _ 200–300 Environmentally Low purity; needs high (Zope and Mishra, 2008)
(neutral) friendly temperatures
Glycolysis ethylene glycol, diethylene 180–250 _ Slow reaction in the absence (Troev et al., 2003; Pham et al., 2010)
glycol, propylene glycol, of a catalyst
butylene glycol, and
dipropyleneglycol
Methanolysis zinc acetate 180–280 _ Low purity; needs high (Samuilov et al., 2020; Leskinen et al., 2011)
pressure and temperature
Alcoholysis methanol, ethanol 180–250 CO2 free Needs high pressure; only (Chen et al., 2014; Thermoplastic Composites
applicable for plastics Market by Resin Type (Polypropylene,
without dyes Polyamide, Polyetheretherketone, Hybrid)
2019)
Aminolysis methylamine, ethylenediamine, 20–100 High purity; Longer reaction time in low (Tawfik and Eskander, 2010; Tawfik et al.,
ethanolamine, and butylamine Applicable in low temperatures (10 to 85 days) 2011; Teotia et al., 2017)
temperature

(BHET) yield in 8 h. Metal-based ionic liquids ([Bmim]ZnCl3 and [Bmim] 2.2. Hydrolysis
MnCl3) represent higher catalytic activity in lower concentrations (1.25
and 0.31 Wt%) in 2 h, with the ability to be reused at least five times Decomposition by hydrolysis uses water to cleave polymers’ chem­
without any purification (Yue et al., 2013). Similarly, they investigated ical bonds; hydrolysis is described as alkaline hydrolysis, acid hydroly­
the effect of a range of ionic liquids and basic ionic liquids on the sis, or neutral hydrolysis according to the pH of the process (Beltrán
effectiveness of PET decomposition. The results showed that [Bmim]OH et al., 2016). The first two respectively use strong basic and acidic sol­
had the best catalytic performance among all catalysts, with 100% PET vents; neutral hydrolysis is carried out through applying hot water or
conversion and 71.2% BHET yield in its optimum concentration (5 Wt steam in high-pressure autoclaves at temperatures of 200–300 ◦ C and
%). The authors also found that an increase in the ionic liquid’s basicity pressure 1–4 MPa (Achilias and Karayannidis, 2004). In hydrolytic
improves both PET conversion and BHET production (Yue et al., 2011). decomposition of PET, terephthalic acid (TPA) and mono ethylene gly­
Despite the great catalytic performance of the metal-based catalysts, col (MEG) are recovered and are used directly for the synthesis of virgin
their high cost and harmful effects on the environment drew scientists’ bottle-grade PET (Kumar and Guria, 2005).
attention to more sustainable catalysts. For instance, Yachan et al. Recently, Singh et al. investigated the effect of reaction time and
analyzed the effect of six metal-free choline-based ionic liquids in temperature on the final yield of PET decomposition through alkaline
different concentrations and reaction conditions (time and temperature) hydrolysis to form nanospindle-shaped terephthalic acid (TPA). They
on PET glycolysis. The performance of these catalysts was rated in this reported that an increase in reaction time will increase the TPA yield;
order: choline formate > choline acetate > choline propionate > choline 92% TPA was produced at 220 ◦ C in only 25 min (Singh et al., 2018).
butyrate> choline mesylate > choline bisulfate. The last three catalysts Degradation of pure PET plates and different waste PETs (transparent,
made a significantly lower conversion of PET after 3 hrs. The difference colored, monolayer, and multilayer) through alkaline hydrolysis were
in these catalysts’ performance is probably due to a smaller-size ion and investigated by Ügdüler et al., considering different conditions such as
electron-deficient structure caused by the alkyl group, which can reaction temperature (50–80 ◦ C), ethanol-to-water ratio (20 to 100%),
enhance the interaction between the cation of IL and the oxygen of the NaOH amount (5 to 15%), striding rate (250 and 500 rpm) and PET size
ester in PET. The optimum reaction time and temperature were 3 hrs and (0.5 to 3.15 mm). All of the measured parameters play a role in PET
180 ◦ C, reaching 100% conversion and 78% BHET yield, for a 1:10 wt degradation, but the ethanol-to-water ratio and striding rate showed a
ratio of catalyst to PET (Y Liu et al., 2020). Wang et al. investigated more dominant influence. The optimum condition for PET degradation
urea’s effect as a green, highly active, low-priced, easily produced in alkaline hydrolysis was 500 rpm striding rate at 80 ◦ C for 20 min with
catalyst for PET glycolysis. PET degradation was conducted with EG and a solvent containing 5 Wt% NaOH and a 60:40 ratio of ethanol to water.
urea at 130 to 190 ◦ C for time varying between 0.5 and 4 h. According to Also, different PET types showed different degradation: pure PET plates
the results, the increase in urea concentration in the reaction improved had the highest degradation rate, and the lowest conversion was for
the PET conversion and production of BHET. The optimum dosage for it multilayer trays. This reduction in decomposition might be due to an
(at 190 ◦ C and 2.5 hr reaction time) was 0.5 Wt%., reaching 100% increase in thickness of the plastics and a reduction of their specific area
conversion and 75% BHET production. The urea was recycled more than (Ügdüler et al., 2020).
10 times without any significant drop in efficiency at recycling PET.
Also, they mentioned that H-bonds play an important role in the acti­
vation of EG and enhancing PET glycolysis. So, catalysts that can form 2.3. Methanolysis
H-bonds with alcohols can promote the degradation of PET. In addition,
the synergic effect between the cation and anion of the catalyst caused Polycarbonate (PC) is widely used in manufacturing compact disks,
by stronger H-bonds can accelerate the degradation rate (Wang et al., bulletproof windows, food packaging, soft-drink bottles, automobile
2012). parts, computer parts, and construction materials (Liu et al., 2010; Liu
et al., 2011). Pyrolysis (Yoshioka et al., 2005), alcoholysis (Oku et al.,
2000), hydrolysis (Grause et al., 2009), and methanolysis (Liu et al.,
2010) have been reported to be used for PC recycling. The ease of

4
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Table 2
SPI classification of plastics, with properties and applicability in the construction industry.

Ahmadinia et al., 2012; Hameed and Ahmed, 2019; Ilieş et al., 2017; Hınıslıoğlu and Ağar, 2004; Rahman and Nurdiana, 2020; Abdelsalam et al., 2019; Ziari et al.,
2019; Mishra and Jain, 2019; Garcia-Morales et al., 2006; Kurniadi et al., 2019; Tapkın, 2008; Durgun, 2020; Mohamed et al., 2017; Ferrándiz-Mas et al., 2016;
Pedreño-Rojas et al., 2020; De la Colina Martínez et al., 2019.

recovering pure monomers of bisphenol A (BPA) and dimethyl carbon­ molar ratio) showed the best polycarbonate conversion and a 99.8%
ate (DMC) in methanolysis made it favorable for PC decomposition (Liu BPA yield. Furthermore, ChCl-2Urea showed good thermal stability and
et al., 2009). However, conventional decomposition of PC through reusability; it could be reused up to 5 times without any significant
methanolysis requires high temperatures, high pressures, and significant decrease in PC conversion and BPA yield (Song et al., 2020). Samuilov
quantities of concentrated acids or bases, posing threats to the envi­ et al. found that solvents with higher proton affinity could promote BPA
ronment and recycling equipment (Liu et al., 2009). production during PC methanolysis. Also, an increase in reaction tem­
Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are novel catalysts used for recycling perature did not show an important role when sodium alcoholate was
purposes due to their low cost, low toxicity, recyclability, and biode­ used (Samuilov et al., 2020). In another study, Bhogle et al. proposed
gradability. Song et al. synthesized different DESs based on choline enhancing PC methanolysis decomposition at room temperature by
chloride and used them as catalysts in methanolysis of PC sheets. Among using ultrasound. Its effect was on the swelling of polymers and an in­
synthesized catalysts after 3 h at 130 ◦ C, ChCl-2Urea (CHCl:Urea= 1:2 crease in the reaction rate of polymers (Leskinen et al., 2011). The

5
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

results showed that using ultrasound during methanolysis reduced the by making the carbonyl carbon more electrophilic and facilitating the
complete decomposition time of PC to one-third (from 45 min to 15 min) attacking process by nitrogen atoms, it can lead to some drawbacks such
at 30 ◦ C. The recommended ultrasound power for PC methanolysis was as changes in the properties of byproducts due to the oxidation of
reported to be 60 W (Bhogle and Pandit, 2019). ethylene glycol (Teotia et al., 2017). Hoang et al. examined waste-bottle
decomposition through ethylenediamine (EDA) in the absence of any
2.4. Alcoholysis catalyst. Bis(2-aminoethyl) terephthalamide (BAET) and high molecular
weight oligomers were produced as byproducts of this reaction, with the
Alcoholysis has a decomposition mechanism similar to hydrolysis. In highest BAET yield (75%) at a 14:1 EDA-to-PET molar ratio. Oligomers
alcoholysis, the alcohol from an ester is displaced by another alcohol were not eliminated by using higher amounts of degradative, due to the
(Bhatia, 2014). After more than 40 years of development, this method reaction’s amino activation effect. They suggested using protected EDA
has become one of the most promising commercial PET recycling to avoid production of oligomers, but this approach is not cost-effective
methods for recycling transparent PETs (X-j and Z-h, 2012; Zhou et al., (Hoang and Dang, 2013). Finally, it is reported that in catalyst-free
2019; Bedell et al., 2018). In this method, the reformation of tere­ processes, regardless of the type of degradative agent, optimum degra­
phthalate esters occurs, and then the desired organic groups are dation of waste PET bottles was achieved at a 1:10 degradative-to-PET
implemented on PET chains (Zhou et al., 2019). molar ratio for periods of more than 45 days (Teotia et al., 2017; Soni
To improve the efficiency of alcoholysis on an industrial scale, it et al., 2010).
needs to be accelerated by a catalyst. Chen et al. analyzed zinc acetate
(ZA) as an inexpensive catalyst for PET’s degradation, using isooctyl 2.6. Pyrolysis
alcohol (2-EH) as primary solvent and an ionic liquid as co-solvent.
Adding ZA up to 1.2% Wt. of PET improved dioctyl terephthalate Pyrolysis is the process of thermally degrading long-chain polymer
yield by 36%; further increases in ZA concentration did not cause sig­ molecules into smaller, less complex molecules through heat and pres­
nificant changes. They concluded that in a reaction containing 1.2% zinc sure in the absence of oxygen. (Das and Tiwari, 2018) Depending on the
acetate, the optimized proportions are 1% for IL to 2-EH and 2% for 2- process conditions, pyrolysis yields are typically a mixture of molecules
EH to PET. Additionally, they stated that ZA and the ionic liquid could in the form of liquid oil or wax that are valuable for industries, especially
easily be recycled and re-used at least four times (Chen et al., 2014). fuel production and refineries (Rahimi and García, 2017; Scheirs and
Scremin et al. attempted to improve the alcoholysis of waste PETs using Kaminsky, 2006; B Thermoplastic Composites Market by Resin Type
sodium metasilicate as a nontoxic and recyclable catalyst. It is reported (Polypropylene, Polyamide, Polyetheretherketone, Hybrid) 2017). The
that this advantageous catalyst can be substituted for zinc acetate (a oil can be used directly as fuel in furnaces, boilers, turbines, and diesel
highly used and well-known catalyst) according to their comparable engines, without upgrading or treatment (Bridgwater, 2012; Abnisa and
performance (Thermoplastic Composites Market by Resin Type (Poly­ Daud, 2014).
propylene, Polyamide, Polyetheretherketone, Hybrid) 2019). To produce fuel from municipal waste, Yuliansyah et al. decomposed
waste LDPEs in the presence of zeolite under temperatures from 300 to
2.5. Aminolysis 450 ◦ C. The highest amount of pyrolytic oil was obtained at 350 ◦ C;
further temperature increases caused a drop in the oil yield due to the
Aminolysis is a method for plastic degradation that uses various decomposition of oil to gasses (Yuliansyah et al., 2015). Similarly,
amines as degradative agents and catalysts such as lead acetate, glacial Muhammad et al. used two types of zeolite to enhance the pyrolysis of
acetic acid, sodium acetate, and potassium sulfate (Shukla and Harad, electronic waste plastic obtained from equipment containing cathode
2006; Zahn and Pfeifer, 1963; Popoola, 1988; Soni and Singh, 2005). ray tubes and refrigeration equipment. They found that the introduction
Few investigations have been conducted on PET degradation using of catalysts to the process decreased oil yield by 5 to 10 percent but
aminolysis; however, it recently became popular due to the potential of increased gas yield. Also, the zeolite with lower Si:Al ratio produced a
using reaction products like bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalamide higher conversion of styrene to other aromatic products (Muhammad
(BHETA) as feedstock for PET manufacturing (Achilias et al., 2011). et al., 2015). Ahmed et al. conducted LCA on pyrolysis of mixtures of
Shukla et al. evaluated the aminolytic depolymerization of waste waste plastic. They reported that mixtures containing lower PET are less
bottles and polyester fiber using ethanolamine, with glacial acetic acid, impactful for the environment (Ahamed et al., 2020). Lam et al. offered
sodium acetate, or potassium sulfate as catalysts. Regardless of catalyst a sustainable approach to generate oil fuel from the coprocessing of
type, the maximum BHETA was achieved at 1 Wt% of catalyst concen­ waste plastics and cooking oil through microwave vacuum pyrolysis.
tration, and among the catalysts tested, sodium acetate had the best This co-processing generated up to 84 Wt% sulfur-free liquid oil with
catalytic performance. Also, similar to Troev’s research (Troev et al., low oxygen and nitrogen, causing reductions in char residues, reduced
2003), the BHETA yield was higher for polyester fiber than for waste degradation of oil quality, and reduced emission of pollutants like CO,
bottles, due to the difference in molecular weight of waste plastics CO2, NOx, and SOx during combustion. There were other advantages of
(Shukla and Harad, 2006). Dibutyltin oxide showed great catalytic ac­ the proposed method: reduction in volatilization temperature and re­
tivity by producing BHETA in a shorter time and lower energy than other action cost due to the elimination of N2 with vacuuming, and a shorter
catalysts. Its BHETA yield reached its optimum (from 49 to 62%) con­ recycling process due to a higher heating rate (Yuliansyah et al., 2015).
ducting the process with 1% dibutyltin oxide for 1 hour. Further reaction
time had adverse effects on the process yield (Tawfik and Eskander, 3. Thermosets recycling
2010). In another study, researchers used sunlight as a green, free en­
ergy source for PET recycling; they compared the catalytic activity of Polymeric materials like resins, polyurethane foams, and synthesized
dibutyltin oxide with sodium acetate and cetyltrimethyl ammonium rubber are classified as thermosetting materials, comprising about 20
bromide. Among the tested catalysts, dibutyltin oxide performed best, percent of manufactured polymeric materials (Shieh et al., 2020). Their
producing a higher yield after 21 days. The authors indicated that sol­ three-dimensional crosslinked structure is favored for applications
vent polarity, which is controllable by changing catalyst concentration, requiring high resistance to loading, heat, or degradation. However, this
is a key parameter for improving recycling efficiency. Although PET was feature makes them difficult to recycle under simple heating and cooling
degraded at a higher rate in the early days (143 kg/day), the authors cycles (Post et al., 2020). Chemical recycling such as glycolysis (Wu
suggested allowing complete PET degradation after 60 days because of et al., 2002), hydrolysis with supercritical water (Liu et al., 2018;
the free energy source (Tawfik et al., 2011). Campbell and Meluch, 1976), pyrolysis (Yao et al., 2020; Lozhechnik
While the use of a catalyst may reduce the aminolysis reaction time and Savchin, 2016), microbial degradation (Sarkar and Mandal, 2020),

