2/26/2021

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (EV 200)

Geohazards: Earthquakes, Volcanoes,

Landslides, Floods, Drought

Dr Cassy Mtelela_UDSM_0783 337794

Deformation of Rocks
 A force causes stress on rocks
 Rocks near surface are elastic and will return
to original form when stress is removed
 Elastic limit – point at which rocks are no
longer elastic and deformation becomes
permanent
 Rocks can be brittle or ductile
 Rocks deform, slide by each other along
point of fracture or fault
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Three Types of Stress

1. Compression – pushes on rocks from opposite directions;

shortens rocks
2. Tension – pulls from opposite directions; stretches /
lengthens
3. Shear – pressure in uneven manner; rocks become skewed

Temperature, time and pressure are factors in stress.

4-3

DYNAMIC NATURE OF THE EARTH:

Earth’s Structure and Plate Tectonics

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Earth’s Interior

 Seismic waves (earthquake waves)

 Travel at different speeds through different
materials
 Reflect and refract when density changes
 Has allowed scientists to determine
boundaries b/w materials within Earth

4-5

Earth’s
Structure

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Structure of the Earth

Earth’s Structure
 Crust –
 Less dense layer
 Lithosphere < 15 km, brittle rigid, broken into
tectonic plates
 Mantle
 ~2,900 km (1,800 mi) thick
 Rocky, iron rich silicates, upper layer is
asthenosphere
 Silicates nearer to melting point; usual source of
magma

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Earth’s Interior
 Scientists hypothesize inner and outer core
are iron-nickel alloy
 Outer core
 Metallic liquid
 Inner core
 Metallic solid

4-9

Earth’s Magnetic Field

 Inner core is solid, rotates faster than

planet
 Electrically charged metallic ions in outer
core circulate
 Generates magnetic field
 Used for magnetic north in compasses
 Blocks some solar radiation
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Earth’s Magnetic Field

4-11

Earth’s Internal Heat

 Geothermal gradient 25°C/km – temperature

increases with depth

 Heat from radioactive decay of U, Th, & K

 Friction (internal compression) and pressure

 Conduction – heat transferred through atmosphere

to space

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Earth’s
Internal
Heat

4-13

Convection of Mantle
Сross section through the Earth showing the
convection cells of the mantle.

Ridge push
happens at spreading
centers where plates
are moving apart.
Slab pull happens
at subduction zones
where one plate is
pulled down into the
mantle.

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Plate Motion
- Movements deep within the Earth
- carry heat from the hot interior to the cooler surface
- the plates to move very slowly on the surface, about 2
inches per year.
Subduction zones
→ plates crash into
each other;
spreading ridges →
plates pull away
from each other;
large faults →
plates slide past each
other.

Continental Drift

Since the construction of the first good maps of the

continents, people have puzzled over the close match
between the coastlines of South America and Africa.

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Continental Drift
 Idea that continents were once joined first
proposed in 1596 by Dutch mapmaker

 1850s – American writer noted how S. America

and Africa shorelines fit together

 Frank Taylor, American geologist, 1910 suggested

the continents were once joined

4-17

Continental Drift, Sea-Floor Spreading, and

Plate Tectonics
Alfred Wegener, a German
meteorologist, proposed the
continental drift hypothesis
(between 1919-1929) to explain:

- the observed shape of the

coastlines;
- the observation of fossils and
rocks on opposite sides of the
Alfred Wegener
1880-1930 ocean etc.

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Continental Drift
 Alfred Wegener 1922 book on theory of
continental drift
 More evidence than Taylor –
 similar sequences of rocks
 fossil evidence
 coal in Antarctica
 evidence of past glaciation in tropical and desert areas

4-19

Continental Drift

Wegener proposed that at one time, all the present-

day continents actually were combined into a "super-
continent" which he called Pangaea (or Pangea).

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Continental Drift, Sea-Floor Spreading, and

Plate Tectonics
PROBLEMS:
Alfred Wegener was unable to
provide a reliable mechanism that
explains the continental drift.
He supposed that the centrifugal force of the
Earth's rotation or the astronomical precession
caused the drift.
Simple calculations show that this is impossible.
The scientific community has rejected the
hypothesis of Alfred Wegener.

