1

DESIGN AND DEPLOYMENT OF SMART-SOLAR POWERED

CHARGE/SWAP STATION FOR E-RICKSHAWS - WITH SUITABLE

SOFTWARE

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The widespread transition from gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles to electric vehicles

(EVs) holds immense promise for the environment. Unlike gasoline and diesel-powered

vehicles, EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, significantly reducing air pollution. This

shift is crucial in combating climate change and its associated problems. With cleaner air,

respiratory illnesses would decline, and overall public health would improve.

Additionally, EVs rely on electricity, which can be generated from renewable sources

like solar and wind power which reduces our dependence on fossil fuels, as a result

creating a more sustainable transportation system (Ray et al., 2020). Among these EVs,

electric rickshaws, or e-rickshaws, have emerged as a popular mode of transportation. E-

rickshaws offer a cleaner alternative to their fossil fuel-powered counterparts, emitting

zero tailpipe emissions during operation.

Electric rickshaws commonly referred to as e-rickshaws, have gained significant traction

as a sustainable urban transportation solution (Singh et al., 2017). These vehicles,

powered by electric motors, offer a cleaner alternative to traditional auto-rickshaws,

contributing to reduced air pollution and environmental degradation (Singh et al., 2017).

They are seen as a more environmentally friendly alternative to traditional gasoline-

powered rickshaws and auto rickshaws. E-rickshaws are also cheaper to operate than
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traditional rickshaws, as they do not require gasoline or oil (Roy, 2016). The adoption of

e-rickshaws aligns with global efforts to combat climate change and improve air quality

(Ray et al., 2020). The development and widespread deployment of e-rickshaws represent

a significant step towards achieving greener and more environmentally friendly

transportation systems in urban areas.

However, the widespread adoption of e-rickshaws faces challenges related to charging

infrastructure. Flexible solutions are needed to accommodate the varying demand for

charging throughout the day. Integrating renewable energy sources into e-rickshaw

charging infrastructure offers an opportunity to further reduce carbon emissions and

enhance sustainability. Empirical findings from Saha and Singh (2020) suggest that

utilizing lithium-ion batteries over traditional lead-acid batteries in e-rickshaws can lead

to cost-effective and economical solutions in the long run, increasing the vehicle's driving

range and promoting green mobility through regenerative braking strategies.

Additionally, Gupta et al. (2020) found that innovative charging systems such as the

Power Quality Charging System (PFCC) can provide continuous charging capability

even during grid outages, further emphasizing the importance of robust and reliable

charging infrastructure for e-rickshaws.

To address these challenges, there is a growing need for innovative charging solutions

that are sustainable, efficient, and cost-effective. Smart-solar powered charge/swap

stations represent a promising approach. These stations can utilize renewable solar energy

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to provide clean and reliable charging for e-rickshaws. They can also integrate smart

charging technologies to optimize energy use and minimize charging times. This was

explored by Singh et al. (2017) who engaged in the conversion of conventional vehicles

to electric vehicles (EVs) in Indian smart cities for the development of a smart public

transport system. The study utilized various components to enable this conversion.

Electric retrofitment kits were employed, which consisted of electric motors, power

electronics, and battery management systems. These kits replaced the internal combustion

engines, allowing the vehicles to operate solely on electric power. The EVs were also

equipped with communication modules, sensors, and data processing units to enable

features such as tracking charging stations, real-time vehicle availability, parking

reservation systems, online vehicle diagnostics, and vehicle health monitoring. To ensure

sustainable charging, solar power integration was implemented. This involved the use of

solar panels connected to charging stations, along with power inverters, charge

controllers, and energy management systems to regulate and efficiently utilize solar

energy for recharging the EV batteries.

Furthermore, swap stations can potentially reduce downtime for drivers by enabling them

to quickly replace depleted batteries with charged ones. Hence, this research aims to

develop a sustainable solution for e-rickshaw charging infrastructure by designing and

deploying a smart-solar powered charge/swap station.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

Electric rickshaws are a rapidly growing mode of transportation, especially in rural areas,

due to their affordability and environmental benefits. However, their widespread

adoption faces significant challenges. Currently, e-rickshaw batteries rely solely on

conventional grid electricity for charging. This dependence presents significant

challenges. Firstly, grid access in rural areas can be unreliable or entirely absent (Mithu

et al., 2017). This severely restricts the operational range of e-rickshaws, limiting their

overall usefulness and hindering their potential positive impact on rural transportation.