6
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

and microwave treatment (DÁ Simon et al., 2020; Aoudia et al., 2017) formaldehyde solutions. It was found that in acid hydrolysis, the most
are some common methods for recycling thermosets. In the last two influential parameters were the type of acid and the type of pH
decades, scientists have attempted to find new approaches to address the controller. Between two acids (HCL and H2SO4) used for hydrolysis, HCL
need for effective strategies for recycling these kinds of materials or showed better results. However, for decomposition of UF resin, hydro­
optimizing the available systems. Advances in the areas of waste resins, lysis using a formaldehyde solution is more preferred than using strong
polyurethane foams, and rubbers are discussed in the following sections. acids (Liu et al., 2018).
Supercritical fluids are green alternatives for chemical recycling of
waste resins (Hyde et al., 2006; Piñero-Hernanz et al., 2008). However,
3.1. Resins these processes require higher temperatures (400–500 ◦ C) and pressures
(10–30 MPa) for the fluids to attain a supercritical state and are thus
Verity in manufacturing resin made them popular materials for a energy-intensive. To decompose phenol-formaldehyde resin, Ozaki et al.
wide range of applications, but their highly cross-linked structures make used supercritical methanol instead of supercritical water due to having
recycling difficult (Ozaki et al., 2000). Table 3 describes common resins. lower reaction conditions and easier extraction of final yield from the
The most common methods for resin recycling include solvolysis in solvent. While at 300 ◦ C no reaction occurred, a 50 ◦ C increase in
supercritical fluids (Lee et al., 2011), acid degradation at high temper­ temperature caused a significant increase in the reaction yield. This
atures (Liu et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2014), hydrogenation decomposition increase was continued, reaching 98% conversion at 420 ◦ C. Although
(Gao et al., 2018), and oxidation (Kudo et al., 2017). lengthening the reaction time caused an increase in the reaction yield, a
Dang et al. decomposed bisphenol F epoxy (BPF) (an epoxy resin longer reaction time at a lower temperature was suggested as the best
cured with amine) using a solution of nitric acid. The optimum con­ condition for phenol resin recycling (Ozaki et al., 2000).
centration of nitric acid was reported as 4 mol/L; further increases
generated crystals of picric acid, which affected decomposition effi­
ciency. At this concentration, the BPF completely decomposed after 3.2. Polyurethane foam
about 100 h (Dang et al., 2002). Liu et al. subjected epoxy resin to mi­
crowave irradiation to shorten the decomposition time. This made the Being able to change the properties of polyurethane (PU) by altering
resin structure porous, and a simultaneous swelling by N-methyl kelo­ the type or concentration of its main components (isocyanate and pol­
pyrrolidide dropped decomposition time to 3 hr. at 70 ◦ C (Kudo et al., yol) makes PU popular for use in a wide range of applications
2017). Synergic use of oxidation and acid degradation were proposed to (Mohammadi et al., 2013). Among the consumed PUs, PU foams
decompose carbon fiber reinforced with epoxy resin. This approach accounted for about 70% of global PU consumption (Fig. 4) (Szycher,
efficiently decomposed resin at low temperatures and lowered the 1999). From a functional perspective, polyurethanes can be classified as
impact of temperature on the length of the reaction (Das et al., 2018). rigid foams (used for building and refrigerator insulation) or flexible
These recycled resins were successfully used for reproducing resins and foams (used in furniture, mattresses, pillows, and the automotive in­
in oil-absorbent materials. The repolymerized resin from the recycled dustry) (Simón et al., 2018).
resins showed comparable or higher mechanical strength (bending and In 2017, about 700,000 tons of polyurethane foams were abandoned
tensile) compared to virgin resin. Also, the glass transition of recycled in landfills (Gómez-Rojo et al., 2019). Having low density and high
resin was higher than that of virgin resin, which was due to a network volume makes polyurethane foams difficult to treat or discard in land­
structure of higher density in the recycled resin (Kudo et al., 2017; Dang fills. However, some chemical and special physical recycling approaches
et al., 2002; Das et al., 2018). are available for recycling (Yang et al., 2012; Wang and Chen, 2003;
Chemical approaches like glycolysis and hydrolysis are typically Cao and Cao, 2005; Xu et al., 2008).
used to recycle fibers reinforced by unsaturated polyester resin. Potas­ Apart from recycling PU as fillers in producing new polyurethane
sium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were reported as foams or in other materials like asphalt pavement or concrete, other
helpful catalysts to accelerate recycling. Under a 1-hour reaction at available mechanical approaches are re-bonding, compression, and in­
about 200 ◦ C, polyester resins decomposed by 92% with 0.38 mol/L jection molding. Re-bonding consists of mixing shredded or powdered
KOH and by 99.6% with 0.72 mol/L NaOH (Yang et al., 2014; Naka­ foams with about 10 percent binder and subjecting the mix to heat and
gawa and Goto, 2015). The resin resynthesized from glycolyzed unsat­ pressure. These recycled polyurethanes are suitable for carpet underlay
urated polyester resin by Yoon et al. showed faster curing and higher and athletic mats (Zia et al., 2007). Unlike re-bonding, compression and
tensile strength. However, the tensile modulus of the recycled resin was injection molding are processes that use waste shredded foams under
lower than that of the neat resin (Yoon et al., 1997). Liu et al. tried to high temperatures (180 ◦ C) and pressure (> 350 bar) to make a com­
recycle urea-formaldehyde resin (UF) through hydrolysis, using acid or pacted material (Hulme and Goodhead, 2003; Quadrini et al., 2013).

Table 3
Resin types and their applications.
Resin type Manufacturing method Features Applications

Epoxy resin Reaction between resins based on bisphenol A and Good resistance to dilute acids and alkalis; good Coatings, adhesives, and composite materials
polyamine hardeners such as olefatic polyamines, adhesion to steel and concrete surfaces; high such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass
cycloaliphatic polyamines, aromatic polyamines, pigmentation reinforcements
and polyaminoamides
Unsaturated Chemical reaction between glycol and di-basic Resistance to water and a variety of chemicals; Sheet-molding compound; bulk-molding
polyester resin unsaturated acids resistance to oxidation; low cost compound; toner of laser printers; fiberglass-
reinforced plastic; overlays on concrete pavement
and bridges
Vinyl ester resin Esterification between an epoxy resin and an Corrosion resistance and ability to withstand water Corrosion-resistant industrial tanks, pipes, and
unsaturated monocarboxylic acid or acrylic absorption; high heat resistance; more resilient pultruded profiles; marine and automotive
than epoxy vehicles; use in repair materials and laminating
Methyl Through conjunction of methyl methacrylate and a Transparent, lightweight, higher impact strength Rear lights and instrument clusters for vehicles;
methacrylate polymerization catalyst like methyl ethyl ketone than glass and polystyrene; compared to shatter-resistant panels for building windows,
resins peroxide unsaturated polyester resin, better adhesion to skylights, and LCD screens; medical and dental
concrete and steel, better resistance to solvents; (artificial teeth) applications
expensive

7
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Fig. 4. Global consumption of polyurethane (PU).

3.3. Vulcanized rubbers and direction, the gap between cones, and the particle size of rubber on
the efficiency of devulcanization. A cyclic change in the direction of
The manufacturing of synthetic and natural rubbers experienced rotation provided a more homogenous mix but limited rubber
considerable growth from 2000 to 2019, from about 17.7 to 28.9 million self-heating during mixing. Finer particles needed less energy (lower
metric tons (M. Garside, 2020; M. Garside, 2020). Nearly 70% of them speed) for devulcanization and showed lower crosslink density,
were used for tire manufacturing, leading to about 10 million tons of regardless of the energy consumed during the recycling (Diaz et al.,
tires discarded in landfills (Asaro et al., 2018). In order to improve the 2018).
properties of rubber to make it suitable for different applications, sulfur Due to the lack of continuous processing in an HSM, it is more
is added to rubber at high temperatures, leading to the generation of common to use a twin-screw extruder. This consists of three main parts:
bonds between sulfur and rubber’s unsaturated polymer chains (Qin the grading sections, which enable the operator to control the input of
et al., 2020). This process is called vulcanization. Recycling the rubbers, rubber to the extruder; the devulcanizing section (the main part) fol­
sometimes referred to as the devulcanization process, requires cleavage lowed by a vacuum pump; and finally, the discharging section (Fuku­
of the S-C bonds (Asaro et al., 2020). To break these strong cross-links, mori et al., 2001). According to the literature, the rotation speed and the
thermo-mechanical recycling, recycling under irradiation, and biolog­ temperature are the predominant factors in this approach (Maridass and
ical recycling have been investigated. These methods are reviewed in the Gupta, 2007; Zhang et al., 2009; Formela et al., 2013). Movahed et al.
following sections. investigated ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) devulcaniza­
tion through different feed-screw speeds (6 and 8 rpm) and main rotor
3.3.1. Thermo-Mechanical recycling of vulcanized rubbers speeds (180 and 220 rpm) at a constant temperature. The EPDM was
This method uses high shear at elevated temperatures, leading to devulcanized efficiently using 6 rpm for the feed screw and 180 rpm for
rubber devulcanization (Asaro et al., 2018). This has become a common the main rotor (Movahed et al., 2015). Also, adding modifying agents
approach for rubber recycling on an industrial scale; the equipment for like plasticizers or common accelerators such as 2,2′ -dibenzothiazole
recycling is available in rubber factories, and the method can be used to (DM) can improve the degree of devulcanization by promoting shear
continuously devulcanize rubbers on a large scale, producing high de­ strain of the rubber surface (Formela et al., 2013; H Liu et al., 2020). As
grees of devulcanization (Yazdani et al., 2011; Seghar et al., 2019). This this method is based on devulcanization at high temperatures, a sudden
approach is usually conducted by a twin-screw extruder or high-shear increase in temperature negatively affects devulcanization and results in
mixing cone (Fig. 5) (Brown, 2008; Tang, 2003). degradation of the rubber (Shi et al., 2013). Seghar et al. indicated that
The high-shear mixing machine (HSM) consists of a fixed cone and a the self-heating phenomenon has considerable importance on rubber
rotatable cone with specially designed blades for increasing the effi­ devulcanization and should be considered in devulcanization analyses
ciency of mixing. The rubber is mixed between the two cones, and an (Seghar et al., 2019).
increase in temperature (artificially or due to the rubber self-heating
phenomenon during mixing) causes devulcanization (Diaz et al., 3.3.2. Irradiation recycling of vulcanized rubbers
2018). Diaz et al. investigated the effect of variables like rotation speed To decompose waste rubber in a more energy-efficient manner,

Fig. 5. Thermo-mechanical recycling machines: (left) high-shear mixing; (right) twin-screw extruder.

8
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

microwave and ultrasonic recycling have been proposed; these are screw speed, and die gap are mentioned as the main influential factors
classified as irradiation recycling methods. These approaches can break that can affect devulcanization (Sutanto et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2006).
C-S and S-S bonds more selectively by providing a precise amount of Hong and Isayev indicated that pressure and shearing can play a
energy in specific locations (Asaro et al., 2018; Formela et al., 2019). major role in rubber devulcanization. An increase in pressure and shear
Unlike conventional heating, microwave energy produced by elec­ during recycling can improve recycling efficiency (Hong and Isayev,
tromagnetic fields with 300 MHz to 300 GHz frequency can heat the 2003). Isayev et al. found that the greater surface area of larger-size
rubber by directly interacting with polar molecules or ions, and thus rubber particles causes them to absorb more energy at the same ultra­
heat the rubber from inside (Formela et al., 2019; Siores and Do Rego, sonic amplitude and consequently reach a higher degree of devulcani­
1995; Hirayama and Saron, 2012). Using microwave irradiation for zation. Also, at low temperatures (180 ◦ C), finer rubber particles
recycling waste rubber has advantages and disadvantages, as summa­ consume more energy to degrade than rubber with 30 mesh size, due to
rized in Table 4. variation in the materials’ acoustic properties (Isayev et al., 2014).
As mentioned, having a short processing time makes microwaves Mangili et al. evaluated the effect of four factors (ultrasonic amplitude,
popular. However, the irradiation period should be kept at a certain temperature, screw speed, and flow rate) on GTR devulcanization. It was
level to avoid degradation of the rubber’s structural network (Garcia concluded that ultrasonic amplitude is the most effective variable
et al., 2015; DÁ Simon et al., 2020). Scuracchio et al. attempted to among the measured factors (Mangili et al., 2015).
devulcanize ground tire rubber (GTR) during different periods at con­
stant power. They concluded that an increase in irradiation time would 3.3.3. Biological recycling of vulcanized rubbers
increase the temperature of the rubber, consequently decreasing the gel Biological recycling uses living microorganisms like bacteria, fungi,
content, indicating a higher level of devulcanization. It was mentioned and algae to decompose polymeric structures of solid wastes. A range of
that maximum exposure time should be kept to less than 4 min, to biodegrading agents was isolated from soil or oceans and cultivated to
prevent the rubber from carbonization (Pistor et al., 2011; Pistor and degrade waste rubbers (Bosco et al., 2018; Meyer-Cifuentes et al., 2020).
Zattera, 2014; Scuracchio et al., 2007). Aoudia et al. conducted the same These microorganisms normally use sulfur as a nutrient for their growth
method with a much shorter exposure period under variable microwave and reproduction, leading to rubber devulcanization. The use of mi­
power (15 and 60 s, with the power range from 350 to 900 W) to croorganisms is an energy-saving, environmentally friendly process with
devulcanize GTR. They indicated that exposure time and radiation simplicity and a low requirement for equipment (Yao et al., 2013).
power should be adjusted so that the GTR receives 1.389 Kj/Kg of en­ However, during rubber vulcanization, some compounds such as zinc
ergy, and higher amounts of energy do not change the degree of oxide and zinc salts are added to raw rubber; these compounds harm
devulcanization. Also, the authors compared devulcanized rubber and microorganisms and prohibit their cultivation. So, these harmful com­
vulcanized rubber as fillers for manufacturing epoxy resin. Tests showed pounds must be removed in a process known as detoxification before
the superior mechanical performance of resin filled with devulcanized successful microbial devulcanization and metabolism can be achieved
rubber (Aoudia et al., 2017). De Sousa et al. concluded that microwaves (Saleem and Rehman, 2019). Also, microorganisms only can devulcan­
affect the natural rubber phase of GTR more than the styrene-butadiene ize a few micrometers of the outer rubber surface (Stevenson et al.,
rubber phase due to microwaves’ greater effect on conductive materials 2008).
like carbon black (de Sousa et al., 2017). According to the literature, the bacteria used for rubber devulcani­
Bani et al. indicated that the effective devulcanization process of zation can be classified into two groups based on their need for oxygen:
EPDM starts at temperatures higher than 300 ◦ C, and byproducts anaerobic sulfur-reducing archaea, and aerobic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria
showed satisfactory physico-chemical properties (Bani et al., 2011). (Sarkar and Mandal, 2020). Apart from their cultivation condition,
Pistor et al. investigated the effect of paraffinic oil on the network of anaerobic archaea showed superiority to aerobic bacteria in producing
waste EPDM when recycling under microwave irradiation. It was found high-quality rubbers by preventing oxidation of the rubber (Bredberg
that samples with paraffinic oil experienced a lower temperature in­ et al., 2001). Table 5 shows recent microbial desulfurization studies of
crease compared to oil-extracted rubbers due to energy consumed by the waste rubbers.
oil’s evaporation. They concluded that paraffinic oils should be extrac­
ted before exposure to microwaves to achieve proper EPDM devulca­ 4. Modification of construction material
nization (Pistor et al., 2011; Pistor and Zattera, 2014).
Devulcanization under ultrasonic waves is done in an extruder The emergence of a significant amount of polymeric waste material
equipped with an ultrasound generator (Fig. 6). First, fine rubber par­ from residues of industries and household applications persuaded en­
ticles enter the extruder and drive to die with a single screw, where gineers, especially civil engineers, to use this discarded material as an
ultrasonic waves are moved through a horn and expose the rubber opportunity to improve the mechanical performance of construction
(Isayev, 2005). Devulcanization happens in the gap between die and materials or to present novel properties in old-fashioned materials such
horn in only 0.1 to 10 s (Sutanto et al., 2006). Ultrasound amplitude, as asphalt and concrete. Recently, to address the worldwide environ­
mental issue of waste rubber and plastics, scientists have attempted to
Table 4 use waste plastics and rubbers to modify the properties of bitumen or
Advantages and disadvantages of microwave recycling concrete or to stabilize unstable soils. These wastes are commonly used
as fillers in the bulk of the main material without any premodification of
Advantages Disadvantages
waste. However, recent research has aimed to improve the compatibility
✓ generates heat in material volume ✕ needs expensive professional of these polymeric wastes with their surrounding matrix using surface
microwave reactors
✓ short recycling time ✕ inability to efficiently mix rubbers
modification and functionalization. These surface activations are
during irradiation divided into chemical and physical treatments (Li et al., 2021).
✓ solvent-free and environmental- ✕ issue with hot spots Chemical treatments include pre-swelling polymers using chemicals
friendly process while degrading crosslinks, coating polymer surface with a coupling
✓ provides controlled energy (by ✕ problems with emission of volatile
agent, or grafting functional groups on their surface (Meng et al., 2021;
controlling output power and degradation products
irradiation time) B Liu et al., 2020; Aldagari et al., 2021). Pre-swelling using oils may
✓ capable of continuous performance ✕ unsuitable for non-polar rubbers limit adsorption of main components of surrounding construction ma­
✓ applicable even in thick materials ✕ needs initial processing to remove terials onto polymers (Fini et al., 2019). On the other hand, activating
metal particles (especially in waste polymer surface via oxidation can break some of crosslinks leading to
tires)
rougher surface while grafting polar functional groups including but not

9
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Fig. 6. Schematics of ultrasonic-equipped extruder used for ultrasonic recycling.