Developing
Theory of
Plate
Tectonics

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Developing Theory of Plate Tectonics

 Mapping ocean floor began in 1855 by U.S. Navy
 WW1 and sonar

 1950s many sonar surveys by scientists

 Mid oceanic ridges – mountain chain in Atlantic

Ocean
 Ocean trenches as deep as 35,000 ft

 Map location and depths of earthquakes

 Fall on plate boundaries

 Polar wandering
 Moving poles and continents supported data

4-23

Mapping the Ocean Floor

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Magnetic Studies

 Igneous basalts contain iron mineral

magnetite (Fe3O4)
 Magnetite is naturally magnetic
 Atoms orient parallel to Earth’s magnetic
field when rock cools
 Field of paleomagnetism studies changes
in magnetic poles over geologic time

4-25

Magnetic Reversal

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Sea Floor Spreading

Mid oceanic ridges – magma
erupts forming new ocean
crust
Rocks older farther away
from ridge crests
1968 – drilling and dating
basalts
Oldest part of sea floor 200
million yrs old
Atlantic basin growing, crust
material destroyed in trenches
in Pacific basin

Earthquakes
 Earthquake – release of energy that occurs
when rocks are deformed past their elastic
limit causing a rupture
 Energy travels out in seismic waves
 Epicenter – point on the surface that
directly overlies point where rocks rupture
 1960s – global network of seismic recording
stations

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Earthquake Locations

Earthquake Locations

 Epicenters along Mid Atlantic Ridge –

magma rises up, buckles crust forming
ridge
 Epicenters coincide with continental
mountain ranges
 Subduction occurs when plate is forced
downward into mantle; associated with
volcanic activity at ocean trenches
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Last Piece of Evidence for

Continental Drift
 Magnetite rocks form/cool, atoms orient to
magnetic north pole
 Throughout geologic time, rocks orient to
different location – “polar wandering”
 Different continents had different paths
 Paleomagnetic and sea floor spreading
studies prove continents were moving no
the N. pole
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Polar
Wandering

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Plate Tectonics and Earth’s Systems

 By 1960, 50 years of data proved sea floor

spreading at mid ocean ridges
 New crust formed at ridges, and crust
destroyed at trenches through subduction
 Tectonic Plates
 Earth’s lithosphere broken up into 7 major
plates

4-33

Plate Tectonics and Earth’s Systems

 Plate Boundaries defined by epicenters

 Plates move over asthenosphere
 Slide past
 Override
 Tear
 Push into each other creating pressure ridges
 Plate movement creates volcanic eruptions
and mountain ranges
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Plates

4-35

Plate Boundaries

 Movement generates compression, tension

or shear
 3 Types of Boundaries
1. Divergent
2. Convergent
3. Transform
 See Figure 4.19 Page 107

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Plate Boundaries

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Movement
of Plates

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Surface Features & Plate Boundaries

 Convergent
 Oceanic-oceanic island arc; one plates undergoes
subduction; may produce an island arc
 Oceanic-continental - continental arc formed; oceanic plate
undergoes subduction; volcanic activity
 Andes Mountains along S. America’s west coast

 Cascades in Pacific Northwest of U.S.

 Continental-continental - mountain belt, both plates are

low density continental crust
 Appalachian Mountains

 Himalayas in Asia

 Alps in Europe

4-39

Surface Features & Plate Boundaries

 Divergent
 Ocean ridges

 Rift valleys; may fill in with water

 Transform – plates “side swipe” each other; shear

forces; most in ocean plates; no subduction
 San Andreas fault

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Divergent Plate Boundaries

4-41

Convergent Plate Boundaries

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Transform Plate Boundary

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East African Rift Valley

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East African Rift Valley

4-45

Future of African Continent?

http://www.pmfias.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/East-African-Rift-Valley-break-up.jpg

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Plate Boundaries and People

 Natural hazards
 Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides
 Natural resources; minerals form under
specific geologic conditions
 Climate – oceans transfer heat, mountain
ranges interrupt air masses; volcanic ash
 Development of life

4-47

LECTURE 2

4-48

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (EV 200)

Geohazards: Earthquakes, Volcanoes,

Landslides, Floods, Drought

Dr Cassy Mtelela_UDSM_0783 337794

Structure of the Earth

25
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Convection of Mantle
Сross section through the Earth showing the
convection cells of the mantle.

