NOMADI

CEMPI
RES-
THEMONGOLS

Sour
cest
ounder
standMongolhi
stor
y

1. Thesteppedwell
ersthemsel
vesusuall
yproducednoli
ter
atur
e,soourknowledgeof
nomadi
csocieti
escomesmainl
yfr
om chroni
cles,t
ravel
oguesanddocumentsproducedbyci
ty-
basedl
i
tter
ateur
s.

2. Theseaut hor soft

enproducedext
remel yi
gnorantandbi asedreport
sofnomadicl
if
e.
Theimperi
alsuccessoft heMongolsattr
actedmanyt rav
elers.Theseindi
vidual
scamef
rom a
vari
etyofbackgrounds–Buddhist,
Confucian,Chr
isti
an,TurkishandMusl i
m.Manyofthem
producedsympat het
icaccount
sandot hershosti
l
e.

Soci
alandPol
i
tical
Backgr
oundofMongol
s

1. TheMongol
swer
eadi
ver
sebodyoft
ri
bal
peopl
e,spokesi
mil
arl
anguages.

2. Someoft heMongolswerepast
oral
i
stswhil
eother
swer
ehunt
ergat
her
ers.
The
past
oral
i
stst
endedhorses,
sheepandcat
tl
e,goat
sandcamel
s.

3. Theyliv
ednomadicli
feinthest
eppesofCent ral
Asiai
natractoflandintheareaoft
he
modernst
ateofMongol
ia.Thiswasamajesti
clandscapewithwidehorizons,
rol
li
ngplai
ns,
ri
ngedbyt
hesnow-
cappedmount ai
ns,Gobidesertanddrai
nedbyriver
sandspr i
ngs.

4. Theywer eahumbl erbodyofpeopl

ethanthepastor
ali
sts,maki
ngali
vi
ngfrom t
radein
fur
sofanimalst
rappedinthesummermont hs.Therewereextr
emesoftemper
aturei
nt he
enti
rer
egi
on:har
sh,longwinter
sfol
lowedbybr i
ef,
drysummer s.

5. Agri
cul
tur
ewaspossibl
einthepast
oralr
egi
onsbuttheMongol
sdidnott
aket
oagri
cul
tur
e.
TheMongol
sli
vedi
ntentsandtr
avel
ledwit
hthei
rher
dsfr
om thei
rwi
ntert
osummerpast
ure
l
ands.

6. Mongolshadscar
cer
esour
ces.Ther
icherf
ami
l
ieswer
elar
ger
,possessedmor
eani
mal
s
andpast
urel
ands.
7. Peri
odi
cnatur
alcalami
ti
es–eitherunusuall
yharsh,
coldwi
nter
swhengameandstor
ed
pr
ovi
si
onsranout,
theyconf
li
ctedov
erpasturelandsandpredat
oryrai
dsi
nsear
chof
li
vest
ock.

8. Thescantr esour
cesoft hesteppelandsdroveMongol sandotherCentral
Asiannomadst o
tr
adeandbarterwit
htheirsedent
aryneighboursinChina.Thiswasmut ual
l
ybenef i
cial
toboth
part
ies:
agri
cult
uralpr
oduceandi ronutensi
lsfrom Chinawereexchangedforhorses,f
ursand
gamet r
appedinthesteppe.

Thel
i
feandCar
eerofGenghi
sKhan

1. Genghi
sKhanwasbor
nin1162neart
heOnonRi
ver
int
henor
thofpr
esent
-dayMongol
i
a.

2. Hi
sor
igi
nal
namewasTemuj
i
n,hewast
hesonofYesugei
,thechi
eft
ainoft
heKi
yat
clan.

3. Hisfat
herwasmur der
edatanearl
yageandhi
smot
her
,Oel
un-
eke,
rai
sedTemuj
i
n,hi
s
br
other
sandstep-
brot
hersi
ngreat
hardshi
p.

4. Temuj
i
nwascapt
uredandensl
avedf
ormanyy
ear
s.

5. Soonaf
terhi
smar
ri
age,
hiswi
fe,
Bor
te,
waski
dnapped,
andhehadt
ofi
ghtt
orecov
erher
.

6. Dur ingt
hesey
ear
sofhardshi
pheal
somanagedtomakeimpor
tantf
ri
ends.The
youngBoghur
chuwashi
sfi
rstall
yandr
emai
nedatrust
edf
riend;
Jamuqa,
hisbl
ood-br
otherwas
another
.

