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YOUR NOTES
International A Level Physics Edexcel 

4. Further Mechanics, Fields & Particles

CONTENTS
Momentum & Impulse
4.1 Impulse
4.2 Core Practical 9: Investigating Impulse
4.3 Applying Conservation of Linear Momentum
4.4 Core Practical 10: Investigating Collisions using ICT
4.5 Elastic & Inelastic Collisions
4.6 Energy-Momentum Relation
Circular Motion
4.7 Radians & Angular Displacement
4.8 Angular Velocity
4.9 Centripetal Acceleration
4.10 Maintaining Circular Motion
4.11 Centripetal Force
Electric Fields
4.12 Defining an Electric Field
4.13 Electric Field Strength
4.14 Electric Force between Two Charges
4.15 Electric Field due to a Point Charge
4.16 Electric Field & Potential
4.17 Electric Field between Parallel Plates
4.18 Electric Potential for a Radial Field
4.19 Representing Radial & Uniform Electric Fields
Capacitance
4.20 Capacitance
4.21 Energy Stored by a Capacitor
4.22 Charge & Discharge Curves
4.23 Core Practical 11: Investigating Capacitor Charge & Discharge
4.24 Exponential Discharge in a Capacitor
Magnetic Fields
4.25 Magnetic Flux Density, Flux & Flux Linkage
4.26 Magnetic Force on a Charged Particle
4.27 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
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4.28 Induced E.M.F in a Moving Coil YOUR NOTES

4.29 Induced E.M.F between Linked Coils 
4.30 Faraday & Lenz's Law
Exploring the Structure of Matter
4.31 Nucleon & Proton Number
4.32 The Nuclear Model of the Atom
4.33 Thermionic Emission
4.34 Particle Accelerators & Detectors
4.35 Radius of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
4.36 Interpreting Particle Tracks
4.37 High Energy Particle Collisions
4.38 Annihilation of Matter & Antimatter
4.39 Unit Conversions for Energy & Mass
4.40 Relativistic Situations
Particle Interactions & Conservation
4.41 The Standard Model
4.42 Antimatter
4.43 Conservation Laws in Particle Physics
4.44 Particle Interaction Equations

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Momentum & Impulse YOUR NOTES


4.1 Impulse

Impulse
Force is defined as the rate of change of momentum on a body
The change in momentum is defined as the final momentum minus the initial
momentum
These can be expressed as follows:

Defining Impulse
The force and momentum equation can be rearranged to find the impulse of a force
Impulse, I, is equal to the change in momentum:
I = FΔt = Δp = mv – mu
Where:
I = impulse (N s)
F = force (N)
t = time (s)
Δp = change in momentum (kg m s–1)
m = mass (kg)
v = final velocity (m s–1)
u = initial velocity (m s–1)

This equation is only used when the force is constant

Since the impulse is proportional to the force, it is also a vector
The impulse is in the same direction as the force

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The unit of impulse is N s YOUR NOTES

The impulse quantifies the effect of a force acting over a time interval 
This means a small force acting over a long time has the same effect as a large force
acting over a short time
Examples of Impulse
An example in everyday life of impulse is when standing under an umbrella when it is raining,
compared to hail (frozen water droplets)
When rain hits an umbrella, the water droplets tend to splatter and fall off it and there is
only a very small change in momentum
However, hailstones have a larger mass and tend to bounce back off the umbrella,
creating a greater change in momentum
Therefore, the impulse on an umbrella is greater in hail than in rain
This means that more force is required to hold an umbrella upright in hail compared to
rain

Since hailstones bounce back off an umbrella, compared to water droplets from rain, there
is a greater impulse on an umbrella in hail than in rain

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A 58 g tennis ball moving horizontally to the left at a speed of 30 m s–1 is struck by a
tennis racket which returns the ball back to the right at 20 m s–1.
(i) Calculate the impulse delivered to the ball by the racket.
(ii) State which direction the impulse is in.

(i) Step 1: Write the known quantities

Taking the initial direction of the ball as positive (the left)
Initial velocity, u = 30 m s–1
Final velocity, v = –20 m s–1
Mass, m = 58 g = 58 × 10–3 kg
Step 2: Write down the impulse equation
Impulse I = Δp = m(v – u)
Step 3: Substitute in the values
I = (58 × 10–3) × (–20 – 30) = –2.9 N s
(ii) Direction of the impulse
Since the impulse is negative, it must be in the opposite direction to which the tennis
ball was initial travelling (since the left is taken as positive)
Therefore, the direction of the impulse is to the right

 Exam Tip
Remember that if an object changes direction, then this must be reflected by the
change in sign of the velocity. As long as the magnitude is correct, the final sign for
the impulse doesn't matter as long as it is consistent with which way you have
considered positive (and negative). For example, if the left is taken as positive and
therefore the right as negative, an impulse of 20 N s to the right is equal to -20 N s.

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4.2 Core Practical 9: Investigating Impulse YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 9: Investigating Impulse
Aims of the Experiment
To determine the change in momentum of a trolley due to a force acting on it
This is known as the impulse
Variables
Independent variable = accelerating mass, m
Dependent variable = time taken to pass between two light gates, t
Control variables
Overall mass of the system (trolley + accelerating masses)
Tilt angle of the ramp
Trolley and ramp used
Size of interrupter card
Equipment List
Apparatus Purpose
Dynamics trolley Momentum change of the trolley is being
investigated
Ramp, slightly tilted For the trolley to travel down
Bench pulley To pull trolley using the suspended masses
To connect the suspended mass and the trolley
String
over the pulley
5 slotted masses (10 g) and hanger To create the force to accelerate the trolley
Light gates and computer or datalogger To measure the time taken and velocity of the
trolley passing through it
Balance To measure the masses
For the data logger to detect the motion of the
Interrupt card
trolley
Resolution of measuring equipment
Balance = 0.01 g
Method

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YOUR NOTES


1. Measure the total mass, M, of the trolley and the five 10 g masses using the balance
2. Set up the equipment:
Secure the bench pulley to one end of the runway allowing one end to project over the
end of the bench
Tilt the ramp slightly
This is to compensate for friction
Place the mass hanger (without the masses on them) on the floor and move the trolley
backwards until the string becomes tight, with the mass on the floor
Place the light gates at either end of the ramp
There should be enough space on the ramp to allow the trolley to clear the light
gate at the bottom before hitting the pulley
3. Set the start position for the experiment
Move the trolley further backwards until the mass hanger is closer to the pulley (it will
fall to the floor as the trolley moves on the runway)
Put the five 10 g masses on the trolley so that they will not slide off
4. Record the total hanging mass, m in the results table
5. Release the trolley and start the timing software
The computer will record the velocity through each gate, and the the time taken for the
trolley to travel between them
Record the values in the results table
6. Repeat the readings and calculate the mean time and velocity for this value of m
7. Move one 10 g mass from the trolley to the hanger and repeat steps 4 and 5
Repeat this process, moving one 10 g mass at a time
The last reading is when all of the masses are on the hanger

Table of Results:

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YOUR NOTES


Analysing the Results

The momentum of the trolley can be represented by two equations:
Δp = M (v B – v A ) (equation 1)

Where:
Δp = change in momentum (kg m s−1)
M = mass of the system (kg)
vB = velocity at light-gate B
vA = velocity at light-gate A
Δp = mgt (equation 2)
Where:
m = mass on the hanger (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity, (9.81 m s−1)
t = time taken between light-gates A and B
Combing equations 1 and 2 gives:
mgt = M (v B – v A )

This can be rearranged to give:

M
mt = (v − v A )
g B
This is in the form of y = mx + c, where:
y = mt
x = (vB − vA)
M
m= g
c=0
Therefore, a graph can be plotted of mt against (vB − vA)
This should be a straight line graph to prove the relationship
M
The gradient should be equal to
g

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YOUR NOTES


A straight line with gradient M/g confirms the relationship between the variables
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic errors:
The interrupt card may be a different width to that recorded in the data logger
Measure it three times and calculate an average value
The interrupt card may not be of sufficient height to trigger the light gate
Move the light gates down, or use a taller card
Mass of the system, M, may not be measured correctly
Measure it three times and calculate an average value
The overall mass, M, of the system may not be kept constant
Ensure each hanging mass, m, which is removed is transferred to the trolley so the
overall mass of the system (trolley + hanging masses) stays the same
Random errors:
The trolley may not travel in a straight line
Discard this result
The trolley may hit one of the light gates when passing through
Discard this result
Safety Considerations
Stand well away from the masses in case they fall onto the floor
Place a crash mat or any soft surface, such as a small cushion, under the masses to break
their fall
Keep liquids away from the data logger and other electronic equipment
Make sure no other objects are obstructing the motion of the trolley throughout the
experiment

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 This practical can be completed with one light gate, where a card of known length, L

L
is passed through a lightgate. The time is recorded and v is found using v = . The
t
overall time is taken from the trolley at rest and the stop watch is started when the
trolley is released.
A graph is then plotted as above, but with v not (vB − vA) on the x-axis as initial
velocity is 0.

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4.3 Applying Conservation of Linear Momentum YOUR NOTES


Applying Conservation of Linear Momentum
The principle of conservation of linear momentum states:
The total momentum before a collision = the total momentum after a collision
provided no external force acts
Linear momentum is the momentum of an object that only moves in a straight line
Momentum is a vector quantity
This means oppositely-directed vectors can cancel each other out resulting in a net
momentum of zero
If after a collision an object starts to move in the opposite direction to which it was
initially travelling, its velocity will now be negative
Momentum, just like energy, is always conserved
Conservation of Linear Momentum in 1D

The conservation of momentum in 1D, for two objects A and B colliding then moving apart

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B whilst travelling
at
3.0 m s–1. Trolley B has twice the mass of trolley A. On impact, the trolleys stick
together.
Using the conversation of momentum, calculate the common velocity of both
trolleys after the collision.

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Momentum is a vector quantity, therefore, you should always define a direction to

be 'positive' when applying the principle of conservation of momentum. In this
worked example, we implicitly took velocity 'to the right' as the positive direction.
Sometimes, however, you might encounter two objects moving towards each other
before colliding. If both objects have the same mass m and speed v, then the total
momentum (before collision) is zero, because ptotal = (mv) + (–mv) = 0. Note the
negative sign indicates a body travelling in the opposite direction.

Conservation of Linear Momentum in 2D

For objects moving in 2D, there are components of momentum to consider
This is similar to projectile motion in 2D, in which we consider horizontal and vertical
components of motion

Vector Rsplit into its vertical, R cos (30) and horizontal, R sin (30), components
Each component of momentum is conserved separately
Since momentum is a vector, it can be resolved into horizontal and vertical
components
The sum of horizontal components will be equal before and after a collision
The sum of vertical components will be equal before and after a collision

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A red snooker ball, travelling at 2.5 m s–1 collides with a green snooker ball, which is
at rest. Both snooker balls have the same mass m.
The angle of collision is such that the red ball moves off at 28° below the horizontal
at 1.8 m s–1 and the green ball moves off at 55° above the horizontal, with a speed v,
as shown.

Determine the size of v.

Step 1: Write the conservation of linear momentum for horizontal components

The question is worded in terms of the horizontal direction, so write:
Horizontal momentum before = horizontal momentum after
Step 2: Resolve the velocity of each ball to find the horizontal component:
Since momentum p = mv, then the horizontal component of momentum phoriz = mvhoriz
Therefore, the horizontal component of the green ball is 1.8 cos 28°
The horizontal component of the red ball is v cos 55°
Step 3: Substitute quantities into the conservation of momentum
Horizontal momentum before = horizontal momentum after
mured + mugreen = mvhoriz(red) + mvhoriz(green)
m (2.5) + 0 = m (v cos 55°) + m (1.8 cos 28°)
Step 4: Simplify and rearrange to calculate v

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2.5 = v cos 55° + 1.8 cos 28° YOUR NOTES

2.5 = v cos 55° + 1.6 

0.9 = v cos 55°

v = 0.9 cos 55° = 1.6 m s–1

 Exam Tip
Generally speaking, whenever you see any vector given at an angle to the horizontal
or the vertical (e.g. velocity, or momentum), think "resolve"! It's extremely likely you
will need to consider the separate components of motion for a projectiles question
or for a conservation of momentum question.
Questions which ask you to use the principle of conservation of linear momentum in
2D are usually worth a lot of marks, so make sure you practise lots of questions
involving resolving vectors!

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4.4 Core Practical 10: Investigating Collisions using ICT YOUR NOTES

Core Practical 10: Investigating Collisions using ICT
Aims of the Experiment
To investigate conservation of momentum in two directions
Considering if collisions are elastic
Constructing a diagram of 2D collisions
Use of ICT software is required
'Tracker' is recommended by Edexcel
Equipment List
Small spheres
Of two different diameters (ball bearings are ideal)
Digital camera able to record video
Support to allow it to be positioned directly above the collision
Computer with Tracker installed
30 cm ruler
Micrometer or calipers
Balance
Graph paper
Method

1. Measure the mass of the spheres using the balance and record
2. Measure the diameter of the spheres using a micrometer or Vernier calipers
3. Mark an approximately central point on the graph paper
This will be where the stationary sphere is placed
4. Start the camera recording
5. Within the area of the graph paper, roll a sphere into the stationary one

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6. Replace the stationary sphere in its initial place and repeat the experiment up to three YOUR NOTES
times 
A slightly different angle of approach should be used for each collision
7. Download the video file from the camera to the computer that runs Tracker
Load the clip into the program.
Analysing the Results
Use Tracker to analyse the video clips.
Input the mass and diameter of each sphere when prompted
Use the ‘velocity overlay’ feature so that the software can analyse velocities
The Tracker software allows for frame-by-frame analysis of the movement of the spheres
Orientate the axes to make the velocity of the moving ball along one of the axes
Record the momentum of each ball as indicated in Tracker

Construct a vector diagram from the results

Evaluating the Experiment

ICT is used in this experiment because
The events happen to swiftly for the unaided eye to take readings
ICT generally provides more precise and reliable data
Systematic errors:
Parallax error from camera to the table
The precision of the balance may give a wide range of possible values for mass
If possible use a more precise balance
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The spheres may have damage YOUR NOTES

Check there is no damage to the surface of each sphere before using 
The Tracker axes may not be correctly aligned when analysing
Random errors:
The collision event may happen between frames
From variations in the table surface
This could cause loss or gain of kinetic energy due to friction or slopes
The sphere may not travel far enough to hit the second stationary sphere
Discard this result and release with greater initial velocity

 Exam Tip
It can be helpful to practice a few collisions before making your final readings. This
will help you become familiar with how fast to release the sphere.

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4.5 Elastic & Inelastic Collisions YOUR NOTES


Elastic & Inelastic Collisions
In both collisions and explosions, momentum is always conserved
However, kinetic energy might not always be
A collision (or explosion) is either:
Elastic – if the kinetic energy is conserved
Inelastic – if the kinetic energy is not conserved
Collisions happen when objects strike against each other
Elastic collisions are commonly those where objects colliding do not stick together;
instead, they strike each other then move away in opposite directions
Inelastic collisions are commonly those where objects collide and stick together after
the collision

Elastic collisions are those following which objects move away in opposite directions.
Inelastic collisions are where two objects stick together
An explosion is commonly to do with recoil
For example, a gun recoiling after shooting a bullet or an unstable nucleus emitting an
alpha particle and a daughter nucleus
To find out whether a collision is elastic or inelastic, compare the kinetic energy before and
after the collision
The equation for kinetic energy is:

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YOUR NOTES


 Worked Example
Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B at speed 3.0 m
s–1. Trolley B has twice the mass of trolley A.
The trolleys stick together and travel at a velocity of 1.0 m s–1. Determine whether
this is an elastic or inelastic collision.