Ridge push
happens at spreading
centers where plates
are moving apart.
Slab pull happens
at subduction zones
where one plate is
pulled down into the
mantle.

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Plate Motion
- Movements deep within the Earth
- carry heat from the hot interior to the cooler surface
- the plates to move very slowly on the surface, about 2
inches per year.
Subduction zones
→ plates crash into
each other;
spreading ridges →
plates pull away
from each other;
large faults →
plates slide past each
other.

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Earthquakes
 Earthquake – release of energy that occurs
when rocks are deformed past their elastic
limit causing a rupture
 Energy travels out in seismic waves
 Epicenter – point on the surface that
directly overlies point where rocks rupture
 1960s – global network of seismic recording
stations

4-55

volcanic and landslides

eruptions

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4-58

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EARTHQUAKES

Dr Cassy Mtelela_UDSM_0783 337794 4-59

What is an Earthquake?
An earthquake is the shaking of the
surface of the Earth, resulting from the
sudden release of energy in the Earth’s
lithosphere that creates seismic waves.

• Earthquakes can range in size from those

that are so weak that they cannot be felt
to those violent enough to toss people
around and destroy whole cities.
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• At the Earth’s surface, earthquakes manifest

themselves by shaking and sometimes
displacement of the ground.

• When the epicenter of a large earthquake is

located offshore, the seabed may be
displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami.

• Earthquakes can also trigger landslides,

and occasionally volcanic activity.

4-61

In its most general sense, the word

earthquake is used to describe any seismic
event — whether natural or caused by humans
— that generates seismic waves.
• Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture
of geological faults, but also by other
events such as volcanic activity, landslides,
mine blasts, and nuclear tests.
• An earthquake’s point of initial rupture is
called its focus or hypocenter.
• The epicenter is the point at ground level
directly above the hypocenter.
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What causes Earthquakes

and where do they happen?
The earth has four major layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle
and crust. The crust and the top of the mantle make up a thin skin on
the surface of our planet. But this skin is not all in one piece – it is
made up of many pieces like a puzzle covering the surface of the
earth.
• Not only that, but these puzzle pieces keep slowly moving around,
sliding past one another and bumping into each other.
• We call these puzzle pieces tectonic plates, and the edges of the
plates are called the plate boundaries. The plate boundaries are
made up of many faults, and most of the earthquakes around the
world occur on these faults.
• Since the edges of the plates are rough, they get stuck while the
rest of the plate keeps moving. Finally, when the plate has moved
far enough, the edges unstick on one of the faults and there is an
4-63
earthquake.

 Earthquakes results from

movement of tectonic plates
past each other, causing
stress.

 Stress causes the rock to

deform
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Earthquake Locations

Why does the earth shake

when there is an earthquake?
While the edges of faults are stuck together, and the rest of the
block is moving, the energy that would normally cause the
blocks to slide past one another is being stored up.
• When the force of the moving blocks finally overcomes the
friction of the jagged edges of the fault and it unsticks, all that
stored up energy is released.

 The energy radiates outward from the fault in all directions

in the form of seismic waves like ripples on a pond. The
seismic waves shake the earth as they move through it, and
when the waves reach the earth’s surface, they shake the
ground and anything on it, like our houses and us!
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Seismic waves
There are two basic types of seismic wave that
travel through the body of the Earth:

•P-waves: are longitudinal waves that consist of a

series of compressions and dilations along the
direction of travel. The P stands for Primary because
they travel the fastest.
•S-waves: are transverse waves, whose motion is
perpendicular to the direction of travel. The S
stands for shear or secondary since they are slower
than P-waves.
4-67

• Where a free surface is present (like the Earth–air

interface) these two types of motion can combine to form
two other types of wave called surface waves that
produce a type of shaking that causes buildings to fail and
fall down.

