NON-ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES IN

INSTRUMENTATION
In Electrical Instrumentation part of what is being measured
are non-electrical quantities. Below are some of this:
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Fluid Flow
• Speed
• Etc.

Hence, this quantities are required to be sense and needs to be converted into
some other form because there is no direct parameters from this. Therefore for
this quantities to be measured it must be converted into electrical quantities
and it is done by the device called Electrical Transducer. A transducer plays
a very important role in any instrumentation system.
A transducer is a device which convert energy or
information from one form to another. Transducer may
be mechanical, electrical, optical, chemical, thermal or
combination of these. Below shows the graphical
representation of how transducer works:

Source: EE T55 MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Transducers may be classified according to their
structure, method of energy conversion and application.
As a result transducers are classified :

• As active and passive transducer

• According to transduction principle
• As analog and digital transducer
• As primary and secondary transducer
• As transducer and inverse transducer
Characteristic of Active Transducers:

• Self Generating
• Develop an electrical parameter (i.e. voltage or current) which is proportional
to the quantity under measurement.
• Do not require any external source or power for their operation.
On the other hand passive transducer is the opposite of active transducer
because:
• Passive transducers do not generate any electrical signal by themselves.
• Passive transducer need an external source of power is essential.
• Passive transducers depend upon the change in an electrical parameter
(R, L, or C).
• And it is also known as externally power driven transducers.
• Temperature transducers (e.g. a thermocouple)
• Pressure transducers (e.g. a diaphragm)
• Displacement transducers (e.g. LVDT)
• Oscillator transducer
• Flow transducers
• Inductive Transducer
• Photovoltaic (e.g. a solar cell)
• Piezoelectric transducer
• Chemical
• Mutual induction
• Electromagnetic
• Hall effect
• Photoconductors
Accuracy: Transducer must be close with which the reading approaches an accepted
standard value or ideal value or true value, of the variable being measured.

Ruggedness: The transducer should be mechanically rugged to withstand overloads.

It should have overload protection.

Linearity: The output of the transducer should be linearly proportional to the input
quantity under measurement. It should have linear input - output characteristic.

Repeatability: The output of the transducer must be exactly the same, under same
environmental conditions, when the same quantity is applied at the input repeatedly.

High output: The transducer should give reasonably high output signal so that it can
be easily processed and measured. The output must be much larger than noise. Now-
a-days, digital output is preferred in many applications;
High Stability and Reliability: The output of the transducer should be highly
stable

Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the electrical transducer is defined as the electrical

output obtained per unit change in the physical parameter of the input quantity. For
example, for a transducer used for temperature measurement, sensitivity will be
expressed in mV/’ C. A high sensitivity is always desirable for a given transducer.

Dynamic Range: For a transducer, the operating range should be wide, so that it
can be used over a wide range of measurement conditions.

Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which the transducer responds to

changes in the measured quantity. The speed of response of the transducer should
be as high as practicable.
 Subtopic 1
Temperature and Pressure
Measurement
 Subtopic 1

INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES
At the end of this discussion the student are expected to:

➢ Identify non electrical quantities

➢ List tools/devices used for temperature and pressure measurement
➢ Evaluate the parameters needed in temperature and pressure measurement
Temperature measurement in today’s industrial
environment encompasses a wide variety of needs and
applications. To meet this wide array of needs the
process controls industry has developed a large number
of sensors and devices to handle this demand. Different
instruments were develop such as ordinary thermometer
and temperature transducer.
Thermometers is the simplest and is conventional
method of measuring temperature. There are a wide
variety of thermometers available on the market today.
Some highly precise measurements are still done with
glass thermometers. Since the properties of fluids, and
in particular, mercury are well known, the only limitation
to accuracy and resolution come in the form of how well
you can manufacture a glass tube with a precision bore.
Liquid-in-glass thermometers are based
on the principle of thermal expansion of
substances. A liquid in a glass tube
(called a capillary) expands when heated
and contracts when cooled. A calibrated
scale can then be used to read off the
respective temperature that led to the
corresponding thermal expansion.