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Discuss whether a head-on collision between two cars is likely to be an elastic or
inelastic collision.

Step 1: Define an elastic and inelastic collision

An elastic collision is one in which kinetic energy is conserved
An inelastic collision is one in which kinetic energy is not conserved, but is transferred
to other forms, e.g. heat and sound
Step 2: Describe the effects of head-on car collisions
When cars collide, a large amount of kinetic energy is transferred due to work by
internal forces
This is mainly due to crumpling where the collision of the car causes plastic
defamation of the car's bodywork
Other energy transfers will include kinetic energy into heat and sound
Step 3: Link the effects to energy transfers
Since the cars are brought to rest by the collision, the total KE before the collision does
not equal the total KE after
Therefore, the collision is inelastic

 Exam Tip
If an object is stationary or at rest, its velocity equals 0, therefore, the momentum
and kinetic energy are also equal to 0.
When a collision occurs in which two objects stick together, treat the final object as
a single object with a mass equal to the sum of the two individual objects.

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4.6 Energy-Momentum Relation YOUR NOTES


Deriving the Energy-Momentum Relation
The equation for calculating the kinetic energy Ek of a particle m moving at velocity v is
given by:
1
Ek = mv 2
2
The formula for the momentum p of the same particle is:
p = mv
Combining these gives an equation that links kinetic energy to momentum, called the
energy-momentum relation
p
Firstly, substituting the equation for velocity v = into the equation for kinetic energy
m
gives:
1 ⎛⎜ p ⎞⎟2
Ek = m⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝m ⎠
Multiplying brackets out and simplifying gives:
1 p2 1 p2
Ek = m 2=
2 m 2 m

Therefore the energy-momentum is presented as:

p2
Ek = 2m

Where:
Ek = kinetic energy (J)
p = momentum (kg m s-1)
m = mass (kg)

 Exam Tip
This is a common derivation, so make sure you're comfortable with deriving this from
scratch! Think carefully about the algebra on each step.

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Using the Energy-Momentum Relation YOUR NOTES

The energy-momentum relation is particularly useful for: 
Calculations involving the kinetic energy of subatomic particles travelling at non-
relativistic speeds (i.e. much slower than the speed of light)
Projectiles and collisions involving large masses

 Worked Example
Calculate the kinetic energy, in MeV, of an alpha particle which has a momentum of
1.1 × 10–19 kg m s–1.
Use the following data:
Mass of a proton = 1.67 × 10–27 kg
Mass of a neutron = 1.67 × 10–27 kg

Step 1: Write the energy-momentum relation

p2
The energy-momentum relation is given by Ek =
2m
Step 2: Determine the mass of an alpha particle
An alpha particle is comprised of two protons and two neutrons
Therefore, the mass of an alpha particle mα = 2mp + 2mn, where mp and mn is the mass
of a proton and neutron respectively
So mα = 2(1.67 × 10–27) + 2(1.67 × 10–27) = 6.68 × 10–27 kg
Step 3: Substitute the momentum and the mass of the alpha particle into the energy-
momentum relation
p2
Ek = 2m

(1 . 1 × 10−19 ) 2
Ek = = 9.1 × 10–13 J
2 × (6 . 68 × 10−27 )
Step 4: Convert the value of kinetic energy from J to MeV
1 MeV = 1.6 × 10–13 J
Therefore:
9 . 1 × 10−13
9.1 × 10–13 J = MeV = 5.7 MeV
1 . 6 × 10−13

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Calculations with the energy-momentum equation often require changing units,

especially between eV and J due to it commonly being used for particles. Remember
that 1 eV = 1.60 × 10-19 J. Therefore
eV → J = × (1.60 × 10-19)
J → eV = ÷ (1.60 × 10-19)
The prefix 'mega' (M) means × 106 therefore, 1 MeV = (1.60 × 10-19) × 106 = 1.60 × 10-13

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Circular Motion YOUR NOTES


4.7 Radians & Angular Displacement

Radians
A radian (rad) is defined as:
The angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius
of the circle
Radians are used whenever describing the angular displacement of objects in circular
motion
Angular displacement can be calculated using the equation:

Where:
Δθ = angular displacement, or angle of rotation (radians)
s = length of the arc, or the distance travelled around the circle (m)
r = radius of the circle (m)

Radians are commonly written in terms of π

The angle in radians for a complete circle (360o) is equal to:

Radian Conversions
If an angle of 360o = 2π radians, then 1 radian in degrees is equal to:

Use the following equation to convert from degrees to radians:

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Table of common degrees to radians conversions YOUR NOTES



 Worked Example
Convert the following angular displacement into degrees:

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 
You will notice your calculator has a degree (Deg) and radians (Rad) mode
This is shown by the “D” or “R” highlighted at the top of the screen
Remember to make sure it’s in the right mode when using trigonometric
functions (sin, cos, tan) depending on whether the answer is required in
degrees or radians
It is extremely common for students to get the wrong answer (and lose marks)
because their calculator is in the wrong mode when using trigonometric
functions - make sure this doesn’t happen to you!

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Angular Displacement YOUR NOTES

The angular displacement Δθ is the ratio of: 

Angular displacement describes the change in angle, in radians, of a body as it moves in a

circle
This angle is measured with respect to the centre of orbit

When the angle is equal to one radian, the length of the arc (Δs) is equal to the radius (r) of the
circle

 Exam Tip
Since the equation for angular displacement gives the angle in radians, make sure
you're comfortable with then converting to degrees if you need to for the question!

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4.8 Angular Velocity YOUR NOTES


Angular Velocity
The angular velocity ω of a body in circular motion is defined as:
The rate of change of angular displacement
In other words, angular velocity is the angle swept out by an object in circular motion, per
second
Angular velocity is a vector quantity and is measured in rad s–1
Since it is a vector, it has a magnitude (angular speed) and direction
Angular velocity is calculated using:
Δθ
ω=
Δt
Where:
Δθ = change in angular displacement (radians)
Δt = time interval (s)
It is related to linear speed, v by the equation
v = ωr
Where:
v = linear speed, v (m s-1)
ω = angular speed (rad s-1)
r = radius of orbit (m)

When an object is in uniform circular motion, velocity constantly changes direction, but the
speed stays the same
Taking the angular displacement of a complete orbit or revolution as 2π radians, the angular
velocity ω an be calculated using the equation:

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Where: YOUR NOTES

T = the time period (s) 
f = frequency (Hz)
This equation shows that:
The greater the rotation angle θ in a given amount of time T, the greater the angular
velocity ω
An object travelling with the same linear velocity, but further from the centre of orbit
(larger r) moves with a smaller angular velocity (smaller ω)

 Worked Example
A bird flies in a horizontal circle with an angular speed of 5.25 rad s−1 of radius 650
m.
Calculate:
a) The linear speed of the bird
b) The angular frequency of the bird

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Try not to be confused by similar sounding terms like "angular velocity" and "angular

speed". Just like in regular linear motion, you have linear velocity and linear speed:
one is a scalar (speed) and the other is a vector (velocity).
In this worked example, the equation v = rω is used to calculate the linear speed. This
is fine, because v in this context is just the magnitude of the linear velocity (and
similarly, ω is the magnitude of the angular velocity).
Finally, you may sometimes come across ω being labelled as 'angular frequency',
because of its relationship to linear frequency f as given by the alternative
equation ω = 2πf. Remember, the units of ω are rad s–1, whereas the units of f are Hz.

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4.9 Centripetal Acceleration YOUR NOTES


Deriving Equations for Centripetal Acceleration
An object moving in uniform circular motion travels with a constant angular
velocity and angular speed
However, its direction is always changing
Therefore, its linear velocity changes, so it must be accelerating
This is called a centripetal acceleration
An object in circular motion is thus always accelerating
This acceleration is called 'centripetal' because it is directed toward the centre of orbit
To derive an equation for the magnitude of centripetal acceleration, consider an object in
uniform circular motion between point A and B on a circle, as shown below:

An object in uniform circular motion is accelerating toward the centre of orbit, O. Between A
and B, the horizontal component of motion changes from v sinθ to –v sinθ
At A and B, by resolving the horizontal and vertical components of linear velocity v, it can be
seen that:
Initial vertical component of v = final vertical component of v which is v cosθ
Initial horizontal component of v is v sinθ
Final horizontal component of v is –v sinθ
This means the acceleration of the object is only horizontal, given by:
∆v ( − v sinθ ) − (v sinθ ) −2v sinθ
a= = =
∆t t t
Recalling the equations for angular velocity ω = θ /t and v = rω, then:
θ θ rθ
t= = =
ω ⎛⎜ v ⎞⎟ v
⎜ ⎟
⎝r ⎠
2rθ
The object's angular displacement is actually 2θ, therefore, the time t is given by t =
v
Therefore, substituting this into the equation for acceleration gives:

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a=
−2v sinθ
=
−v 2 sinθ YOUR NOTES
⎛⎜ 2rθ ⎞⎟ rθ 
⎜ ⎟
⎝ v ⎠
This equation is the acceleration of the object between points A and B
To find the instantaneous acceleration at an exact point on the circle, say point C,
reduce the size of the angular displacement θ so it becomes infinitesimally small
This is shown in the image below:

By taking the limit of angular displacement as zero, we can derive an equation for the
instantaneous centripetal acceleration of the object at point C
In the limit θ → 0 radians
The value of sin θ is approximately equal to θ
sin θ
Therefore, ≈ 1 (for very small angles)
θ
This is known as the small angle approximation
Therefore, the instantaneous acceleration is the centripetal acceleration:
v2
a= − = − rω 2
r
Where:
a = centripetal acceleration (m s–2)
v = linear velocity (m s–1)
r = radius of orbit (m)
ω = angular velocity (rad s-1)

The negative sign indicates that the centripetal acceleration is directed toward the centre
of orbit

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 This seems like a complicated derivation, but there is no maths in there that you

haven't been introduced to already. It is important you know how to use the vector
diagrams to reach the final equations for angular accelerations, understanding
every step along the way. Try and do it without the notes to help memorise and see
how far you get!

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Using Equations for Centripetal Acceleration YOUR NOTES

Centripetal acceleration is defined as: 

The acceleration of an object towards the centre of a circle when an object is in

motion (rotating) around a circle at a constant speed
Its magnitude is calculated using the radius r and linear speed v:

Using the equation relating angular speed ω and linear speed v:

v = r⍵
These equations can be combined to give another form of the centripetal acceleration
equation:

This equation shows that centripetal acceleration is equal to the radius times the square of
the angular speed
Alternatively, rearrange for r:

This equation can be combined with the first one to give us another form of the centripetal
acceleration equation:

This equation shows how the centripetal acceleration relates to the linear speed and the
angular speed

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YOUR NOTES


Centripetal acceleration is always directed toward the centre of the circle, and is
perpendicular to the object’s velocity

Where:
a = centripetal acceleration (m s−2)
v = linear speed (m s−1)
⍵ = angular speed (rad s−1)
r = radius of the orbit (m)

 Worked Example
A ball tied to a string is rotating in a horizontal circle with a radius of 1.5 m and an
angular speed of 3.5 rad s−1.
Calculate its centripetal acceleration if the radius was twice as large and angular
speed was twice as fast.

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Make sure you understand both the derivation and how to use the equation for

centripetal acceleration. The most crucial step is to remember the small angle
approximation, that sin θ is approximately equal to θ when the angle is very very
small. Try this in your calculator (in radians!) and see for yourself!

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4.10 Maintaining Circular Motion YOUR NOTES


Maintaining Circular Motion
An object moving in a circle is not in equilibrium, it is constantly changing direction
Therefore, in order to produce circular motion, an object requires a resultant force to
act on it
This resultant force is known as the centripetal force and is what keeps an object
moving in a circle
The centripetal force F is defined as:
The resultant force towards the centre of the circle required to keep a body in
uniform circular motion. It is always directed towards the centre of the body's
rotation.

The tension in the string provides the centripetal force F to keep the hammer in circular orbit
Note: centripetal force and centripetal acceleration act in the same direction
This is due to Newton’s Second Law
The centripetal force is not a separate force of its own
It can be any type of force, depending on the situation, which keeps an object moving
in a circular path

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Examples of centripetal force YOUR NOTES



 Exam Tip
Make sure you are able to give examples of centripetal forces, understanding that
many types of familiar forces (e.g., gravity, electric) can act as centripetal forces.
A classic example that often comes up in your magnetic fields topic is the magnetic
force on a charged particle, which is always centripetal. This is because the force
acts at 90° to the charged particle's velocity, causing it to move in a circle.

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4.11 Centripetal Force YOUR NOTES


Centripetal Force
Centripetal force can be calculated using any of the following equations:
mv2
F= = mrω 2 = mvω
r

Centripetal force is always perpendicular to the direction of travel

Where:
F = centripetal force (N)
v = linear velocity (m s-1)
⍵ = angular speed (rad s-1)
r = radius of the orbit (m)
The centripetal force is the resultant force on the object moving in a circle
This is particular important if there are multiple forces on the object, such as weight

 Worked Example
A bucket of mass 8.0 kg is filled with water is attached to a string of length 0.5 m.
What is the minimum speed the bucket must have at the top of the circle so no
water spills out?

Step 1: Draw the forces on the bucket at the top

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YOUR NOTES


Step 2: Calculate the centripetal force

The weight of the bucket = mg
This is equal to the centripetal force since it is directed towards the centre of the circle

Step 3: Rearrange for velocity v

m cancels from both sides

Step 4: Substitute in values

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Electric Fields YOUR NOTES


4.12 Defining an Electric Field

Defining an Electric Field

An electric field is defined as a region of space in which a charged particle experiences a
force
Hence, electric fields are a type of force field
The charged particle could be stationary or moving, and will experience an electric force in
that field
All charged particles create their own electric fields
These fields exert an electrostatic force, FE on other charged particles

The electrostatic force between two charges

Like charges (positive and positive, or negative and negative) repel each other
This means the force on each charge are away from the other charge
Opposite charged (positive and negative) attract each other
This means the force on each charge is towards the other charge
The size of the force changes with distance

A repulsive force decreases with distance

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Electric fields are slightly different in that a charged particle will experience a force in

this field whether it's stationary or moving. Don't get this mixed up with a magnetic
field, where a charged particle only experiences a force if it's moving.

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4.13 Electric Field Strength YOUR NOTES


Electric Field Strength
The electric field strength at a point is defined as:
The force per unit charge acting on a positive test charge at that point
The electric field strength can be calculated using the equation:

Where:
E = electric field strength (N C–1)
F = electrostatic force on the charge (N)
Q = charge (C)
It is important to use a positive test charge in this definition, as this determines the direction
of the electric field
Recall, the electric field strength is a vector quantity, it is always directed:
Away from a positive charge
Towards a negative charge
This direction is also denoted by the direction of the electric field

Electric field lines are directed away from a positive point charge and towards a negative
point charge

 Worked Example
A charged particle is in an electric field with electric field strength 3.5 × 104 N C-1
where it experiences a force of 0.3 N.
Calculate the charge of the particle.

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
While the defining equation for electric field strength, E = F / Q is defined for a
positive test charge, it is still useable for negative charges in an electric field. You will
find that, if you substitute a negative charge in for Q, the electric field strength E is
also negative. This simply means that the vector representing the field points in
the opposite direction than it would for a positive charge, as you should expect.
Make sure you can interpret the direction of electric field lines for your exam!