• Rayleigh waves are generated by the interaction of P- and

S- waves at the surface of the Earth, while Love waves are
generated by interference of multiple shear waves.

• The ground motions from surface waves are often much

larger than those motions from body waves.

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4-69

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How are Earthquakes

recorded & detected?

• When the Earth trembles, earthquakes spread energy in the

form of seismic waves. A seismograph is the primary
earthquake measuring instrument.

• The seismograph produces a digital graphic recording of

the ground motion caused by the seismic waves. The digital
recording is called a seismogram.

• A network of worldwide seismographs detects and

measures the strength and duration of the earthquake’s
waves. The seismograph produces a digital graphic plotting
of the ground motion of the event 4-73

• The seismograph has a base that sets firmly in the ground, and a
heavy weight that hangs free.

• When an earthquake causes the ground to shake, the base of the

seismograph shakes too, but the hanging weight does not. Instead
the spring or string that it is hanging from absorbs all the
movement.

• The difference in position between the shaking part of the

seismograph and the motionless part is what is recorded.

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How Do I Locate That

Earthquake's Epicenter?
By looking at the amount of time between the P and S wave on a
seismogram recorded on a seismograph, scientists can tell how far
away the earthquake was from that location.

Scientists then use a method called triangulation to determine

exactly where the earthquake was. It is called triangulation because a
triangle has three sides, and it takes three seismographs to locate an
earthquake. If you draw a circle on a map around three different
seismographs where the radius of each is the distance from that
station to the earthquake, the intersection of those three circles is the
epicenter!

Visit this Website:

http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/locating.html 4-75

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (EV 200)

Geohazards: Earthquakes, Volcanoes,

Landslides, Floods, Drought

Dr Cassy Mtelela

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How are Earthquakes Measured?

Earthquakes are measured by Magnitude and Intensity

4-77

The Richter Scale

• From 1935 until 1970, the earthquake magnitude scale was
the Richter scale, a mathematical formula invented by
Caltech seismologist Charles Richter to compare quake
sizes.

• The Richter Scale was replaced because it worked

largely for earthquakes in Southern California, and
only those occurring within about 370 miles of
seismometers. In addition, the scale was calculated for only
one type of earthquake wave. It was replaced with the
Moment Magnitude Scale, which records all the different
seismic waves from an earthquake to seismographs across the
world.

• Richter's equations are still used for forecasting future

earthquakes and calculating earthquake hazards. 4-78

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Moment Magnitude Scale

• Today, earthquake magnitude measurement is based on

the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS). MMS measures the
movement of rock along the fault. It accurately measures
larger earthquakes, which can last for minutes, affect a
much larger area, and cause more damage.

• The Moment Magnitude can measure the local

Richter magnitude (ML), body wave magnitude
(Mb), surface wave magnitude (Ms).

4-79

Earthquake Magnitude
Classes
 Earthquakes are also classified in categories ranging from
minor to great, depending on their magnitude.

What’s the difference between a light and moderate quake?

These terms are magnitude classes. Classes also provide

earthquake measurement. The classification starts with
“minor” for magnitudes between 3.0 and 3.9, where
earthquakes generally begin to be felt, and ends with “great”
for magnitudes greater than 8.0, where significant damage is
expected.

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Earthquake Intensity

 A second way earthquakes are measured is by their intensity.

Earthquake Intensity measurement is an on-the-ground
description.

 The measurement explains the severity of earthquake

shaking and its effects on people and their environment.
Intensity measurements will differ depending on each
location’s nearness to the epicenter.

 There can be multiple intensity measurements as opposed to
one magnitude measurement.

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The Modified Mercalli Scale

• The Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale is used in the
United States. Based on Giuseppe Mercalli's Mercalli
intensity scale of 1902, the modified 1931 scale is
composed of increasing levels of intensity that range from
observable quake impacts from light shaking to catastrophic
destruction.
•
• Intensity is reported by Roman numerals.