Source: https://www.tec science.com/thermodynamics/temperature/how-

does-a-liquid-in-glass-thermometer-work/
Clinical or Medical thermometers
A Medical thermometer is used to measure
body temperature. Mostly thermometers made
in the 20th century are mercury thermometers.
They are sensitive and accurate, having a
narrow place where the level of mercury rises
very fast. A kink on the tube stops the mercury
level from falling on its own. It is used to
measure human body temperature in the
range of 35 °C to 42 °C.

Source: https://physicsabout.com/types-of-thermometer/
Laboratory thermometers
It is used to measure the room temperature of hot solids and
liquids in experiments. It measures temperature in the range of
5 °C to 110 °C and on higher temperatures.
A Temperature Transducer is a device that converts the
thermal quantity into any physical quantity such as
mechanical energy, pressure and electrical signals etc.

Main Features of Temperature Transducers

• Input are thermal quantities
• Able to convert the thermal quantity into electrical quantity
• Used for the measurement of the temperature and heat flow
Temperature transducer may vary between Contact
Temperature Sensor Types and Non-contact Temperature
Sensor Types and below are the four most common
temperature transducer or temperature sensors being used
in Instrumentation and Measurement:
➢ Thermistor
➢ Resistance Thermometers or RTD
➢ Thermocouples
➢ Integrated Circuit Temperature Transducers
Thermistors, derived from the term thermally
sensitive resistors, are a very accurate and cost-
effective sensor for measuring temperature.
Thermistors are available in two types: those with
Negative Temperature Coefficients (NTC
thermistors) and those with Positive Temperature
Coefficients (PTC thermistors). NTC thermistors’
resistance decreases as their temperature
increases, while PTC thermistors’ resistance
increases as their temperature increases. Only NTC
thermistors are commonly used in temperature
measurement.

Source:https://www.teamwavelength.com/thermistor-basics/
• It has Negative Thermal Coefficient i.e. resistance of the
thermistor decreases with increase in temperature

• It is are made up of the semiconductor materials

• It is more sensitive compared with RTD (Resistance

Thermometres) and Thermocouples

• It’s resistance lies between 0.5Ω to 0.75 MΩ

• Generally used in applications where measurement range of

temperature -60•oC to 15•
oC.
Thermistor does not actually “read” anything, instead the resistance of a thermistor
changes with temperature. How much the resistance changes depends on the type of
material used in the thermistor. The location of the line and how much it changes is
determined by the construction of the thermistor. A typical thermistor graph looks like
this:
The properties of PTC thermistors are useful for over-current protection,
because resistance causes the device itself to overheat. They are also used
in self-regulating heaters, as time-delay switches and in motors to cut the
ignition current once the motor is running.

NTC thermistors, which can accurately monitor temperature, have more

applications than PTC ones. They are components of many types of
thermostats, both in building and automobiles, and because they can also
detect the presence of liquids by temperature characteristics, they are used
in well pump and other types of switches. NTC thermistors are usually
components of digital thermometers and sensors that regulate power to a
device based on temperature.
Thermocouples are temperature
transducers that are basically consists of
two junctions of dissimilar metals, such as
copper and constantan that are welded.
One junction is kept at a constant
temperature called the reference (Cold)
junction, while the other the measuring
(Hot) junction. When the two junctions are
at different temperatures, a voltage is
developed across the junction which is
Source: https://protosupplies.com/product/k-type-
used to measure the temperature. thermocouple-for-3d-printer/
• Extreme temperatures of range between -200oC to over +2000oC can
be measured with thermocouples which is an advantage over both RTD
and Thermistor

• They are the Active Transducers so they don’t require any external
source for measuring of temperature as like RTD’s and Thermistors.

• They are the cheaper than both RTD’s and Thermistors.

• These have small accuracy as compared to RTD’s and Thermistors so

generally they are not used for high precision work.
When the junctions of two metals such as copper and constantan are connected together
the potential difference is produced is produced between them. The phenomenon is called
the Seebeck effect as a temperature gradient is generated along the conducting wires
producing an emf. Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of the
temperature changes.

NOTE: Seebeck voltages are

quite small, in the tens of
millivolts for most temperature
ranges.