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4.14 Electric Force between Two Charges YOUR NOTES


Electric Force between Two Charges
All charged particles produce an electric field around them
This field exerts a force on any other charged particle within range
The electrostatic force between two charges is defined by Coulomb’s Law
Recall that the charge of a uniform spherical conductor can be considered as a point
charge at its centre
Coulomb’s Law states that:
The electrostatic force between two point charges is proportional to the product
of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of their separation
The force FE between two charges as expressed by Coulomb's Law is given by the
equation:

The electrostatic force between two charges is defined by Coulomb’s Law

Where:
FE = electrostatic force between two charges (N)
Q1 and Q2 = two point charges (C)
ε0 = permittivity of free space
r = distance between the centre of the charges (m)
The 1/r2 relation is called the inverse square law
This means that when the separation of two charges doubles, the electrostatic force
between them reduces to (½)2 = ¼ of its original size
ε0 is a physical constant used to show the capability of a vacuum to permit electric fields

If Q1 and Q2 are oppositely charged, then the electrostatic force FE is negative

This can be interpreted as an attractive force between Q1 and Q2
If Q1 and Q2 are the same charge, then the electrostatic force FE is positive
This can be interpreted as a repulsive force between Q1 and Q2

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

An alpha particle is situated 2.0 mm away from a gold nucleus in a vacuum.
Assuming they are point charges, calculate the magnitude of the force acting on
each of the charges.
Atomic number of helium = 2
Atomic number of gold = 79
Charge of an electron = 1.60 × 10-19 C

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Distance, r = 2.0 mm = 2.0 × 10-3 m
The charge of one proton = +1.60 × 10-19 C
An alpha particle (helium nucleus) has 2 protons
Charge of alpha particle, Q1 = 2 × 1.60 × 10-19 = +3.2 × 10-19 C
The gold nucleus has 79 protons
Charge of gold nucleus, Q2 = 79 × 1.60 × 10-19 = +1.264 × 10-17 C
Step 2: The electrostatic force between two point charges is given by Coulomb’s Law

Step 3: Substitute values into Coulomb's Law

 Exam Tip
Remember to always square the distance, r between the charges!
Always look out for unit prefixes when substituting values into an equation. Check
whether the charge has been converted into C instead of nC or µC, or the distance in
mm to m to get a force F of newtons, N.

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4.15 Electric Field due to a Point Charge YOUR NOTES


Electric Field due to a Point Charge
The electric field strength describes how strong or weak an electric field is at that point
A point charge produces a radial field
A charge sphere also acts like a point charge
The electric field strength E at a distance r due to a point charge Q in free space is defined
by:

Where:
Q = the point charge producing the radial electric field (C)
r = distance from the centre of the charge (m)
ε0 = permittivity of free space (F m-1)

This equation shows:

Electric field strength in a radial field is not constant
As the distance from the charge r increases, E decreases by a factor of 1/r2

This is an inverse square law relationship with distance

This means the field strength E decreases by a factor of four when the distance r is
doubled
Note: this equation is only for the field strength around a point charge since it produces a
radial field

Positive and negative point charges and the direction of the electric field lines
The electric field strength is a vector Its direction is the same as the electric field lines
If the charge is negative, the E field strength is negative and points towards the centre
of the charge
If the charge is positive, the E field strength is positive and points away from the centre
of the charge
This equation is analogous to the gravitational field strength around a point mass

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The only difference is, gravitational field lines are always towards the mass, whilst YOUR NOTES
electric field lines can be towards or away from the point charge 
The graph of E against r for a charge is:

The electric field strength E has a 1/r2 relationship

The key features of this graph are:

The values for E are all positive
As r increases, E against r follows a 1/r2 relation (inverse square law)
The area under this graph is the change in electric potential ΔV
The graph has a steep decline as r increases

 Worked Example
Calculate the strength of the electric field at a distance of 2 m away from an
electron, and state its direction.

Step 1: Write out the equation for electric field strength

Step 2: Substitute quantities for charge, distance and permittivity of free space
The charge on an electron Q = –1.6 × 10–19 C
The distance r = 2 m
Permittivity of free space ε0 = 8.85 × 10–12
Therefore:
−1 . 6 × 10−19
E= = –3.6 × 10–10 N C–1
4π× (8 . 85 × 10−12 ) × 22
Step 3: State the direction of the field
The negative sign indicates the electric field is directed towards the electron

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Remember to square the distance in the electric field strength equation! Don't get

this mixed up with the electric force between two charges equation, which has two
charges (Q) in the equation, whilst the equation for E only has 1 Q, which is the one
producing the electric field.

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4.16 Electric Field & Potential YOUR NOTES


Electric Field & Potential
A positive test charge has electric potential energy due to its position in an electric field
The amount of electric potential energy depends on:
The magnitude of charge
The value of the electric potential in the field

Work is done on a positive test charge Q to move it from the negatively charged plate A to
the positively charged plate B. This means its electric potential energy increases
Electric potential is defined as the amount of work done per unit of charge at that point
A stronger electric field means the electric potential changes more rapidly with distance as
the test charge moves through it
Hence, the relationship between the electric field strength and the electric potential is
summarised as:
The electric field strength is proportional to the gradient of the electric potential
This means:
If the electric potential changes very rapidly with distance, the electric field strength is
large
If the electric potential changes very gradually with distance, the electric field strength
is small
An electric field can be defined in terms of the variation of electric potential at different
points in the field:
The electric field at a particular point is equal to the gradient of a potential-
distance graph at that point
The potential gradient in an electric field is defined as:
The rate of change of electric potential with respect to displacement in the
direction of the field

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The graph of potential V against distance r for a negative or positive charge is: YOUR NOTES


The electric potential around a positive charge decreases with distance and increases with
distance around a negative charge
The key features of this graph are:
The values for V are all negative for a negative charge
The values for V are all positive for a positive charge
As r increases, V against r follows a 1/r relation for a positive charge and -1/r relation for
a negative charge
The gradient of the graph at any particular point is the value of E at that point
The graph has a shallow increase (or decrease) as r increases
The electric potential changes according to the charge creating the potential as the
distance r increases from the centre:
If the charge is positive, the potential decreases with distance
If the charge is negative, the potential increases with distance

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

An electric field is set up between two pairs of oppositely charged plates, set X and
set Y.
A graph showing how the electric potential V varies with distance d is shown for
both set X and set Y.

State and explain which set creates the largest electric field strength.

Step 1: Recall the relationship between electric field strength and electric potential
The electric field strength is proportional to the gradient of the electric potential
Step 2: Interpret the gradient of the potential-distance graph
Set X has a larger gradient than set Y

Step 3: State and explain the conclusion

Set X creates a larger electric field strength
This is because the gradient of the potential between the plates is larger than it is for
set Y

 Exam Tip
Remember that whether the electric potential increases or decreases depends on
the charge that is producing the potential!

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4.17 Electric Field between Parallel Plates YOUR NOTES


Electric Field between Parallel Plates
The magnitude of the electric field strength in a uniform field between two charged parallel
plates is defined as:

Where:
E = electric field strength (V m-1)
V = potential difference between the plates (V)
d = separation between the plates (m)

The electric field strength is now defined by the units V m–1

Therefore, the units V m–1 are equivalent to the units N C–1
The equation shows:
The greater the voltage (potential difference) between the plates, the stronger the
field
The greater the separation between the plates, the weaker the field

Remember this equation cannot be used to find the electric field strength around a point
charge (since this would be a radial field)
The direction of the electric field is from the plate connected to the positive terminal of the
cell to the plate connected to the negative terminal

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The E field strength between two charged parallel plates is the ratio of the potential YOUR NOTES
difference and separation of the plates 
Note: if one of the parallel plates is earthed, it has a voltage of 0 V

 Worked Example
Two parallel metal plates are separated by 3.5 cm and have a potential difference of
7.9 kV.
Calculate the electric force acting on a stationary charged particle between the
plates that has a charge of 2.6 × 10-15 C.

Step 1: Write down the known values

Potential difference, V = 7.9 kV = 7.9 × 103 V
Distance between plates, d = 3.5 cm = 3.5 × 10-2 m
Charge, Q = 2.6 × 10-15 C
Step 2: Calculate the electric field strength between the parallel plates

Step 3: Write out the equation for electric force on a charged particle
F = QE
Step 4: Substitute electric field strength and charge into electric force equation
F = QE = (2.6 × 10-15) × (2.257 × 105) = 5.87 × 10-10 N = 5.9 × 10-10 N (2 s.f.)

 Exam Tip
Remember the equation for electric field strength with V and d is only used for
parallel plates, and not for point charges (where you would use E = F/Q)

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4.18 Electric Potential for a Radial Field YOUR NOTES


Electric Potential for a Radial Field
Electric Potential Energy
In order to move a positive charge closer to another positive charge, work must be done to
overcome the force of repulsion between them
Similarly, to move a positive charge away from a negative charge, work must be done
to overcome the force of attraction between them
Energy is therefore transferred to the charge that is being pushed upon
This means its potential energy increases
If the positive charge is free to move, it will start to move away from the repelling charge
As a result, its potential energy decreases back to 0
This is analogous to the gravitational potential energy of a mass increasing as it is being
lifted upwards and decreasing as it falls
The electric potential at a point is defined as:
The work done per unit charge in bringing a positive test charge from infinity to that
point
Electric potential is a scalar quantity
This means it doesn’t have a direction
However, you will still see the electric potential with a positive or negative sign. This is
because the electric potential is:
Positive around an isolated positive charge
Negative around an isolated negative charge
Zero at infinity
Positive work is done to move a positive test charge from infinity to a point around a
positive charge and negative work is done to move it to a point around a negative charge.
This means:
When a positive test charge moves closer to a negative charge, its electric potential
decreases
When a positive test charge moves closer to a positive charge, its electric potential
increases

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YOUR NOTES


The electric potential V decreases in the direction the test charge would naturally move
in due to repulsion or attraction
Electric Potential due to a Point Charge
The electric potential in the radial field due to a point charge is defined as:

Where:
V = the electric potential (V)
Q = the point charge producing the potential (C)
ε0 = permittivity of free space (F m-1)
r = distance from the centre of the point charge (m)
This equation shows that for a positive test charge:
As the distance r from the charge Q decreases, the potential V increases (becomes
more positive)
This is because more work has to be done on the positive test charge to overcome the
repulsive force of Q
For a negative test charge:

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As the distance from the charge r decreases, the potential V decreases (becomes YOUR NOTES
more negative) 
This is because less work has to be done on the negative test charge since the
attractive force becomes stronger the nearer it gets to Q

Unlike the gravitational potential equation, the electric potential can be positive or
negative, because Q can be positive or negative
The electric potential varies according to 1 / r
Note, this is different to electric field strength, which varies according to 1 / r2

 Worked Example
The electric potential at a distance r from a proton is V.
What is the value of the electric potential at a distance three-times farther?

Step 1: Write the equation for electric potential

The electric potential is given by the equation:
Q
V=
4πε0 r

Step 2: Write the transformed equation for a distance three times as large
The charge Q remains constant (due to the proton)
The potential V becomes V'
The distance r becomes 3r
Hence the transformed equation becomes:
Q 1 Q 1
V' = = = V
4πε0 (3r) 3 4πε0 r 3

Step 3: Write a conclusion

Therefore, when the distance from a charge Q gets three times larger, the value of the
electric potential decreases by a factor 1/3, because the potential is inversely
proportional to distance r

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 1

Electric potential V is inversely proportional to radial distance, V ∝
r
Electric field strength E is inversely proportional to radial distance squared,
1
E∝
r2
Make sure you remember these variations and that you can describe them in
words!
One way to remember whether the electric potential increases or decreases with
respect to the distance from the charge is by the direction of the electric field lines.
The potential always decreases in the same direction as the field lines and vice
versa.

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4.19 Representing Radial & Uniform Electric Fields YOUR NOTES


Using Field Lines & Equipotential Diagrams
The direction of electric fields is represented by electric field lines
Electric field lines are directed from positive to negative
Therefore, the field lines must be pointed away from the positive charge and towards
the negative charge
Hence, field lines show the direction of force on a positive test charge
Representing Radial Fields
A radial field spreads out from a spherical charge in all directions
e.g. the field around a point charge
Around a point charge, the electric field lines are directly radially inwards or outwards:
If the charge is positive (+), the field lines are radially outwards
If the charge is negative (-), the field lines are radially inwards

Radial electric field lines point away from a positive charge and point towards a negative
charge
This shares many similarities to radial gravitational field lines around a point mass
Since gravity is only attractive, the field lines will look similar to the negative point
charge, directed inward
However, electric field lines can be in either direction
The electric field strength in a radial field follows an inverse square law
This means the field strength varies with distance r by 1 / r2
Representing Uniform Electric Fields
A uniform electric field has the same electric field strength throughout the field
For example, the field between oppositely charged parallel plates
This is represented by equally spaced field lines

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This shares many similarities to uniform gravitational field lines on the surface of a YOUR NOTES
planet 
A non-uniform electric field has varying electric field strength throughout
The strength of an electric field is determined by the spacing of the field lines:
A stronger field is represented by the field lines closer together
A weaker field is represented by the field lines further apart

The electric field between two parallel plates is directed from the positive to the negative
plate. A uniform E field has equally spaced field lines
The electric field lines are directed from the positive to the negative plate
The electric field strength in a uniform field is given by the equation E = V / d
Hence, E proportional to the potential difference V between the plates
E is inversely proportional to the distance d between the plates
Equipotential Diagrams
Equipotential lines (2D) and surfaces (3D) join together points that have the same electric
potential
These are always:
Perpendicular to the electric field lines in both radial and uniform fields
Represented by dotted lines (unlike field lines, which are solid lines with arrows)
The potential gradient is defined by the equipotential lines

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YOUR NOTES


Equipotential lines in a radial field are circles, showing lines of equal potential around a
charge. They intersect radial field lines at 90°

Equipotential lines in a uniform field are straight lines. They too intersect uniform field lines
at 90°

 Worked Example
Sketch the electric field lines between the two point charges in the diagram below.

Electric field lines around point charges are radially outwards for positive charges and
radially inwards for negative charges
The field lines must be drawn with arrows from the positive charge to the negative charge
In a radial field (eg. a point charge), the equipotential lines:
Are concentric circles around the charge
Become further apart further away from the charge
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In a uniform field (eg. between charged parallel plates), the equipotential lines are: YOUR NOTES
Horizontal straight lines 
Parallel
Equally spaced
No work is done when moving along an equipotential line or surface
Work is only done when moving between equipotential lines or surfaces
This means that an object travelling along an equipotential doesn't lose or gain energy
and ΔV = 0

 Exam Tip
Always label the arrows on the field lines! The lines must also touch the surface of the
source charge or plates.

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Capacitance YOUR NOTES


4.20 Capacitance

Capacitance
Capacitors are electrical devices used to store energy in electronic circuits, commonly for a
backup release of energy if the power fails
Capacitors do this by storing electric charge, which creates a build up of electric potential
energy
They are made in the form of two conductive metal plates connected to a voltage supply
(parallel plate capacitor)
There is commonly a dielectric in between the plates, to ensure charge does not flow
across them
The capacitor circuit symbol is:

The capacitor circuit symbol is two parallel lines

Capacitors are marked with a value of their capacitance
Capacitance is defined as:
The charge stored per unit potential difference (between the plates)
The greater the capacitance, the greater the charge stored in the capacitor
The capacitance of a capacitor is defined by the equation:

Where:
C = capacitance (F)
Q = charge stored (C)
V = potential difference across the capacitor plates (V)

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A capacitor used in small circuits YOUR NOTES

Capacitance is measured in the unit Farad (F) 
In practice, 1 F is a very large unit
Often it will be quoted in the order of micro Farads (μF), nanofarads (nF) or picofarads
(pF)
If the capacitor is made of parallel plates, Q is the charge on the plates and V is the potential
difference across the capacitor
The charge Q is not the charge of the capacitor itself, it is the charge stored on the
plates
This capacitance equation shows that an object’s capacitance is the ratio of the charge
stored by the capacitor to the potential difference between the plates

 Worked Example
A parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of 1 nF and is connected to a voltage
supply of 0.3 kV.
Calculate the charge on the plates.