Table 5
Microbial desulfurization studies of rubbers
Microorganism Rubber Amount of Medium Results Ref.
type rubber/size

Gordonia GTR 150 g 1.5 L mineral salt medium, with • The G. desulfuricans showed further devulcanization (Tatangelo et al., 2019)
desulfuricans 20 g/L glucose, 30 ◦ C and pH 7 according to its higher change in sol fraction (from 2.3
Rhodococcus sp. to 3.3)
Thiobacillus GTR 0.5 and 5% (w/ DSMZ medium (70ml) without • Rubber content and size are the most important factors (Ghavipanjeh et al.,
v), ≤0.354 mm ferrous sulfate, pH 1.4, 30 ◦ C, in rubber devulcanization; larger rubber particles 2018)
and 0.18- 10 and 20 days incubation provide more devulcanization.
Gordonia 0.25mm Mineral salt medium, pH 1.4, • Within 0.5% w/v, all bacteria were capable of
Nocardia 30 ◦ C, 20 days incubation desulfurizing the rubber (by 6 to 21%)
Amycolaptopsis • Only Thiobacillus ferroxidans DSMZ 583, and PTCC
Pseudomonas 1647 kept their efficiency in higher rubber content
Thiobacillus GTR 5% (w/v) Mineral salt medium (200 ml), • Increase in sol fraction from 4.69% to 7.43% (only (Li et al., 2011)
ferrooxidans pH 2.5, 30 ◦ C, 30 days superficial devulcanization)
devulcanization • Better mechanical performance of NR filled with
devulcanized GTR (DGTR) due to better bonding
between two rubbers caused by rupture of interfacial
crosslink bonds of DGTR
Candida Ozone- 1g,130 μm Mineral salt medium (40 ml), • Although C. methanosorbosa BP-6 yeast strain meta­ (Marchut-Mikołajczyk
methanosorbosa treated pH 6.9, 30 ◦ C, 21 days bolic conditions were higher in ozonide rubber (20% et al., 2019)
BP-6 GTR devulcanization more devulcanization), the ozone pre-treatment hin­
dered proper bacteria growth
Sphingomonas sp. GTR 117 μm Mineral salt medium, pH 7, 30 • Lower sulfur and oxygen content by 24.7% and 19.4% (Cui et al., 2016)
◦
C, 10 days devulcanization compared to GTR
Gordonia sp. • Lower sulfur and oxygen content by 19.4% and 20.2%
compared to GTR
Mixture of both • 6.7% increase in swelling value and 9.5% reduction in
crosslink density (3.3% and 2.8% more than
Sphingomonas sp and Gordonia sp.)
T. perometabolis GTR 10g, 0.1mm Mineral salt medium (20 ml), • 20% higher reduction of sulfur bonds in 30 days (Kim and Park, 1999)
30 ◦ C, 30 days compared with chemical devulcanization with di-
(cobenzanidopheny)-disulfide solvent

limited to -OH and -CO on the polymer surface (B Liu et al., 2020; Dong performance (Han et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020). Coupling agents on the
et al., 2019; Thermoplastic Composites Market by Resin Type (Poly­ other hand do not change physical and chemical nature of the waste
propylene, Polyamide, Polyetheretherketone, Hybrid) 2012). The latter polymer or construction materials and only act as a bridge (Xiang et al.,
functional groups increase interactions between nonpolar polymers and 2020; Su et al., 2015).
construction materials such as asphalt and cement (Merkel et al., 2020; Table 6 illustrates the advantage and disadvantages of pretreatment
Han et al., 2020). approaches. Fig. 7 shows the overview of using untreated waste poly­
Physical treatments mainly involve exposing waste polymers to high- mers in construction materials. The following sections review the recent
energy irradiations such as plasma, microwave, and gamma wave; these literature on using waste thermoplastic and thermoset materials in
physical approaches improve surface wettability, and surface roughness engineered construction materials.
(Li et al., 2021). Studies have reported synergic use of physical and
chemical approaches that enhance the compatibility of the waste poly­ 4.1. Asphalt
mer significantly (Aldagari et al., 2021). For instance, unitizing micro­
wave irradiation along with oil treatment of plastics and rubber showed Annually, 1.7 trillion metric tons of asphalt are produced globally for
to improves the polarity of polymers by grafting hydroxyl groups of oil use as a binder in asphalt pavements or as waterproofing material in
onto the plastic surface exposed to radiation (Kabir et al., 2021; T Zhou applications such as roofing or sealing (Hunter et al., 2015). Asphalt
et al., 2020). Rougher surfaces and tentacles induced by chemical and pavements containing bitumen (4 to 8 percent) and aggregates are the
thermal treatment of waste plastics/polymers further improves in­ most popular material for paving roads and airports due to the high
terlocks between polymer and surrounding matrix enhancing their durability and load-bearing properties of asphalt pavements (Ingrassia

10
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Table 6 more suitable for hot-weather regions (Rasool et al., 2015; Association
Advantages and disadvantages of waste polymers pretreatment’s approaches NAP 2011). Adding waste thermosetting and thermoplastics to bitumen
Method Advantage Disadvantage can also decrease susceptibility to moisture and reduce low-temperature
and high-temperature cracking (Salem et al., 2018; Jassim et al., 2014;
Pre-swelling ■ Controllable swelling degree ■ Time-consuming process
■ Sustainability through using ■ Affecting properties of the Ziari et al., 2016).
bio-oils material due to The low melting point (115–135 ◦ C) of PEs (PE, LDPE, and HDPE)
lubrication effect makes it possible to melt them easily in heated bitumen and use them as
Degrading ■ Simple operation and clear ■ Time-consuming process waste modifiers. Nouali et al. used shredded waste plastic bags con­
mechanism ■ Handling limitations
Chemical ■ Tailoring polymer properties ■ Unclear grafting process
taining LDPE for bitumen modification in different percentages (0.5, 0.7,
grafting based on end-uses and degree of grafting and 0.9%). The penetration index experienced a reduction due to
■ Need for chemicals swelling of plastic particles caused by absorption of the bitumen’s light
Coupling ■ Simple mechanism ■ Difficulty in uniform components (resins and aromatics). According to the calculated pene­
agent ■ Availability of commercial coating
tration indexes of modified samples, it was concluded that LDPE-
coupling agents based on ■ Possibility of peeling of
materials. coated agent modified bitumen is less susceptible to temperature changes and
Plasma ■ Environmentally friendly ■ Need for advanced consequently more resistant to thermal cracking. However, since the
treatment ■ Rapid process equipment polyolefin does not sufficiently react with bitumen to generate a strong
■ Energy consuming structural network, the modified bitumen did not show desirable storage
Microwave ■ Environmentally friendly ■ Energy consuming
irradiation ■ Rapid process
stability. The hot-mix asphalt (HMA) mixtures from this modified
■ Treatment is mostly limited to bitumen showed a lower void content due to better compaction of
the surface without changing modified samples (Nouali et al., 2020). Similarly, Almeida et al. used 2,
the bulk 4, 6, and 8Wt%% of waste urban LDPE to improve HMA performance.
Gama ■ Environmentally friendly ■ Safety issues
They reported 6 Wt% of LDPE as the optimum waste content due to its
irradiation ■ Rapid process ■ Need for advanced
equipment 60% lower rutting depth, higher fatigue resistance and Marshall sta­
■ Controllability issue of bility, and lower flow rate. However, the stiffer nature of the modified
treatment samples decreased the workability of the samples and hindered asphalt
■ Energy consuming paving process (Almeida et al., 2020).
Waste modification showed benefits in improving resistance to
et al., 2019). The U.S., with more than 4 million kilometers of asphalt aging. The aged plastic-modified or rubber-modified bitumen showed
pavement (more than 92% of its pavement) and Europe, with 5.2 million less alteration in softening point, penetration compared to neat bitumen
Km of asphalt pavement (90% of European pavement) are the foremost (Ali et al., 2019). Also, comparing fluorescent microscopy images of
examples worldwide of intensive use of asphalt (Association NAP 2009). bitumen modified by LDPE, HDPE, or LLDPE before and after short-term
Modification with polymers is a common way to improve the per­ aging showed that aging helped polymers to improve their miscibility
formance of asphalt pavement. Recently, polymeric waste materials and disperse more uniformly in the bitumen matrix. Additionally, the
such as waste plastics and rubber have been evaluated as alternative rheological indexes indicated that polymer modification significantly
polymeric materials for strengthening the performance of asphalt decreased RTFO aging effects, and the changes in activation energy
pavement (Zhu et al., 2014). There are two methods to add waste rubber before and after aging were slightly lower in plastic-modified samples
and plastic to asphalt: the wet process, and the dry process (Arabani (Celauro et al., 2020).
et al., 2018). In the wet process, the waste materials are added to To improve the miscibility of waste plastic with bitumen, researchers
bitumen as a modifier and mixed into the bitumen, producing a tried pretreating plastics with free radicals like cumene hydro-peroxide
polymer-modified bitumen. In the dry process, the additives act as filler or adding other polymers such as ethylene vinyl acetate to balance the
or aggregate in the asphalt mixture, and the raw aggregates and filler degree of crystallinity and polarity of chains in plastic-modified samples
can be replaced by these wastes (Huang et al., 2007). (Celauro et al., 2020; Hasan et al., 2016). These treated samples showed
improvement in the elastic modulus and viscoelastic modulus compared
4.1.1. Wet process to untreated ones.
The wet process needs special procedures and equipment to generate For plastics like PET, direct modification of bitumen is inhibited by
a proper reaction between bitumen and waste polymer, but the their having a melting temperature higher than bitumen’s allowable
controllability of the properties of the bitumen makes this method more mixing temperature or their lack of miscibility and compatibility with
favorable than the dry process (Ranieri et al., 2017). It is generally bitumen (Z Leng et al., 2018). To overcome this problem, researchers
agreed that adding waste plastic or rubber to neat bitumen makes it tried degrading the plastic with chemicals and then using the degrada­
stiffer (Jan et al., 2018; Moreno et al., 2013; Naghawi et al., 2018). This tion products to modify bitumen. Padhan et al. chemically recycled
means that such modified asphalt mixtures are less deformable and thus waste PETs by converting them into several benzamide derivatives,

Fig. 7. Overview of using treated waste polymers in construction materials.

11
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

using tetraethylene pentamines or triethylene tetra-amines. The feasi­ simulations of CRBs (containing 5 to 25% rubber) showed an increase in
bility of using the decomposed PET as an antistripping agent was eval­ wetting time (up to 50 percent) as the crumb rubber dosage increased,
uated. It was found that the modified bitumen had a stronger bond with which means the first step of healing in asphalt is held back by rubber
aggregates and unlike commercial antistripping products, the resistance molecules (Hu et al., 2020).
of modified binders to rutting and fatigue did not decrease. Further­ Despite the great mechanical performance of rubberized asphalt,
more, the viscosity of modified samples increased less after aging some defects can disrupt the performance. For instance, asphalt binder’s
compared to neat bitumen, which indicates their resistance to aging and light components easily penetrate the vulcanized crosslinking structure
their lower susceptibility to changes in temperature (Padhan et al., of rubber particles. and simultaneously, some parts of the rubber’s
2013). Similarly, Leng et al. decomposed PET through aminolysis using polymers move to the binder medium (Li et al., 2017). This leads to
triethylenetetramine, then used it to modify reclaimed asphalt. They rubber swelling and consequently to an increase in bitumen’s viscosity
found that having a terminal amine group in PET’s recycled additives and reductions in bitumen’s workability and pumpability (Ghavibazoo
helps the binder and aggregates bond more efficiently, and because of et al., 2013; Presti, 2013).
that, the PET-modified blends did not cause stripping even with high To address these issues, researchers have tried pre-modifying the
percentages of reclaimed asphalt pavement. Lower oxidative peaks rubber with waste oils or other bio-oils as a sustainable solution. This
(sulfoxide and carbonyl groups) in modified bitumen’s FTIR spectra modification is conducted with either of two methods: physisorption,
confirmed its resistance to aging. Furthermore, microscopic images pre-swelling rubbers by subjecting them to oil; and chemisorption,
showed uniform dispersion of PET additives in the bitumen matrix, yet activation of the rubber’s surface by grafting bio-oils to rubber mole­
the swelling of PET additives still happened (Z Leng et al., 2018). cules under heating. Surface activation shows greater improvement in
Recently, Merkel et al. performed PET aminolysis using amines with the segregation index, yet bitumen containing pre-swollen rubber has
different polarities, generating two polar and two nonpolar terephthalic higher elastic recovery and anti-cracking performance (T Zhou et al.,
amides with various lengths of molecular chains. The rheological and 2020). Kabir et al. used chemisorption to activate the rubber surface by
chemical properties of samples containing 5 Wt% of each additive were waste vegetable oil, wood pellet oil, miscanthus oil, corn stover oil, or
compared with samples containing the original PET. It was observed castor oil under microwave irradiation. They showed that oils with a
that all additives increased bitumen’s viscosity; however, this increase higher content of polar aromatics can properly interact with rubber, and
was lower for the polar additives. Also, an increase in an additive’s among the tested oils, wood pellet oil with higher phenolic resin had the
polarity was found to be effective on strain recovery, resistance to fa­ best interaction (Kabir et al., 2020). Recently, Ma et al. attempted to
tigue, and rutting performance. Among the additives, N1,N4-bis alleviate CRB’s compatibility issue by reusing waste cooking oil as a
(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalamide, with the highest polarity, showed rubber modifier. The observed improvement in compatibility was
the highest strain recovery (about 100%) and improvements in fatigue attributed to the extended release of natural rubber, traces of synthetic
and rutting resistance of bitumen, by 19% and 18%. In contrast, the rubber (SR), and inorganic filler into the asphalt phase (Ma et al., 2020).
nonpolar additive with shorter branches had endurance similar to neat Although using oils for pre-swelling rubbers is reported to decrease the
bitumen (Merkel et al., 2020). Also, adding bis(2-hydroxyethyl) ter­ rutting resistance of HMAs in the laboratory, field studies have pre­
ephthalamide to a bitumen modified with 10% crumb rubber improved sented a good rutting performance of these mixes after 5 years (Ma et al.,
the storage stability, elastic recovery, rutting performance, and fatigue 2020).
resistance (Z Leng et al., 2018). Hosseinnezhad et al. extracted bio-binder (BB) from thermochemical
The polyols extracted through PET glycolysis (viscous polyol PET liquefaction of swine manure and added BB to crumb-rubber-modified
(VPP) and thin liquid polyol PET (TLPP)) showed improvements in bi­ bitumen (CRB). Having aromatic compounds in bio-binder reduced
tumen’s fatigue resistance and bonding to basalt aggregates. Also, a the segregation of crumb rubber and bitumen. However, they mentioned
reduction was observed in modified samples’ viscosity compared to neat that adding BB to rubberized asphalt can experience three phases:
bitumen (21% for VPP and 32% for TLPP, each at 10 Wt% and 160 ◦ C), lubrication, surface treatment, and dilution. Biomodification is benefi­
yet their effectiveness at high temperature remained. This reduction cial when the bio-binder content be designed to maximize the surface
enables lowering asphalt mixture’s production temperature (3.5 ◦ C treatment of rubber while avoiding dilution. The best ratio of bio-binder
lower), so less energy is needed for asphalt construction (Gürü et al., in CRB was reported to be 15 Wt%, which significantly dropped the
2014). viscosity of the rubberized asphalt (Hosseinnezhad et al., 2015). The
Waste rubbers such as ground tire rubber or EPDM are thermosets segregation index of 15% BB-modified CRB was reduced by 25%
that have been used extensively for bitumen modification, improving compared to untreated CRB. In addition, the bio-modified CRB indicated
bitumen’s durability, susceptibility to moisture, resistance to fatigue, enhancements in fatigue resistance and low-temperature performance,
and rutting, due to high viscosity (Xiao et al., 2007; Ding et al., 2017; along with better workability and pumpability (Fini et al., 2019).
Chiu and Lu, 2007; Yu et al., 2018; Hashimi et al., 2020). These samples
also showed a higher softening point, better resilience (Rodrígue­ 4.1.2. Dry process
z-Alloza et al., 2013), higher low-temperature cracking resistance (Yu In the dry process, waste polymers are used as an alternative to raw
et al., 2018; Pszczoła et al., 2017), and lower temperature susceptibility aggregates or fillers in the asphalt mixture; the waste polymers are
(Wong and Wong, 2007) added during or after mixing of bitumen with the main aggregates. This
A novel phenomenon that recently is being investigated to increase limits the influence of the waste polymers on the properties of bitumen
the service life of asphalt pavement is bitumen self-healing (Hung et al., (Choubane et al., 1999). The advantages of the dry process are
2020; Kazemi et al., 2020), but rubberized bitumen’s healing perfor­ simplicity, lack of need for special equipment, and higher usage of waste
mance is still unclear. Zhou et al. reported good healing performance in (Farouk et al., 2017; Li and Li, 2013).
conventional and terminal-blend crumb-rubber-modified bitumen Partially replacing mineral aggregates with waste cross-linked
(CRB), in which terminal blending achieved higher healing indexes due polyethylene (PEX) acquired from high-voltage cable coatings showed
to more even dispersion of rubbers. But moisture has detrimental effects improvements in HMA’s stiffness modulus, along with improved resis­
on rubberized bitumen’s self-healing (L Zhou et al., 2020). On the other tance to fatigue and rutting. Also, since the PEX can partially melt during
hand, Lv et al. found that bitumen modification with devulcanized mixing with bitumen, an increase in bitumen’s softening point and
rubber harms bitumen’s self-healing properties (Lv et al., 2017). Since viscosity and a reduction in bitumen’s phase angle were observed, which
wetting is considered as the first phase of crack healing in polymeric means that PEX turned bitumen into a more elastic material (Costa et al.,
materials, an increase in the wetting time indicated a lower potential for 2017; Nameghi et al., 2021).
healing in materials (Ayar et al., 2016). Recent dynamic molecular Due to the high thermal stability of PET, its granules are extensively