Source: https://www.quora.com/profile/Sterling-Sensors
An interesting phenomenon applied in the field of instrumentation is
the Seebeck effect, which is the production of a small voltage across the
length of a wire due to a difference in temperature along that wire. This effect
is most easily observed and applied with a junction of two dissimilar metals
in contact, each metal producing a different Seebeck voltage along its
length, which translates to a voltage between the two (unjoined) wire ends.

Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-9/thermocouples/
The iron/copper junction formed by the connection between the thermocouple and the meter
on the top wire will produce a temperature-dependent voltage opposed in polarity to the
voltage produced at the measurement junction. This means that the voltage between the
voltmeter’s copper leads will be a function of the difference in temperature between the two
junctions, and not the temperature at the measurement junction alone. Even for thermocouple
types where copper is not one of the dissimilar metals, the combination of the two metals
joining the copper leads of the measuring instrument forms a junction equivalent to the
measurement junction

Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-
current/chpt-9/thermocouples/
The second junction is called the reference or cold junction, to distinguish it from
the junction at the measuring end, and there is no way to avoid having one in a
thermocouple circuit. In some applications, a differential temperature measurement
between two points is required, and this inherent property of thermocouples can be
exploited to make a very simple measurement system.

Source: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-9/thermocouples/
Compensation for the voltage generated by the reference junction is
typically performed by a special circuit designed to measure temperature
there and produce a corresponding voltage to counter the reference
junction’s effects. The voltage produced by thermocouple junctions is
strictly dependent upon temperature. Any current in a thermocouple
circuit is a function of circuit resistance in opposition to this voltage
(I=E/R). In other words, the relationship between temperature and
Seebeck voltage is fixed, while the relationship between temperature and
current is variable, depending on the total resistance of the circuit.
• Thermocouples can be used for a wide variety of applications in the
food and beverage industry including Clean-In-Place sensors,
Penetration Probes, Oven Control, Food Chain Monitoring, Hotplate
Control and Monitoring and Steam Kettle temperature control.

• Thermocouples for Extruders - Extruders require high temperature

and high pressures. They also have a unique threaded adapter in
order to position the sensor tip in the molten plastic under the high
pressure conditions found there.

• Thermocouples for Molten Metal

• Thermocouples for Furnaces

 Resistance Thermometer or
Resistance Temperature Detector is a
device which used to determine the
temperature by measuring the
resistance of pure electrical wire. This
wire is referred to as a temperature
sensor. RTD is capable to measure
temperature with high accuracy, RTD
is the only one solution in industries. It
has good linear characteristics over a
wide range of temperature.

http://www.chipkin.com/resistance-temperature-detectors/
The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the
temperature is given as

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at tºC and t0ºC

temperatures. α and β are the constants depends on the metals.

The formula above is for huge range of temperature while for short range
recalling the relationship of resistance versus temperature:
In RTD devices, materials such as
Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely
used metals. These three metals are
having different resistance variations with
respective to the temperature variations.
That is called resistance-temperature
characteristics. Platinum has the
temperature range of 650oC, and then
the Copper and Nickel have 120oC and
300oC respectively.
Source: https://www.electrical4u.com/resistance-temperature-detector-
or-rtd-construction-and-working-principle/
• RTDs are basically active devices which need an electrical signal to generate a
voltage drop across the sensor. This voltage drop is then determined with the
help of a calibrated read-out device.
• Due to lead wires which are usually employed to connect the RTD to readout
device, errors can take place in temperature measurement results. Particularly in
remote temperature measurement locations where longer lead wires are used,
chances of errors are more frequent.
• As per requirement, three wire and four-wire circuit designs are available for
compensation of lead wire errors.
• Besides, the lead error can be limited by means of a temperature transmitter
which is installed in proximity of the RTD element. These transmitters are
competent enough to transform resistance measurement into analog or digital
signals. These signals can then be communicated over long distances by wire or
radio frequency (rf) to a data acquisition or control system.
• Unlike thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors operate in quite small
temperature domain. Their temperature span ranges from about -200 °C to a
maximum temperature of around 650 to 700 °C.

• Although, Copper and Nickel are the cheapest materials, they are considered
unsuitable for construction of RTDs because of non-linearity problems (in case of
Nickel) and wire oxidation problems (in case of Copper).