Secondly, even in areas with grid access, the charging process suffers from inefficiencies

due to low-quality charge controllers. This translates to wasted energy, leading to higher

operating costs for drivers and placing unnecessary strain on the existing power grid

(Verma et al., 2023).

This research project seeks to address these challenges by proposing a solution: a

network of smart, solar-powered charge/swap stations specifically designed for e-

rickshaws. The current grid-based infrastructure may not be equipped to handle the

growing demand for e-rickshaw charging, especially in regions with rapid e-rickshaw

adoption. Setting up new grid connections can be expensive and time-consuming,

hindering the further expansion of e-rickshaws, particularly in remote or off-grid

locations. This research aims to address these issues by developing a smart-solar powered

charge/swap station.

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

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This research aims to develop a sustainable solution for e-rickshaw charging

infrastructure by designing and deploying a smart-solar powered charge/swap station.

The specific objectives are:

 Develop a smart charging/swapping system that optimizes energy use and

minimizes charging time.

 Integrate a user-friendly software platform for station management, user

interaction, and real-time monitoring.

 Evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of the proposed solution

compared to conventional grid-based charging.

1.5 Justification of the Study

The limitations of current e-rickshaw charging infrastructure create a compelling need for

innovative solutions like the one proposed in this research. Grid dependence presents a

significant barrier, particularly in developing regions with unreliable or limited grid

access. Existing research has explored various solutions for electric vehicle (EV)

charging in such areas, but there's a gap in research specifically focused on optimizing

charging infrastructure for e-rickshaws, which have unique operational characteristics

and battery requirements compared to larger EVs.

Furthermore, existing grid-based charging, even in regions with reliable grids, raises

concerns about cost-effectiveness and environmental impact. While the environmental

benefits of e-rickshaws are undeniable, their dependence on grid electricity generated

from fossil fuels creates an indirect carbon footprint. Additionally, limited research exists

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on integrating smart charging technologies specifically for e-rickshaws to optimize

energy use and minimize charging times. This research aims to bridge these gaps by

designing a smart-solar powered charge/swap station for the needs of e-rickshaws

focusing on solar energy and smart charging with the potential to creating a sustainable,

efficient, and cost-effective charging solution for this rapidly growing mode of

transportation.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Review

2.1.1 An Overview of Electric Rickshaws

An e-rickshaw, also known as an electric rickshaw, electric tuk-tuk, or e-tricycle, is a

small, three-wheeled vehicle powered by a battery-powered electric motor. They are a

popular mode of transportation in many parts of Asia, especially in India, Bangladesh,

Nepal, and China. E-rickshaws are typically used for short-distance travel and can carry

passengers or cargo. They are seen as a more environmentally friendly alternative to

traditional gasoline-powered rickshaws and auto rickshaws. E-rickshaws are also cheaper

to operate than traditional rickshaws, as they do not require gasoline or oil (Roy, 2016).

Rickshaws have a mild Steel tubular Chassis, consisting of 3 wheels with a differential

mechanism at rear wheels. The motor is brushless DC motor manufactured mostly in

India and China (Dhar et al. 2021). The body design from most popular Chinese version

is of very thin iron or aluminum sheets (Mithu et al. 2017).

Vehicles made in fiber are also popular because of their strength and durability, resulting

in low maintenance, especially in India. Body design is varied from load carriers,

passenger vehicles with no roof, to full body with windshield for drivers comfort It

consist of a controller unit. They are sold on the basis of voltage supplied and current

output, also the number of mosfet(metal oxide field effect transistor) used (Mithu et al.

2017). The battery used is mostly lead acid battery with life of 6–12 months. Deep

discharge batteries designed for electric vehicles are rarely used. Weight of the electric

car has also been a recurring design difficulty in them.

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Fig 2.1 Electric Rickshaws

2.1.2. Types of Electric Rickshaws

Load carriers

These are load carrying versions of these rickshaws differ in their upper body, load

carrying capacity, motor power, controller and other structural aspects, sometimes motor

power is also increased in order to carry loads up to 500–1000 kg.

Solar

There are two types of solar vehicles:

Directly solar-powered - fitted with solar panels. A directly solar-powered rickshaw is an

electric auto rickshaw driven solely by one or more electric motors, powered by solar

panels mounted on the vehicle and capable of operating while the vehicle is in motion.