12
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

used as aggregate in asphalt mixtures. Hassani et al. reported up to a the world and is second only to water as the most-used substance on the
2.8% reduction in mixture density with an increase in PET content to 20 planet. It mainly consists of water, cement, fine aggregates (sand), and
Wt%. However, to achieve a durable mixture, the optimal content of PET coarse aggregate (crushed rock). Concrete manufacturing accounts for
was noted to be 5 Wt% (Hassani et al., 2005; Dalhat and Wahhab, 2016; about 3 tons per person per annum and it tends to increase due to in­
Rahman and Omardin, 2016). Although the stress-absorption properties creases in demand (De Brito and Saikia, 2012). significant amounts of
of waste-plastic aggregates, regardless of plastic sizes, are described as CO2 emit (354 kg CO2 /m3) during material production, composition,
effective parameter in delaying rutting, it was found that finer plastic and construction of concrete structures (Turner and Collins, 2013). This
particles are better than coarse plastic particles at improving the rutting has led researchers to investigate fabrication methods for concrete that
resistance and reducing the susceptibility to moisture and cracking of are less polluting. One alternative is the substitution of waste solid
asphalt mixtures (Jassim et al., 2014; Ziari et al., 2016). material like plastic and rubbers for raw aggregate. This can lead to
The application of plastics in asphalt mixtures is not limited to the lower CO2 emissions from mining raw materials and reduce depletion of
replacement of mineral aggregates. For instance, plastics can cover ag­ natural resources.
gregates, improve their impact and abrasion action, reduce their water Plastic concretes are made by partial replacement of concrete’s
absorption, and improve their soundness (Adou et al., 2018). Plastics coarse or fine aggregates with various plastics. However, in most cases,
can also be used in fiber form to produce fiber-reinforced HMA. The lower mechanical strength and workability are reported in plastic-
HMA containing 0.4 to 0.8 Wt% plastic fibers can improve the mixture’s modified concretes. These deficits are due to the weak bond between
fatigue life and toughness by 7 and 1.5 times, respectively (Yoo et al., plastic aggregates and the cement mortar phase and lower aggregate
2012). Dalhat and Wahhab even used waste PP and HDPE as binders to crushing values of plastic particles (Mohammadinia et al., 2019; Saxena
produce asphalt-less pavement. These plastic pavements indicated et al., 2018; Hama and Hilal, 2019). For instance, PET and HDPE used as
higher strength against moisture and flexural forces (5 times), higher aggregates induce an increase in split tensile strength and a decrease in
healing index, and equal compressive strength compared to conven­ the slump values, compressive strength, and flexural strength (Rao and
tional asphalt mixes (Dalhat and Wahhab, 2016). Ravula, 2021; Tafheem et al., 2018). However, the use of PETs could
A rubber-modified asphalt mix produced in the dry process is known save 820 million tons of sand per year, so there is a trade-off of a
as a crumb-rubber asphalt mixture (CRAM). This type of modification, reduction in concrete strength and being more environmentally friendly
especially with a high content of rubber, is less popular than wet pro­ (Thorneycroft et al., 2018). Apart from concrete, Ohemeng et al. used up
cessing due to the adverse effect of this method on adhesion, cohesion, to 60% (by weight of sand) LDPE powder in cement mortar. As with PET
and mix compaction. These adverse effects consequently lead to the use in concretes, mortar strength was reduced significantly as the pro­
mixture’s poor performance (i.e., poor fatigue and rutting performance) portion of LDPE in mortar increased. However, mixtures containing
or susceptibility to moisture (Cao, 2007). However, CRAMs are more LDPEs lower than 50% satisfied the strength criteria for masonry mor­
efficient in terms of load-bearing capacity and permanent deformation tars (Ohemeng and Ekolu, 2019). Due to this lower strength in
due to a higher stiffness modulus and lower permanent deformation plastic-modified cementitious materials, it was suggested to use them in
(Moreno et al., 2013). less-critical applications like general ordinary construction, lightweight
Morphological and microscopic observations showed that even in concretes, or footpath concretes (Rao and Ravula, 2021; Yin et al., 2016;
dry processing, there is still maltene transition from bitumen to rubber Akinyele and Ajede, 2018).
and vice versa. Also, larger crumb rubbers are more desirable due to the Attempts have been made to decrease the impact of plastics on the
changes in rubber’s shape and porosity during interaction with bitumen strength of concrete. Adding silica fume to PET-modified concrete can
(López-Moro et al., 2013). Additionally, more interaction happens be­ reduce the decreases in concrete’s compression strength, splitting tensile
tween rubber and bitumen in samples with finer rubbers or higher strength, and shear strength by up to 9, 21.5, and 15%, respectively (Bui
bitumen content, resulting in a higher degree of swelling (Farouk et al., et al., 2018). Recently, Schaefer et al. used gamma-treated PET to
2017). improve the strength-related defects of plastic-modified concretes. Ac­
Apart from HMAs, crumb rubbers have been used to improve the cording to their hypothesis, gamma irradiation causes chain scission and
durability and mechanical performance of porous or cold-mix asphalt produces lower-weight molecules with higher PET mobility, leading to a
(CMA) mixes. For instance, Sangiorgi et al. found that porous asphalts more crystalline PET with enhanced mechanical performance.
containing crumb rubber do not need fiber to control the drainage of Compared to untreated plastic cement, the mixes containing
bitumen. Although there was a reduction in vertical permeability and higher-irradiated plastic dosages (100kGy) were more durable against
resistance to permanent deformation, bitumen/aggregate affinity compression loading. Also, it was determined that incorporating high
improved in these mixes (Sangiorgi et al., 2017). Daneshvar et al. dosages of irradiated plastics along with class F fly ash and silica fume
confirmed the supremacy of wet processing compared to dry processing, into cement paste leads to a reduction in porosity and an increase in
due to the higher fracture resistance of CMAs produced with the wet compressive strength due to the formation of C-A-S-H gels along with
process. However, for low CR content (less than 10%), the dry process is secondary C-S-H during the hydration processes (Schaefer et al., 2018).
more efficient due to a higher flexibility index (Daneshvar et al., 2020). Despite the detrimental effects of plastics on concrete’s compression
To the best of our knowledge, the use of other types of thermosetting strength, plastics improved concrete’s impact resistance and enhanced
materials besides rubber in asphalt production has not been adequately its performance in alkaline conditions and cooling cycles (Bui et al.,
investigated; there are only a few studies on the use of polyurethane 2018; Association NAP 2018; Association NAP 2019). Aggregate
foams. Bitumen modification with 4% waste polyurethane foams replacement with PET or polycarbonate granules in the range of 5 to
improved asphalt-mastic indentation by 25% and made it suitable to 20% (by weight of concrete) has been reported to enhance concrete’s
bear high-volume traffic; however, a foam content higher than 5% made impact resistance up to 39% due to plastics’ elastic nature, with the
the bitumen hard and decreased its workability (Salas and Pérez-Acebo, effect increasing with the increase in plastic content. This feature has
2018). Using polyurethane as mineral fillers in asphalt decreased the made plastic concretes desirable for use in pavement, flooring blocks,
mixture’s stability linearly as the foam content increased. However, this and industrial units having zones/points of high-frequency pick-up and
reduction could be improved by preheating foams before mixing them drop-off of cargo, such as piers or railway ballasts (Saxena et al., 2018;
with bitumen (Gutiérrez-González et al., 2017). Hama and Hilal, 2019; Association NAP 2019; Arulrajah et al., 2020). In
terms of chemical attacks, Bui et al. found that concretes reinforced with
4.2. Concrete PET fiber did not show any degradation in alkaline environments after
90 days (Bui et al., 2018). Another interesting application of waste
Concrete is the most widely used man-made construction material in plastic in concrete components is plastic-modified rebars. In these

13
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

rebars, waste plastics are added as a strong filler to glass-fiber-reinforced permeability, and the chloride diffusion coefficient. But to enhance the
polymer (GFRP) rebars to produce waste-plastic-incorporated GFRP workability or strength of concrete modified with polyurethane, the use
(WPGFRP). Jawad et al. showed that these rebars improved the tensile of prewetted foams and moisture-curing of these modified concretes is
strength and compressive strength of GFRPs by 17.2 and 19.3%, recommended (Fraj et al., 2010; Harith, 2018).
respectively. Comparing structural components like beams and columns Another advantageous use of polyurethane foams is producing
reinforced by conventional steel rebars, GFPR rebars, or WPGFRP re­ recycled cement mortar and plasters. In this use, foams are shredded into
bars, WPGFRP rebars’ performance was superior to that of steel rebars fine grains and used to replace raw sands. Applying polyurethane foam
and GFPR rebars in terms of first-crack load and failure load (Jawad in cement mortars and plasters affects their density and mechanical
et al., 2019). performance, and more water may be needed to maintain the consis­
Similarly, rubber has negative effects on concrete’s strength, slump, tency (Gutiérrez-González et al., 2012; Gadea et al., 2010), but using up
and workability. Compared to sand, natural rubber has higher capacity to 60% polyurethane foam in cement mortars does not affect their
for water absorption, which accounts for the reduction in workability. durability. So foam can appropriately be used in masonry applications
The low slump value can be mainly attributed to the rubber aggregates’ without any structural collapse (Junco et al., 2018). Their inclusion can
small particle size (Girskas and Nagrockienė, 2017). Researchers have even reach 100% sand replacement to produce rendering plasters, due to
tried various methods to address these drawbacks. For instance, to high workability and covering capacity (Junco et al., 2012). There are
improve the workability of fresh rubberized concrete, chemical treat­ additional merits of using waste polyurethane foams in cement mortars:
ments with NaOH (Marques et al., 2008; Kashani et al., 2018), ethanol, improvement in thermal conductibility (Gutiérrez-González et al.,
acrylic acid, polyethylene glycol (Zhang et al., 2014), H2SO4 (Kashani 2012), lowering alkaline reactivity and salt corrosion (providing more
et al., 2018; Alawais and West, 2019), or H2O2, and CaCl2 (Youssf et al., structural stability over time) (Junco et al., 2012), and a considerable
2019) were applied to modify the surface of rubber and increase its increase in the period of mortar workability (Gadea et al., 2010).
compatibility. However, except for the rubbers treated with H2SO4, Resins are another waste material that is used in concrete. In­
surface modifications had either a negligible effect or a negative effect vestigations in this area are limited to concretes modified with unsatu­
on the rubberized concrete’s workability. Kashani et al. tested a rubber rated polyester resins provided from PET glycolysis. Abdel-Azim
coating with potassium permanganate, cement, and silica fume. The produced a range of polyester resins by adding different glycol amounts
coated rubbers failed to improve the workability of rubberized concrete, in the recycling process and then producing resin-modified concretes.
especially in silica fume-coated rubber due to the high consumption of The modified samples showed a decrease in compressive strength. This
water by silica fume and the depletion of concrete water (Kashani et al., reduction was higher in the sample made from the resin with a high
2018). content of glycol. However, these resins improved the flexibility of
In the literature, there are three reasons for the reduction in strength concrete beams due to better local freedom of motion of resin chains
of rubberized concrete: a weak interfacial bond between rubber particles caused by longer polymer chains (AAA, 1996). Contrary to the above
and the cement matrix (Lee et al., 1998; Chung and Hong, 1999); partial finding, Rebeiz concluded that polyester resin does not decrease the
deformation of the rubber in the mix (Lee et al., 1998); and a reduction compression strength and flexural strength of concretes, yet they expe­
in the density of the concrete matrix (Chung and Hong, 1999; Kazmi rience a reduction in high-temperature strength (Rebeiz, 1996).
et al., 2021). Surface treatment of rubber aggregates with H2SO4, which
had a beneficial effect on the workability of fresh rubberized concrete, 4.3. Soil
was shown to have a strengthening effect on the compression strength of
rubberized concrete (Leung and Grasley, 2012). However, the concen­ Thick layers of soil cover the earth, but not all of the available soils
tration of H2SO4 and the size of the rubber particles influenced this effect are suitable for construction. For instance, clayey soils generally have
(Youssf et al., 2019; Leung and Grasley, 2012; Abdulla and Ahmed, low shear strength that is further reduced upon wetting, and clayey soils
2011). can have progressive deformations that may affect the foundations of
Apart from rubber modification, the advantages of post-compaction buildings, subgrades of pavements, and drainage channels (Gowtham
of rubberized concrete or using other waste adaptives like glass powder et al., 2018; Nowamooz and Masrouri, 2008; Zeng et al., 2020). Also,
were highlighted. Wu et al. attempted to improve the compression increasing demands for good lands have produced a serious issue for
strength and elastic modulus of rubber-modified concretes (containing engineers and led to innovative methods for stabilizing unstable soils.
0 to 100% rubber granules by weight of aggregates) by subjecting fresh Stabilization of soil can reduce construction cost by decreasing the
samples to a compression force after casting. This approach led to a 35% thickness of the subgrade layer in roads or by turning a situation needing
improvement in compression and a 29% improvement in the elastic a deep and mat foundation into a situation appropriate for a shallow and
modulus of concrete, compared to uncompressed samples. However, this strip foundation (Hambirao and Rakaraddi, 2014; Patil et al., 2019;
method’s efficiency was only for the mixtures containing less than 30% Tafreshi and Norouzi, 2012). Conventional methods to stabilize weak
rubber (Wu et al., 2020). Ramdani et al. replaced up to 60% of concrete soils involve mixing the soil with cement (Ghadir and Ranjbar, 2018),
coarse aggregate with waste rubber particles and up to 15% of cement hydrated lime (Ghadir and Ranjbar, 2018), or bitumen (Andavan and
with glass powder (GP). The results showed that in mid-range rubber­ Kumar, 2020). Although these methods are efficient, the significant
ized concrete (with 10% and 20% waste rubber), adding glass powder amounts of stabilizers required make these methods environmentally
partially prevented the drop in compression strength caused by rubber and economically unattractive.
modification. In addition, rubberized concrete with GP presented higher An approach used for stabilizing soil is randomly distributing fibers
fresh density and deformability compared to rubberized concrete in the soil as reinforcing agents. Using waste fibers like plastics and
without GP. Furthermore, the synergic application of waste rubber and rubbers is a novel sustainable way to improve soil properties and
GP enhanced the workability of the rubberized concrete, due to the low eliminate waste (Peddaiah et al., 2018). Generally, plastics are mixed
absorption of water by GP (Ramdani et al., 2019). with soil in lower contents (up to 1.5% by weight of soil) compared to
Reusing waste polyurethane foams in manufacturing lightweight rubber (with content in the range of 2 to 40%).
concretes or foam concrete is a feasible method with lower toxicity than There are several parameters that can influence the performance of
discarding the foam in landfills and lower energy consumption than reinforced soil: soil type, waste type, waste content, and waste size. The
incinerating it (Tantisattayakul et al., 2018). Apart from lightening the plastics that have customarily been used for soil stabilization are PET
concrete, having polyurethane foam inside the concrete as coarse ag­ and LDPE from waste bottles and plastic bags; these plastics enhance the
gregates increases the porosity of the concrete; in saturated conditions, soil’s freeze–thaw durability, improve the soil’s compression strength,
this improves moisture exchange with the environment, gas and make the soil more flexible (YARBAŞI and Kalkan, 2020). Also, the