• The most suitable material for accurate temperature measurements is

considered to be Platinum, since its temperature Coefficient of Resistance is
nearly linear for its pure form
RTD Element: It is the most simple and
commonly used form of RTD. It basically
comprises of a core of ceramic or glass,
around which a piece of wire is wrapped.
Since RTD elements are very small and
compact in size, they find their greatest use
in areas where space is the major
constraint. An exceptional type of RTD
element called RTD surface element is
constructed in such a thin size that it offers
brilliant contact for temperature
measurement in case of flat surfaces.
Source: https://www.omega.co.uk/temperature/z/resistanceelements.html
RTD Probe: An RTD probe consists of
an element which is protected against
environmental effects by means of a
special type of metallic tube, popularly
known as sheath. The RTD probe also
includes lead wires which gets
terminated or connected at the
measurement point. It is the most
rugged and strong type of RTD.
Source: http://www.sinotimer.com/products/rtd-pt100-probe-
type-ID31.html
Platinum RTD: These are the most widely
used resistance temperature detectors.
They meet the requirements of precision
thermometry in the best possible way. They
are also referred to as PRTs & PRT100s.
These RTDs provide excellent linearity and
stability. Besides, their repeatability and
accuracy also happens to be best amongst
all RTD’s. Their response is very fast i.e. a PT100 and PT1000 Platinum RTD
fraction of a second and almost linear over Temperature Sensors

a broad span of temperatures.

Source: https://www.variohm.com/products/temperature-sensors/platinum-and-nickel-
rtd-temperature-sensors/pt100-and-pt1000-platinum-rtd-temperature-sensors
Thin Film RTD: These types of RTDs are
made up of “a thin layer of a base metal
embedded into a ceramic substrate and
trimmed to produce the desired resistance
value”.2 Typically, these RTD’s are
constructed by applying a film of platinum on
a substrate and then followed by
encapsulation of both film and substrate.
RTDs constructed via this method happen to
be small in size and offer fast and accurate
response.
Source: https://www.controlglobal.com/articles/2016/thin-film-rtds-
offer-fast-response-streamline-calibration/
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) operates on the principle that
the electrical resistance of a metal changes predictably in an essentially
linear and repeatable manner with changes in temperature. RTD have a
positive temperature coefficient (resistance increases with temperature).
The resistance of the element at a base temperature is proportional to
the length of the element and the inverse of the cross sectional area.
A typical electrical circuit designed to measure temperature with RTDs
actually measures a change in resistance of the RTD, which is then used
to calculate a change in temperature. The resistance of an RTD
increases with increasing temperature, just as the resistance of a strain
gage increases with increasing strain.
A basic bridge circuit which consists of
three known resistances, R1, R2, and R3
(variable), an unknown variable resistor
RX (RTD), a source of voltage, and a
sensitive ammeter. Resistors R1 and R2
are the ratio arms of the bridge. They
ratio the two variable resistances for
current flow through the ammeter. R3 is a
variable resistor known as the standard
arm that is adjusted to match the
unknown resistor.
Since the values of R1, R2, and R3 are known values, the only unknown is
Rx. The value of Rx can be calculated for the bridge during an ammeter zero
current condition. Knowing this resistance value provides a baseline point for
calibration of the instrument attached to the bridge circuit. The unknown
resistance, Rx
• RTD sensor is used in automotive to measure the engine
temperature, an oil level sensor, intake air temperature
sensors. In communication and instrumentation for sensing the
over the temperature of amplifiers, transistor gain stabilizers,
etc…

• RTD is used in power electronics, computer, consumer

electronics, food handling and processing, industrial
electronics, medical electronics, military, and aerospace.
These are the temperature transducers which
use the temperature sensing element with
monolithic electronic circuits as a combination
for the measurement of temperature.
They have following type
LM 335 – it provides an output of 10 mV/oK
LM 34 – it provides an output of 10 mV/•
oF