Theoretically, solar panels could provide power directly to the motor(s) without the need

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for batteries, but in reality, this would be an improbable design choice for a rickshaw,

given its intended purpose. In e-rickshaws, however solar panels are not effective and are

not frequently used.

In practice, the term solar rickshaw is most commonly used to describe battery-electric

rickshaws whose batteries are indirectly solar-charged (i.e. independently from the

vehicle) prior to use. This is usually facilitated by removing batteries in need of charging

from the vehicle, and exchanging them for batteries which have already been charged.

Alternatively, batteries can be charged in-situ while the vehicle is parked, although this

may limit daytime usage. The exact same battery replacement and in-situ methods are of

course also used for non-'solar' batteries and vehicles.

2.2 An Overview of Charging Station

An electric vehicle charging station, known by various names such as EV charging

station, electric recharging point, charging point, charge point, ECS (electronic charging

station), and EVSE (electric vehicle supply equipment), forms a crucial part of the

infrastructure facilitating the supply of electric energy for the recharging of plug-in

electric vehicles (Rajendran et al. 2021). This encompasses electric cars, neighborhood

electric vehicles, and plug-in hybrids.

Some electric vehicles come equipped with onboard converters enabling them to be

charged at home or work by simply plugging into a standard electrical outlet or a high-

capacity appliance outlet. However, others necessitate or can benefit from utilizing a

charging station that offers electrical conversion, monitoring, or safety features. These

stations are indispensable for travel, with many supporting faster charging rates at higher

voltages and currents compared to what residential EVSEs can provide. Public charging

stations are typically found in on-street facilities provided by electric utility companies or

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situated at retail shopping centers, restaurants, and parking locations, often managed by

various private companies.

Charging stations are equipped with a variety of heavy-duty or specialized connectors

adhering to different standards. The Combined Charging System (CCS) is increasingly

recognized as the universal standard for common rapid charging and DC. Other notable

standards include CHAdeMO and the Type 2 connector.

2.2.1 Types of Charging Station

According to Yilman & Krein (2012), charging stations can be categorized into four main

types, each serving a specific purpose:

1. Residential charging stations: These stations are designed for EV owners to

conveniently charge their vehicles at home. When returning home, the EV owner

plugs in the car, and it recharges overnight. Typically, residential charging

stations do not require user authentication or metering. However, they may

require the installation of a dedicated circuit. Some portable chargers can also be

mounted on the wall and used as home charging stations.

2. Charging while parked (including public charging stations): This category

includes charging stations located in parking lots and is often offered as a

commercial service, either for a fee or free of charge. These stations are usually

established in partnership with the parking lot owners. They serve as an

opportunity for EV owners to recharge their vehicles while taking advantage of

nearby facilities. Charging speeds at these stations can vary, ranging from slow to

high-speed charging. Examples of such locations include parking stations at

malls, small centers, train stations, or designated parking areas for a business's

own employees.

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3. Fast charging at public charging stations: These charging stations are designed to

deliver high-speed charging, typically exceeding 40 kW, allowing EVs to gain

over 60 miles (100 km) of range in a relatively short time, usually between 10 and

30 minutes. Fast charging stations are commonly found at rest stops to cater to

long-distance travelers. They are also utilized by commuters in metropolitan areas

who require quick charging while parked for shorter or longer periods. Examples

of fast charging standards and technologies include Type 2, CCS (Combined

Charging System), CHAdeMO, SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)

Combined Charging System, and Tesla Superchargers.

4. Battery swaps or charges in under 15 minutes: This category aims to provide

rapid charging solutions for EVs. The goal is to add approximately 200 miles

(320 km) of range to a zero-emission vehicle in less than 15 minutes, meeting the

refueling expectations of regular drivers. Initially, achieving such fast charging

times through conventional charging methods was challenging. However, it has

become achievable with EV battery swaps. This approach allows for the quick

replacement of discharged EV batteries with fully charged ones, providing a

mobile support solution for vehicles in areas without charging stations. This

concept also contributes to meeting the requirements for CARB (California Air

Resources Board) credits for zero-emission vehicles.

2.3. Empirical Review of Related Work

Mithu et al. (2017) conducted research on the design of a microcontroller-based charge

controller for electric rickshaws. The design incorporates a sensing mechanism to

determine the battery's charge level and adjusts the charging voltage accordingly. To

ensure safety, the design includes various protective features for both the battery and the

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charger. The simulation of the design was carried out using PROTEUS software. A tap-

changing transformer in collaboration with a microcontroller was used for control

purposes. The simulation results demonstrate the efficiency and effectiveness of the

designed system in charging the batteries. The charging system offers potential benefits,

such as minimizing energy losses during charging and extending the battery life in

electric rickshaws in Bangladesh.