14
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

maximum dry density is increased and the optimum moisture content is market usage. Among major drivers to make one method more prevalent
decreased with rising plastic content in the soil (Gowtham et al., 2018; than others are the cost of process, quality of recycled content, ease of
Peddaiah et al., 2018). These changes happen due to the low specific recycling as well as amount and type of side products or so-called post-
gravity of plastic shreds (Prasanna, 2019). The optimum fiber size and recycling waste.
content is highly related to the nature of the plastic. To reinforce a weak In terms of application in the construction materials, it was found
soil properly by soft plastics such as LDPE, compared to using a stiffer that recycled thermosets are mostly used in asphalt mixtures, while
plastic such as PET, a higher content of plastic (nearly 1% plastic) and recycled thermoplastics are mainly used in cementitious mixtures and
longer plastics pieces (with length 2–3 cm) are needed (Peddaiah et al., soil. Application of granules made from either of thermosets or ther­
2018; Farah and Nalbantoglu, 2019; Kumar et al., 2018; Mir, 2020). moplastics with low-cost of recycling and high quantity of recycled
Regardless of soil type and rubber size, an increase in rubber content content is gaining interest. Parameters such as granules content, size and
in soil leads to higher ductility (A Soltani et al., 2019; Bekhiti et al., type are the most influential factors on improving materials’ perfor­
2019), higher energy adsorption capacity (YARBAŞI and Kalkan, 2020; mance. Yet, the main drawback is low compatibility between granules
A Soltani et al., 2019; Akbulut et al., 2007), reduction in the density, and construction materials such as cement, asphalt, or soil. Addressing
optimum moisture content (Ghareh et al., 2020), and settlement of the the low compatibility issue using surface activation and functionaliza­
soil (Ghareh et al., 2020; Ramirez et al., 2015). Furthermore, it improves tion may render the latter approach among the most viable methods to
shear strength, improves load-bearing capacity (Ghareh et al., 2020; ensure sustainability and resource conservation. For instance, re­
Association NAP 2020; Edincliler and Cagatay, 2013), decreases searchers have used pre-swelling and surface fucntionaliztion of crumb
cracking intensity (A Soltani et al., 2019), and decreases the swelling rubbers to compatiblize it with asphalt and the results have already been
potential of the soil (A Soltani et al., 2019; Bekhiti et al., 2019; A Soltani proven to be beneficial for the longevity of asphalt pavements (T Zhou
et al., 2019; Soltani et al., 2018). Concerning the size of the rubber et al., 2020; Kabirb et al., 2021). Other researchers used bio-grafting to
particles, larger sizes are more favorable due to their greater contact tune the surface hydrophilicity of particles (Kabir et al., 2021; Danda­
area and higher friction angle with soil, which improve the soil’s shear mudi et al., 2021). Furthermore, most of the studies in term of using
strength and load-bearing capacity (A Soltani et al., 2019; Ghareh et al., polymeric wastes in construction materials are laboratory-based studies,
2020; Edincliler and Cagatay, 2013). so the lack of track-record of long-term performance of using these
wastes in construction material is an obvious gap that should be fulfilled.
5. Challenges ahead In addition to an urgent need for understanding the science of
polymer functionalization to be able to tune the recycled granules’
We definitely have a long way to reach a sustainable, cost-effective, surface properties for targeted applications, this study recognizes the
and efficient technique for recycling waste polymers. The low efficacy of absence of comprehensive life-cycle analysis for recycling approaches as
bio-based approaches or methods based on renewable sources of energy a major gap in the body of knowledge. It should be emphasized that
is a major issue, highlighting the importance of finding novel ap­ proper accounting of embodied energy of recycled materials used in
proaches for improving their efficiency. The most important challenges construction is critical to incentivize and promote their utilization.
in this regard are the availability and the low cost of chemicals that use Therefore, this review paper highlights critical research needs to facil­
in chemical recycling and the ease of recycling through combustion. itate the recycling of thermosets and thermoplastics to promote resource
Considering heavy tax for overusing chemicals or emission of pollutants conservation and sustainability.
caused during combustion will encourage scientists and companies to
seek suitable recycling approaches. Data availability
The use of polymeric waste materials in construction has advantages
apart from cost-effectiveness, but there are also some challenges. The All data used in this study has been included in the manuscript.
polymeric wastes need to be processed to meet the construction re­
quirements. A dedicated infrastructure could help sort different types of
Declaration of Competing Interest
plastics that are proven to be useful in construction. An incentive or tax
exemption for construction industries may encourage the use of such
None.
materials. Besides setting up regulations and standards on using these
waste polymers, guidelines for using them can also be provided. To
Acknowledgement
compensate for shortcomings of individual types of polymeric waste as
construction materials, treating the waste materials or combining them
This research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation
to enhance their applicability and compatibility should also be encour­
(Award Numbers 1928795).
aged. So it worth providing a detailed review of the literature on
upcycling of waste thermoplastics and thermosets to clear the most
References
recent advances in improving the affinity of polymeric solid wastes with
construction materials. Further study is also needed on their re- Subramanian, P., 2000. Plastics recycling and waste management in the us. Res.,
recyclability and the emission of any harmful gasses while using them Conservat. Recycl. 28 (3–4), 253–263.
in construction. Pascault, J.-.P., Sautereau, H., Verdu, J., Williams, R.J., 2002. Thermosetting Polymers.
CRC press.
Sharuddin, S.D.A., Abnisa, F., Daud, W.M.A.W., Aroua, M.K., 2016. A review on pyrolysis
6. Conclusion of plastic wastes. Energ. Convers. Manage. 115, 308–326.
Zheng, Y., Yanful, E.K., Bassi, A.S., 2005. A review of plastic waste biodegradation. Crit.
Rev. Biotechnol. 25 (4), 243–250.
This paper provides a comprehensive review of the state of the arts Grigore, M.E., 2017. Methods of recycling, properties and applications of recycled
about recycling of thermosets and thermoplastics with an emphasis on thermoplastic polymers. Recycl. 2 (4), 24.
the application of recycled contents in the construction of built envi­ Müller, R.-.J., Kleeberg, I., Deckwer, W.-.D., 2001. Biodegradation of polyesters
containing aromatic constituents. J. Biotechnol. 86 (2), 87–95.
ronments. The study is divided into methods for recycling and applica­
Okan, M., Aydin, H.M., Barsbay, M., 2019. Current approaches to waste polymer
tions. In the terms of recycling methods, 10 methods were examined utilization and minimization: a review. J. Chemic. Technol. Biotechnol. 94 (1), 8–21.
among which aminolysis was found to be most promising for thermo­ Al-Salem, S., Lettieri, P., Baeyens, J, 2009. Recycling and recovery routes of plastic solid
plastics while Irradiation recycling was found to be most common for waste (psw): a review. Waste Manage. 29 (10), 2625–2643.
Hopewell, J., Dvorak, R., Kosior, E., 2009. Plastics recycling: challenges and
thermosets. In each group, there are innovative approaches such as opportunities. Philosophic. Transact. of the Roy. Societ. B: Biologic. Sci. 364 (1526),
aminolysis and biological recycling, which have yet to be scaled up for 2115–2126.

15
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R., Law, K.L., 2017. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever Teotia, M., Tarannum, N., Soni, R.K., 2017. Depolymerization of pet waste to potentially
made. Sci. Adv. 3 (7), e1700782. applicable aromatic amides: their characterization and dft study. J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
Geyer, R., 2020. Production, use, and Fate of Synthetic polymers. Plastic Waste and 134 (31), 45153.
Recycling. Elsevier, pp. 13–32. Rahimi, A., García, J.M., 2017. Chemical recycling of waste plastics for new materials
Qureshi, M.S., Oasmaa, A., Pihkola, H., Deviatkin, I., Tenhunen, A., Mannila, J., et al., production. Nat. Revi. Chem. 1 (6), 1–11.
2020. Pyrolysis of plastic waste: opportunities and challenges. J. Anal. Appl. Pyroly., Ahmadinia, E., Zargar, M., Karim, M.R., Abdelaziz, M., Ahmadinia, E., 2012.
104804 Performance evaluation of utilization of waste polyethylene terephthalate (pet) in
Thermoplastic Composites Market by Resin Type (Polypropylene, Polyamide, stone mastic asphalt. Construct. Build. Mater. 36, 984–989.
Polyetheretherketone, Hybrid), Fiber type (glass, carbon, mineral), product type (sft, Hameed, A.M., Ahmed, B.A.F., 2019. Employment the plastic waste to produce the light
lft, cft, gmt), end-use industry, and region - global forecast to 2025. 2020 July 2020. weight concrete. Energ. Procedia 157, 30–38.
Contract No.: 5136171. Bui, N.K., Satomi, T., Takahashi, H., 2018. Recycling woven plastic sack waste and pet
Cholake, S.T., Rajarao, R., Henderson, P., Rajagopal, R.R., Sahajwalla, V., 2017. bottle waste as fiber in recycled aggregate concrete: an experimental study. Waste
Composite panels obtained from automotive waste plastics and agricultural Manage. 78, 79–93.
macadamia shell waste. J. Clean. Prod. 151, 163–171. Ilieş, N.-.M., Cîrcu, A.-.P., Nagy, A.-.C., Ciubotaru, V.-.C., Kisfaludi-Bak, Z., 2017.
Andrady, A.L., 2003. Plastics and the Environment. John Wiley & Sons. Comparative study on soil stabilization with polyethylene waste materials and
Álvarez-Chávez, C.R., Edwards, S., Moure-Eraso, R., Geiser, K., 2012. Sustainability of binders. Procedia Eng. 181, 444–451.
bio-based plastics: general comparative analysis and recommendations for Jawad, F., Adarsha, C., Raghavendra, T., Udayashankar, B., Natarajan, K., 2019.
improvement. J. Clean. Prod. 23 (1), 47–56. Structural behavior of concrete beams and columns reinforced with waste plastic
da Cruz, N.F., Simões, P., Marques, R.C., 2014. Costs and Benefits of Packaging Waste incorporated gfrp (wpgfrp) rebars. J. Build. Eng. 23, 172–184.
Recycling Systems. Elsevier. Hınıslıoğlu, S., Ağar, E., 2004. Use of waste high density polyethylene as bitumen
Psomopoulos, C.S., Bourka, A., Themelis, N.J., 2009. Waste-to-energy: a review of the modifier in asphalt concrete mix. Mater. Lett. 58 (3–4), 267–271.
status and benefits in usa. Waste Manage. 29 (5), 1718–1724. Rahman T., Nurdiana J. The effect of hdpe plastic fibres on concrete performance. 2020.
Thiounn, T., Smith, R.C., 2020. Advances and approaches for chemical recycling of Abdelsalam, Z., Almashan, N., Ismael, N., 2019. Reinforcing some kuwaiti soils with
plastic waste. Journal of Polymer Science 58 (10), 1347–1364. shredded high-density polyethylene (hdpe) bits. Environment. Eng. Geosci. 25 (3),
Di, J., Reck, B.K., Miatto, A., Graedel, T.E., 2021. United States plastics: large flows, short 213–221.
lifetimes, and negligible recycling. Res., Conservat. Recycl. 167, 105440. Ziari, H., Nasiri, E., Amini, A., Ferdosian, O., 2019. The effect of eaf dust and waste pvc
Ignatyev, I.A., Thielemans, W., Vander Beke, B, 2014. Recycling of polymers: a review. on moisture sensitivity, rutting resistance, and fatigue performance of asphalt
ChemSusChem 7 (6), 1579–1593. binders and mixtures. Construct. and Build. Mater. 203, 188–200.
Angelone, S., Casaux, M.C., Borghi, M., Martinez, F.O., 2016. Green pavements: reuse of Mishra G.G., Jain D. Improving durability of concrete using pvc waste flex banner. 2019.
plastic waste in asphalt mixtures. Mater. Struct. 49 (5), 1655–1665. Garcia-Morales, M., Partal, P., Navarro, F., Gallegos, C., 2006. Effect of waste polymer
Sabău, M., Vargas, J., 2018. Use of e-plastic waste in concrete as a partial replacement of addition on the rheology of modified bitumen. Fuel 85 (7–8), 936–943.
coarse mineral aggregate. Comput. Concr. 21 (4), 377–384. Kurniadi P.N.S.B., Shukri M.A.R.B.M., Rosli M.R.B., Zuljimmykifli N.I.F.B., HASSAN
Ragaert, K., Delva, L., Van Geem, K., 2017. Mechanical and chemical recycling of solid PHB. Utilization of low-density polyethylene (ldpe) plastic in production of cement
plastic waste. Waste Manage. 69, 24–58. brick. 2019.
Wong, S., Ngadi, N., Abdullah, T.A.T., Inuwa, I.M., 2015. Current state and future Tapkın, S., 2008. The effect of polypropylene fibers on asphalt performance. Build.
prospects of plastic waste as source of fuel: a review. Renew. and Sustain. Energ. Environ. 43 (6), 1065–1071.
Rev. 50, 1167–1180. Thermal properties of light-weight concrete with waste polypropylene aggregate. In:
Mohanraj, C., Senthilkumar, T., Chandrasekar, M., 2017. A review on conversion Záleská, M, Pokorný, J, Pavlíková, M, Pavlík, Z (Eds.), 2017. AIP Conference
techniques of liquid fuel from waste plastic materials. Int. J. Energ. Resear. 41 (11), Proceedings. AIP Publishing LLC.
1534–1552. Durgun, M.Y., 2020. Effect of wetting-drying cycles on gypsum plasters containing
Kakil R.A. A review on recycling of plastics: salahaddin university-erbil; 2020. ground basaltic pumice and polypropylene fibers. J. Build. Eng. 32, 101801.
Kumagai, S., Yoshioka, T., 2016. Feedstock recycling via waste plastic pyrolysis. J. Jap. Mohamed, N., Maharaj, R., Ramlochan, D., 2017. Rutting and fatigue cracking
Petrol. Instit. 59 (6), 243–253. susceptibility of polystyrene modified asphalt. Am. J. Appl. Sci. 14 (5), 583–591.
Siddique, R., Khatib, J., Kaur, I., 2008. Use of recycled plastic in concrete: a review. Ferrándiz-Mas, V., Sarabia, L.A., Ortiz, M.C., Cheeseman, C.R., García-Alcocel, E., 2016.
Waste Manage. 28 (10), 1835–1852. Design of bespoke lightweight cement mortars containing waste expanded
Achilias, D., Karayannidis, G., 2004. The chemical recycling of pet in the framework of polystyrene by experimental statistical methods. Mater. Des. 89, 901–912.
sustainable development. water, air and soil pollution. Foc. (Madison) 4 (4–5), Pedreño-Rojas, M.A., Rodríguez-Liñán, C., Flores-Colen, I., de Brito, J., 2020. Use of
385–396. polycarbonate waste as aggregate in recycled gypsum plasters. Mater. (BSL.) 13 (14),
Singh, S., Sharma, S., Umar, A., Mehta, S.K., Bhatti, M.S., Kansal, S.K., 2018. Recycling of 3042.
waste poly (ethylene terephthalate) bottles by alkaline hydrolysis and recovery of De la Colina Martínez, A.L., Barrera, G.M., Díaz, C.E.B., LIÁ, Córdoba, Núñez, F.U.,
pure nanospindle-shaped terephthalic acid. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 18 (8), Hernández, D.J.D, 2019. Recycled polycarbonate from electronic waste and its use in
5804–5809. concrete: effect of irradiation. Construc. Build. Mater. 201, 778–785.
Ügdüler, S., Van Geem, K.M., Denolf, R., Roosen, M., Mys, N., Ragaert, K., et al., 2020. López-Fonseca, R., Duque-Ingunza, I., De Rivas, B., Arnaiz, S., Gutiérrez-Ortiz, J., 2010.
Towards closed-loop recycling of multilayer and coloured PET plastic waste by Chemical recycling of post-consumer pet wastes by glycolysis in the presence of
alkaline hydrolysis. Green Chem. 22 (16), 5376–5394. metal salts. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 95 (6), 1022–1028.
Mancini, S.D., Zanin, M., 2007. Post consumer pet depolymerization by acid hydrolysis. Yue, Q.F., Xiao, L.F., Zhang, M.L., Bai, X.F., 2013. The glycolysis of poly (ethylene
Polym. Plast. Technol. Eng. 46 (2), 135–144. terephthalate) waste: lewis acidic ionic liquids as high efficient catalysts. Polymers
Zope, V.S., Mishra, S., 2008. Kinetics of neutral hydrolytic depolymerization of pet (BSL.) 5 (4), 1258–1271.
(polyethylene terephthalate) waste at higher temperature and autogenious Yue, Q., Wang, C., Zhang, L., Ni, Y., Jin, Y., 2011. Glycolysis of poly (ethylene
pressures. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 110 (4), 2179–2183. terephthalate)(pet) using basic ionic liquids as catalysts. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 96 (4),
Troev, K., Grancharov, G., Tsevi, R., Gitsov, I., 2003. A novel catalyst for the glycolysis of 399–403.
poly (ethylene terephthalate). J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 90 (4), 1148–1152. Liu Y., Yao X., Yao H., Zhou Q., Xin J., Lu X., et al. Degradation of poly (ethylene
Pham, T.P.T., Cho, C.-.W., Yun, Y.-.S, 2010. Environmental fate and toxicity of ionic terephthalate) catalyzed by metal-free choline-based ionic liquids. Green Chem..
liquids: a review. Water Res. 44 (2), 352–372. 2020.
Samuilov, A.Y., Korshunov, M., Samuilov, Y.D., 2020. Methanolysis of polycarbonate Wang, Q., Yao, X., Tang, S., Lu, X., Zhang, X., Zhang, S., 2012. Urea as an efficient and
waste as a method of regenerating monomers for polycarbonate synthesis. Poly. Sci., reusable catalyst for the glycolysis of poly (ethylene terephthalate) wastes and the
Series B 62 (4), 411–415. role of hydrogen bond in this process. Green Chem. 14 (9), 2559–2566.
Leskinen, J.T., Hakulinen, M.A., Kuosmanen, M., Ketolainen, J., Abrahmsén-Alami, S., Beltrán, F., Lorenzo, V., de la Orden, M., Martínez-Urreaga, J., 2016. Effect of different
Lappalainen, R., 2011. Monitoring of swelling of hydrophilic polymer matrix tablets mechanical recycling processes on the hydrolytic degradation of poly (l-lactic acid).
by ultrasound techniques. Int. J. Pharm. 404 (1–2), 142–147. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 133, 339–348.
Chen, J., Lv, J., Ji, Y., Ding, J., Yang, X., Zou, M., et al., 2014. Alcoholysis of pet to Kumar, S., Guria, C., 2005. Alkaline hydrolysis of waste poly (ethylene terephthalate): a
produce dioctyl terephthalate by isooctyl alcohol with ionic liquid as cosolvent. modified shrinking core model. J. Macromolecul. Sci., Pt. A: Pure Appl. Chem. 42
Polym. Degrad. Stab. 107, 178–183. (3), 237–251.
PET recycling by alcoholysis using a new heterogeneous catalyst: study and its use in Liu, F., Li, Z., Yu, S., Cui, X., Ge, X., 2010. Environmentally benign methanolysis of
polyurethane adhesives preparation. In: Scremin, DM, Miyazaki, DY, Lunelli, CE, polycarbonate to recover bisphenol a and dimethyl carbonate in ionic liquids.
Silva, SA, Zawadzki, SF (Eds.), 2019. Macromolecular Symposia. Wiley Online J. Hazard. Mater. 174 (1–3), 872–875.
Library. Liu, F., Li, L., Yu, S., Lv, Z., Ge, X., 2011. Methanolysis of polycarbonate catalysed by
Tawfik, M.E., Eskander, S.B., 2010. Chemical recycling of poly (ethylene terephthalate) ionic liquid [bmim][ac]. J. Hazard. Mater. 189 (1–2), 249–254.
waste using ethanolamine. Sorting of the end products. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 95 (2), Yoshioka, T., Sugawara, K., Mizoguchi, T., Okuwaki, A., 2005. Chemical recycling of
187–194. polycarbonate to raw materials by thermal decomposition with calcium hydroxide/
Tawfik, M.E., Ahmed, N.M., Eskander, S.B., 2011. Aminolysis of poly (ethylene steam. Chem. Lett. 34 (3), 282–283.
terephthalate) wastes based on sunlight and utilization of the end product [bis (2- Oku, A., Tanaka, S., Hata, S., 2000. Chemical conversion of poly (carbonate) to bis
hydroxyethylene) terephthalamide] as an ingredient in the anticorrosive paints for (hydroxyethyl) ether of bisphenol A. An approach to the chemical recycling of
the protection of steel structures. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 120 (5), 2842–2855. plastic wastes as monomers. Polymer (Guildf) 41 (18), 6749–6753.