AD 592 – it provides a current output of

oK
1µA/•
The IC temperature (ICT) transducer is a two-terminal monolithic
integrated circuit whose output is a current or a voltage that is
directly proportional to temperature T/K. The transduction
mechanism utilized in this transducer is the dependence of the
base-emitter voltage Vbe of a silicon transistor, on the ambient
temperature T/K.
If two well-matched IC transistors are connected then
the difference between the Vbe’s of the transistors Q1
and Q2 is proportional to T, if the ratio of the
respective emitter areas O is constant. It is made
constant by designing the emitter areas of Q1 and Q2
to be in a fixed ratio and operating them at equal
collector currents. When the temperature being
monitored changes, the collector currents of Q1 and
Q2 also change. The control circuit forces the
collector currents to equalize, and V0 is then
proportional to the temperature being measured. The
total output current IOUT through Q1 and Q2 is
• Use to sense the temperature of a printed circuit board (PCB) or
the ambient air around it.

• Use to measure the temperature of PCs to temperature control

systems, High-performance personal computers and servers use
monolithic temperature sensors on their motherboards to monitor
system temperatures and alert system failure.

• Simple Fan Controller: senses the temperature and control the fan
speed
Pressure is defined as force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its
surroundings. A pressure measurement can be described as
either static or dynamic. It can further be described by the type of
measurement being performed. The three methods for measuring
pressure are absolute, gauge, and differential. Absolute
pressure is referenced to the pressure in a vacuum,
whereas gauge and differential pressures are referenced to
another pressure such as the ambient atmospheric pressure or
pressure in an adjacent vessel. Pressure can be measure using
pressure transducers.
A pressure transducer is a measuring device which converts an
applied pressure into a measurable electrical signal. It consists of two
main parts, an elastic material which will deform when exposed to a
pressurized medium and a electrical device which detects the
deformation.

The most common method of utilising the elastic material is to form it

into a thin flexible membrane called a diaphragm. The electrical
device which is combined with the diaphragm to create a pressure
transducer can be based on a resistive, capacitive or inductive
principle of operation.
There are different types of pressure transducers based on their design. These
sensors can come in several shapes and sizes, but the technology inside can
also differ.

There 4 main types of pressure sensor based on this:

1. Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers

2. Capacitance Pressure Transducers
3. Potentiometric Pressure Transducers
4. Resonant Wire Pressure Transducers
Strain gauge based pressure transducers are suitable for use in a wide
range of industries. Due to their extraordinary variety and flexibility of
design, they can handle the most diverse and challenging applications.
Strain gauge based pressure transducers convert a pressure into a
measurable electrical signal. Their function is based on the
piezoresistive effect: the ability of the strain gauges to change their
resistance value in response to the physical deformation of a material
caused by pressure. By wiring the strain gauges in a Wheatstone
bridge arrangement, these small changes in resistance can be
exploited to give rise to a precise electrical signal proportional to the
applied pressure
 I&C Channel. [uploader]. (2018, October 18). Strain Gauge Working Principle
[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DBAHlWfBopw&t=15s
Capacitive pressure transducer, also called Capacitance pressure
transmitter or a Capacitance pressure sensor. The capacitive type
pressure transmitter is a differential pressure type sensor. It is
used for measuring the displacement, pressure and other
physical quantities. It converts applied pressure into a current
signal, Like 4-20mA. A pressure transducer is a device that
measures the pressure of a fluid, indicating the force the fluid is
exerting on surfaces in contact with it. Pressure transducers are
used in many control and monitoring applications, such as flow,
airspeed, level, pump systems or altitude.
 ADU Academy. [uploader]. (2016, April 09). Capacitive transducer
[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ekIYaHgzt5c
The resonant – wire pressure transducer is a device that
is generally used in industrial applications to measure
pressure.
Advantages:

•Good repeatability
•Less hysteresis
•Good accuracy
•Strong output signal
A wire is fixed at one end by a static
member in a resonant wire pressure
transducer and at the other end by a
pressure sensing diaphragm (under
tension).
High pressure and low-
pressure diaphragms on the right and
left of the unit detect the process
pressures. The wire is placed in a
magnetic field and permitted to
oscillate. The oscillator circuit results
in resonant frequency wire oscillation.
It started with a Bourdon tube attached to a potentiometer,
creating the first potentiometric pressure transducer. A few
years later followed by the unbonded and bonded strain
gauges. Resistive transducers are widely used in the industry
today because of their many advantages such as reliability,
simple construction, mature design and production process,
adjustable resolution and maintenance-free properties.
The principle of the potentiometric pressure
measurement is based on the change in
resistance of a potentiometer. The wiper of the
potentiometer is mechanically connected to a
pressure-sensitive element, such as a Bourdon
tube, a bellows, a capsule or a diaphragm. The
deflection of the pressure-sensitive element
determines the position of the wiper on the
potentiometer. As a result, the resistance value
changes between the wiper and one end of the
potentiometer. This resistance value is a measure
of the pressure applied to the sensing element.
Source:http://users.telenet.be/instrumentatie/pressure/potentio
metric-pressure-transducer.html
• Larry Jones and Foster Chin (2010), Electronic Instruments and Measurements.

• Tony R. Kuphaldt (2019) , Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation

• https://www.electrical4u.com

• https://www.omega.com
 Subtopic 2
Flow, Velocity, Acceleration and
Speed measurement
 Subtopic 1

INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES
At the end of this discussion the student are expected to:

➢ Identify different types of Flow, Velocity, Acceleration and Speed measurement

➢ Evaluate the parameters needed in Flow, Velocity, Acceleration and Speed
measurement
➢ List different applications of Flow, Velocity, Acceleration and Speed
measurement
Industrial flow measurements include measuring of flow rate of solids, liquids
and gases. There are two basic ways of measuring flow ; one on volumetric
basis and the other on weight basis. Solid materials are measured in terms
of either weight per unit time or mass per unit time. Liquids are measured
either in volume rate or in weight rate. Gases are normally measured in
volume rate. In this chapter, the flow measurements of liquids and gases will
be discussed in detail rather than that of solids.
The units used to describe the flow measured can be of several types
depending on how the specific process needs the information.

• Solids. Normally expressed in weight rate like Tonnes/hour, Kg/minute etc.

• Liquids. Expressed both in weight rate and in volume rate. Examples :
Tonnes/hour, Kg/minute, litres/hour, litres/minute, m3/hour etc.
• Gases. Expressed in volume rate at NTP or STP like Std m3/hour, Nm3/hour
etc.
• Steam. Expressed in weight rate like Tonnes/hour, Kg/minutes etc. Steam
density at different temperatures and pressures vary. Hence the
measurement is converted into weight rate of water which is used to produce
steam at the point of measurement.
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid
movement. Flow rate and the quantity is one of the important
process variable requiring frequent measurements. Flow rate
measurement plays an important role in plant material
balancing, quality control and the operation of any continuous
process.
The physical measurement devices come in a number of
classifications. While the following classifications do not match any
industry standards, they serve to break the transducers down into
some reasonably functional groups. These are:

1. Obstruction flow meters

2. Velocity flow meters – Including Moving Member meters
3. Positive Displacement meters
4. Variable area meters
5. Electronic meters
• Obstruction or head type flow meters are of two types: differential
pressure type and variable area type

• Orifice meter, Venturimeter, Pitot tube fall under the first category,
while rotameter is of the second category

