Week #7: Lecture #16-18

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Mass-Storage Systems
Instructor : Dr. Farzana
Jabeen

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Recap

▪ Overview of Mass Storage Structure

▪ HDD Scheduling
▪ NVM Scheduling

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 Moving-head Disk Mechanism

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 Disk Attachment
▪ Host-attached storage accessed through I/O ports talking to I/O busses
▪ Several busses available, including advanced technology attachment
(ATA), serial ATA (SATA), eSATA, universal serial bus (USB), and
fibre channel (FC).
▪ Most common is SATA ( SATA specifies a transfer format and a wiring
arrangement.)
▪ Because NVM much faster than HDD, new fast interface for NVM
called NVM express (NVMe), connecting directly to PCI bus
▪ Data transfers on a bus carried out by special electronic processors
called controllers (or host-bus adapters,)
• Host controller on the computer end of the bus, device controller on
device end
• Computer places command on host controller, using memory-
mapped I/O ports
 Host controller sends messages to device controller
 Data transferred via DMA between device and computer DRAM

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 HDD Scheduling

▪ The operating system is responsible for using hardware efficiently —

for the disk drives, this means having a fast access time and disk
bandwidth
▪ Minimize seek time
▪ Seek time  seek distance
▪ Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred, divided by
the total time between the first request for service and the completion
of the last transfer

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Disk Scheduling (Cont.)
▪ Note that drive controllers have small buffers and can manage a
queue of I/O requests (of varying “depth”)
▪ Several algorithms exist to schedule the servicing of disk I/O requests
▪ The analysis is true for one or many platters
▪ We illustrate scheduling algorithms with a request queue (0-199)
98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67
Head pointer 53

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 FCFS
Illustration shows total head movement of 640 cylinders

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 SCAN
▪ The disk arm starts at one end of the disk, and moves toward the
other end, servicing requests until it gets to the other end of the disk,
where the head movement is reversed and servicing continues.
▪ SCAN algorithm Sometimes called the elevator algorithm
▪ Illustration shows total head movement of 208 cylinders
▪ But note that if requests are uniformly dense, largest density at other
end of disk and those wait the longest

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 SCAN (Cont.)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 C-SCAN
▪ Provides a more uniform wait time than SCAN
▪ The head moves from one end of the disk to the other, servicing
requests as it goes
• When it reaches the other end, however, it immediately returns to
the beginning of the disk, without servicing any requests on the
return trip
▪ Treats the cylinders as a circular list that wraps around from the last
cylinder to the first one
▪ Total number of cylinders?

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 C-SCAN (Cont.)

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 TODAY’S LECTURE

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 Error Detection and Correction
▪ Fundamental aspect of many parts of computing (memory, networking,
storage)
▪ Error detection determines if there a problem has occurred (for
example a bit flipping)
• If detected, can halt the operation
• Detection frequently done via parity bit
▪ Parity one form of checksum – uses modular arithmetic to compute,
store, compare values of fixed-length words
• Another error-detection method common in networking is cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) which uses hash function to detect
multiple-bit errors
▪ Error-correction code (ECC) not only detects, but can correct some
errors
• Soft errors correctable, hard errors detected but not corrected

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Storage Device Management
▪ Low-level formatting, or physical formatting — Dividing a disk into
sectors that the disk controller can read and write
• Each sector can hold header information, plus data, plus error
correction code (ECC)
• Usually 512 bytes of data but can be selectable
▪ To use a disk to hold files, the operating system still needs to record its
own data structures on the disk
• Partition the disk into one or more groups of cylinders, each
treated as a logical disk
• Logical formatting or “making a file system”
• To increase efficiency most file systems group blocks into clusters
 Disk I/O done in blocks
 File I/O done in clusters

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Storage Device Management (cont.)
▪ Root partition contains the OS, other partitions can hold other
Oses, other file systems, or be raw
• Mounted at boot time
• Other partitions can mount automatically or manually
▪ At mount time, file system consistency checked
• Is all metadata correct?
 If not, fix it, try again
 If yes, add to mount table, allow access
▪ Boot block can point to boot volume or boot loader set of blocks that
contain enough code to know how to load the kernel from the file
system
• Or a boot management program for multi-os booting

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Device Storage Management (Cont.)