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Capacitance, C = 1 nF = 1 × 10-9 F
Potential difference, V = 0.3 kV = 0.3 × 103 V
Step 2: Write out the equation for capacitance

Step 3: Rearrange for charge Q

Q = CV
Step 4: Substitute in values
Q = (1 × 10-9) × (0.3 × 103) = 3 × 10-7 C = 300 nC

 Exam Tip
The ‘charge stored’ by a capacitor refers to the magnitude of the charge stored on
each plate in a parallel plate capacitor or on the surface of a spherical
conductor. The letter ‘C’ is used both as the symbol for capacitance as well as the
unit of charge (coulombs). Take care not to confuse the two!

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4.21 Energy Stored by a Capacitor YOUR NOTES


Energy Stored by a Capacitor
When charging a capacitor, the power supply 'pushes' electrons to one of the metal plates
It therefore does work on the electrons and electrical energy becomes stored on the
plates
The power supply 'pulls' electrons off of the other metal plate, attracting them to the
positive terminal
This leaves one side positively charged, while the other side becomes negatively
charged
Hence, in this way, charge is 'stored' by the capacitor
Gradually, this stored charge builds up
Adding more electrons to the negative plate at first is relatively easy since there is little
repulsion
As the charge of the negative plate increases, i.e., becomes more negatively charged, the
force of repulsion between the electrons on the plate and the new electrons being pushed
onto it increases
This means a greater amount of work must be done to increase the charge on the negative
plate or in other words:
The potential difference across the capacitor increases as the amount of charge
increases

As the charge on the negative plate builds up, more work needs to be done to add more
charge
Alternative Equations for Energy Stored
The energy stored by a capacitor is given by:
1
W= QV
2
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Substituting the charge Q with the capacitance equation Q = CV, the energy stored can YOUR NOTES
also be calculated by the following equation: 
1
W= CV 2
2
By substituting the potential difference V, the energy stored can also be defined in terms of
just the charge stored Q and the capacitance, C:
Q2
W=
2C

 Worked Example
Calculate the change in the energy stored in a capacitor of capacitance 1500 μF
when the potential difference across the capacitor changes from 10 V to 30 V.

Step 1: Write down the equation for energy stored, in terms of C and V and list the
known values
1
E= CV2
2
Capacitance, C = 1500μF
Final p.d, V2 = 30 V
Initial p.d V1 =10 V
Step 2: The change in energy stored in proportional to the change in p.d
1 1
∆E = C ( ∆ V 2 ) = C (V 2 2 − V 1 2 )
2 2
Step 3: Substitute in the values
1
∆E = (1500 × 10−6) (302 − 202) = 0 . 4 J
2

 Exam Tip
Energy stored or work done are used interchangeably (and sometimes written as E
or W as shown above). You should be comfortable linking the two equivalent ideas -
the energy stored in the capacitor is equal to the work done on it, by the power
supply which charges it. Make sure you can apply each of the three equations given
above!

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Area Under a Potential Difference-Charge Graph YOUR NOTES

The charge stored Q on the capacitor is given by the equation Q = CV 
Therefore, the charge stored Q is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the plates V
The graph of charge against potential difference is therefore a straight line graph through
the origin
The gradient of the graph represents the capacitance C, which is a constant
The electrical (potential) energy stored in the capacitor can be determined from the area
under the potential-charge graph which is equal to the area of a right-angled triangle:
1
Area = × base × height
2

The area under a potential difference-charge graph represents the energy stored by a
capacitor
Therefore the work done, or energy stored W in a capacitor is defined by the equation:
1
W= QV
2
Where:
W = energy stored (J)
Q = charge stored (C)
V = potential difference across the plates (V)

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The variation of the potential V of a charged isolated metal sphere with surface
charge Q is shown on the graph below.

Using the graph, determine the electric potential energy stored on the sphere when
charged to a potential of 100 kV.

Step 1: Determine the charge on the sphere at the potential of 100 kV

From the graph, the charge on the sphere at 100 kV is 1.8 μC

Step 2: Calculate the electric potential energy stored

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The electric potential energy stored is the area under the graph at 100 kV YOUR NOTES
The area is equal to a right-angled triangle, so, can be calculated with the equation: 

Substituting in the values gives:

 Exam Tip
Remember to always check the units of the charge–potential difference graphs. The
charges can often be in µC or the potential difference in kV! The units must be in C
and V to get a work done in J.

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4.22 Charge & Discharge Curves YOUR NOTES


Charge & Discharge Curves
Charging Curves
Capacitors are charged by a power supply (e.g. a battery)
When charging, electrons are 'pulled' from the plate connected to the positive terminal of
the power supply
Hence the plate nearest the positive terminal is positively charged
Oppositely, electrons are 'pushed' onto the plate connected to the negative terminal
Hence the plate nearest the negative terminal is negatively charged
As the negative charge builds up, fewer electrons are pushed onto the plate due to
electrostatic repulsion from the electrons already on the plate
When no more electrons can be pushed onto the negative plate, the charging stops

A parallel plate capacitor is made up of two conductive plates with opposite charges
building up on each plate
At the start of charging, the current is large and gradually falls to zero as the electrons stop
flowing through the circuit
The current decreases exponentially
This means the rate at which the charge decreases is proportional to the amount of
charge it has left
Since an equal but opposite charge builds up on each plate, the potential difference
between the plates slowly increases until it is the same as that of the power supply

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Therefore, the charge stored on the capacitor plates increases until the potential YOUR NOTES
difference across the plates matches that of the power supply 

Graphs of variation of current, p.d and charge with time for a capacitor charging through a
battery
The key features of the charging graphs are:
The shapes of the p.d. and charge against time graphs are identical
The current against time graph is an exponential decay curve
The initial value of the current starts on the y axis and decreases exponentially
The initial value of the p.d and charge starts at 0 up to a maximum value
Discharging Curves
Capacitors are discharged through a resistor with no power supply present
The electrons now flow back from the negative plate to the positive terminal of the power
supply until there is potential difference across the capacitor plates
Charging and discharging is commonly achieved by moving a switch that connects the
capacitor between a power supply and a resistor

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YOUR NOTES


The capacitor charges when connected to terminal P and discharges when connected to
terminal Q
At the start of discharge, the current is large (but in the opposite direction to when it was
charging) and gradually falls to zero
As a capacitor discharges, the current, p.d and charge all decrease exponentially
This means the rate at which the current, p.d or charge decreases is proportional to the
amount of current, p.d or charge it has left
The graphs of the variation with time of current, p.d and charge are all identical and follow a
pattern of exponential decay

Graphs of variation of current, p.d and charge with time for a capacitor discharging through
a resistor
The key features of the discharge graphs are:
The shape of the current, p.d. and charge against time graphs are identical
Each graph shows exponential decay curves with decreasing gradient

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The initial values (typically called I0, V0 and Q0 respectively) start on the y axis and YOUR NOTES
decrease exponentially 
The rate at which a capacitor discharges depends on the resistance of the circuit
If the resistance is high, the current will decrease more slowly and charge will flow
from the capacitor plates more slowly, meaning the capacitor will take longer to
discharge
If the resistance is low, the current will decrease quickly and charge will flow from the
capacitor plates quickly, meaning the capacitor will discharge faster

 Exam Tip
Make sure you're comfortable with sketching and interpreting charging and
discharging graphs, as these are common exam questions. A quick summary to help
you remember:
Discharging curves are all identical
Current decreases for the Charging curve (but increases for potential
difference and charge stored!)

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The Time Constant YOUR NOTES

The time constant of a capacitor discharging through a resistor is a measure of how long it 
takes for the capacitor to discharge
The definition of the time constant for a discharging capacitor is:
The time taken for the charge, current or potential difference of a discharging
capacitor to decrease to 37% of its original value
Alternatively, for a charging capacitor:
The time taken for the charge or potential difference of a charging capacitor to rise
to 63% of its maximum value
37% is 0.37 or 1 / e (where e is the exponential function) multiplied by the original value (I0,
Q0 or V0)
This is represented by the Greek letter tau, τ , and measured in units of seconds (s)
The time constant provides an easy way to compare the rate of change of similar quantities
eg. charge, current and p.d.
It is defined by the equation:
τ = RC
Where:
τ = time constant (s)
R = resistance of the resistor (Ω)
C = capacitance of the capacitor (F)

For example, to find the time constant for a discharging capacitor:

Calculate 0.37V0, where V0 is the initial potential difference across it
Determine the corresponding time taken for the potential difference to decrease to
that value
To find the time constant for a charging capacitor:
Calculate 0.63V0, where V0 is the maximum potential difference across it
Determine the corresponding time taken for the potential difference to rise to that
value

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YOUR NOTES


The time constant shown on a charging and discharging capacitor

 Worked Example
A capacitor of 7 nF is discharged through a resistor of resistance R. The time
constant of the discharge is 5.6 × 10-3 s.
Calculate the value of R.

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Remember to check the context of an exam question, i.e., whether the capacitor

is charging or discharging. The definition of the time constant depends on it!
For a charging capacitor, the time constant refers to the time taken to reach
63% of its maximum potential difference or charge stored
For a discharging capacitor, the time constant refers to the time take to
discharge to 37% of its initial potential difference or charge stored

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4.23 Core Practical 11: Investigating Capacitor Charge & Discharge YOUR NOTES

Required Practical: Charging & Discharging Capacitors
Aim of the Experiment
The overall aim of this experiment is to calculate the capacitance of a capacitor. This is just
one example of how this required practical might be carried out
Variables
Independent variable = time, t
Dependent variable= potential difference, V
Control variables:
Resistance of the resistor
Current in the circuit
Equipment List

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Voltmeter = 0.1 V
Stopwatch = 0.01 s
Method

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YOUR NOTES


1. Set up the apparatus like the circuit above, making sure the switch is not connected to X or
Y (no current should be flowing through)
2. Set the battery pack to a potential difference of 10 V and use a 10 kΩ resistor. The capacitor
should initially be fully discharged
3. Charge the capacitor fully by placing the switch at point X. The voltmeter reading should
read the same voltage as the battery (10 V)
4. Move the switch to point Y
5. Record the voltage reading every 10 s down to a value of 0 V. A total of 8-10 readings
should be taken
An example table might look like this:

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Analysing the Results YOUR NOTES

The potential difference (p.d) across the capacitance is defined by the equation: 

Where:
V = p.d across the capacitor (V)
V0 = initial p.d across the capacitor (V)
t = time (s)
e = exponential function
R = resistance of the resistor (Ω)
C = capacitance of the capacitor (F)
Rearranging this equation for ln(V) by taking the natural log (ln) of both sides:

Comparing this to the equation of a straight line: y = mx + c

y = ln(V)
x=t
gradient = -1/RC
c = ln(V0)
1. Plot a graph of ln(V) against t and draw a line of best fit
2. Calculate the gradient (this should be negative)
3. The capacitance of the capacitor is equal to:

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YOUR NOTES


Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:
If a digital voltmeter is used, wait until the reading is settled on a value if it is switching
between two
If an analogue voltmeter is used, reduce parallax error by reading the p.d at eye level to the
meter
Make sure the voltmeter starts at zero to avoid a zero error
Random Errors:
Use a resistor with a large resistance so the capacitor discharges slowly enough for the
time to be taken accurately at p.d intervals
Using a datalogger will provide more accurate results for the p.d at a certain time. This will
reduce the error in the speed of the reflex needed to stop the stopwatch at a certain p.d
The experiment could be repeated by measuring the time for the capacitor to charge
instead
Safety Considerations
Keep water or any fluids away from the electrical equipment
Make sure no wires or connections are damaged and contain appropriate fuses to avoid a
short circuit or a fire
Using a resistor with too low a resistance will not only mean the capacitor discharges too
quickly but also that the wires will become very hot due to the high current
Capacitors can still retain charge after power is removed which could cause an electric
shock. These should be fully discharged and removed after a few minutes

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A student investigates the relationship between the potential difference and the
time it takes to discharge a capacitor. They obtain the following results:

The capacitor is labelled with a capacitance of 4200 µF. Calculate:

(i) The value of the capacitance of the capacitor discharged.
(ii) The relative percentage error of the value obtained from the graph and this true
value of the capacitance.

Step 1: Complete the table

Add an extra column ln(V) and calculate this for each p.d

Step 2: Plot the graph of ln(V) against average time t

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YOUR NOTES


Make sure the axes are properly labelled and the line of best fit is drawn with a ruler
Step 3: Calculate the gradient of the graph

The gradient is calculated by:

Step 4: Calculate the capacitance, C

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YOUR NOTES


Step 5: Calculate the relative percentage error of the value obtained

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4.24 Exponential Discharge in a Capacitor YOUR NOTES


Exponential Discharge in a Capacitor
The Discharge Equation
When a capacitor discharges through a resistor, the charge stored on it decreases
exponentially
The amount of charge remaining on the capacitor Q after some elapsed time t is governed
by the exponential decay equation:
Q = Q 0 e −(t /RC )

Where:
Q = charge remaining (C)
Q0 = initial charge stored (C)
e = exponential function
t = elapsed time (s)
R = circuit resistance (Ω)
C = capacitance (F)

Discharge Equation for Potential Difference

The exponential decay equation for charge can be used to derive a decay equation for
potential difference
Recall the equation for charge Q = CV
It also follows that the initial charge Q0 = CV0 (where V0 is the initial potential
difference)
Therefore, substituting CV for Q into the original exponential decay equation gives:
CV = CV 0 e −(t /RC )

Cancelling C from both sides gives the exponential decay equation for potential
difference V:
V = V 0 e −(t /RC )

Where:
V = potential difference after some time t (V)
V0 = initial potential difference (V)
t = elapsed time (s)
R = resistance (Ω)
C = capacitance (F)
This equation shows that the potential difference also decreases exponentially, from
some initial value V0

Discharge Equation for Current

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The exponential decay equation for potential difference can be used to derive a decay YOUR NOTES
equation for current 
Recall Ohm's law V = IR
It follows that the initial potential difference V0 = I0R (where I0 is the initial current)
Therefore, substituting IR for V into the decay equation for potential difference gives:
IR = I0 Re −(t /RC )

Cancelling R from both sides gives the exponential decay equation for current I:
I = I0 e −(t /RC )

Where:
I = current after some time t (A)
I0 = initial current (A)
t = elapsed time (s)
R = resistance (Ω)
C = capacitance (F)
This equation shows that the current also decreases exponentially, from some initial value
I0

 Worked Example
A 10 mF capacitor is fully charged by a 12 V power supply and then discharged
through a 1 kΩ resistor.
What is the discharge current after 15 s?