Singh et al. (2017) conducted a study on the development of a smart public transport

system in Indian smart cities by converting existing conventional vehicles into electric

vehicles (EVs). The objective was to utilize available resources and reduce environmental

pollution. Instead of discarding old vehicles, the authors proposed refurbishing them by

replacing the internal combustion (IC) engines with electric retrofitment kits. The IC

engines removed from these vehicles would be appropriately reused. The converted

vehicles would be registered as EVs and equipped with internet connectivity. They would

feature innovative smart solutions such as tracking charging stations, locating the nearest

available vehicle, making parking reservations, and providing online vehicle diagnostic

systems and vehicle health monitoring. The charging stations for these EVs would be

directly connected to solar power sources, ensuring that the vehicles operate on 100%

green energy. The charging time required to recharge the EV batteries to 80% capacity

would be just 15-20 minutes. This initiative aimed to make efficient use of available

resources and encourage the development of smart cities in India with environmentally

friendly transportation options.

Singh et al. (2017) engaged in the conversion of conventional vehicles to electric vehicles

(EVs) in Indian smart cities for the development of a smart public transport system. The

study utilized various components to enable this conversion. Electric retrofitment kits

were employed, which consisted of electric motors, power electronics, and battery

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management systems. These kits replaced the internal combustion engines, allowing the

vehicles to operate solely on electric power. The EVs were also equipped with

communication modules, sensors, and data processing units to enable features such as

tracking charging stations, real-time vehicle availability, parking reservation systems,

online vehicle diagnostics, and vehicle health monitoring. To ensure sustainable

charging, solar power integration was implemented. This involved the use of solar panels

connected to charging stations, along with power inverters, charge controllers, and energy

management systems to regulate and efficiently utilize solar energy for recharging the EV

batteries.

Saha and Singh (2020) conducted a study on the design and implementation of an

economical approach to solar and battery-powered e-rickshaws using a permanent

magnet brushless DC (PMBLDC) motor with sensorless control. In this approach, a

lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is preferred over traditional lead-acid batteries due to its

advantages such as fast charging, higher depth of discharge (DOD), and significantly

lower maintenance costs. Although the initial cost of the vehicle increases with the Li-ion

battery, it proves to be cost-effective and economical in the long run. The enhanced

driving range of the e-rickshaw allows owners to increase their earnings by increasing the

number of shifts per day. Additionally, a regenerative braking strategy is implemented,

reducing carbon emissions and promoting green mobility. The energy regeneration

technology significantly improves the vehicle's driving range. The Cuk converter is used

to achieve maximum power extraction from the solar PV panel, ensuring continuous

input and output current. As a result, the battery's lifespan is significantly improved. To

enhance system robustness and cost-effectiveness, a novel position sensorless control

system is implemented, which is easy to control and can be effectively implemented in

the field.

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Gupta et al. (2020) developed an innovative charging system for E-Rickshaws, known as

the Power Quality Charging System (PFCC), which incorporates rooftop solar PV

assistance. The PFCC utilizes a discontinuous inductor current mode (DICM) to ensure

voltage follower mode operation across a wide range of supply and load dynamics.

Additionally, the continuous input and output current feature of the Cuk converter is

effectively utilized to extract maximum power from the solar PV panel, minimizing

ripple. The charger configuration offers several benefits, including reduced magnetic

component size, fewer sensing devices for control implementation, a lower component

count, supply and battery isolation, and continuous charging capability even during grid

outages. The performance of the charger, along with its design and control had been

verified using the MATLAB Simulink environment, considering various supply voltage

variations, loading conditions, and solar irradiation levels.

Haidar et al. (2021) introduced a novel approach to solar-powered battery charging for e-

rickshaws, emphasizing enhanced energy capture and daily mileage. By deploying two

solar panels at distinct angles atop and behind the e-rickshaw, they devised a parallel

string connection with series capacitors, boosting solar energy absorption. This

innovative setup significantly extended the e-rickshaw's range compared to single-panel

configurations. Departing from conventional central converter systems, they adopted a

buck converter-based partial power processing method, ensuring precise Maximum

Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for both panels, thereby optimizing energy utilization.