7. Temuj i
nbecamet hedominantper
sonal
it
yint hepol
iti
csofthest
eppelands,apositi
ont
hat
wasrecogni
sedatanassemblyofMongolchi
eftai
ns,wherehewaspr ocl
aimedt he‘Gr
eat
KhanoftheMongols’
wi t
hthet
itl
eGenghisKhan,the‘OceanicKhan’
or‘
Univer
sal Rul
er’
.

War
sandExpansi
onofMongol
sunder
Genghi
zKhan

1. Thefir
stofhi
sconcernswastoconquerChina,di
vi
dedatthist
imeint
ot hr
eereal
ms:
the
HsiHsi
adynast
yinthenorth-
west
ernprov
inces,
Chindynast
yrulednor
thChinaandthe
Sungdy
nast
yinsouthChina.

2. By1209, t
heHsiHsiaweredefeated,t
he‘GreatWall
ofChina’wasbreachedi
n1213and
l
ongdrawn-
outbat
tl
esagainsttheChincont i
nuedunti
l1234butGenghi
sKhanwassatisf
ied
enoughwi
ththepr
ogressofhiscampai gnstoret
urntohi
sMongolia

3. Sul
tanMuhammad,
ther
ulerofKhwar
azm,
execut
edMongol
env
oyswor
ri
edofMongol
i
nvasi
on.I
nthecampai
gnsbetween1219and1221thegr
eatci
ti
es–Otrar,Bukhar
a,Samar
qand,
Bal
kh,
Gurganj
,Mer
v,Ni
shapurandHerat–sur
render
edtotheMongol
forces.

4. Townsthatr
esist
edweredevastat
edbyMongols.AtNishapur,
whereaMongolpri
ncewas
ki
l
leddur
ingt
hesi
egeoperati
on,Genghi
sKhancommandedt hatthe‘t
ownshoul
dbel ai
dwaste
i
nsuchamannerthatt
hesit
ecouldbeplougheduponandnotevencatsanddogsshouldbel
eft
al
ive’
.

5. Mongol for
cesi
npursui
tofSul
tanMuhammadpushedintoAzerbai
jananddefeated
Russi
anfor
ces.Anot
herwingfol
l
owedtheSul
tan’
sson,
Jal
aluddin,
intoAfghani
stanandthe
Si
ndhprovi
nce.

Atthebanksoft
heIndus,GenghisKhanconsider
edr etur
ningtoMongol i
athroughNor
thI
ndi
a
andAssam,butt
heheat,t
henaturalhabi
tatandtheil
l por
tentsreport
edbyhisShaman
soothsay
ermadehi
m changehi smindandher etur
nedt oMongol i
awi t
houttouchi
ngI
ndi
a.

Causesf
ort
hesuccessofGenghi
sKhan

1. Hi smi
li
taryachi
evementswereast
oundingandt
heywerel
argel
yaresul
tofhisabi
li
tyt
o
i
nnovat
eandtransf
orm di
ff
erent
aspect
sofsteppecombati
ntoextr
emel
yeffect
ivemil
it
ary
st
rat
egi
es.

2. Thehor
se-
ri
dingski
l
lsoft
heMongol
sandt
heTur
kspr
ovi
dedspeedandmobi
l
ityt
othe
ar
my.

3. Thei rabi
li
ti
esasrapi
d-shoot
ingar
cher
sfr
om hor
sebackwerefur
therperf
ect
eddur
ing
regul
arhunti
ngexpedi
ti
onswhichdoubl
edchanceofvi
ctor
yovert
heenemi es.

4. Thest eppecaval
ryhadal
way
str
avel
l
edl
i
ghtandmov
edqui
ckl
y,butnowi
tbr
oughtal
l
its
knowl
edgeoftheter
rai
n.

5. Theycarr
iedoutcampai
gnsi
nthedept
hsofwi
nter
,tr
eat
ingf
rozenr
iver
sashi
ghway
sto
enemyci
ti
esandcamps.

6. GenghisKhanlear
nttheimpor
tanceofsi
ege.Hisengi
neer
sprepar
ed
l
ight
por
tabl
eequipment,whi
chwasusedagainstopponent
swit
hdevast
ati
ngef
fect
.

TheMongol
saf
terGenghi
sKhan
1. Wecandi videMongolexpansi
onaf
terGenghi
sKhan’sdeat
hint
otwodisti
nctphases:t
he
fi
rstwhichspannedtheyear
s1236-42whenthemajorgai
nswereint
heRussiansteppes,
Bulgar
ia,Pol
andandHungary.