16
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Grause, G., Sugawara, K., Mizoguchi, T., Yoshioka, T., 2009. Pyrolytic hydrolysis of Liu, T., Guo, X., Liu, W., Hao, C., Wang, L., Hiscox, W.C., et al., 2017. Selective cleavage
polycarbonate in the presence of earth-alkali oxides and hydroxides. Polym. Degrad. of ester linkages of anhydride-cured epoxy using a benign method and reuse of the
Stab. 94 (7), 1119–1124. decomposed polymer in new epoxy preparation. Green Chem. 19 (18), 4364–4372.
Liu, F.-.S., Li, Z., Yu, S.-.T., Cui, X., Xie, C.-.X., Ge, X.-.P., 2009. Methanolysis and Yang, P., Zhou, Q., Li, X.-.Y., Yang, K.-.K., Wang, Y.-.Z, 2014. Chemical recycling of fiber-
hydrolysis of polycarbonate under moderate conditions. J. Polym. Environ. 17 (3), reinforced epoxy resin using a polyethylene glycol/naoh system. J. Reinforce. Plast.
208. Composit. 33 (22), 2106–2114.
Song, X., Hu, W., Huang, W., Wang, H., Yan, S., Yu, S., et al., 2020. Methanolysis of Gao, X., Li, Q., Qiu, J., 2018. Hydrothermal modification and recycling of nonmetallic
polycarbonate into valuable product bisphenol a using choline chloride-based deep particles from waste print circuit boards. Waste Manage. 74, 427–434.
eutectic solvents as highly active catalysts. Chemic. Eng. J. 388, 124324. Kudo, S., Goto, N., Sperry, J., Norinaga, K., Hayashi, J-i., 2017. Production of
Bhogle, C.S., Pandit, A.B., 2019. Ultrasound assisted methanolysis of polycarbonate at levoglucosenone and dihydrolevoglucosenone by catalytic reforming of volatiles
room temperature. Ultrason. Sonochem. 58, 104667. from cellulose pyrolysis using supported ionic liquid phase. ACS. Sustain. Chem.
Bhatia, S.C., 2014. 22 - Biodiesel. editor. In: Bhatia, SC (Ed.), Advanced Renewable Eng. 5 (1), 1132–1140.
Energy Systems. Woodhead Publishing India, pp. 573–626. Dang, W., Kubouchi, M., Yamamoto, S., Sembokuya, H., Tsuda, K., 2002. An approach to
X-j, K.O.N.G., Z-h, Z.H.A.N.G., 2012. Study on alcoholysis of waste pet. China Plast. chemical recycling of epoxy resin cured with amine using nitric acid. Polym. (Guildf)
Industr. 4. 43 (10), 2953–2958.
Zhou, X., Wang, C., Fang, C., Yu, R., Li, Y., Lei, W., 2019. Structure and thermal Das, M., Chacko, R., Varughese, S., 2018. An efficient method of recycling of cfrp waste
properties of various alcoholysis products from waste poly (ethylene terephthalate). using peracetic acid. ACS. Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6 (2), 1564–1571.
Waste Manage. 85, 164–174. Nakagawa, T., Goto, M., 2015. Recycling thermosetting polyester resin into functional
Bedell, M., Brown, M., Kiziltas, A., Mielewski, D., Mukerjee, S., Tabor, R., 2018. A case polymer using subcritical water. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 115, 16–23.
for closed-loop recycling of post-consumer pet for automotive foams. Waste Manage. Yoon, K., DiBenedetto, A., Huang, S., 1997. Recycling of unsaturated polyester resin
71, 97–108. using propylene glycol. Polym. (Guildf) 38 (9), 2281–2285.
Shukla, S., Harad, A.M., 2006. Aminolysis of polyethylene terephthalate waste. Polym. Hyde, J.R., Lester, E., Kingman, S., Pickering, S., Wong, K.H., 2006. Supercritical
Degrad. Stab. 91 (8), 1850–1854. propanol, a possible route to composite carbon fibre recovery: a viability study.
Zahn, H., Pfeifer, H., 1963. Aminolysis of polyethylene terephthalate. Polym. (Guildf) 4, Composit. Pt. A: Appl. Sci. Manufactur. 37 (11), 2171–2175.
429–432. Piñero-Hernanz, R., García-Serna, J., Dodds, C., Hyde, J., Poliakoff, M., Cocero, M.J.,
Popoola, V., 1988. Polyester formation: aminolytic degradation and proposed et al., 2008. Chemical recycling of carbon fibre composites using alcohols under
mechanisms of the reaction. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 36 (7), 1677–1683. subcritical and supercritical conditions. J. Supercrit. Flui. 46 (1), 83–92.
Soni, R., Singh, S., 2005. Synthesis and characterization of terephthalamides from poly Mohammadi, A., Barikani, M., Barmar, M., 2013. Effect of polyol structure on the
(ethylene terephthalate) waste. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 96 (5), 1515–1528. properties of the resultant magnetic polyurethane elastomer nanocomposites. Polym.
Achilias, D.S., Tsintzou, G.P., Nikolaidis, A.K., Bikiaris, D.N., Karayannidis, G.P., 2011. Adv. Technol. 24 (11), 978–985.
Aminolytic depolymerization of poly (ethylene terephthalate) waste in a microwave Szycher, M., 1999. Szycher’s Handbook of Polyurethanes. CRC press.
reactor. Polym. Int. 60 (3), 500–506. Simón, D., Borreguero, A., De Lucas, A., Rodríguez, J., 2018. Recycling of polyurethanes
Hoang, C.N., Dang, Y.H., 2013. Aminolysis of poly (ethylene terephthalate) waste with from laboratory to industry, a journey towards the sustainability. Waste Manage. 76,
ethylenediamine and characterization of α, ω-diamine products. Polym. Degrad. 147–171.
Stab. 98 (3), 697–708. Gómez-Rojo, R., Alameda, L., Rodríguez, Á., Calderón, V., Gutiérrez-González, S, 2019.
Soni, R., Singh, S., Dutt, K., 2010. Studies on synthesis and characterization of n-alkyl Characterization of polyurethane foam waste for reuse in eco-efficient building
terephthalamides using different amines from polyethylene terephthalate waste. materials. Polym. (BSL.) 11 (2), 359.
J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 115 (5), 3074–3080. Yang, W., Dong, Q., Liu, S., Xie, H., Liu, L., Li, J., 2012. Recycling and disposal methods
Das, P., Tiwari, P., 2018. Valorization of packaging plastic waste by slow pyrolysis. Res., for polyurethane foam wastes. Procedia Environ. Sci. 16, 167–175.
Conservat. Recycl. 128, 69–77. Wang, J-r, Chen, Dd-j., 2003. The chemical and physical recycling methods for
Scheirs, J., Kaminsky, W., 2006. Feedstock Recycling and Pyrolysis of Waste Plastics. polyurethane wastes. China Elastomer. 13 (6), 61–65.
John Wiley & Sons Chichester, UK. Cao, M., Cao, X., 2005. Recycling and disposing methods for rigid polyurethane foamed
Investigation of performance analysis and emission characteristics of waste plastic fuel. plastic wastes. Plast. 34 (14), 14–18.
In: Ruban, M, Ramasubramanian, S, Pugazhenthi, R (Eds.), 2017. IOP Conference Xu, W., Song, W., Zhu, C., Y-f, T.A.N.G., 2008. The recycle and reuse of the polyurethane.
Series: Materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing. China Elastomer. 18 (2), 65–68.
Bridgwater, A.V., 2012. Review of fast pyrolysis of biomass and product upgrading. Zia, K.M., Bhatti, H.N., Bhatti, I.A., 2007. Methods for polyurethane and polyurethane
Biom. Bioenerg. 38, 68–94. composites, recycling and recovery: a review. React. Function. Polym. 67 (8),
Abnisa, F., Daud, W.M.A.W., 2014. A review on co-pyrolysis of biomass: an optional 675–692.
technique to obtain a high-grade pyrolysis oil. Energ. Conver. Manage. 87, 71–85. Hulme, A., Goodhead, T., 2003. Cost effective reprocessing of polyurethane by hot
Yuliansyah, A.T., Prasetya, A., Ramadhan, M.A., Laksono, R., 2015. Pyrolysis of plastic compression moulding. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 139 (1–3), 322–326.
waste to produce pyrolytic oil as an alternative fuel. Int. J. Technol. 7, 1076–1083. Quadrini, F., Bellisario, D., Santo, L., 2013. Recycling of thermoset polyurethane foams.
Muhammad, C., Onwudili, J.A., Williams, P.T., 2015. Catalytic pyrolysis of waste plastic Polym. Eng. Sci. 53 (7), 1357–1363.
from electrical and electronic equipment. J. Anal. Appl. Pyroly. 113, 332–339. Garside M. Synthetic rubber production worldwide from 2000 to 2019 2020 [Available
Ahamed, A., Veksha, A., Yin, K., Weerachanchai, P., Giannis, A., Lisak, G., 2020. from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/280536/global-natural-rubber-produc
Environmental impact assessment of converting flexible packaging plastic waste to tion/#statisticContainer.
pyrolysis oil and multi-walled carbon nanotubes. J. Hazard. Mater. 390, 121449. Garside M. Natural rubber production worldwide from 2000 to 2019 2020 [Available
Shieh, P., Zhang, W., Husted, K.E., Kristufek, S.L., Xiong, B., Lundberg, D.J., et al., 2020. from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/275387/global-natural-rubber-product
Cleavable comonomers enable degradable, recyclable thermoset plastics. Nat. 583 ion/#:~:text=Global%20production%20of%20natural%20rubber%202000%2D20
(7817), 542–547. 19&text=Natural%20rubber%20production%20worldwide%20in,natural%20r
Post, W., Susa, A., Blaauw, R., Molenveld, K., Knoop, R.J., 2020. A review on the ubber%20was%20produced%20globally.
potential and limitations of recyclable thermosets for structural applications. Poly. Asaro, L., Gratton, M., Seghar, S., Hocine, N.A., 2018. Recycling of rubber wastes by
Revi. 60 (2), 359–388. devulcanization. Res., Conservat. Recycl. 133, 250–262.
Wu, C.-.H., Chang, C.-.Y., Li, J.-.K., 2002. Glycolysis of rigid polyurethane from waste Qin, X., Xu, H., Zhang, G., Wang, J., Wang, Z., Zhao, Y., et al., 2020. Enhancing the
refrigerators. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 75 (3), 413–421. performance of rubber with nano zno as activators. ACS. Appl. Mater. Interf. 12 (42),
Liu, M., Wang, Y., Wu, Y., Wan, H., 2018. Hydrolysis and recycling of urea formaldehyde 48007–48015.
resin residues. J. Hazard. Mater. 355, 96–103. Asaro, L., Gratton, M., Poirot, N., Seghar, S., Hocine, N.A., 2020. Devulcanization of
Campbell, G.A., Meluch, W.C., 1976. Polyurethane foam recycling. superheated steam natural rubber industry waste in supercritical carbon dioxide combined with
hydrolysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 10 (2), 182–185. diphenyl disulfide. Waste Manage. 118, 647–654.
Yao, Z., Yu, S., Su, W., Wu, W., Tang, J., Qi, W., 2020. Comparative study on the Yazdani, H., Karrabi, M., Ghasmi, I., Azizi, H., Bakhshandeh, G.R., 2011. Devulcanization
pyrolysis kinetics of polyurethane foam from waste refrigerators. Waste Manage. of waste tires using a twin-screw extruder: the effects of processing conditions.
Resear. 38 (3), 271–278. J. Vinyl Addit. Technol. 17 (1), 64–69.
Lozhechnik, A., Savchin, V., 2016. Pyrolysis of rubber in a screw reactor. J. Eng. Phy. Seghar, S., Asaro, L., Rolland-Monnet, M., Hocine, N.A., 2019. Thermo-mechanical
Thermophys. 89 (6), 1482–1486. devulcanization and recycling of rubber industry waste. Res., Conservat. Recycl.
Sarkar, B., Mandal, S., 2020. Microbial degradation of natural and synthetic rubbers. 144, 180–186.
Microbial Bioremediation & Biodegradation. Springer, pp. 527–550. Brown, C., 2008. Mixer and Method of Mixing. Google Patents.
Simon, D.Á., Pirityi, D., Tamás-Bényei, P., Bárány, T., 2020a. Microwave devulcanization Tang, Y., 2003. Recycled Rubber Processing and Performance Enhancement. Google
of ground tire rubber and applicability in sbr compounds. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 137 Patents.
(6), 48351. Diaz, R., Colomines, G., Peuvrel-Disdier, E., Deterre, R., 2018. Thermo-mechanical
Aoudia, K., Azem, S., Hocine, N.A., Gratton, M., Pettarin, V., Seghar, S., 2017. Recycling recycling of rubber: relationship between material properties and specific
of waste tire rubber: microwave devulcanization and incorporation in a thermoset mechanical energy. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 252, 454–468.
resin. Waste Manage. 60, 471–481. Fukumori, K., Mouri, M., Sato, N., Okamoto, H., Matsushita, M., 2001. Continuous
Ozaki, J-i, Djaja, S.K.I., Oya, A., 2000. Chemical recycling of phenol resin by supercritical recycling of vulcanisates. Int. Polym. Sci. Technol. 28 (6), 5–11.
methanol. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39 (2), 245–249. Maridass, B., Gupta, B., 2007. Effect of extruder parameters on mechanical properties of
Lee, S.-.H., Choi, H.-.O., Kim, J.-.S., Lee, C.-.K., Kim, Y.-.K., Ju, C.-.S., 2011. Circulating revulcanized ground rubber tire powder. Polimer. 52 (6).
flow reactor for recycling of carbon fiber from carbon fiber reinforced epoxy
composite. Kor. J. Chemic. Eng. 28 (2), 449–454.