• An earthquake intensity scale consists of a series of key

responses that includes people awakening, movement of
furniture, damage to chimneys and total destruction

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4-85

Can scientists predict

Earthquakes?

No, and it is unlikely they will ever be able to predict them.

Scientists have tried many different ways of predicting
earthquakes, but none have been successful. On any
particular fault, scientists know there will be another
earthquake sometime in the future, but they have no way of
telling when it will happen.

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Effects of earthquakes
1. Shaking and ground rupture
Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes,
principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other
rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex
combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from the
epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which
may amplify or reduce wave propagation.

2. Landslides and avalanches

Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave
attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a
major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency
personnel are attempting rescue.

4-87

Earthquakes

Destruction after a
volcanic induced
earthquake in Japan

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3. Fires
Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In
the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also
become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For example,
more deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were caused by fire than
by the earthquake itself

4. Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated
granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and
transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid
structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied
deposits. For example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction
caused many buildings to sink into the ground, eventually collapsing upon
themselves.

4-89

5. Tsunami
Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the
sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water – including when
an earthquake occurs at sea. In the open ocean the distance between
wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62 mi), and the wave periods
can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800
kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending on water
depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide
can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes.

Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and
wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that
generated them.

Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter

magnitude scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this
have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by
earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.

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7. Floods
A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. Floods
occur usually when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a
river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result
some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body.

However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are

damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse
and cause floods.

The terrain below the Sarez Lake in Tajikistan is in danger of catastrophic

flood if the landslide dam formed by the earthquake, known as the Usoi
Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest
the flood could affect roughly 5 million people

4-91

VOLCANISM &
VOLCANOES

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 Volcanism is one of the most impressive displays of Earth’s dynamic

internal processes. •

 From a human perspective, volcanism can be a destructive force causing

property damage, injuries, fatalities, and atmospheric changes. •

 From a geologic perspective, volcanism is a constructive process that

builds oceanic islands, produces oceanic crust, provides parent material
for highly productive soils, and releases the gases that formed Earth’s
early atmosphere and surface waters.
• Volcanic eruptions created our first crust 4.6 billion years ago. The crust
then modified over time due to erosion, covering by sediments, mountain-
building and transformed through metamorphism.
• Crust formation occurs on a day by day scale.

 We have benefited more from volcanoes than we have suffered because

volcanic eruptions have produced: Geothermal Energy, Ore Deposits
(minerals), Volcanic Soils and Volcanic raw materials for various uses

4-93

What is Volcanism
the extrusion of lava (and the gases it contains) and the
ejection of pyroclastics onto the Earth’s surface or into the
atmosphere, as well as the formation of volcanoes and
extrusive igneous rocks by these processes.

• Active volcanoes: erupted recently, or within recorded

history.
• Dormant volcanoes: have not erupted in recorded history,
but are fresh looking (not eroded), and may erupt in the
future.
• Extinct volcanoes: have not erupted in recorded history,
are deeply eroded, and are unlikely to erupt in the future.

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What is a Volcano?
vent  A volcano is a vent
or 'chimney' that
connects molten
rock (magma) from
cone within the Earth’s
crust to the Earth's
surface.
conduit  The volcano
includes the
surrounding cone of
erupted material.
magma
chamber

Why Study Volcanism?

• Volcanic eruptions affect the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere locally and sometimes globally.

• Volcanism is a major geologic hazard to a significant

portion of Earth’s inhabitants.

• Volcanism is responsible for much of Earth’s most

spectacular scenery

Earthquakes:
 Large volumes of magma moving through the shallow
crust can cause large earthquakes.
 This can lead to building collapse, slope failure and
avalanches 4-96

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How and why do volcanoes erupt?

 Hot, molten rock (magma) is buoyant (has a lower density than
the surrounding rocks) and will rise up through the crust to
erupt on the surface.
 Same principle as hot air rising, e.g. how a hot air balloon
works
 When magma reaches the surface it depends on how easily it
flows (viscosity) and the amount of gas (H2O, CO2, S) it has in it
as to how it erupts.
 Large amounts of gas and a high viscosity (sticky) magma will
form an explosive eruption!
 Think about shaking a carbonated drink and then releasing
the cap.
 Small amounts of gas and (or) low viscosity (runny) magma will
form an effusive eruption
 Where the magma just trickles out of the volcano (lava flow).