Step 1: Write the known quantities

Initial potential difference V0 = 12 V
Resistance R = 1 kΩ = 1000 Ω
Capacitance C = 10 mF = 0.01 F
Time elapsed = 15 s
Step 2: Determine the initial current I0
Since the initial potential difference is 12 V and the resistance is 1000 Ω, then:
V0 12
I0 = = = 0.012 A
R 1000
Step 3: Write the decay equation for current
The decay equation for current is:
I = I0 e −(t /RC )

Step 4: Substitute quantities and calculate the current after 15 s

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Substituting quantities gives the following: YOUR NOTES

I = (0.012) × (e–(15/(1000 × 0.01)) 

I = (0.012) × (e–1.5)
I = (0.012) × (0.223...)
I = 2.7 × 10–3 A = 2.7 mA

 Exam Tip
Remember you can work out initial quantities like current or potential difference or
charge using the equations:
V0 = I0R
Q0 = CV0
You will then usually have enough information to substitute all necessary values into
the decay equations!

Natural Logarithms & Discharge Equations

The exponential decay equations are not linear
They can be turned into linear equations by using the natural logarithm function
Recall the exponential decay equation for charge:
Q = Q 0 e −(t /RC )

Dividing both sides by Q0 gives:

Q
= e − (t /RC )
Q0

Taking the natural logarithm of both sides 'cancels' the exponential function e, giving:
⎛ Q ⎞⎟ t
ln ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ln ( e −(t /RC ) ) = −
Q RC
⎝ 0 ⎠
This simplifies to:
t
ln Q – ln Q 0 = −
RC
Leaving an equation for the natural logarithm of charge Q as:
1
ln Q = − t + ln Q 0
RC
This is the equation of a straight line graph, where:
ln Q is plotted on the y-axis

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t is plotted on the x-axis YOUR NOTES

The gradient of the line is therefore equal to –1/RC 

The natural logarithm of the exponential decay curve line arises it to a straight-line graph
with a gradient equal to –1/RC
Following similar steps, the linearised versions of the decay equations for potential
difference V is:
1
ln V = – t + ln V 0
RC
And for current I is:
1
ln I = − t + ln I0
RC

 Worked Example
When a capacitor discharges, the voltage V across it varies with time t. A graph
showing the variation of ln V against t is shown for a particular discharging
capacitor.

Use the graph to determine the initial voltage across the capacitor.

Step 1: Write the equation for the linearised decay equation for potential difference
The linearised decay equation for potential difference is given by:
1
ln V = − t + ln V 0
RC

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Step 2: Interpret the graph given using the linearised equation YOUR NOTES
The equation says the y-intercept of the straight line is represented by ln V0 

Step 3: Use the y-intercept to determine the initial voltage

The y-intercept is equal to 2.1
Therefore:
ln V0 = 2.1
Step 4: Cancel the natural logarithm using the exponential function:
Raising both sides using the exponential function e 'cancels' the natural logarithm
This gives:
V0 = e(2.1) = 8.2 V

 Exam Tip
You need to know how to derive decay equations for pd and for current from the
decay equation for charge, as well as how to use and interpret natural logarithm
equations. If you can understand that these natural log equations are linear,
because they can plotted as a graph in the form y = mx + c, then you are well set for
exam questions on this topic! Remember:
The gradient of the straight line is given by -1/RC
The y-intercept of the line represents ln Q0 or ln V0 or ln I0

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Magnetic Fields YOUR NOTES


4.25 Magnetic Flux Density, Flux & Flux Linkage

Magnetic Flux, Flux Density & Flux Linkage

Magnetic Flux Density
The strength of a magnetic field is defined by the density of the magnetic field lines,
or magnetic flux density, at that point
Magnetic flux density is defined by the symbol B
It is measured in Tesla (T)
Rearranging the equation for magnetic force on a wire, the magnetic flux density is defined
by the equation:

Where:
B = magnetic flux density (T)
F = magnetic force on a current-carrying wire (N)
I = current (A)
L = length of the wire (m)
For reference, the Earth's magnetic flux density is around 0.032 mT and an ordinary fridge
magnet is around 5 mT
The magnetic flux density is sometimes referred to as the magnetic field strength

Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux is a quantity which signifies how much of a magnetic field passes
perpendicularly through some area
For example, the amount of magnetic flux through a rotating coil will vary as the coil rotates
in the magnetic field
It is a maximum when the magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the coil area
It is at a minimum when the magnetic field lines are parallel to the coil area
The magnetic flux is defined as:
The product of the magnetic flux density and the cross-sectional area
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic flux density
Magnetic flux is defined by the symbol Φ (greek letter ‘phi’)
It is measured in units of Webers (Wb)
Magnetic flux can be calculated using the equation:
Φ = BA

Where:
Φ = magnetic flux (Wb)

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B = magnetic flux density (T) YOUR NOTES

A = cross-sectional area (m2) 

The magnetic flux is maximised when the magnetic field lines and the area through which
they are passing through are perpendicular
When magnetic flux is not completely perpendicular to the area A, then the component of
magnetic flux density B perpendicular to the area is taken
The equation then becomes:
Φ = BA cos(θ)

Where:
θ = angle between magnetic field lines and the line perpendicular to the plane of the
area (often called the normal line) (degrees)

The magnetic flux decreases as the angle between the field lines and plane decrease

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This means the magnetic flux is: YOUR NOTES

Maximum = BA when cos(θ) =1 therefore θ = 0o. The magnetic field lines are 
perpendicular to the plane of the area
Minimum = 0 when cos(θ) = 0 therefore θ = 90o. The magnetic fields lines are parallel to
the plane of the area
An e.m.f is induced in a circuit when the magnetic flux linkage changes with respect to time
This means an e.m.f is induced when there is:
A changing magnetic flux density B
A changing cross-sectional area A
A change in angle θ

Flux Linkage
The magnetic flux linkage is a quantity commonly used for solenoids which are made of N
turns of wire
The flux linkage is defined as:
The product of the magnetic flux and the number of turns of the coil
It is calculated using the equation:
Flux linkage = ΦN = BAN
Where:
Φ = magnetic flux (Wb)
N = number of turns of the coil
B = magnetic flux density (T)
A = cross-sectional area (m2)

The flux linkage ΦN has the units of Weber turns (Wb turns)

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

An aluminium window frame has a width of 40 cm and length of 73 cm as shown in
the figure below

The frame is hinged along the vertical edge AC. When the window is closed, the
frame is normal to the Earth’s magnetic field with magnetic flux density 1.8 × 10-5 T
a) Calculate the magnetic flux through the window when it is closed
b) Sketch the graph of the magnetic flux against angle between the field lines and
the normal when the window is opened and rotated by 180°

Part (a)
Step 1: Write out the known quantities
Cross-sectional area, A = 40 cm × 73 cm = (40 × 10-2) × (73 × 10-2) = 0.292 m2
Magnetic flux density, B = 1.8 × 10-5 T
Step 2: Write down the equation for magnetic flux
Φ = BA

Step 3: Substitute in values

Φ = (1.8 × 10-5) × 0.292 = 5.256 × 10-6 = 5.3 × 10-6 Wb

Part (b)
The magnetic flux will be at a minimum when the window is opened by 90o and a
maximum when fully closed or opened to 180o

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YOUR NOTES


 Worked Example
A solenoid of circular cross-sectional radius 0.40 m and 300 turns is placed
perpendicular to a magnetic field with a magnetic flux density of 5.1 mT.
Determine the magnetic flux linkage for this solenoid.

Step 1: Write out the known quantities

Cross-sectional area, A = πr2 = π(0.4)2 = 0.503 m2
Magnetic flux density, B = 5.1 mT
Number of turns of the coil, N = 300 turns
Step 2: Write down the equation for the magnetic flux linkage
ΦN = BAN

Step 3: Substitute in values and calculate

ΦN = (5.1 × 10-3) × 0.503 × 300 = 0.7691 = 0.8 Wb turns (2 s.f)

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Consider carefully the value of θ, it is the angle between the field lines and the line

normal (perpendicular) to the plane of the area the field lines are passing through. If
it helps, drawing the normal on the area provided will help visualise the correct angle.
Just like for magnetic flux, the flux linkage through a coil may not be entirely
perpendicular.

The magnetic flux linkage through a rectangular coil decreases as the angle
between the field lines and a normal line to the coil plane decreases
In this case, you can just substitute the equation for B into the equation for φN, such
that the flux linkage is calculated by:
ΦN = BAN cos θ
As before, you should remember that since cos (0°) = 1, the flux linkage is a maximum
when the angle θ is zero. This means the flux and coil face are perpendicular (i.e. the
normal line to the coil face and the flux lines are parallel).

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4.26 Magnetic Force on a Charged Particle YOUR NOTES


Magnetic Force on a Charged Particle
The magnetic force on an isolated moving charged particle, such as a proton, is given by
the equation:
F = BQv
Where:
F = magnetic force on the particle (N)
B = magnetic flux density (T)
Q = charge of the particle (C)
v = speed of the particle (m s-1)
This is the maximum force on the charged particle, when F, B and v are mutually
perpendicular
Therefore if a particle travels parallel to a magnetic field, it will not experience a
magnetic force

Current is the rate of flow of positive charge

This means that the direction of the 'current' for a flow of negative charge (e.g. an
electron beam) is in the opposite direction to its motion
If the charged particle is moving at an angle θ to the magnetic field lines, then the size of the
magnetic force F is given by the equation:
F = BQv sin θ
This equation shows that:
The size of the magnetic force is zero if the angle θ is zero (i.e. the particle moves
parallel to the field lines)
The size of the magnetic force is maximum if the angle θ is 90° (i.e. the particle
moves perpendicular to field lines)

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A beta particle is incident at 70° to a magnetic field of flux density 0.5 mT, travelling
at a speed of 1.5 × 106 m s–1.

Calculate:
a) The magnitude of the magnetic force on the beta particle
b) The magnitude of the maximum possible force on a beta particle in this
magnetic field, travelling with the same speed

Part (a)
Step 1: Write out the known quantities
Magnetic flux density B = 0.5 mT = 0.5 × 10–3 T
Speed v = 1.5 × 106 m s–1
Angle θ between the flux and the velocity = 70°
Step 2: Substitute quantities into the equation for magnetic force on a charged particle
A beta particle is an electron
Therefore, the magnitude of electron charge Q = 1.6 × 10–19 C
Substituting values gives:
F = BQv sin θ
F = (0.5 × 10–3) × (1.6 × 10–19) × (1.5 × 106) × sin (70)
F = 1.1 × 10–16 N
Part (b)
Step 1: Write out the known quantities
Magnetic flux density B = 0.5 mT = 0.5 × 10–3 T
Speed v = 1.5 × 106 m s–1
Step 2: Determine the angle to the flux lines
Angle θ between the flux and the velocity = 90° if the magnetic force is a maximum

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Step 3: Substitute quantities into the equation for magnetic force on a charged particle YOUR NOTES
The magnitude of electron charge Q = 1.6 × 10–19 C 
Substituting values gives:
F = BQv sin θ = BQv when sin 90 = 1
F = (0.5 × 10–3) × (1.6 × 10–19) × (1.5 × 106)
F = 1.2 × 10–16 N

 Exam Tip
Remember not to mix this up with F = BIL sin θ!
F = BIL sin θ is the force on a current-carrying conductor
F = BQv sin θ is the force on an isolated moving charged particle (which may be
inside a conductor)
Another super important fact to remember for typical exam questions is that the
magnetic force on a charged particle is centripetal, because it always acts at
90° to the particle's velocity. You should practise using Fleming's Left Hand Rule to
determine the exact direction!

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Fleming's Left Hand Rule for a Charged Particle YOUR NOTES

Fleming’s left hand rule can be used to determine the direction of the magnetic force on a 
moving charged particle in a magnetic field
The First Finger = direction of the magnetic field
The Second Finger = direction of conventional current (i.e. the velocity of a moving
positive charge)
The Thumb = direction of the magnetic force
Fleming's Left Hand Rule is illustrated in the image below:

Fleming's Left Hand Rule shows the magnetic force, magnetic field and conventional
current (flow of positive charge) are all perpendicular to each other

Since this is represented in 3D space, sometimes the flow of charge, magnetic force or
magnetic field could be directed into or out of the page, not just left, right, up and down
The direction of the magnetic field into or out of the page in 3D is represented by the
following symbols:
Dots (sometimes with a circle around them) represent the magnetic field directed out
of the plane of the page
Crosses represent the magnetic field directed into the plane of the page

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YOUR NOTES


The magnetic field into or out of the page is represented by circles with dots or crosses
The way to remember this is by imagining an arrow used in archery or darts:
If the arrow is approaching head-on, such as out of a page, only the very tip of the
arrow can be seen (a dot)
When the arrow is moving away, such as into a page, only the cross of the feathers at
the back can be seen (a cross)

An Electron Moving in a Magnetic Field

The maximum magnetic force on a moving charged particle is always perpendicular to its
velocity
This means magnetic forces cause charged particles to move in a circle
The direction of magnetic force on the charged particle can be determined using Fleming's
Left Hand Rule
The image below shows an electron incident on a uniform magnetic field B directed
into the page:

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YOUR NOTES


An electron moving to the left as shown is equivalent to a conventional positive charge or

current moving to the right. Using Fleming's Left Hand Rule, the direction of the force can be
determined
According to Fleming's Left Hand Rule:
B is directed into the page, therefore the first finger should point into the page
The conventional current (or velocity of a positive charge) is directed to the right
(because an electron is moving to the left), therefore the second finger should point to
the right
Therefore, the force on the electron as shown by the thumb is initially upwards as it
enters the magnetic field
The force due to the magnetic field is always perpendicular to the velocity of the electron
Note: this is equivalent to circular motion
Therefore, the magnetic force on a moving charge is a centripetal force
The centripetal force is what keeps moving charges following a circular trajectory
Examples of the direction of the magnetic force on positive and negative particles are:

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YOUR NOTES


The direction of the magnetic force F on positive and negative particles in a B field in and out
of the page
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule can be used again to find the direction of the force, magnetic field
and velocity
The key difference is that the second finger, representing current I (direction of positive
charge), can now be used as the direction of velocity v of a positive charge

 Exam Tip
The most important point when using Fleming's left hand rule is the direction of
the charge (or current flow). This is always the direction of positive charge.
Therefore, for electrons, or negatively charged ions, you should point your second
finger for the current in the opposite direction to its motion.

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4.27 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor YOUR NOTES


Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
A current-carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field
An external magnetic field will therefore exert a magnetic force on it
A current-carrying conductor (eg. a wire) will experience the maximum magnetic force if the
current through it is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic flux lines
A simple situation would be a copper rod placed within a uniform magnetic field
When current is passed through the copper rod, it experiences a force which makes it
accelerate

A copper rod moves within a magnetic field when current is passed through it
The force F on a conductor carrying current I in a magnetic field with flux density B is defined
by the equation
F = BIL sin θ
Where:
F = magnetic force on the current-carrying conductor (N)
B = magnetic flux density of external magnetic field (T)
I = current in the conductor (A)
L = length of the conductor in the field (m)
θ = angle between the conductor and external flux lines (degrees)

This equation shows that the magnitude of the magnetic force F is proportional to:
Current I
Magnetic flux density B
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Length of conductor in the field L YOUR NOTES

The sine of the angle θ between the conductor and the magnetic flux lines 

Magnitude of the force on a current carrying conductor depends on the angle of the
conductor to the external B field
The maximum force occurs when sin θ = 1
This means θ = 90o and the conductor is perpendicular to the B field
This equation for the magnetic force now becomes:
F = BIL
The minimum force (0) is when sin θ = 0
This means θ = 0o and the conductor is parallel to the B field
It is important to note that a current-carrying conductor will experience no force if the
current in the conductor is parallel to the field

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A current of 0.87 A flows in a wire of length 1.4 m placed at 30o to a magnetic field of
flux density 80 mT.
Calculate the force on the wire.