This configuration, employing dedicated DC-DC converters, effectively reduced

component ratings and processing loads. Furthermore, their scheme was adaptable to

feeding solar power from differently angled panels into a DC microgrid. Validation

through simulation experiments on Matlab-Simulink platform confirmed the efficacy of

their design. In contrast, Baghel et al. (2022) concentrated on enhancing the performance

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of solar-based hybrid e-rickshaws, focusing on parameters like mileage and battery life.

Their study involved integrating a lead-acid battery, chargeable via electric plug or solar

panel, into the vehicle. Through hardware modifications, including a Photovoltaic (PV)

module, capacitor bank, and Arduino circuit, they achieved substantial improvements in

mileage and reduced starting current, thereby enhancing battery longevity and security

features. In summary, while Haidar et al. (2021) concentrated on the charger design and

energy optimization for e-rickshaws, Baghel et al. (2022) aimed at enhancing the

vehicle's performance, particularly focusing on mileage and battery efficiency.

Basu and Singh (2023) conducted a study on the performance analysis of a solar

photovoltaic (PV) based battery-integrated e-rickshaw with regenerative braking. The

research focuses on developing a model that combines a solar PV array, batteries, and

voltage source inverter (VSI)-fed brushless direct current (BLDC) motors to power e-

rickshaws. To ensure continuous input and output current with minimal ripple, a

maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique is implemented using a DC-DC

converter connected between the PV array and the DC bus. The regenerative braking

feature of the electric vehicle enhances its efficiency and expands its operational range

compared to conventional electric vehicles. During regenerative braking, the VSI

operates as a boost converter to increase the back electromotive force (back-emf) of the

motor and charges the battery at a faster rate. The recovered kinematic energy from the

motor is redirected and supplied to the battery. A closed-loop two-boost method is

employed in the VSI-fed BLDC motor drive system. A model is created in the

MATLAB/Simulink environment, and real-time testing is performed using the OPAL-RT

platform. The real-time results align with the MATLAB/Simulink results, validating the

model's accuracy. Furthermore, a comparison is made between the two-boost and single-

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boost methods, revealing that the recovered energy in the two-boost method is more than

twice that of the single-boost method.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODLOGY

This chapter details the design and deployment of the smart-solar powered charge/swap

station for e-rickshaws. It outlines the system architecture, operational principles, and

practical considerations for implementation.

3.1 Block Diagram

Figure 3.1 presents a block diagram of the charging station. It visually depicts the major

functional components and their interconnection. This includes the solar panels, the

AC/DC converter, battery bank, charging system, control unit (Arduino/NodeMCU),

sensors, and communication module for user interface.

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Figure 3.1: Block diagram of the charging station

3.2 Schematic Diagram

Figure 3.2 provides a detailed schematic representation of the electronic components and

their interconnections within the charging station. This includes the AC/DC converter

circuit, battery management system, charging control circuitry, sensor connections, and

communication module integration with the control unit.

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3.2 Schematic Diagram

Figure 3.2: Schematic diagram of the charging station

3.3 Working Principle

The charging station operates by converting incoming AC power from the solar panels or

backup grid connection into DC power using the AC/DC converter. This DC power is

then stored in the battery bank. The control unit, comprised of Arduino and/or

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NodeMCU, manages the charging process. Sensors monitor various parameters such as

battery voltage, current, and temperature, ensuring safe and efficient charging.

The system prioritizes solar energy for charging. However, a backup power source (grid

connection) is incorporated to address situations with insufficient solar irradiance. An

automated switching system seamlessly transitions between solar and backup power

without user intervention.

A software interface, accessible through a smartphone app or web application facilitated

by the NodeMCU module, provides real-time data on charging status, battery health, and

other relevant parameters.

3.4 Advantages

The smart-solar powered charge/swap station offers several advantages for e-rickshaw

operators:

 Low Cost: The system utilizes readily available and cost-effective components, making

it an affordable solution for widespread deployment.

 High-Efficiency Charging: The design optimizes charging efficiency to maximize

battery life and reduce energy waste.

 Easy to Operate: The user interface is designed for intuitive operation, minimizing

training requirements.

 Easier Maintenance: The modular design facilitates simple maintenance and

troubleshooting.

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3.5 Applications

The designed smart-solar powered charge/swap station has various applications beyond e-

rickshaw charging:

 Electric Vehicle Charging Station: The system can be adapted for charging a wider

range of electric vehicles with appropriate adjustments.

 Emergency Power Backup: The battery bank and backup power source can provide

reliable backup power during grid outages.

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