17
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Zhang, X., Zhu, X., Liang, M., Lu, C., 2009. Improvement of the properties of ground tire Li, J., Chen, Z., Xiao, F., Amirkhanian, S.N., 2021. Surface activation of scrap tire crumb
rubber (gtr)-filled nitrile rubber vulcanizates through plasma surface modification of rubber to improve compatibility of rubberized asphalt. Res., Conservat. Recycl. 169,
gtr powder. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 114 (2), 1118–1125. 105518.
Formela, K., Cysewska, M., Haponiuk, J., Stasiek, A., 2013. The influence of feed rate and Meng, F., Muhammad, Y., Ye, Y., Ji, J., Tao, H., Huang, J., et al., 2021. Preparation of
shear forces on the devulcanization process of ground tire rubber (gtr) conducted in hyperbranch-structured polyester fiber via thiol-ene click reaction under uv light
a co-rotating twin screw extruder. Polimery 58. irradiation for asphalt binder modification. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 138 (14), 50135.
Movahed, S.O., Ansarifar, A., Karbalaee, S., Far, S.A., 2015. Devulcanization and Liu, B., Li, J., Han, M., Zhang, Z., Jiang, X., 2020c. Properties of polystyrene grafted
recycling of waste automotive EPDM rubber powder by using shearing action and activated waste rubber powder (ps-arp) composite sbs modified asphalt. Construct.
chemical additive. Progre. Rubb. Plast. Recycl. Technol. 31 (2), 87–116. Build. Mater. 238, 117737.
Liu, H., Wang, X., Jia, D., 2020b. Recycling of waste rubber powder by mechano- Aldagari, S., Kabir, S.F., Fini, E.H., 2021. Investigating aging properties of bitumen
chemical modification. J. Clean. Prod. 245, 118716. modified with polyethylene-terephthalate waste plastic. Res., Conservat. Recycl.
Shi, J., Jiang, K., Ren, D., Zou, H., Wang, Y., Lv, X., et al., 2013. Structure and 173, 105687.
performance of reclaimed rubber obtained by different methods. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. Fini, E.H., Hosseinnezhad, S., Oldham, D., Mclaughlin, Z., Alavi, Z., Harvey, J., 2019.
129 (3), 999–1007. Bio-modification of rubberised asphalt binder to enhance its performance. Int. J.
Formela, K., Hejna, A., Zedler, L., Colom Fajula, X., Cañavate Ávila, F.J, 2019. Pav. Eng. 20 (10), 1216–1225.
Microwave treatment in waste rubber recycling–recent advances and limitations. Dong, R., Zhao, M., Tang, N., 2019. Characterization of crumb tire rubber lightly
Express Polym. Lett. 13 (6), 565–588. pyrolyzed in waste cooking oil and the properties of its modified bitumen. Construct.
Siores, E., Do Rego, D, 1995. Microwave applications in materials joining. J. Mater. Build. Mater. 195, 10–18.
Process. Technol. 48 (1–4), 619–625. A novel approach to recycle the waste plastics by bitumen modification for paving
Hirayama, D., Saron, C., 2012. Chemical modifications in styrene–butadiene rubber after application. In: Naskar, M, Chaki, TK, Reddy, KS (Eds.), 2012. Advanced Materials
microwave devulcanization. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51 (10), 3975–3980. Research. Trans Tech Publ.
Garcia, P., De Sousa, F., De Lima, J., Cruz, S., Scuracchio, C., 2015. Devulcanization of Merkel, D.R., Kuang, W., Malhotra, D., Petrossian, G., Zhong, L., Simmons, K.L., et al.,
ground tire rubber: physical and chemical changes after different microwave 2020. Waste pet chemical processing to terephthalic amides and their effect on
exposure times. Express Polym. Lett. 9 (11). asphalt performance. ACS. Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8 (14), 5615–5625.
Simon, D.Á., Pirityi, D.Z., Bárány, T., 2020b. Devulcanization of ground tire rubber: Han, Q., Yang, Y., Zhang, J., Yu, J., Hou, D., Dong, B., et al., 2020. Insights into the
microwave and thermomechanical approaches. Sci. Rep. 10 (1), 1–13. interfacial strengthening mechanism of waste rubber/cement paste using polyvinyl
Pistor, V., Scuracchio, C.H., Oliveira, P.J., Fiorio, R., Zattera, A.J., 2011. Devulcanization alcohol: experimental and molecular dynamics study. Cem. Concr. Composit. 114,
of ethylene-propylene-diene polymer residues by microwave—influence of the 103791.
presence of paraffinic oil. Polym. Eng. Sci. 51 (4), 697–703. Kabir, S.F., Sukumaran, S., Moghtadernejad, S., Barjasteh, E., Fini, E.H., 2021. End of life
Pistor, V., Zattera, A.J., 2014. Degradation kinetics of ethylene propylene diene plastics to enhance sustainability of pavement construction utilizing a hybrid
terpolymer residues devulcanized by microwaves. J. Elastom. Plast. 46 (1), 69–83. treatment of bio-oil and carbon coating. Construct. Build. Mater. 278, 122444.
Scuracchio, C., Waki, D., Da Silva, M, 2007. Thermal analysis of ground tire rubber Zhou, T., Kabir, S.F., Cao, L., Luan, H., Dong, Z., Fini, E.H., 2020a. Comparing effects of
devulcanized by microwaves. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 87 (3), 893–897. physisorption and chemisorption of bio-oil onto rubber particles in asphalt. J. Clean.
de Sousa, F.D., Scuracchio, C.H., Hu, G.-.H., Hoppe, S., 2017. Devulcanization of waste Prod. 273, 123112.
tire rubber by microwaves. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 138, 169–181. Li, B., Li, Q., Zhu, X., Wei, Y., Li, Z., Wei, D., 2020. Effect of sodium hypochlorite-
Bani, A., Polacco, G., Gallone, G., 2011. Microwave-induced devulcanization for poly activated crumb rubber on rheological properties of rubber-modified asphalt.
(ethylene–propylene–diene) recycling. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 120 (5), 2904–2911. J. Mater. Civil Eng. 32 (11), 04020326.
Isayev, A.I., 2005. Recycling of rubbers. Science and Technology of Rubber. Elsevier, Xiang, Y., Fan, H., Liu, Z., 2020. Structural characteristics of silane-modified ground tyre
pp. 663–701. rubber and high-temperature creep property of asphalt rubber. Construct. Build.
Sutanto, P., Picchioni, F., Janssen, L., Dijkhuis, K., Dierkes, W.K., Noordermeer, J.W., Mater. 236, 117600.
2006. State of the art: recycling of epdm rubber vulcanizates. Int. Polym. Process. 21 Su, H., Yang, J., Ghataora, G.S., Dirar, S., 2015. Surface modified used rubber tyre
(2), 211–217. aggregates: effect on recycled concrete performance. Magaz. Concr. Resear. 67 (12),
Kim, J.K., Lee, S.H., Balasubramanian, M., 2006. A comparative study of effect of 680–691.
compatibilization agent on untreated and ultrasonically treated waste ground rubber Hunter, R.N., Self, A., Read, J., Hobson, E., 2015. The Shell Bitumen Handbook. ICE
tire and polyolefin blends. Polimeros 16 (4), 263–268. Publishing, London, UK.
Hong, C.-.K., Isayev, A., 2003. An application of high-power ultrasound to rubber Ingrassia, L.P., Lu, X., Ferrotti, G., Canestrari, F., 2019. Renewable materials in
recycling. Elastom. Composit. 38 (2), 103–121. bituminous binders and mixtures: speculative pretext or reliable opportunity? Res.,
Isayev, A.I., Liang, T., Lewis, T.M., 2014. Effect of particle size on ultrasonic Conservat. Recycl. 144, 209–222.
devulcanization of tire rubber in twin-screw extruder. Rubber Chem. Technol. 87 Association NAP. The Asphalt Paving Industry a Global perspective: production, use,
(1), 86–102. properties, and Occupational Exposure Reduction Technologies and Trends; 2009.
Mangili, I., Lasagni, M., Huang, K., Isayev, A.I., 2015. Modeling and optimization of Lanham, MD, USA.
ultrasonic devulcanization using the response surface methodology based on central Zhu, J., Birgisson, B., Kringos, N., 2014. Polymer modification of bitumen: advances and
composite face-centered design. Chemomet. Intell. Lab. Syst. 144, 1–10. challenges. Eur. Polym. J. 54, 18–38.
Bosco, F., Antonioli, D., Casale, A., Gianotti, V., Mollea, C., Laus, M., et al., 2018. Arabani, M., Tahami, S.A., Hamedi, G.H., 2018. Performance evaluation of dry process
Biodegradation of unvulcanized natural rubber by microorganisms isolated from soil crumb rubber-modified asphalt mixtures with nanomaterial. Road Mater. Pave. Desi.
and rubber surface: a preliminary study. Bioremediat. J. 22 (1–2), 43–52. 19 (5), 1241–1258.
Meyer-Cifuentes, I.E., Werner, J., Jehmlich, N., Will, S.E., Neumann-Schaal, M., Huang, Y., Bird, R.N., Heidrich, O., 2007. A review of the use of recycled solid waste
Öztürk, B., 2020. Synergistic biodegradation of aromatic-aliphatic copolyester materials in asphalt pavements. Res., Conservat. Recycl. 52 (1), 58–73.
plastic by a marine microbial consortium. Nat. Commun 11 (1), 1–13. Ranieri, M., Costa, L., M. Oliveira, J.R., RD Silva, H.M., Celauro, C, 2017. Asphalt surface
Yao, C., Zhao, S., Wang, Y., Wang, B., Wei, M., Hu, M., 2013. Microbial desulfurization of mixtures with improved performance using waste polymers via dry and wet
waste latex rubber with alicyclobacillus sp. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 98 (9), 1724–1730. processes. J. Mater. Civil Eng. 29 (10), 04017169.
Saleem, H., Rehman, Y., 2019. Arsenic respiration and detoxification by purple non- Jan, H., Aman, M.Y., Tawab, M., Ali, K., Ali, B., 2018. Performance Evaluation of Hot
sulphur bacteria under anaerobic conditions. C. R. Biol. 342 (3–4), 101–107. Mix Asphalt Concrete By Using Polymeric Waste Polyethylene. Modeling,
Stevenson, K., Stallwood, B., Hart, A.G., 2008. Tire rubber recycling and bioremediation: Simulation, and Optimization. Springer, pp. 91–99.
a review. Bioremediat. J. 12 (1), 1–11. Moreno, F., Sol, M., Martín, J., Pérez, M., Rubio, M., 2013. The effect of crumb rubber
Bredberg, K., Persson, J., Christiansson, M., Stenberg, B., Holst, O., 2001. Anaerobic modifier on the resistance of asphalt mixes to plastic deformation. Mater. Desi. 47,
desulfurization of ground rubber with the thermophilic archaeon pyrococcus 274–280.
furiosus–a new method for rubber recycling. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 55 (1), Naghawi, H., Al-Ajarmeh, R., Allouzi, R., AlKlub, A., Masarwah, K., Al-Quraini, A., et al.,
43–48. 2018. Plastic waste utilization as asphalt binder modifier in asphalt concrete
Tatangelo, V., Mangili, I., Caracino, P., Bestetti, G., Collina, E., Anzano, M., et al., 2019. pavement. Pan 4, 44.
Microbial desulfurization of ground tire rubber (gtr): characterization of microbial Rasool, D.A., Fahad, B.M., Awaeed, K.M., 2015. Utilization of waste plastic water bottle
communities and rheological and mechanical properties of gtr and natural rubber as a modifier for asphalt mixture properties. J. Eng. Sustain. Develop. 19 (2),
composites (gtr/nr). Polym. Degrad. Stab. 160, 102–109. 89–108.
Ghavipanjeh, F., Rad, Z.Z., Pazouki, M., 2018. Devulcanization of ground tires by Study on dynamic modulus of waste plastic modified asphalt mixture using waste plastic
different strains of bacteria: optimization of culture condition by taguchi method. bag chips. In: Zhang, Q, Goh, SW, You, ZP (Eds.), 2011. Advanced Materials
J. Polym. Environ. 26 (8), 3168–3175. Research. Trans Tech Publ.
Li, Y., Zhao, S., Wang, Y., 2011. Microbial desulfurization of ground tire rubber by Salem, L., Taha, I., Mosa, A., 2018. Modification of the properties of warm mix asphalt
thiobacillus ferrooxidans. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 96 (9), 1662–1668. using recycled plastic bottles. Int. J. Eng. 31 (9), 1514–1520.
Marchut-Mikołajczyk, O., Drożdżyński, P., Januszewicz, B., Domański, J., Wrześniewska- Jassim, H.M., Mahmood, O.T., Ahmed, S.A., 2014. Optimum use of plastic waste to
Tosik, K., 2019. Degradation of ozonized tire rubber by aniline–degrading candida enhance the marshall properties and moisture resistance of hot mix asphalt. Int. J.
methanosorbosa bp6 strain. J. Hazard. Mater. 367, 8–14. Eng. Trend. Technol. 7, 18–25.
Cui, X., Zhao, S., Wang, B., 2016. Microbial desulfurization for ground tire rubber by Ziari, H., Kaliji, A.G., Babagoli, R., 2016. Laboratory evaluation of the effect of waste
mixed consortium-sphingomonas sp. and gordonia sp. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 128, plastic bottle (pet) on rutting performance of hot mix asphalt mixtures. Pet. Sci.
165–171. Technol. 34 (9), 819–823.
Kim, J.K., Park, J.W., 1999. The biological and chemical desulfurization of crumb rubber
for the rubber compounding. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 72 (12), 1543–1549.