▪ Raw disk access for apps that

want to do their own block
management, keep OS out of the
way (databases for example)
▪ Boot block initializes system
• The bootstrap is stored in
ROM, firmware
• Bootstrap loader program
stored in boot blocks of boot
partition
▪ Methods such as sector sparing Booting from secondary
used to handle bad blocks storage in Windows

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Swap-Space Management
▪ Used for moving entire processes (swapping), or pages (paging),
from DRAM to secondary storage when DRAM not large enough for
all processes
▪ Operating system provides swap space management
• Secondary storage slower than DRAM, so important to optimize
performance
• Usually multiple swap spaces possible – decreasing I/O load on
any given device
• Best to have dedicated devices
• Can be in raw partition or a file within a file system (for
convenience of adding)
• Data structures for swapping on Linux systems:

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Storage Attachment
▪ Computers access storage in three ways
• host-attached
• network-attached
• cloud
▪ Host attached access through local I/O ports, using one of several
technologies
• To attach many devices, use storage busses such as USB, firewire,
thunderbolt
• High-end systems use fibre channel (FC)
 High-speed serial architecture using fibre or copper cables
 Multiple hosts and storage devices can connect to the FC fabric

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Network-Attached Storage
▪ Network-attached storage (NAS) is storage made available over a
network rather than over a local connection (such as a bus)
• Remotely attaching to file systems
▪ NFS and CIFS are common protocols
▪ Implemented via remote procedure calls (RPCs) between host and
storage over typically TCP or UDP on IP network
▪ iSCSI protocol uses IP network to carry the SCSI protocol
• Remotely attaching to devices (blocks)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 CIFS & NFS
▪ CIFS is an abbreviation for “Common Internet File System” used
by Windows operating systems for file sharing. CIFS also uses
the client-server methodology where A client makes a request of a
server program for accessing a file. The server takes the requested
action and returns a response. CIFS is an open standard version of
the Server Message Block Protocol (SMB) developed and used by
Microsoft and it uses the TCP/IP protocol.

▪ NFS is the “Network File System” specifically used for Unix and
Linux operating systems. It allows files communication
transparently between servers and end-users machines like
desktops & laptops. NFS uses a client-server methodology to allow
the user to view read and write files on a computer system. A user
can mount all or a portion of a file system via NFS.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 CIFS vs NFS

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 Cloud Storage

▪ Similar to NAS, provides access to storage across a network

• Unlike NAS, accessed over the Internet or a WAN to remote
data center
▪ NAS presented as just another file system, while cloud storage is
API based, with programs using the APIs to provide access
• Examples include Dropbox, Amazon S3, Microsoft OneDrive,
Apple iCloud
• Use APIs because of latency and failure scenarios (NAS
protocols wouldn’t work well)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Storage Array
▪ Can just attach disks, or arrays of disks
▪ Avoids the NAS drawback of using network bandwidth
▪ Storage Array has controller(s), provides features to attached host(s)
• Ports to connect hosts to array
• Memory, controlling software (sometimes NVRAM, etc)
• A few to thousands of disks
• RAID, hot spares, hot swap (discussed later)
• Shared storage -> more efficiency
• Features found in some file systems
 Snaphots, clones, thin provisioning, replication, deduplication,
etc

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Storage Area Network

▪ Common in large storage environments

▪ Multiple hosts attached to multiple storage arrays – flexible

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Storage Area Network (Cont.)

▪ SAN is one or more storage

arrays
• Connected to one or more
Fibre Channel switches or
InfiniBand (IB) network
▪ Hosts also attach to the switches
▪ Storage made available via LUN
Masking from specific arrays to
specific servers
▪ Easy to add or remove storage,
add new host and allocate it
storage
A Storage Array
▪ Why have separate storage
networks and communications
networks?
• Consider iSCSI, FCOE

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 RAID Structure

▪ RAID – redundant array of inexpensive disks

• multiple disk drives provides reliability via redundancy
▪ Increases the mean time to failure
▪ Mean time to repair – exposure time when another failure could
cause data loss
▪ Mean time to data loss based on above factors
▪ If mirrored disks fail independently, consider disk with 1300,000
mean time to failure and 10 hour mean time to repair
• Mean time to data loss is 100, 0002 / (2 ∗ 10) = 500 ∗ 106 hours,
or 57,000 years!
▪ Frequently combined with NVRAM to improve write performance
▪ Several improvements in disk-use techniques involve the use of
multiple disks working cooperatively

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 RAID (Cont.)
▪ Disk striping uses a group of disks as one storage unit
▪ RAID is arranged into six different levels
▪ RAID schemes improve performance and improve the reliability of
the storage system by storing redundant data
• Mirroring or shadowing (RAID 1) keeps duplicate of each
disk
• Striped mirrors (RAID 1+0) or mirrored stripes (RAID 0+1)
provides high performance and high reliability
• Block interleaved parity (RAID 4, 5, 6) uses much less
redundancy
▪ RAID within a storage array can still fail if the array fails, so
automatic replication of the data between arrays is common
▪ Frequently, a small number of hot-spare disks are left
unallocated, automatically replacing a failed disk and having data
rebuilt onto them

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 RAID Levels

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 RAID (0 + 1) and (1 + 0)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Other Features
▪ Regardless of where RAID implemented, other useful features can be
added
▪ Snapshot is a view of file system before a set of changes take place
(i.e. at a point in time)
• More in Ch 12
▪ Replication is automatic duplication of writes between separate sites
• For redundancy and disaster recovery
• Can be synchronous or asynchronous
▪ Hot spare disk is unused, automatically used by RAID production if a
disk fails to replace the failed disk and rebuild the RAID set if possible
• Decreases mean time to repair

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Week 7：Lecture # 17
File-System Interface

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 File Concept
▪ Contiguous logical address space
▪ Types:
• Data
 Numeric
 Character
 Binary
• Program
▪ Contents defined by file’s creator
• Many types
 text file,
 source file,
 executable file

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 What is a File System?