Explosive Vs. Non-explosive Volcanism

Magma composition is the key:
• Siliceous magmas are viscous and can retain more gas,
consequently they erupt more violently than basaltic magmas

Geological classifications

• The viscosity of a magma or lava is critical to its

explosivity. In general the higher the temperature the less
viscous the lava, however the composition (specifically SiO2) is
also critical.

• A somewhat more systematic method is the Volcanic

Explosivity Index (VEI)
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Volcanic Explosivity Index

• The volcanic explosivity index (VEI)

ranks eruptions based on combined
intensity and magnitude.

• The higher the VEI, the more

explosive the eruption.
• Height of the eruption plume, volume
of explosively ejected material, and
duration of eruption are the criteria for
assessing VEI.
• Of the 3,300 historic eruptions, 42%
lasted less than a month. A significant
number (33%) of eruptions lasted from
1-6 months. A few volcanoes (16), such
as Stromboli and Mount Etna of Italy,
have erupted continuously for over 20
years.
• Unfortunately, of 252 explosive
eruptions, 42% erupted most violently
in the first day of activity. 4-99

Explosive Eruptions
 Explosive volcanic
eruptions can be
catastrophic
 Erupt 10’s-1000’s km3 of
magma
 Send ash clouds >25 km
into the stratosphere
 Have severe environmental Mt. Redoubt
and climatic effects Above: Large eruption column and
 Hazardous!!! ash cloud from an explosive
eruption at Mt Redoubt, Alaska

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Explosive Eruptions

 Three products
from an explosive
eruption
 Ash fall
 Pyroclastic flow
 Pyroclastic surge

Pyroclastic flows on
Montserrat, buried
the capital city.

Direct
measurements of
pyroclastic flows
are extremely
dangerous!!!

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Effusive Eruptions

 Effusive eruptions are

characterised by outpourings
of lava on to the ground.

Hawaii
Courtesy of www.swisseduc.ch

Volcanism - Volcanic Gases

Most (50-80%) of the gas emitted by volcanoes is water vapor.

Lesser amounts of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and
hydrogen sulfide are also released.

Most gases quickly dissipate, but on occasion have had negative

local or regional (Blue Haze Famine, Lake Nyos) effects and in
some cases even significant global consequences (Tambora,
Krakatau).

4-104

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Volcano Monitoring
and Hazard
Mitigation

Volcanic Fatalities
 92,000 Tambora,
Indonesia 1815
 36,000 Krakatau,
Indonesia 1883
 29,000 Mt Pelee,
Martinique 1902
 15,000 Mt Unzen,
Japan 1792
Courtesy of www.swisseduc.ch

But, volcanoes cause fewer fatalities than

earthquakes, hurricanes and famine.

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Volcanic Hazards
 Pyroclastic flow
 Lahars/Mud flows
 Pyroclastic fall
 Lava flow
 Noxious Gas
 Earthquakes

Courtesy of www.swisseduc.ch

Pyroclastic Flow
 For example,
eruption of
Vesuvius in 79
AD destroyed
the city of
Pompeii

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Pompeii (79AD)

On August 24, 79AD Mount Vesuvius literally

blew its top, erupting tonnes of molten ash,
pumice and sulfuric gas miles into the
atmosphere. Pyroclastic flows flowed over the
city of Pompeii and surrounding areas.

Pompeii (79AD)
Pyroclastic flows of poisonous gas and hot
volcanic debris engulfed the cities of Pompeii,
Herculaneum and Stabiae suffocating the
inhabitants and burying the buildings.

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Pompeii (79AD)
The cities remained buried
and undiscovered for almost
1700 years until excavation
began in 1748. These
excavations continue today
and provide insight into life
during the Roman Empire.