2. Thesecondphasei
ncl
udi
ngt
hey
ear
s1255-
1300l
edt
otheconquestofal
lofChi
na,
Iran,
I
raqandSy
ria.

3. TheMongolmili
tar
yforcesmetwi
thfewreversal
sinthedecadesaf
tert
he1260st
he
or
igi
nal
impet
usofcampaignscoul
dnotbesustai
nedintheWest.

4. Ther eweretwofacet
stothi
s:t
hefir
stwasaconsequenceoft hei
nter
nalpol
it
icsof
successi
onwithi
ntheMongolfami
lywherethedescendant
sofJochiandOgodeial
liedt
o
contr
oltheof
fi
ceofthegreat
Khaninthefi
rsttwogenerati
ons.

5. Thesecondcompul sionoccur
redastheJochiandOgodeili
neagesweremargi
nal
isedby
theTol
uy’
slineage.Wi
ththeaccessionofMongke,adescendantofTol
uy,mil
i
tar
ycampaigns
werepursuedenerget
ical
lyinIr
anbutasToluy
idint
erest
sintheconquestofChi
na.

Mi
l
itar
yOr
gani
sat
ionunderMongol
s

1. Amongt heMongol
sal
ltheabl
e-bodi
ed,
adul
tmal
esoft
het
ri
bebor
ear
ms:
theyconst
it
uted
thear
medf
orceswhentheoccasi
ondemanded.

2. Theuni fi
cati
onofthedi
ff
erentMongolt
ri
besandsubsequentcampaignsagainst
diver
sepeopl
eint
roducednewmember sint
oGenghisKhan’
sarmy .I
tincl
udedgroupsli
ke
theTurks,
Chi
neseandArabswhohadacceptedhisaut
hori
tywil
li
ngly.

3. Genghi sKhanwor kedtosystematicall

yer asetheol dtr
ibalident
it
iesofthedif
f erentgr
oups
whoj oinedhisconfederacy.Hisarmywasor ganisedaccor di
ngt otheoldsteppesy stem of
decimal uni
ts:i
ndivisi
onsof10s, 100s,1,000sand10, 000soldiers.Hedivi
dedt heoldt r
ibal
groupingsanddistr
ibutedtheirmember sintonewmi l
itar
yunits.Anyindivi
dualwhot ri
edt omove
fr
om hi sall
ott
edgroupwi t
houtpermissionr eceivedharshpunishment .

4. Hedi vi
dedthearmyint
ofouruni
tsandt
heywererequi
redt
oser
veunderhi
sfour
sonsand
speci
all
ychosencapt
ainsofhi
sarmyunit
scal
lednoy
an.

5. Thesol di
erswhohadser
vedGenghisKhanloyal
l
yt hr
oughgrav eadversi
tyf
ormanyyears
werepubli
clyhonour
edsomeoft hesei
ndi
vi
dualsashis‘bl
oodbrothers’
andot her
swere
gi
venspeci
al r
anki
ngashisbondsmen,atit
let
hatmar kedthei
rcl
oser el
ati
onshi
pwitht
heir
master
.
Pol
i
tical
Organi
sat
ionunderGenghi
zKhan

1. Genghi sKhanassi
gnedther
esponsi
bil
i
tyof
gov
erni
ngt
henewl
y-
conquer
edpeopl
etohi
s
foursons.Thesecompri
sedt
hefourul
us.

2. Theeldestson,
Jochi
,recei
vedt
heRussi
anst
eppesandi
text
endedasf
arwestashi
s
hor
sescoul
droam.

3. Thesecondson,Chaghat
ai,
wasgivent
heTransoxani
anst
eppeandl
andsnor
thoft
he
Pami
rMountai
nadjacentt
othoseofhi
sbrot
her
.

4. Genghi
sKhanhadindicat
edthathi
sthir
dson,Ogodei
,wouldsucceedhi
m ast
he
Gr
eat
KhanandonaccessionthePri
nceestabli
shedhi
scapi
talatKarakor
um.

5. They oungestson,
Toluy,
recei
v edt
heancest
rall
andsofMongol i
a.Genghi
sKhan
envi
sagedthathi
ssonswouldruletheempi
recoll
ecti
vel
y,andtounder
li
nethispoi
nt,
mil
i
tar
y
cont
ingent
softheindi
vi
dualpri
nceswerepl
acedineachulus.

6. Thesenseofadomi ni
onsharedbyt hemember softhefamilywasunderl
inedatt
he
assemblyofchief
tai
ns,
quri
ltai
s,wher
ealldeci
sionsrel
ati
ngtot hefamil
yorthestat
efort
he
for
thcomingseasoncampaigns,di
str
ibut
ionofplunder,
pasturelandsandsuccessi
onwer
e
coll
ecti
vel
ytaken.