18
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Nouali, M., Derriche, Z., Ghorbel, E., Chuanqiang, L., 2020. Plastic bag waste modified Li, Z., Li, C., 2013. Improvement of properties of styrene–butadiene–styrene-modified
bitumen a possible solution to the algerian road pavements. Road Mater. Pave. Desi. bitumen by grafted eucommia ulmoides gum. Road Mater. Pave. Desi. 14 (2),
21 (6), 1713–1725. 404–414.
Almeida, A., Capitão, S., Bandeira, R., Fonseca, M., Picado-Santos, L., 2020. Performance Costa, L., Peralta, J., Oliveira, J.R., Silva, H.M., 2017. A new life for cross-linked plastic
of ac mixtures containing flakes of ldpe plastic film collected from urban waste waste as aggregates and binder modifier for asphalt mixtures. Appl. Sci. 7 (6), 603.
considering ageing. Construct. Build. Mater. 232, 117253. Nameghi I.M., Aghayan I., Behzadian R., Mosaberpanah M.A. (2021) Investigating the
Ali, B.F., Soudani, K., Haddadi, S., 2019. Contribution to the study of modified bitumen effect of using cross-linked polyethylene waste as fine aggregate on mechanical
behavior by the association (eva-nbr-plastic waste) to aging. Procedia Comput. Sci. properties of hot mix asphalt.
158, 198–205. Hassani, A., Ganjidoust, H., Maghanaki, A.A., 2005. Use of plastic waste (poly-ethylene
Celauro, C., Saroufim, E., Mistretta, M.C., La Mantia, F.P, 2020. Influence of short-term terephthalate) in asphalt concrete mixture as aggregate replacement. Waste Manage.
aging on mechanical properties and morphology of polymer-modified bitumen with Res. 23 (4), 322–327.
recycled plastics from waste materials. Polym. (BSL.) 12 (9), 1985. Dalhat, M., Wahhab, H.A.-.A., 2016. Cement-less and asphalt-less concrete bounded by
Hasan, M.R.M., Colbert, B., You, Z., Jamshidi, A., Heiden, P.A., Hamzah, M.O., 2016. recycled plastic. Construct. Build. Mater. 119, 206–214.
A simple treatment of electronic-waste plastics to produce asphalt binder additives Rahman, W., Omardin, M.A., 2016. Characterisation of recycled polyethylene
with improved properties. Construct. Build. Mater. 110, 79–88. terephthalate as partial fine aggregate replacement properties and behaviour of
Leng, Z., Sreeram, A., Padhan, R.K., Tan, Z., 2018a. Value-added application of waste pet asphalt mixtures for road pavements. ARPN. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 11 (6).
based additives in bituminous mixtures containing high percentage of reclaimed Adou, F., Ampadu, B., Agyepong, N.K., Soli, O.N.-.A., 2018. Assessing plastic waste usage
asphalt pavement (rap). J. Clean. Prod. 196, 615–625. as additives in flexible asphalt mix for road construction. Civil Environment. Resear.
Padhan, R.K., Gupta, A., Badoni, R., Bhatnagar, A., 2013. Poly (ethylene terephthalate) ISSN. 2224–5790.
waste derived chemicals as an antistripping additive for bitumen–an environment Yoo, P.J., Ohm, B.S., Choi, J.Y., 2012. Toughening characteristics of plastic fiber-
friendly approach for disposal of environmentally hazardous material. Polym. reinforced hot-mix asphalt mixtures. KSCE. J. Civil Eng. 16 (5), 751–758.
Degrad. Stab. 98 (12), 2592–2601. Cao, W., 2007. Study on properties of recycled tire rubber modified asphalt mixtures
Leng, Z., Padhan, R.K., Sreeram, A., 2018b. Production of a sustainable paving material using dry process. Construct. Build. Mater. 21 (5), 1011–1015.
through chemical recycling of waste pet into crumb rubber modified asphalt. López-Moro, F.J., Moro, M.C., Hernández-Olivares, F., Witoszek-Schultz, B., Alonso-
J. Clean. Prod. 180, 682–688. Fernández, M, 2013. Microscopic analysis of the interaction between crumb rubber
Gürü, M., Çubuk, M.K., Arslan, D., Farzanian, S.A., Bilici, İ., 2014. An approach to the and bitumen in asphalt mixtures using the dry process. Construct. Build. Mater. 48,
usage of polyethylene terephthalate (pet) waste as roadway pavement material. 691–699.
J. Hazard. Mater. 279, 302–310. Sangiorgi, C., Eskandarsefat, S., Tataranni, P., Simone, A., Vignali, V., Lantieri, C., et al.,
Xiao, F., Amirkhanian, S., Juang, C.H., 2007. Rutting resistance of rubberized asphalt 2017. A complete laboratory assessment of crumb rubber porous asphalt. Construct.
concrete pavements containing reclaimed asphalt pavement mixtures. J. Mater. Civil Build. Mater. 132, 500–507.
Eng. 19 (6), 475–483. Daneshvar, D., Motamed, A., Imaninasab, R., 2020. Improving fracture and moisture
Ding, X., Ma, T., Zhang, W., Zhang, D., 2017. Experimental study of stable crumb rubber resistance of cold mix asphalt (cma) using crumb rubber and cement. Road Mater.
asphalt and asphalt mixture. Construct. Build. Mater. 157, 975–981. Pave. Desi. 1–19.
Chiu, C.-.T., Lu, Ll-C., 2007. A laboratory study on stone matrix asphalt using ground tire Salas, M.Á., Pérez-Acebo, H., 2018. Introduction of recycled polyurethane foam in mastic
rubber. Construct. Build. Mater. 21 (5), 1027–1033. asphalt. Građevinar 70 (05.), 403–412.
Yu, J., Yu, X., Gao, Z., Guo, F., Wang, D., Yu, H., 2018. Fatigue resistance Gutiérrez-González, S., Calderón, V., Rodríguez, A., Gadea, J., Junco, C., Santamaría-
characterization of warm asphalt rubber by multiple approaches. App.Sci. 8 (9), Vicario, I., 2017. Characterization of hot bituminous-asphalt mixtures with recycled
1495. polyurethane foam. the open construction &. Build. Technol. J. 11 (1).
Hashimi, S.N., Ahadi, S., Aslan, H., Kuyumcu, Z.C., 2020. Investigation of the effect of De Brito, J., Saikia, N., 2012. Recycled Aggregate in concrete: Use of industrial,
crumb rubber additive on the fracture of characteristics of asphalt mixtures in Construction and Demolition Waste. Springer Science & Business Media.
control and asphalt rubber mixtures. Academi. Perspect. Procedia 3 (1), 715–725. Turner, L.K., Collins, F.G., 2013. Carbon dioxide equivalent (co2-e) emissions: a
Rodríguez-Alloza, A.M., Gallego, J., Pérez, I., 2013. Study of the effect of four warm mix comparison between geopolymer and opc cement concrete. Construct. Build. Mater.
asphalt additives on bitumen modified with 15% crumb rubber. Construct. Build. 43, 125–130.
Mater. 43, 300–308. Mohammadinia, A., Wong, Y.C., Arulrajah, A., Horpibulsuk, S., 2019. Strength
Pszczoła, M., Jaczewski, M., Szydłowski, C., Judycki, J., Dołżycki, B., 2017. Evaluation of evaluation of utilizing recycled plastic waste and recycled crushed glass in concrete
low temperature properties of rubberized asphalt mixtures. Procedia Eng. 172, footpaths. Construct. Build. Mater. 197, 489–496.
897–904. Saxena, R., Siddique, S., Gupta, T., Sharma, R.K., Chaudhary, S., 2018. Impact resistance
Wong, C.C., Wong, W-g., 2007. Effect of crumb rubber modifiers on high temperature and energy absorption capacity of concrete containing plastic waste. Construct.
susceptibility of wearing course mixtures. Construct. Build. Mater. 21 (8), Build. Mater. 176, 415–421.
1741–1745. Hama, S.M., Hilal, N.N., 2019. Fresh Properties of Concrete Containing Plastic aggregate.
Hung, A.M., Mousavi, M., Fini, E.H., 2020. Implication of wax on hindering self-healing Use of Recycled Plastics in Eco-efficient Concrete. Elsevier, pp. 85–114.
processes in bitumen. Appl. Surf. Sci. 146449. Rao M.M., Ravula R.G. (2021) Investigation on properties of pet and hdpe waste plastic
Kazemi, M., Goli, A., Nasimifar, M., 2020. Evaluation of the self-healing performance of concrete. ISSN: 2321_9653.6.
polyurethane-modified bitumen using bitumen bond strength (bbs) test and ct scan. Tafheem, Z., Rakib, R.I., Esharuhullah, M., Alam, S.R., Islam, M.M., 2018. Experimental
Int. J. Pave. Resear. Technol. 1-6. investigation on the properties of concrete containing post-consumer plastic waste as
Zhou, L., Huang, W., Zhang, Y., Lv, Q., Yan, C., Jiao, Y., 2020b. Evaluation of the coarse aggregate replacement. J. Mater. Eng. Struct. «JMES» 5 (1), 23–31.
adhesion and healing properties of modified asphalt binders. Construct. Build. Thorneycroft, J., Orr, J., Savoikar, P., Ball, R., 2018. Performance of structural concrete
Mater. 251, 119026. with recycled plastic waste as a partial replacement for sand. Construct. Build.
Lv, Q., Huang, W., Xiao, F., 2017. Laboratory evaluation of self-healing properties of Mater. 161, 63–69.
various modified asphalt. Construct. Build. Mater. 136, 192–201. Ohemeng, E.A., Ekolu, S.O., 2019. Strength prediction model for cement mortar made
Ayar, P., Moreno-Navarro, F., Rubio-Gámez, M.C, 2016. The healing capability of asphalt with waste ldpe plastic as fine aggregate. J. Sustain. Cement-Based Mater. 8 (4),
pavements: a state of the art review. J. Clean. Prod. 113, 28–40. 228–243.
Hu, D., Pei, J., Li, R., Zhang, J., Jia, Y., Fan, Z, 2020. Using thermodynamic parameters to Yin, S., Tuladhar, R., Sheehan, M., Combe, M., Collister, T., 2016. A life cycle assessment
study self-healing and interface properties of crumb rubber modified asphalt based of recycled polypropylene fibre in concrete footpaths. J. Clean. Prod. 112,
on molecular dynamics simulation. Front. Struct. Civil Eng. 14 (1), 109–122. 2231–2242.
Li, P., Ding, Z., Zou, P., Sun, A., 2017. Analysis of physico-chemical properties for crumb Akinyele, J., Ajede, A., 2018. The use of granulated plastic waste in structural concrete.
rubber in process of asphalt modification. Construc. Build. Mater. 138, 418–426. Afr. J. Sci., Technol., Innova. Develop. 10 (2), 169–175.
Ghavibazoo, A., Abdelrahman, M., Ragab, M., 2013. Mechanism of crumb rubber Schaefer, C.E., Kupwade-Patil, K., Ortega, M., Soriano, C., Büyüköztürk, O., White, A.E.,
modifier dissolution into asphalt matrix and its effect on final physical properties of et al., 2018. Irradiated recycled plastic as a concrete additive for improved chemo-
crumb rubber–modified binder. Transp. Res. Rec. 2370 (1), 92–101. mechanical properties and lower carbon footprint. Waste Manage. 71, 426–439.
Presti, D.L., 2013. Recycled tyre rubber modified bitumens for road asphalt mixtures: a Importance of adding waste plastics to high-performance concrete. In: Al-Hadithi, AI,
literature review. Construct. Build. Mater. 49, 863–881. Alani, MF (Eds.), 2018. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Waste and
Kabir, S.F., Mousavi, M., Fini, E.H., 2020. Selective adsorption of bio-oils’ molecules onto Resource Management. Thomas Telford Ltd.
rubber surface and its effects on stability of rubberized asphalt. J. Clean. Prod. 252, Mustafa, MA-T, Hanafi, I, Mahmoud, R, Tayeh, B (Eds.), 2019. Effect of Partial
119856. Replacement of Sand By Plastic Waste On Impact Resistance of concrete: Experiment
Ma, J., Hu, M., Sun, D., Lu, T., Sun, G., Ling, S., et al., 2020. Understanding the role of and simulation. Structures. Elsevier.
waste cooking oil residue during the preparation of rubber asphalt. Res., Conservat. Arulrajah, A., Naeini, M., Mohammadinia, A., Horpibulsuk, S., Leong, M., 2020.
Recycl., 105235 Recovered plastic and demolition waste blends as railway capping materials.
Hosseinnezhad, S., Bocoum, A., Martinez, F.M., Fini, E.H., 2015. Biomodification of Transportat. Geotechnic. 22, 100320.
rubberized asphalt and its high temperature properties. Transp. Res. Rec. 2506 (1), Girskas, G., Nagrockienė, D., 2017. Crushed rubber waste impact of concrete basic
81–89. properties. Construct. Build. Mater. 140, 36–42.
Choubane, B., Sholar, G.A., Musselman, J.A., Page, G.C., 1999. Ten-year performance Marques, A.C., Akasaki, J., Trigo, A.M., Marques, M., 2008. Influence of the surface
evaluation of asphalt-rubber surface mixes. Transp. Res. Rec. 1681 (1), 10–18. treatment of tire rubber residues added in mortars. Revista IBRACON de Estruturas e
Farouk, A.I.B., Hassan, N.A., Mahmud, M.Z.H., Mirza, J., Jaya, R.P., Hainin, M.R., et al., Materiais 1 (2), 113–120.
2017. Effects of mixture design variables on rubber–bitumen interaction: properties
of dry mixed rubberized asphalt mixture. Mater. Struct. 50 (1), 12.

19
M. Kazemi et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 174 (2021) 105776

Kashani, A., Ngo, T.D., Hemachandra, P., Hajimohammadi, A., 2018. Effects of surface Nowamooz, H., Masrouri, F., 2008. Hydromechanical behaviour of an expansive
treatments of recycled tyre crumb on cement-rubber bonding in concrete composite bentonite/silt mixture in cyclic suction-controlled drying and wetting tests. Eng.
foam. Construct. Build. Mater. 171, 467–473. Geol. 101 (3–4), 154–164.
Zhang, H., Gou, M., Liu, X., Guan, X., 2014. Effect of rubber particle modification on Zeng, Z., Kong, L., Wang, M., Wang, J., 2020. Effects of remoulding and wetting-drying-
properties of rubberized concrete. J. Wuhan Uni. Technology-Mater Sci. Ed. 29 (4), freezing-thawing cycles on the pore structures of yanji mudstones. Cold Reg. Sci.
763–768. Technol., 103037
Alawais, A., West, R.P., 2019. Ultra-violet and chemical treatment of crumb rubber Hambirao, G.S., Rakaraddi, P., 2014. Soil stabilization using waste shredded rubber tyre
aggregate in a sustainable concrete mix. J. Structur. Integrit. Maintenan. 4 (3), chips. IOSR. J. Mech. Civil Eng. 11 (1), 20–27.
144–152. Patil A., Lakhadive K., Surawashe A., Kale R., Pawar S. Soil stabilization using shredded
Youssf, O., Hassanli, R., Mills, J.E., Skinner, W., Ma, X., Zhuge, Y., et al., 2019. Influence rubber and design of flexible pavement. 2019.
of mixing procedures, rubber treatment, and fibre additives on rubcrete Tafreshi, S.M., Norouzi, A., 2012. Bearing capacity of a square model footing on sand
performance. J. Composit. Sci. 3 (2), 41. reinforced with shredded tire–An experimental investigation. Construct. Build.
Lee, H.S., Lee, H., Moon, J.S., Jung, H.W., 1998. Development of tire added latex Mater. 35, 547–556.
concrete. Mater. J. 95 (4), 356–364. Ghadir, P., Ranjbar, N., 2018. Clayey soil stabilization using geopolymer and portland
Chung, K.H., Hong, Y.K., 1999. Introductory behavior of rubber concrete. J. Appl. Polym. cement. Construct. Build. Mater. 188, 361–371.
Sci. 72 (1), 35–40. Andavan, S., Kumar, B.M., 2020. Case study on soil stabilization by using bitumen
Kazmi, S.M.S., Munir, M.J., Wu, Y.-.F., 2021. Application of waste tire rubber and emulsions–a review. Mater. Today: Proceed. 22, 1200–1202.
recycled aggregates in concrete products: a new compression casting approach. Res., Peddaiah, S., Burman, A., Sreedeep, S., 2018. Experimental study on effect of waste
Conservat. Recycl. 167, 105353. plastic bottle strips in soil improvement. Geotechnic. Geologic. Eng. 36 (5),
Leung, C.K., Grasley, Z.C., 2012. Effect of micrometric and nanometric viscoelastic 2907–2920.
inclusions on mechanical damping behavior of cementitious composites. Construct. Yarbaşi, N., Kalkan, E, 2020. The mechanical performance of clayey soils reinforced with
Build. Mater. 35, 444–451. waste pet fibers. Int. J. Ear. Sci. Knowl. App. 2 (1), 19–26.
Abdulla, A.I., Ahmed, S.H., 2011. Effect of rubber treated by acidic solution on some Prasanna, S., 2019. Utilization of waste plastic shreds for stabilization of soil.
mechanical properties of rubberize cement mortar. Eng. Technol. J. 29 (13), Geotechnics For Transportation Infrastructure. Springer, pp. 619–628.
2793–2806. Farah, R.E., Nalbantoglu, Z., 2019. Performance of plastic waste for soil improvement.
Wu, Y.-.F., Kazmi, S.M.S., Munir, M.J., Zhou, Y., Xing, F., 2020. Effect of compression SN. Appl. Sci. 1 (11), 1340.
casting method on the compressive strength, elastic modulus and microstructure of Kumar, T., Panda, S., Hameed, S., Maity, J., 2018. Behaviour of soil by mixing of plastic
rubber concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 121746. strips. Int. Resear. J. Eng. Technol. (IRJET.) 5 (05).
Ramdani, S., Guettala, A., Benmalek, M., Aguiar, J.B., 2019. Physical and mechanical Mir, B., 2020. Laboratory study on the effect of plastic waste additive on shear strength
performance of concrete made with waste rubber aggregate, glass powder and silica of marginal soil. Sustainable Civil Engineering Practices. Springer, pp. 89–99.
sand powder. J. Build. Eng. 21, 302–311. Soltani A., Taheri A., Deng A., Nikraz H. Tyre rubber and expansive soils: two hazards,
Tantisattayakul, T., Kanchanapiya, P., Methacanon, P., 2018. Comparative waste one solution. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Construction
management options for rigid polyurethane foam waste in thailand. J. Clean. Prod. Materials. 2019:1–17.
196, 1576–1586. Bekhiti, M., Trouzine, H., Rabehi, M., 2019. Influence of waste tire rubber fibers on
Fraj, A.B., Kismi, M., Mounanga, P., 2010. Valorization of coarse rigid polyurethane foam swelling behavior, unconfined compressive strength and ductility of cement
waste in lightweight aggregate concrete. Construct. Build. Mater. 24 (6), 1069–1077. stabilized bentonite clay soil. Construct. Build. Mater. 208, 304–313.
Harith, I.K., 2018. Study on polyurethane foamed concrete for use in structural Akbulut, S., Arasan, S., Kalkan, E., 2007. Modification of clayey soils using scrap tire
applications. Case Studi. Construct. Mater. 8, 79–86. rubber and synthetic fibers. Appl .Clay Sci. 38 (1–2), 23–32.
Gutiérrez-González, S., Gadea, J., Rodríguez, A., Junco, C., Calderón, V., 2012. Ghareh, S., Akhlaghi, F., Yazdani, K., 2020. A study on the effects of waste rubber tire
Lightweight plaster materials with enhanced thermal properties made with dimensions on fine-grained soil behavior. J. Rehabilitat. Civil Eng. 15–33.
polyurethane foam wastes. Construct. Build. Mater. 28 (1), 653–658. Ramirez, G.G.D., Casagrande, M.D.T., Folle, D., Pereira, A., Paulon, V.A., 2015. Behavior
Gadea, J., Rodríguez, A., Campos, P., Garabito, J., Calderón, V., 2010. Lightweight of granular rubber waste tire reinforced soil for application in geosynthetic
mortar made with recycled polyurethane foam. Cem. Concr. Composit. 32 (9), reinforced soil wall. Revista IBRACON de Estruturas e Materiais 8 (4), 567–576.
672–677. Effectiveness of crumb rubber for subgrade soil stabilization. In: Juliana, I, Fatin, A,
Junco, C., Rodríguez, A., Calderón, V., Muñoz-Rupérez, C., Gutiérrez-González, S., 2018. Rozaini, R, Masyitah, M, Khairul, A, Shafieza, AN (Eds.), 2020. IOP Conference
Fatigue durability test of mortars incorporating polyurethane foam wastes. Series: Materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing.
Construct. Build. Mater. 190, 373–381. Edincliler, A., Cagatay, A., 2013. Weak subgrade improvement with rubber fibre
Junco, C., Gadea, J., Rodríguez, A., Gutiérrez-González, S., Calderón, V., 2012. inclusions. Geosynthet. Int. 20 (1), 39–46.
Durability of lightweight masonry mortars made with white recycled polyurethane Soltani, A., Deng, A., Taheri, A., Mirzababaei, M., Nikraz, H., 2019b. Interfacial shear
foam. Cem. Concr. Composit. 34 (10), 1174–1179. strength of rubber-reinforced clays: a dimensional analysis perspective. Geosynthet.
AAA, Abdel-Azim, 1996. Unsaturated polyester resins from poly (ethylene terephthalate) Int. 26 (2), 164–183.
waste for polymer concrete. Polym. Eng. Sci. 36 (24), 2973–2977. Soltani, A., Deng, A., Taheri, A., Sridharan, A., 2018. Swell–shrink–consolidation
Rebeiz, K., 1996. Precast use of polymer concrete using unsaturated polyester resin based behavior of rubber–reinforced expansive soils. Geotechnic. Test. J. 42 (3), 761–788.
on recycled pet waste. Construct. Build. Mater. 10 (3), 215–220. Kabirb, S.F., Zakertabrizi, M., Hosseini, E., Fini, E.H., 2021. Effects of amide-based
Gowtham, S., Naveenkumar, A., Ranjithkumar, R., Vijayakumar, P., Sivaraja, M., 2018. modifiers on surface activation and devulcanization of rubber. Computation. Mater.
Stabilization of clay soil by using glass and plastic waste powder. Int. J. Eng. Sci. 188, 110175.
Techniq. 4 (2), 146–150. Dandamudi, K.P.R., Murdock, T., Lammers, P.J., Deng, S., Fini, E.H., 2021. Production of
functionalized carbon from synergistic hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae and
swine manure. Res., Conservat. Recycl. 170, 105564.

20