▪ A file is a collection of correlated information which is recorded on

secondary or non-volatile storage like magnetic disks, optical disks,
and tapes.
▪ It is a method of data collection that is used as a medium for giving
input and receiving output from that program.
▪ A file is a sequence of bits, bytes, or records whose meaning is
defined by the file creator and user.
▪ Every File has a logical location where they are located for storage
and retrieval.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Objective and Properties
Objective of File management System
• It provides I/O support for a variety of storage device types.
• Minimizes the chances of lost or destroyed data
• Helps OS to standardized I/O interface routines for user processes.
• It provides I/O support for multiple users in a multiuser systems environment.

Properties of a File System

• Files are stored on disk or other storage and do not disappear when a user logs
off.
• Files have names and are associated with access permission that permits
controlled sharing.
• Files could be arranged or more complex structures to reflect the relationship
between them.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 File Attributes
▪ Name – only information kept in human-readable form
▪ Identifier – unique tag (number) identifies file within file system
▪ Type – needed for systems that support different types
▪ Location – pointer to file location on device
▪ Size – current file size
▪ Protection – controls who can do reading, writing, executing
▪ Time, date, and user identification – data for protection, security,
and usage monitoring
▪ Information about files are kept in the directory structure, which is
maintained on the disk
▪ Many variations, including extended file attributes such as file
checksum
▪ Information kept in the directory structure

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 File info Window on Mac OS X

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 Directory Structure
▪ A collection of nodes containing information about all files

▪ Both the directory structure and the files reside on disk

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 File Operations
▪ Create
▪ Write – at write pointer location
▪ Read – at read pointer location
▪ Reposition within file - seek
▪ Delete
▪ Truncate
▪ Open (Fi) – search the directory structure on disk for entry Fi,
and move the content of entry to memory
▪ Close (Fi) – move the content of entry Fi in memory to directory
structure on disk

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Open Files
▪ Several pieces of data are needed to manage open files:
• Open-file table: tracks open files
• File pointer: pointer to last read/write location, per process
that has the file open
• File-open count: counter of number of times a file is open –
to allow removal of data from open-file table when last
processes closes it
• Disk location of the file: cache of data access information
• Access rights: per-process access mode information

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 File Types – Name, Extension

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 Access Methods
▪ A file is fixed length logical records
▪ Sequential Access
▪ Direct Access
▪ Other Access Methods

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 Sequential Access
▪ OS reads the file word by word. A pointer is maintained which initially points
to the base address of the file. If the user wants to read first word of the file
then the pointer provides that word to the user and increases its value by 1
word. This process continues till the end of the file.

▪ Operations
• read next
• write next
• Reset （rewind）

▪ Figure

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 Direct Access
▪ Operations
• read n
• write n
• position to n
 read next
 write next
 rewrite n

n = relative block number

▪ Relative block numbers allow OS to decide where

file should be placed

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 Simulation of Sequential Access on Direct-access File

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Index Access
▪ The Index Access method is an improvised version of the direct
access method.
▪ In this method, an index is maintained which contains the address
(or pointers) of the file blocks.
▪ So, to access any particular record of the file the operating system
will first search its address in the index and the index will then point
to the actual address of the particular block of the file that has the
desired information.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Protection
▪ File owner/creator should be able to control:
• What can be done
• By whom
▪ Types of access
• Read
• Write
• Execute
• Append
• Delete
• List

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Access Lists and Groups in Unix
▪ Mode of access: read, write, execute
▪ Three classes of users on Unix / Linux
RWX
a) owner access 7  111
RWX
b) group access 6  110
RWX
c) public access 1  001
▪ Ask manager to create a group (unique name), say G, and add
some users to the group.
▪ For a file (say game) or subdirectory, define an appropriate access.