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Magnetic flux density, B = 80 mT = 80 × 10-3 T
Current, I = 0.87 A
Length of wire, L = 1.4 m
Angle between the wire and the magnetic flux lines, θ = 30o
Step 2: Write down the equation for the magnetic force on a current-carrying
conductor
F = BIL sin θ
Step 3: Substitute in values and calculate
F = (80 × 10-3) × (0.87) × (1.4) × sin (30) = 0.04872 = 0.049 N (2 s.f)

 Exam Tip
Remember that the direction of current is the flow of positive charge (i.e.
conventional current) and this is in the opposite direction to the flow of electrons
(i.e. electron flow)!

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Fleming's Left Hand Rule for a Current-Carrying Conductor YOUR NOTES

Fleming's Left Hand Rule was previously used to determine the direction of the magnetic 
force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field
It can also be used to determine the direction of the magnetic force on a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field
This is because inside a conductor (e.g. a wire) there are many charged particles
flowing as a current
As a reminder, the image representing Fleming's Left Hand Rule is shown below:

Fleming's Left Hand Rule. Remember, current is the flow of conventional current (i.e.
positive to negative)
Using the conventional symbols representing vectors like magnetic flux density B and
force F that go into the page (arrows) or out of the page (dots) we can apply Fleming's Left
Hand Rule to problems in 3D

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A current flows perpendicularly to a uniform magnetic field as shown in the diagram
below.

As a result, the conductor carrying the current experiences a magnetic force, F.

Determine the direction of the current flowing in the conductor.

Step 1: Apply the instructions for Fleming's Left Hand Rule

Using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule for the quantities given:
First finger is the magnetic field, B = into the page (or screen!)
Thumb is the direction of the magnetic force F = vertically downwards
Step 2: Determine the direction of the conventional current
The first finger should be pointing into the page (or screen!) along the direction of the
field
Rotating the entire hand allows the thumb to point downwards, along the direction of
force
The second finger should be pointing towards the left of the page (or screen!)
This is the direction of conventional current in the wire, i.e., from right to left

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 You will certainly need to apply Fleming's Left Hand Rule in your examination, at

some point, whenever there is a current or charge flowing in a magnetic field.
Remember, it is used to give the direction of either the magnetic force F, the
magnetic field B, or the conventional current (or flow of positive charge) I.
As ever, you will gain more confidence twisting your arm in funny positions with three
fingers at right-angles the more questions you practise: the more, the better!

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4.28 Induced E.M.F in a Moving Coil YOUR NOTES


Induced E.M.F in a Moving Coil
Electromagnetic induction is a phenomenon which occurs when an e.m.f is induced when a
conductor moves through a magnetic field
If there is a change in magnetic flux Φ or magnetic flux linkage NΦ
Mechanical work (from moving the conductor in the field) is transformed into
electrical energy
Therefore, if attached to a complete circuit, a current will be induced in the conductor
This is known as electromagnetic induction and is defined as:
The process in which an e.m.f is induced in a closed circuit due to changes in
magnetic flux (linkage)
This can occur either when:
A conductor cuts through a magnetic field
The magnetic flux (linkage) through a coil changes, e.g. becomes more or less dense,
or changes direction
Electromagnetic induction is used in:
Electrical generators which convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
Transformers which are used in electrical power transmission
This phenomenon can easily be demonstrated with a magnet and a coil, or a wire and two
magnets
Relative Motion between a Coil and a Magnet
When a coil is connected to a sensitive voltmeter, a bar magnet can be moved in and out of
the coil to induce an e.m.f in the coil

A bar magnet is moved through a coil connected to a voltmeter to induce an e.m.f

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The observations are: YOUR NOTES

When the bar magnet is not moving, the voltmeter shows a zero reading 
When the bar magnet is held still inside, or outside, the coil, the rate of change of flux is
zero, so, there is no e.m.f induced
When the bar magnet begins to move inside the coil, there is a reading on the voltmeter
As the bar magnet moves, its magnetic field lines ‘cut through’ the coil, generating a
change in magnetic flux (ΔΦ)
This induces an e.m.f within the coil, shown momentarily by the reading on the
voltmeter
When the bar magnet is taken back out of the coil, an e.m.f is induced in the opposite
direction
As the magnet changes direction, the direction of the current changes
The voltmeter will momentarily show a reading with the opposite sign
Increasing the speed of the magnet induces an e.m.f with a higher magnitude
As the speed of the magnet increases, the rate of change of flux increases
The direction of the electric current, and e.m.f, induced in the conductor is such that it
opposes the change that produces it

An e.m.f is induced only when the bar magnet is moving through the coil
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Factors that will increase the induced e.m.f are: YOUR NOTES
Moving the magnet faster through the coil 
Adding more turns to the coil
Increasing the strength of the bar magnet
Rotating Coils
When a coil rotates in a uniform magnetic field, the magnetic flux through the coil will vary
as it rotates
Therefore, since the flux linkage through the coil also varies, this will induce an e.m.f that
also varies
The maximum e.m.f is when the coil cuts through the most field lines
The varying e.m.f induced is called an alternating voltage

Even though the flux linkage through the coil is maximum when θ = 0°, the change in flux
linkage is minimal as the coil rotates, so the induced e.m.f is a minimum. The opposite is true
when θ = 90°
Increasing the coil's frequency of rotation increases:
The frequency of the alternating voltage
The amplitude of the alternating voltage

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4.29 Induced E.M.F between Linked Coils YOUR NOTES


Induced E.M.F between Linked Coils
An e.m.f can be induced in a coil when there is a change of current in another coil linked with
this coil
This is what happens in a transformer
Transformers
A transformer is a device that works by the principles of electromagnetic induction
It changes high alternating voltages at low current to low alternating voltage at high
current, and vice versa
A transformer is made up of:
A primary coil
A secondary coil
An iron core
The primary and secondary coils are wound around the soft iron core
The soft iron core is necessary because it creates flux linkage between the primary
and secondary coils
Soft iron is used because it can easily be magnetised and demagnetised

Coils are magnetically linked, through their combined magnetic flux linkage, using a soft
iron core
In the primary coil, an alternating current producing an alternating voltage is applied
This creates an alternating magnetic field inside the iron core and therefore a
changing magnetic flux linkage
A changing magnetic field passes through to the secondary coil through the iron core
This results in a changing magnetic flux linkage in the secondary coil and from
Faraday's Law, an e.m.f is induced
An e.m.f produces an alternating output voltage from the secondary coil
The output alternating voltage is at the same frequency as the input voltage

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

When connected to a DC power supply, the primary coil of a transformer becomes
an electromagnet.
Describe the changes which take place inside the secondary coil of a transformer
when DC current in the primary coil is:
a) Switched on
b) Remains on
c) Switched off

Part (a)
Step 1: Describe the creation of an electromagnet
When current is switched on a magnetic field is produced around the primary coil
Step 2: Describe the change in magnetic flux linkage and induced e.m.f
Magnetic flux is linked to the secondary coil
Changing magnetic flux through the secondary coil induces an e.m.f in it
This causes a current to flow (momentarily)
Part (b)
Step 1: Describe the non-change in magnetic flux linkage
While the current in the primary coil remains on, there is no change in magnetic flux
linkage through the secondary coil
Step 2: Describe the effect on induced e.m.f and current
Therefore, the induced e.m.f (and therefore, the current in it) reduces to zero
Part (c)
Step 1: Describe the electromagnet 'switching off'
When current is switched off the primary coil is no longer an electromagnet
Therefore, the magnetic field around it vanishes
Step 2: Describe the change in magnetic flux linkage and induced e.m.f
Magnetic flux is no longer linked to the secondary coil
As the current switches off, changing magnetic flux through the secondary coil (as it
reduces to zero) induces an e.m.f in in the opposite direction to part (a)
A current (momentarily) flows in in the opposite direction to part (a)

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Explaining the link in e.m.f in both sets of coil in a transformer are very common exam

questions. Make sure you've mentioned every point, including the words 'change' in
flux linkage and induced e.m.f. You must be specific with your terminology for full
marks.

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4.30 Faraday & Lenz's Law YOUR NOTES


Faraday and Lenz's Law
Faraday's Law
Faraday's Law connects the rate of change of flux linkage with induced e.m.f
It is defined in words as:
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linkage
Faraday's Law as an equation is defined as:
Δ(NΦ )
ε=
Δt
Where:
ε = induced e.m.f (V)
Δ(Nɸ) = change in flux linkage (Wb turns)
Δt = time interval (s)
If the interval of time becomes very small (i.e., in the limit of Δt → 0) the equation for
Faraday's Law can be written as:
d (NΦ )
ε=
dt

Lenz's Law
Lenz’s Law is used to predict the direction of an induced e.m.f in a coil or wire
Lenz's Law is summarised below:
The induced e.m.f is set up in a direction to produce effects that oppose the
change causing it
Lenz's Law can be experimentally verified using:
A bar magnet
A coil of wire
A sensitive ammeter

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YOUR NOTES


Lenz’s law can be verified using a coil connected in series with a sensitive ammeter and a bar
magnet
A known pole (either north or south) of a bar magnet is pushed into the coil
This induces an e.m.f in the coil
The induced e.m.f drives a current (because it is a complete circuit)
Lenz's Law dictates:
The direction of the e.m.f, and hence the current, must be set up to oppose the
incoming magnet
Since a north pole approaches the coil face, the e.m.f must be set up to create an
induced north pole
This is because two north poles will repel each other
The direction of the current is therefore as shown in the image above
The direction of current can be verified using the right hand grip rule
Fingers curl around the coil in the direction of current and the thumb points along the
direction of the flux lines, from north to south
Therefore, the current flows in an anti-clockwise direction in the image shown, in order
to induce a north pole opposing the incoming magnet
Combining Lenz's Law and Faraday's Law
Combining Lenz's Law into the equation for Faraday's Law is written as:
d (NΦ )
ε=−
dt
The negative sign represents Lenz's Law
This is because it shows the induced e.m.f ε is set up in an 'opposite direction' to
oppose the changing flux linkage
This equation also shows that the gradient of the graph of magnetic flux (linkage) against
Δ(NΦ )
time, represents the magnitude of the induced e.m.f
Δt
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Note: the negative sign means if the gradient is positive, the induced e.m.f is negative YOUR NOTES
This is again due to Lenz's Law, which says the e.m.f is set up to oppose the effects of 
the changing flux linkage

 Worked Example
A small rectangular coil contains 350 turns of wire. The longer sides are 3.5 cm and
the shorter sides are 1.4 cm.

The coil is held between the poles of a large magnet so that it can rotate about an
axis through its centre. The magnet produces a uniform magnetic field of flux
density 80 mT between its poles. The coil is positioned horizontally and then turned
through an angle of 90° in a time of 0.18 s.
Calculate the magnitude of the average e.m.f induced in the coil.

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Magnetic flux density, B = 80 mT = 80 × 10-3 T
Area, A = 3.5 × 1.4 = (3.5 × 10-2) × (1.4 × 10-2) = 4.9 × 10-4 m2
Number of turns, N = 350
Time interval, Δt = 0.18 s
Step 2: Write out the equation for Faraday’s law:
Δ(NΦ )
ε=
Δt
Step 3: Write out the equation for the change in flux linkage:
The number of turns N and the coil area A stay constant
The flux through the coil changes as it rotates
Therefore, the change in flux linkage can be written as:
Δ(NΦ) = NA(ΔB)
Step 4: Determine the change in magnetic flux linkage
The initial flux through the coil is zero (flux lines are parallel to the coil face)
The final flux through the coil is 80 mT (flux lines are perpendicular to the coil face)
This is because the coil begins horizontally in the field and is rotated 90°
Therefore, the change in flux linkage is:
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Δ(NΦ) = NA(ΔB) = 350 × (4.9 × 10-4) × (80 × 10-3) = 0.014 Wb turns YOUR NOTES
Step 5: Substitute change in flux linkage and time into Faraday’s law equation: 

0 . 014
ε= = 0.076 V
0 . 18

 Exam Tip
The 'magnitude' of the e.m.f just means its size, rather than its direction. This is often
what is required in exam questions, so the minus sign in Lenz's law is not necessarily
required in calculations. However, you may be expected to explain the significance
of the negative sign in the equation, so be prepared to interpret it as an expression of
Lenz's Law!
Remember that 'd' and the greek letter delta, 'Δ', simply mean 'change in'.

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Exploring the Structure of Matter YOUR NOTES


4.31 Nucleon & Proton Number

Nucleon & Proton Number

Atomic symbols are written in a specific notation as shown below:

Atomic symbols show the proton number and nucleon number

The top number A represents the nucleon number or the mass number
Nucleon number (A) = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
The lower number Z represents the proton or atomic number
Proton number (Z) = total number of protons in the nucleus
Note: In Chemistry, the nucleon number is referred to as the mass number and the proton
number as the atomic number. The periodic table is ordered by atomic number
Isotopes
Although all atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons (and
hence electrons), the number of neutrons can vary
An isotope is an atom (of the same element) that has an equal number of protons but a
different number of neutrons
For example, hydrogen has two isotopes: deuterium and tritium. Both isotopes have
a proton number of 1
Deuterium has one neutron, so its nucleon number is 2
Tritium has two neutrons, so its nucleon number is 3

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example


 Exam Tip
Remember which number in the chemical notation is the nucleon number and proton
number is vital for many topics involving particle decays e.g. radioactivity. The most
common mistake is thinking the nucleon number is the number of neutrons, the
number of neutrons is calculated by:
number of neutrons = nucleon number – proton number
In all neutral (uncharged) atoms, the number of protons = number of electrons.

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4.32 The Nuclear Model of the Atom YOUR NOTES


Alpha Particle Scattering
Evidence for the structure of the atom was discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the
beginning of the 20th century from the study of alpha particle scattering
This structure is commonly referred to as the 'nuclear model' of the atom
The experimental setup consists of alpha particles fired at thin gold foil and a detector on
the other side to detect how many particles deflected at different angles

Alpha particle scattering experiment set up

α-particles are the nucleus of a helium atom and are positively charged

When α-particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through but a small
number bounce straight back
The results from this experiment are summarised as follows:

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The majority of α-particles went straight through the gold foil without deflection (A) YOUR NOTES
This suggested the atom is mainly empty space 
Some α-particles deflected through small angles of < 10o (B)
This suggested there is a positive nucleus at the centre (since two positive charges
would repel)
Only a small number of α-particles deflected straight back at angles of > 90o (C)
This suggested the nucleus is extremely small and this is where the mass and charge of
the atom is concentrated
It was therefore concluded that atoms consist of small dense positively charged
nuclei

Since atoms were known to be neutral, the negative electrons were thought to be on a
positive sphere of charge (plum pudding model) before the nucleus was theorised
Now it is known that the negative electrons are orbiting the nucleus. Collectively, these
make up the atom

An atom: a small, dense, positive nucleus, surrounded by negative electrons

Note: The atom is around 100,000 times larger than the nucleus!

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

In an α-particle scattering experiment, a student set up the apparatus below to
determine the number n of α-particle incident per unit time on a detector held at
various angles θ.

Which of the

following graphs best represents the variation of n with θ from 0 to 90°?

ANSWER: A
The Rutherford scattering experiment directed parallel beams of α-particles at gold foil
The observations were:
Most of the α-particles went straight through the foil
The largest value of n will therefore be at small angles
Some of the α-particles were deflected through small angles
n drops quickly with increasing angle of deflection θ
These observations fit with graph A

 Exam Tip
Make sure you can recall all the different results from the experiment and what they
have told us about the structure of the atom, as this is a common exam question.