Vesuvius today
 Vesuvius remains a
hazardous volcano
Naples
with heavily populated
flanks:
 around 1.5 million
people live in the city
Vesuvius of Naples alone
 Naples is situated
approx. 30 km from
Bay of Vesuvius
Naples  Pyroclastic flows can
flow up to 100 km
from source!
Courtesy of www.swisseduc.ch

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Mt Peleé, Martinique (1902)

 An eruption of Mt Peleé in 1902 produced a
pyroclastic flow that destroyed the city of St.
Pierre.

before after

29,000 people died….

Only 2 survived! Why?

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How do pyroclastic flows cause

devastation?

Pyroclastic Flow - direct impact

Courtesy of www.swisseduc.ch

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Pyroclastic Flow - burial

Pyroclastic Flow - burns

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Pyroclastic Flow - lahars

 Hot volcanic activity can melt
snow and ice
 Melt water picks up rock and
debris
 Forms fast flowing, high
energy torrents
 Destroys all in its path

Pyroclastic Fall
• Ash load
– Collapses roofs
– Brings down power
lines
– Kills plants
– Contaminates water
supplies
– Respiratory hazard for
humans and animals

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Lava Flow

 It is not just explosive volcanic activity

that can be hazardous. Effusive (lava)
activity is also dangerous.

Lava Flow - Heimaey, Iceland

 Iceland, January
23,1973.
 Large fissure
eruption
threatened the
town of
Vestmannaeyjar.

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Lava Flow - Heimaey, Iceland

 The lava flows caught

the inhabitants by
surprise
 Before the eruption was
over, approximately one-
third of the town of
Vestmannaeyjer had
been destroyed

Lava Flow - Heimaey, Iceland

 However, the potential damage was reduced by spraying
seawater onto the advancing lava flows.
 This caused them to slow and/or stop, or diverted them
away from the undamaged part of the town.

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Practical Exercise 2.
Assessing Volcanic
Hazards

So….
How do we minimize the risk of
active volcanoes?

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Volcano Monitoring

Volcano Observatories
are set up on all active
volcanoes that
threaten the human
population. These are
designed to monitor
and potentially to
predict the eruptive
behaviour of the
volcano in question.

Volcano Monitoring

 Seismicity
 Deformation
 Gas Output
 (on volcano and
remote sensing
techniques)

These three
things are the
most important
precursors to an
eruption.

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Seismic Activity
 Earthquake activity commonly precedes an eruption
 Result of magma pushing up towards the surface

 Increase volume of material in the volcano shatters the

rock
 This causes earthquakes

Seismic Activity
• Earthquake activity is measured by Seismographs
– Seismographs are stationed on the flanks of the
volcano
– These record the frequency, duration and intensity
of the earthquakes and report it back to the volcano
observatory.

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Deformation Monitoring
 “Tiltmeters” are used to measure the deformation
of the volcano
 The tiltmeters measure changes in slope as small as one part per
million. A slope change of one part per million is equivalent to
raising the end of a board one kilometer long only one millimeter!

Deformation Monitoring
 Tilltmeters can tell you when new material enters the magma
chamber.
A

Note the
B presence of
earthquakes in
relation to the
deformation.
Often it is a
combination of
events that
fore-warns of
an eruption.

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Gas Monitoring
 Commonly gas output from a volcano increases or changes
composition before an eruption.
 As magma rises to the surface it releases (exsolves) much of
its gas content.
 This can be measured

Gas Monitoring
 Gas samples are collected from fumaroles
and active vents.

 Gas levels may also be monitored by remote

sensing techniques

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In Summary..

 Volcanoes are extremely hazardous.

 However, the volcano can be studied,
monitored and understood.
 Each volcano is different, and offers a
unique set of dangers
 Plans may be emplaced to help control
potential damage.

Post-lecture Question:

 What should geologists do about

volcanic eruptions in the future?
1. Study volcanoes to find out more about how and why
they erupt
2. Monitor the volcanoes
3. Develop hazard mitigation plans
4. Understand the population around volcanoes, i.e. why
do people choose to live near volcanoes?
5. Education

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