▪ Attach a group to a file

chgrp G game

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 A Sample UNIX Directory Listing

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 Windows 7 Access-Control List Management

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 LECTURE # 18

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 Disk Structure
▪ Disk can be subdivided into partitions
▪ Disks or partitions can be RAID protected against failure
▪ Disk or partition can be used raw – without a file system, or
formatted with a file system
▪ Partitions also known as minidisks, slices
▪ Entity containing file system is known as a volume
▪ Each volume containing a file system also tracks that file
system’s info in device directory or volume table of contents
▪ In addition to general-purpose file systems there are many
special-purpose file systems, frequently all within the same
operating system or computer

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 A Typical File-system Organization

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Types of File Systems
▪ We mostly talk of general-purpose file systems
▪ But systems frequently have may file systems, some general- and
some special- purpose
▪ Consider Solaris has
• tmpfs – memory-based volatile FS for fast, temporary I/O
• objfs – interface into kernel memory to get kernel symbols for
debugging
• ctfs – contract file system for managing daemons
• lofs – loopback file system allows one FS to be accessed in place
of another
• procfs – kernel interface to process structures
• ufs, zfs – general purpose file systems

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 Directory Structure
▪ A collection of nodes containing information about all files

▪ Both the directory structure and the files reside on disk

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Operations Performed on Directory
▪ Search for a file

▪ Create a file

▪ Delete a file

▪ List a directory

▪ Rename a file

▪ Traverse the file system

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Directory Organization
The directory is organized logically to obtain
▪ Efficiency – locating a file quickly
▪ Naming – convenient to users
• Two users can have same name for different files
• The same file can have several different names
▪ Grouping – logical grouping of files by properties, (e.g., all
Java programs, all games, …)

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 Single-Level Directory
▪ A single directory for all users

▪ Naming problem
▪ Grouping problem

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 Two-Level Directory
▪ Separate directory for each user

▪ Path name
▪ Can have the same file name for different user
▪ Efficient searching
▪ No grouping capability

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 Tree-Structured Directories

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Tree-Structured Directories

A tree structure is the most common directory structure. The tree has
a root directory, and every file in the system have a unique path.

Advantages:
1. Very generalize, since full path name can be given.
2. Very scalable, the probability of name collision is less.
3. Searching becomes very easy, we can use both absolute path
as well as relative.

Disadvantages:
1. Every file does not fit into the hierarchical model, files may be
saved into multiple directories.
2. We can not share files.
3. It is inefficient, because accessing a file may go under multiple
directories.

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 Acyclic-Graph Directories
▪ Have shared subdirectories and files
▪ Example

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.63 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Acyclic-Graph Directories (Cont.)
▪ Two different names (aliasing)
▪ If dict deletes w/list  dangling pointer
Solutions:
• Backpointers, so we can delete all pointers.
 Variable size records a problem
• Backpointers using a daisy chain organization
• Entry-hold-count solution
▪ New directory entry type
• Link – another name (pointer) to an existing file
• Resolve the link – follow pointer to locate the file

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 General Graph Directory

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.65 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 General Graph Directory (Cont.)
▪ How do we guarantee no cycles?
• Allow only links to files not subdirectories
• Garbage collection
• Every time a new link is added use a cycle detection algorithm to
determine whether it is OK

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 Current Directory
▪ Can designate one of the directories as the current (working)
directory
• cd /spell/mail/prog
• type list
▪ Creating and deleting a file is done in current directory
▪ Example of creating a new file
• If in current directory is /mail
• The command
mkdir <dir-name>
• Results in:

• Deleting “mail”  deleting the entire subtree rooted by “mail”

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 File Locking
▪ Provided by some operating systems and file systems
• Similar to reader-writer locks
• Shared lock similar to reader lock – several processes can
acquire concurrently
• Exclusive lock similar to writer lock
▪ Mediates access to a file
▪ Mandatory or advisory:
• Mandatory – access is denied depending on locks held and
requested
• Advisory – processes can find status of locks and decide
what to do

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.68 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 File Locking Example – Java API
import java.io.*;
import java.nio.channels.*;
public class LockingExample {
public static final boolean EXCLUSIVE = false;
public static final boolean SHARED = true;
public static void main(String arsg[]) throws IOException {
FileLock sharedLock = null;
FileLock exclusiveLock = null;
try {
RandomAccessFile raf = new RandomAccessFile("file.txt", "rw");
// get the channel for the file
FileChannel ch = raf.getChannel();
// this locks the first half of the file - exclusive
exclusiveLock = ch.lock(0, raf.length()/2, EXCLUSIVE);
/** Now modify the data . . . */
// release the lock
exclusiveLock.release();

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 11.69 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 File Locking Example – Java API (Cont.)

// this locks the second half of the file - shared

sharedLock = ch.lock(raf.length()/2+1, raf.length(),
SHARED);
/** Now read the data . . . */
// release the lock
sharedLock.release();
} catch (java.io.IOException ioe) {
System.err.println(ioe);
}finally {
if (exclusiveLock != null)
exclusiveLock.release();
if (sharedLock != null)
sharedLock.release();
}
}
}

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 End of Chapter 13

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018