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Changing Models of Atomic Structure YOUR NOTES

Our understanding of atomic structure has changed over time in the following ways: 
John Dalton’s Model (1803)
Dalton imagined that all matter was made of tiny solid particles called atoms
Dalton’s model proposed:
Atoms are the smallest constituents of matter and cannot be broken down any further
Atoms of a given element are identical to each other and atoms of different elements
are different from one another
When chemical reactions occur, the atoms rearrange to make different substances

J.J. Thomson’s Model (1897)

Thomson discovered the electron
He then went on to propose the ‘plum pudding’ model of the atom
In this model:
The atom consists of positive and negative charges in equal amounts so that it is
neutral overall
They were modelled as spheres of positive charge with uniformly distributed charge
and density. The negatively charged electrons were thought to be stuck to the sphere
like currants in a plum pudding
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment (1909 – 1911)
Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden set out to test the plum pudding model
They aimed beams of positively charged particles (alpha particles) at very thin gold foil
According to the plum pudding model, these particles should have passed straight
through, However, many of them were backscattered
Ernest Rutherford explained these results in his ‘planetary model of atom’ which states:
Atoms have a central, positively charged nucleus containing the majority of the mass
Electrons orbit the nucleus, like planets around a star
Neils Bohr’s Model (1913)
Bohr improved upon Rutherford’s planetary model
Using mathematical ideas, he showed that electrons occupy shells or energy levels
around the nucleus
These are at particular distances from the nucleus

Quantum Mechanical Model (1926)

Erwin Schrödinger took Bohr's model further and used equations to calculate the likelihood
of finding an electron in a certain position
This model can be portrayed as a nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud. Where the
cloud is most dense, the probability of finding the electron is greatest and vice versa
The atom was thought to only have a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively
charged electrons. James Chadwick then discovered the neutron in 1932, which completes
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the model of the atom we know today YOUR NOTES



Timeline of the changing models of the atom

 Exam Tip
Although you won't be expected to memorise specific dates or names of the
scientists, it is good to know the rough order of the types of models and how they
differ from each other.

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4.33 Thermionic Emission YOUR NOTES


Thermionic Emission
When metals are heated, the conduction electrons within them gain energy
If these electrons gain sufficient energy, they are able to leave the surface of the metal
This is known as thermionic emission
This is similar to the photoelectric effect, but the energy absorbed by electrons in this
case is due to thermal energy, rather than the energy absorbed by incident photons
Once electrons are released from a metal surface they may be accelerated by electric or
magnetic fields

Electrons are emitted from the (negative) cathode and accelerated to the (positive) anode

 Worked Example
Electron guns use electric fields to accelerate electrons to very high speeds.
Show that an electron accelerated from rest across a potential difference of 5.0 kV
attains a speed of 4.2 × 107 m s–1.
Use the following data:
Mass of an electron me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg
Electron charge e = 1.6 × 10–19 C

Step 1: List the known quantities

Potential difference = 5 kV = 5000 V
Mass of an electron, me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg
Electron charge e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
Step 2: Equate the kinetic energy gained by the electron to the energy transferred
across the potential difference
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Potential difference V is the energy transferred W per unit of charge Q, or V =

W YOUR NOTES
Q 
Since the charge in this case is an electron, Q = e and so W = eV
Therefore, the kinetic energy gained is equal to eV so we can write:
1
mv 2 = eV
2
Step 3: Make speed v the subject of the equation
Rearranging this equation for v gives:
mv 2 = 2eV
2eV
v2 =
m

2eV
v=
m
Step 4: Substitute quantities and calculate the speed v
Substituting known quantities gives:

2 × (1 . 6 × 10−19 ) × 5000
v= = 41 908 313... = 4.2 × 107 m s–1
(9 . 11 × 10−31 )

 Exam Tip
Examiners commonly test if candidates can equate the energy gained across a
potential difference with the kinetic energy of a particle, as we did here. Make sure
you can combine the equations for kinetic energy and potential energy in order to
calculate speed like we did here!

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4.34 Particle Accelerators & Detectors YOUR NOTES


Particle Accelerators & Detectors
Linear Accelerators
A linear accelerator (LINAC) is a type of particle accelerator that accelerates ions (charged
particles) to very high speeds in straight lines
LINACs use electric fields within and between metallic tubes which act as oppositely
charged electrodes
The high-energy ions produced are used in collider experiments
These experiments enable the internal structure of atoms and subatomic particles to
be investigated
LINACs are comprised of a series of hollow cylindrical tubes

Linacs accelerate ions through progressively longer tubes, connected to an alternating

power supply. This ensures they are always accelerating from one tube to the next
An AC power supply is connected across each tube to ensure ions are always accelerated
from one to the next
The ions will be attracted to the midpoint of a tube
At this point, the AC supply will switch such that the ions are repelled to the exit, and
attracted to the next tube
This process continues in a straight line all the way to the end of the accelerator
The frequency of the AC supply is fixed
This means the polarity (positive or negative charge) of each tube switches at a
constant rate
Therefore, each tube must be built successively longer
This is because the ions are speeding up
Hence, this ensures ions spend the same amount of time under acceleration in each
tube
Cyclotrons
A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator that accelerates ions from a central entry point
around a spiral path
They are used for medical research such as:
Producing medical isotopes (tracers)
Creating high-energy beams of radiation for radiotherapy
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Cyclotrons are comprised of: YOUR NOTES

Two hollow semicircular electrodes called 'dees' 
A uniform magnetic field applied perpendicular to the electrodes
An AC power supply applied across each dee, which creates an electric field in the
gap between them

A cyclotron uses magnetic fields and electric fields to accelerate charged particles, like
protons. The magnetic fields keep protons in a circular path, and the electric field increases
their speed
The process of accelerating an ion in a cyclotron is:
A source of charged particles is placed at the centre of the cyclotron and they are fired
into one of the dees
The magnetic field in the electrode makes them follow a circular path, since it is
perpendicular to their motion until they eventually leave the electrode
The potential difference applied between the electrode accelerates the ions across
the gap to the next dee (since there is an electric field in the gap)
In the next dee, the ions continue moving in a circular path within the magnetic field
The potential difference is then reversed so the ions again accelerate across the gap
This process is repeated as the particles spiral outwards and eventually have a speed
large enough to exit the cyclotron
The alternating potential difference is needed to accelerate the particles across the gap
between opposite electrodes
Otherwise, the ions would only speed up in one direction
Particle Detectors

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When charged particles move through any medium, such as a gas, they transfer energy to YOUR NOTES
it 
This is usually through the process of ionisation
High-energy ions transfer some of their energy to surrounding atoms, removing
electrons
The ions and electrons produced are then accelerated by applied electric fields
Once these are discharged they form pulses of electric current
Each pulse of electricity is counted by electronic counters connected by electrodes
'Counts' are then interpreted as detection of individual particles
Ionisation is the principle by which many particle detectors operate, such as in:
Geiger-Muller tubes
Spark chambers
Gas and cloud chambers
The particles are sometimes deflected meaning they are also scattered
This can cause multiple scattering of the particle in the material

 Exam Tip
Make sure you can distinguish between the two types of particle accelerator:
remember, LINACs only use electric fields (to accelerate ions in straight lines)
whereas cyclotrons use both electric fields and magnetic fields.
In particle detectors, you only need to describe the two key principles which allow
scientists to detect particles: ionisation and deflection (by applied electric fields).

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4.35 Radius of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field YOUR NOTES


Radius of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
A charged particle in uniform magnetic field which is perpendicular to its direction of
motion travels in a circular path
This is because the magnetic force F is always perpendicular to its velocity v
F will always be directed towards the centre of orbit

A charged particle travels in a circular path in a magnetic field

The magnetic force F provides the centripetal force on the particle
The equation for centripetal force is:

Where:
F = centripetal force (N)
m = mass of the particle (kg)
v = linear velocity of the particle (m s–1)
r = radius of orbit (m)

Equating this to the magnetic force on a moving charged particle gives the equation:

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YOUR NOTES

Rearranging for the radius r obtains the equation for the radius of the orbit of a charged
particle in a perpendicular magnetic field:

The product of mass m and velocity v is momentum p

Therefore, the radius of the charged particle in a magnetic field can also be written as:
p
r=
Bq
Where:
r = radius of orbit (m)
p = momentum of charged particle (kg m s–1)
B = magnetic field strength (T)
q = charge of particle (C)
This equation shows that:
Particles with a larger momentum (either larger mass m or speed v) move in larger
circles, since r ∝ p
Particles with greater charge q move in smaller circles: r ∝ 1 / q
Particles moving in a strong magnetic field B move in smaller circles: r ∝ 1 / B

 Worked Example
An electron with charge-to-mass ratio of 1.8 × 1011 C kg-1 is travelling at right angles
to a uniform magnetic field of flux density 6.2 mT. The speed of the electron is 3.0 ×
106 m s-1.
Calculate the radius of the circular path travelled by the electron.

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
Make sure you're comfortable with deriving the equation for the radius of the path of
a charged particle travelling in a magnetic field, as this is a common exam question.
Crucially, the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity of a charged
particle. Hence, it is a centripetal force and the equations for circular motion can be
applied.

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4.36 Interpreting Particle Tracks YOUR NOTES


Interpreting Particle Tracks
Particle detectors that count particles, like Geiger-Muller tubes, are useful but they cannot
distinguish different types of particle
Modern detectors can show the paths of charged particles, from which physicists are able
to interpret the characteristics of the particle
The curvature of the particle tracks gives an indication of its momentum
A smaller radius means the particle has a smaller momentum
A larger radius means the particle has a larger momentum
This is due to the equation for the radius of a charged particle in a magnetic field:
mv p
r= =
BQ BQ
Where:
r = orbital radius of charged particle (m)
p = momentum of charged particle (kg m s–1)
B = magnetic field strength (T)
Q = charge of particle (C)
m = mass of the particle (kg)
v = velocity of the particle (m s-1)
If the radius of a track is decreasing (i.e., it is spiralling closer inwards)
This means the particle's momentum is decreasing
This is because r ∝ p
Therefore, the velocity of the particle is decreasing
Hence, the kinetic energy of the particle is also decreasing, due to ionising other
particles in its path

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YOUR NOTES


The radius and direction of particle tracks is used to determine momentum and charge.
Creation and annihilation is also observable
The direction of a track's curvature gives an indication of the particle's charge
Fleming's Left Hand Rule can be used to determine the sign of the particle's charge
Sometimes, particle tracks appear to start out of 'nowhere'
This indicates particle-antiparticle creation
These paths are in opposite directions because the particle-antiparticle pair is
oppositely charged
Therefore, the magnetic force on them is oppositely directed
However they have the same radius because they each have the same mass (and
hence, momentum)
Therefore charge, energy and momentum are always conserved in interactions between
particles

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The image shows red and yellow tracks in a cloud chamber. The magnetic field goes
into the page.

a) Explain how you can tell from the image that a particle-antiparticle pair is being
created.
b) Identify which track represents a negatively charged particle.

Part (a)
Step 1: Comment on the source of the tracks
The red and yellow tracks begin together out of 'nothing'
This indicates an uncharged particle is creating charged particles
Step 2: Comment on the radius of the tracks
Both the red and yellow tracks have the same radius
This indicates both particles have the same momentum, and mass, which is true for
creation of a particle-antiparticle pair
Step 3: Comment on the direction of the tracks
Both tracks spiral in opposite directions
This indicates each particle is oppositely charged, because the (centripetal) magnetic
force acts on them in the opposite directions
Part (b)
Step 1: Determine the direction of particle velocity and centripetal force
The centripetal force on each particle must be toward the centre of orbit

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The tracks begin from a point and spiral away from each other, so the particle velocity YOUR NOTES
must be as indicated in the image below: 

Step 2: Apply Fleming's Left Hand Rule for the red track
Fleming's Left Hand Rule gives the direction of the magnetic force on a positively
charged particle in a magnetic field
The first finger should point into the page, along the direction of the magnetic field
On the red track, the thumb should point toward the centre of orbit (the direction
of the force)
The second finger points downward, but the actual particle velocity is upward
Therefore, the red track must indicate a negatively charged particle
Step 3: Check Fleming's Left Hand Rule for the yellow track
The first finger should again point into the page
On the yellow track, the thumb should also point toward the centre of orbit (the
direction of the force)
The second finger points downward, which is in agreement with the actual
particle velocity
Therefore, the yellow track must indicate a positively charged particle

 Exam Tip
Sometimes, examiners will ask you to explain whether particles are simply moving
upward or downward across an image. The first thing to consider should be the
radius of the particle track: you expect the radius to be decreasing, because
charged particles will tend to continue ionising other particles around them -
hence losing kinetic energy.
As their kinetic energy decreases, so does their momentum - and hence, track
radius will also decrease. This should be enough to determine which direction the
particle is coming from and heading towards!

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4.37 High Energy Particle Collisions YOUR NOTES


High Energy Particle Collisions
The Diameter of a Nucleon
High energy electron beams can be used to analyse nucleons, e.g.
Protons
Neutrons
When electrons are accelerated to very high energies, they can collide with nucleon
targets
The scattering pattern is used to analyse the size and structure of nucleons
To resolve detail, like the nucleon diameter, the de Broglie wavelength of the electron must
be comparable to the size of the nucleon
The de Broglie wavelength, and hence an approximation to nucleon diameter, is given
by:
h
λ= ≈ nucleon diameter
mv
Where:
λ = de Broglie wavelength (m)
h = Planck's constant (J s)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m s–1)
Note that electrons do not experience the strong nuclear force
Therefore, they are able to get extremely close to the nucleons without interacting
This allows them to build up a better idea about the size of the nucleus than alpha
particles, which are comprised of protons and neutrons
Inside the Nucleon
If electrons are accelerated to even higher energies, their de Broglie wavelength becomes
even smaller
1
This is because λ ∝ therefore the faster the electrons, the smaller their de Broglie
v
wavelength
Hence, the electron wavelength becomes small enough to be used to resolve internal
structure of the nucleon
Such an electron beam would be able to resolve individual quarks inside the nucleon

 Worked Example
The diameter of a proton is of the order of 10–15 m.
Explain why electrons must be accelerated to very high energies if they are to be
used to probe the internal structure of a proton.

Step 1: Refer to the de Broglie wavelength

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The proton diameter ∼ 10–15 m so the de Broglie wavelength of the electrons must YOUR NOTES
be at most this size in order to resolve the internal structure of the proton 
Step 2: Refer to the proportionality between wavelength and momentum
Since the de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum of the
electrons, then they must be accelerated to very high velocity (and hence, energy) in
order to obtain very short wavelengths

 Exam Tip
Remember to use words like 'proportional' and 'inversely proportional' when
explaining how two quantities relate to each other, using an equation.
In the case of particle physics, it is likely that you will be asked to explain effects
based on the de Broglie wavelength λ, which you should remember is given by:
h h
λ= =
p mv
Therefore, the de Broglie wavelength λ is inversely proportional to particle
momentum p and velocity v.