Dev
elopmenti
nTr
adeandcommuni
cat
ioni
nMongol
i
a

1. Genghi sKhanhadal r
eadyf
ashi
onedarapi
dcouriersystem(
yam)thatconnectedthe
dist
antareasofhi
sregi
me.Freshmountsanddespat
chr i
derswerepl
acedinoutpostsat
regul
arl
yspaceddist
ances.

2. Fort hemai
ntenanceofthi
scommuni cat
ionsystemtheMongol
nomadscontr
ibut
edatent
h
oftheirherd–ei
therhor
sesorlivest
ock–asprovisi
ons.Thi
swascall
edt
hequbcur
tax,
alev
y
thatthenomadspaidwil
li
nglyforthemul
ti
plebenefi
tsthati
tbr
ought
.

3. Oncet hecampaignshadset
tled,
EuropeandChinawereter
ri
tori
all
yli
nkedwi
thMongoli
a.
Commer ceandtr
avel
alongtheSi
l
kRout ereachedi
tspeakundertheMongolsbut
,thet
rade
rout
eext
endeduptoMongol i
a.

4. Communi cat
ionandeaseoft r
avelwasvitalt
oretainthecoher
enceoftheMongolregi
me
andtr
avell
ersweregivenapassforsafeconduct.Traderspai
dthebajt
axforthesamepurpose,
al
lacknowledgi
ngtherebytheaut
hori
tyoftheMongol Khan.
5. Mongol swagedt hei
rsuccessful
war sagainstChina,Persi
a,Russi
aetct
herewasast r
ong
pressuregr
oupwi t
hint heMongol l
eadershipthatadvocatedthemassacreofall
peasantryand
theconv er
sionoftheirfi
eldsi
ntopasturelands.Butby t
he1270s, Genghi
sKhan’
sgr andson,
Qubilai
Khanappear edast heprot
ectorofthepeasant sandthecit
ies.

Yasa(
legal
codeofGenghi
sKhan)

1. y asa,
thecodeoflawthatGenghi
sKhanwassupposedtohav epromul
gatedatt
he
AssemblyofMongolChief
tains(
quri
lt
ai)
of1206,hasel
abor
atedonthecomplexwaysin
whicht
hememor yoftheGreatKhanwasf ashi
onedbyhi
ssuccessor
s.

2. I nit
searl
i
estf
ormulati
ontheterm waswr
it
tenasy asawhi
chmeant‘
law’
,
‘decr
ee’or‘
order
’.
Yasaconcer
nadminist
rat
iveregul
ati
ons:t
heor
ganisat
ionofthehunt
,t
hearmyandthepostal
syst
em.

Si
tuat
ingGenghi
sKhanandt
heMongol
sinWor
ldHi
stor
y

1. FortheMongol
s,Genghi
sKhanwast
hegr
eat
estl
eaderofal
lti
me:
heuni
tedt
heMongol
peopl
e.

2. Genghi
sKhanf
reedt
hem f
rom i
nter
minabl
etr
ibal
war
sandChi
neseexpl
oit
ati
on.

3. GenghisKhanbroughtt
hem prosperi
ty,
fashi
onedagr andtr
ansconti
nental
empi
reand
rest
oredt
raderout
esandmar ket
st hat
att
racteddi
stantt
raveler
sandt r
aders.

4. GenghisKhanr uledthedi v
ersebodyofpeopleandfai
ths.Al
thoughtheMongolKhans
themsel
vesbelongedt oav ari
etyofdi
ff
erentf
ait
hs–Shaman, Buddhi
st,Chr
ist
ianandevent
ual
l
y
I
slam t
heyneverlettheirpersonalbel
i
efsdict
atepubl
icpol
icy.

5. TheMongol ruler
srecrui
tedadmini
stratorsandarmedcont
ingent
sf r
om peopl
eofal
let
hni
c
groupsandrel
igi
ons.Their
swasamul t
i-
ethnic,
multi
l
ingual
,mul
ti
-r
eli
giousregi
methatdi
dnot
feelt
hreat
enedbyit
splural
ist
icconst
it
uti
on.

6. Today,aft
erdecadesofSovi
etcont
rol
,thecount
ryof
Mongoli
aisrecreat
ingi
tsi
dent
it
yas
ani
ndependentnat
ion.I
thassei
zeduponGenghisKhanasagreatnat
ionalherowhoi
s
publ
i
cly
vener
atedandwhoseachi
evement
sar
erecount
edwi
thpr
ide.