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4.38 Annihilation of Matter & Antimatter YOUR NOTES


Annihilation of Matter & Antimatter
Annihilation
When a particle meets its antiparticle partner, the two will annihilate
Annihilation is:
When a particle meets its equivalent anti–particle they both are destroyed and
their mass is converted into energy in the form of two gamma ray photons

When an electron and positron collide, their mass is converted into energy in the form of two
photons emitted in opposite directions
Pair Production
Pair production is the opposite of annihilation
Pair production is:
When a photon interacts with a nucleus or atom and the energy of the photon is
used to create a particle–antiparticle pair
The presence of a nearby neutron is essential in pair production so that the process
conserves both energy and momentum
A single photon alone cannot produce a particle–anti-particle pair or the conservation laws
would be broken
Pair creation is a case of energy being converted into matter

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When a photon with enough energy interacts with a nucleus it can produce an electron- YOUR NOTES
positron pair 
This means the energy of the photon must be above a certain value to provide the total rest
mass energy of the particle–antiparticle pair
Einstein's famous mass-energy relation showed that energy can be converted into mass,
and vice versa
It is given by:
ΔE = c2 Δm
Where:
Δm = rest mass of the particle (kg)
c = speed of light (m s–1)
ΔE = rest mass energy of the particle (J)
Therefore, in order to create a particle & anti-particle pair, the energy carried by a single
photon must be at least twice the rest-mass energy required, i.e.
2ΔE = 2(c2 Δm)
This also means if a particle meets its anti-particle and annihilates, the energy carried away
by each of the two photons Ephoton is given by:
hc
Ephoton = hf = λ = c2 Δm

 Worked Example
Calculate the maximum wavelength of one of the photons produced when a
proton and antiproton annihilate each other.

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
Since the Planck constant is in Joules (J s) remember to always convert the rest
mass-energy from MeV to J.
Remember that the equation E = hf is only relevant for photons, not for all particles!

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4.39 Unit Conversions for Energy & Mass YOUR NOTES


Unit Conversions for Energy & Mass
Units of Energy
The electronvolt is a unit of energy
It is equivalent to the amount of energy transferred to an electron accelerated across a
potential difference of 1 V:
1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
In order to convert between electronvolts and joules:
Multiply electronvolts by 1.6 × 10–19 to get the equivalent energy in joules
Divide joules by 1.6 × 10–19 to get the equivalent energy in electronvolts

Converting between electronvolts and joules

Sometimes, units of MeV or GeV are used
These are given by:
1 MeV = 1 × 106 eV = 1.6 × 10–13 J
1 GeV = 1 × 109 eV = 1.6 × 10–10 J
Units of Mass
Energy and mass are related by Einstein's energy-mass relation
ΔE = c2 Δm
ΔE
Δm =
c2
Therefore, units of mass can be related to units of energy by division of c2
This provides particle physicists convenient units of calculation to work with
This is especially useful in experiments involving particle collisions, where annihilation
and creation is common
Possible units of mass are therefore:

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MeV
, or,
GeV YOUR NOTES
c2 c2 
The following conversions are used to convert into S.I. units:
MeV
1 = 1.67 × 10–30 kg
c2
GeV
1 = 1.67 × 10–27 kg
c2

 Worked Example
Show that the rest mass of a proton, 1.67 × 10–27 kg, is roughly equivalent to 1
GeV/c2.

Step 1: Write the known quantities

Rest mass of a proton, mp = 1.67 × 10–27 kg
Speed of light c = 3 × 108 m s–1
Step 2: Substitute quantities into Einstein's energy-mass relation
E = mpc2
E = (1.67 × 10–27) × (3 × 108)2 = 1.50 × 10–10 J
Step 3: Convert joules to electronvolts
To convert a quantity of energy in joules to electronvolts, divide by 1.6 × 10–19
1 . 50 × 10−10
= 9.4 × 108 eV = 0.94 GeV
1 . 6 × 10−19
Step 4: Convert electronvolts to GeV/c2
0.94 GeV is equivalent to a mass of 0.94 GeV/c2, which is roughly 1 GeV/c2

 Exam Tip
In this worked example, we could have used the direct conversion between GeV/c2
and kg, because 1 GeV/c2 = 1.8 × 10–27 kg, but you should be super comfortable with
using Einstein's energy-mass relation to find quantities of mass/energy in standard
units, and converting to eV and eV/c2 the 'long way round'. Exam questions may
require you to do this when the conversions are not so straightforward.

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4.40 Relativistic Situations YOUR NOTES


Relativistic Situations
Accelerated particles often reach speeds that are very close to the speed of light
At such high velocities and energies, relativistic effects begin to become important
These are effects such as:
Time dilation
Length contraction
Time Dilation
Clocks run slower for moving particles
This means that unstable particles, with a short lifetime, actually survive for much
longer in a laboratory if they are moving very quickly
This is useful because they will leave longer tracks in particle detectors (making
detection easier)
For example, muons created high up in the atmosphere, have a lifetime of about 2 μs
The time required to travel to sea-level is too great to survive the journey
However, they are detected at sea-level in large numbers
This is because they are travelling at relativistic speeds (e.g. 0.98c) so time dilation
means their lifetime is dilated to times much longer than 2 μs

Because muons travel so quickly, time dilation stretches muon lifetime to much longer than
when they are at rest
Length Contraction
Moving rulers are shorter than stationary rulers

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This means that particles moving at very high velocities travel much further through YOUR NOTES
detectors than expected 
Unstable particles with very short lifetimes would not travel for appreciable distances
without relativistic effects like length contraction
For example, if exotic particles produced in particle accelerators decayed within the
particle chamber before escaping it, none would be detectable
In fact, many types of exotic particles are detected
This is evidence of length contraction

 Worked Example
Muons, which normally have a lifetime of 2.2 × 10–6 s, are created in the upper
atmosphere at a height of about 10 km above sea level.
a) Calculate the distance a muon would travel towards the ground if it was
moving at 0.99 c.
b) Comment on the relativistic effects necessary if muons are to be detected
at sea level.

Part (a)
Step 1: Write the known quantities
Muon lifetime, t = 2.2 × 10–6 s
Speed of light, c = 3 × 108 m s–1
Speed of muons, v = 0.99 c = 0.99 × (3 × 108) = 2.97 × 108 m s–1
Step 2: Calculate distance travelled
Speed v = distance d ÷ time t
Therefore, the distance travelled by muons travelling at 0.99 c is given by:
d = vt = (2.97 × 108) × (2.2 × 10–6) = 653.4 m
Part (b)
Step 1: Compare the distance calculated to the distance required
The distance a muon travels with a lifetime of 2.2 × 10–6 s is only 653.4 m
This is much less than the 10 km required to sea level
Step 2: Conclude that relativistic effects must be at play
Therefore, time dilation must be allowing the muons to last much longer than 2.2 × 10–6
s
This is because they are detected in large numbers at sea level

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 For your exam, you are only required to understand the situations in which a

relativistic increase particle lifetime would be significant. As seen in the worked
example, this is a combination of time dilation and length contraction. This is when,
as we have seen, particles are moving very close to the speed of light. This is
normally at velocities greater than 90% the speed of light.

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Particle Interactions & Conservation YOUR NOTES


4.41 The Standard Model

Baryons & Mesons

All particles of matter are made up of either quarks and/or leptons
The standard model of particle physics categorises quarks and leptons by charge and
mass

Quarks and leptons form the standard model of particle physics. The first generation of
particles make up all ordinary matter
Hadrons are made up of quarks and interact with the strong nuclear force
Baryons and mesons are types of hadron
Baryons consist of 3 quarks
Mesons consist of a quark-antiquark pair
The most common baryons are protons and neutrons
The most common mesons are pions and kaons

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Hadrons may be either a baryon or a meson. Both baryons and mesons interact with the YOUR NOTES
strong nuclear force 

Anti-hadrons may be either an anti-baryon or an anti-meson

Quarks have never been discovered on their own, always in pairs or groups of three
Note that all baryons or mesons have integer (whole number) charges eg. +1e, -2e etc.
This means quarks in a baryon are either all quarks or all anti–quarks. Combination of quarks
and anti–quarks don’t exist in a baryon
e.g.

The anti–particle of a meson is still a quark and anti–quark pair. The difference being the
quark becomes the anti–quark and vice versa

 Worked Example
The baryon Δ++ was discovered in a particle accelerator using accelerated positive
pions on hydrogen targets.
Which of the following is the quark combination of this particle?

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
Remembering quark combinations is useful for the exam
However, as long as you can remember the charges for each quark, it is easy to
figure out the combination by making sure the combination of quarks adds up
to the total charge of the particle ( just like in the worked example!)

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Leptons & Photons YOUR NOTES

Leptons 
Leptons are a group of fundamental (elementary) particles
This means they are not made up of any other particles (no quarks)
Leptons interact with other particles via the
weak, electromagnetic or gravitational interactions
Unlike hadrons (baryons & mesons), leptons do not interact via the strong nuclear
force
The most common leptons are:
The electron, e–
The electron neutrino, ve
The muon, μ–
The muon neutrino, vμ

The most common leptons are the electron and muon, along with their associated neutrinos
The muon is similar to the electron but is slightly heavier
Electrons and muons both have a charge of -1e and a mass of 0.0005u
Neutrinos are the most abundant leptons in the universe and have no charge and
negligible mass (almost 0)
Although quarks are fundamental particles too, they are not classed as leptons

 Worked Example
Circle all the anti-leptons in the following decay equation.

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YOUR NOTES


Photons
Photons are a group of particles which mediate the electromagnetic interaction
They are uncharged
They have zero mass
They are sometimes called "exchange bosons" because they mediate one of the
fundamental forces (electromagnetism)
For example, the electrostatic repulsion between two electrons is understood in terms
of exchanging photons

 Exam Tip
In some topics, you may need to use the energy of a photon. This is given by the
hc
equation E = hf = .
λ

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Symmetry of the Standard Model YOUR NOTES

The first four quarks discovered were: 
The up quark
The down quark
The strange quark
The charm quark
The symmetry of the standard model predicted a third generation of particles, namely
the top and bottom quark
Experiments were carried out to discover these, and eventually they were found as
predicted
Therefore, the three generations of quarks are and their respectively charges are:

The three generations of quarks. e is the charge of an electron.

They each have their own anti-quark, which has the opposite charge

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Three generations of anti-quarks. These have the same properties as the quarks except YOUR NOTES
opposite charges. 

 Exam Tip
You will not be expected to describe the strong nuclear force in your exam, but
you should understand that photon is the exchange particle for the electromagnetic
force and that it has zero charge and mass.

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4.42 Antimatter YOUR NOTES


Properties of Antimatter
The universe is made up of matter particles (protons, neutrons, electrons etc.)
All matter particles have antimatter counterparts
Antimatter particles are identical to their matter counterpart but with the opposite
charge
This means if a particle is positive, its antimatter particle is negative and vice versa
Common matter-antimatter pairs are shown in the diagram below:

This table summarises the electric charge for typical particle-antiparticle pairs
Apart from electrons, the corresponding antiparticle pair has the same name with the prefix
‘anti-’ and a line above the corresponding matter particle symbol
A neutral particle, such as a neutron or neutrino or photon, is its own antiparticle
Mass of Matter & Antimatter
Although antimatter particles have the opposite charges to their matter counterparts, they
still have identical mass and rest mass-energy
The rest mass-energy of a particle is the energy equivalent to the mass of the particle
at rest

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YOUR NOTES


This table summarises typical particle-antiparticle pair masses and rest mass energies

 Exam Tip
Though you will not need to memorise individual masses or rest-mass energies, you
are expected to remember the mass of a particle-antiparticle pair is identical but
they have the opposite electric charge.

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4.43 Conservation Laws in Particle Physics YOUR NOTES


Applying Conservation Laws
When particles interact, they must obey a set of laws associated to the type of particles
involved
These laws are governed by numbers called quantum numbers
Quantum numbers that are always conserved (i.e., they are the same before and after an
interaction) are:
Charge, Q
Baryon number, B
Lepton number, L
Using these quantum numbers, physicists are able to determine whether certain
interactions are possible or not
In other words, an interaction that does not conserve charge, baryon or lepton number
is not allowed by the laws of physics
Conservation of Charge
The charge of a particle Q, is the charge carried by that particle
Protons have a charge Q = +1
Electrons have a charge Q = –1
Up quarks have a charge Q = +2/3
Neutral particles, like photons and neutrinos, have a charge Q = 0
Conservation of Baryon Number
The baryon number, B, is the number of baryons in an interaction
B depends on whether the particle is a baryon, anti-baryon or neither
Baryons have a baryon number B = +1
Anti-baryons have a baryon number B = –1
Particles that are not baryons have a baryon number B = 0

The baryon number of a particle depends if it is a baryon, anti–baryon or neither

The up (u), down (d) and strange (s) quark have a baryon number of 1/3 each

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This means that the anti–up, anti–down and anti–strange quarks have a baryon number of YOUR NOTES
–1/3 each 
Note: The baryon number of each quark is provided on the datasheet

The implication of this is that baryons are made up of all quarks and anti-baryons are made
up of all anti-quarks
There are no baryons (yet) that have a combination of quarks and anti-quarks e.g. up, anti-
down, down
The reason being that this would equate to a baryon number that is not a whole number
(integer)

Conservation of Lepton Number

Similar to baryon number, the lepton number, L is the number of leptons in an interaction
L depends on whether the particle is a lepton, anti-lepton or neither
Leptons have a lepton number L = +1
Anti-leptons have a lepton number L = –1
Particles that are not leptons have a lepton number L = 0
Lepton number is a quantum number and is conserved in all interactions
This is helpful for knowing whether an interaction is able to happen

The lepton number depends on if the particle is a lepton, anti-lepton, or neither

 Worked Example
Show that baryon number is conserved in β– decay.

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YOUR NOTES


 Worked Example
If the lepton number is conserved in the following decay, identify whether particle X
should be a neutrino or anti-neutrino

Step 1: Determine the lepton number of all the particles on both sides of the equation
0 + (–1) = 0 + X
Step 2: Identify the lepton number of X
If the lepton number must be conserved, X must also have a lepton number of –1
Step 3: State the identity of particle X
Particle X is an anti-neutrino

 Exam Tip
Identifying the charge, baryon number or lepton number of an unknown particle can
be some of the easiest questions if the correct values for each particle are
memorised! The most common mistake is thinking that the electron has a lepton
number of –1 because it's charge is negative, it has a lepton number of +1 and it's the
positron that has a lepton number of -1.

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4.44 Particle Interaction Equations YOUR NOTES


Particle Interaction Equations
All particle interactions must obey a set of conservation laws. These are conservation of:
Charge, Q
Baryon number, B
Lepton Number, L
Energy (or mass-energy)
Momentum
Quantum numbers such as Q, B and L can only take discrete values (ie. 0, +1, –1, 1/2)
To know whether a particle interaction can occur, check whether each quantum number is
equal on both sides of the equation
If even one of them, apart from strangeness in weak interactions, is not conserved
then the interaction cannot occur

 Worked Example
A reaction that is proposed to create antiprotons in a laboratory is shown below:
⎯⎯
1 p + 1 p → 1 p + 1 p + 0 π + + −1 p
1 1 1 1 1 −1

Determine whether this reaction is permitted.

Step 1: Determine conservation of charge Q

There are two protons on the left hand side
There are two protons on the right hand side, with a positively charged pion (Q = +1) and
an antiproton (Q = –1)
Therefore charge is conserved, because:
1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + (– 1)
Step 2: Determine conservation of baryon number, B
There are two baryons on the left hand side, each with a baryon number B = +1 (protons
are baryons)
On the right hand side
Two protons each with baryon number +1
One pion, with a baryon number 0 (it is a meson)
One anti-proton with a baryon number –1
Therefore baryon number is not conserved, because:
1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 0 + (– 1)
Step 3: Conclude whether this reaction is permitted
This reaction is not permitted
Because baryon number is not conserved

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The equation for β– decay is

Using the quark model of beta decay, prove that the charge is conserved in this
equation.

 Exam Tip
Note:
Quantum numbers for any exotic particles will be given in the question
Additional information can always be deduced using the information provided

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