• In all the cases, an obstruction is created in the flow passage and

the pressure drop across the obstruction is related with the flow
rate
Differential pressure meters work
on the principle of partially
obstructing the flow in a pipe. This
creates a difference in the static
pressure between the upstream and
downstream side of the device. This
difference in the static pressure
(referred to as the differential
pressure) is measured and used to
determine the flow rate. Source: https://www.controleng.com/articles/understanding-differential-
pressure-flowmeters/
Manometer tubes measure the difference in static pressure upstream and
downstream of the restriction When a fluid flows through a restriction, it
accelerates to a higher velocity (i.e. V2 > V1 ) to conserve the mass flow
and, as a consequence of this, its static pressure drops. This differential
pressure (Δp) is then a measure of the flow rate through the device. Take
note that the higher the Δp, the higher the flow rate.The relationship between
the differential pressure and flow rate is derived from Bernoulli’s equation.
Positive Displacement flow meters traps pockets of fluid between rotating components housed
within a high precision chamber. This can be compared to repeatedly filling a beaker with fluid
and pouring the contents downstream while counting the number of times the beaker is filled.
The rotor’s rotational velocity is directly proportional to flow rate, since the flow of fluid is
causing the rotation. In electronic flow meters the rotating components contain magnets that
activate various sensor options located outside the fluid chamber. Mechanical positive
displacement flow sensors rely on the rotation to drive either a magnetic coupling or a direct
gear train connected to the mechanical counter.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_displacement_meter
Also called “rotameters” are simple flowmeters but
effective for measuring the flow of liquids, gases or
steam. This type of flowmeters consists of a float
inside a conical tube. The fluid flows up through
the tapered tube forcing the float to a position with
sufficient free area to enable the flow to pass. This
free area is related to the flow rate, the weight of
the float and the density and viscosity of the fluid.
The pressure drop across the flowmeter remains
constant over the entire flow range, since it is
related to the fluid density and the float weight and
dimensions. Flow indication is achieved since the
area of flow increases as the flow rate increases. Source: https://tecfluid.com/float-types-for-variable-area-
flowmeters/?lang=en
Each float position represents an area between the float and the orifice. This area
corresponds to a particular flow rate that is shown by the equivalent scales directly
engraved in the measuring tube.
Velocity meters measure velocity of the stream to calculate the
volumetric flow rate. These are less sensitive when the Reynolds
number of fluid is higher than 10000. Velocity flow meters include
turbine, paddlewheel, vortex shedding, electromagnetic and
sonic/ultrasonic flow meters.

Source: Swoffer Instruments, Inc. Source: https://www.detectronic.org/how-does-a-waste-water-flow-meter-work/

It was discussed in previous topic that flow is a measure of
air/liquid output in terms of volume per unit of time. While
velocity refers to how fast the air/liquid is moving in distance
per unit of time. The relationship between flow, velocity, and
pressure can be explained using Bernoulli’s principle.
Bernoulli’s equation states mathematically that if a fluid is
flowing through a tube and the tube diameter decreases, then
the velocity of the fluid increases, the pressure decreases,
and the mass flow (and therefore volumetric flow) remains
constant so long as the air density is constant.
Velocity flowmeters are popular because they give a direct
measure of fluid velocity, the characteristic most associated with
flowrate. These flowmeters, however, are among the most
sensitive to process conditions.
Since velocity flowmeters operate under the assumption of a
constant velocity profile, they are inaccurate for flows in the
laminar regime. This inaccuracy occurs because there is a large
difference between the fluid velocity at the wall and at the center
of the pipe. This property makes velocity flowmeters especially
sensitive to piping geometry and Reynolds number.
Operate on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction that states that a voltage
is induced when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. The liquid serves
as the conductor and the magnetic field is created by energized coils outside the
flow tube. Electromagnetic flow meters can only be used for electrically
conductive fluids, such as water. They cannot measure De-ionized water or
most hydrocarbon based liquids. The output voltage produced by the
electromagnetic induction is directly proportional to the flow rate. Electrodes
mounted in the pipe wall detect the voltage which is measured by a secondary
element.
Electromagnetic flow meters have no moving parts. They are selected for their
abilities to measure difficult and corrosive liquids and slurries with a very low
pressure drop parts and are ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid
which is electrically conductive.
Endress+Hauser. [uploader]. (2009, July 14). The Electromagnetic Flow Measuring
Principle [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f949gpKdCI4
This velocity meter uses very high frequency sound waves to
measure the velocity of particles in the process fluid or the time it
takes for the sound waves to pass through the fluid.

The Doppler Effect Flow method requires that there are reflecting
particles in the fluid. This method is not suitable for clear liquids.
Since the Doppler flow meters performance is so highly
dependent on the physical properties of the fluid, such as the
sonic conductivity, particle density, and flow profile, this method is
only suitable for applications that do not require a high accuracy.
Endress+Hauser. [uploader]. (2009, July 15). The Ultrasonic Flow Measuring Principle
[Video]. YouTubehttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bx2RnrfLkQg
Turbine meters and paddlewheel
meters are among the most
versatile flowmeters. When fluid
flows past a turbine meter, the
meter's vaned rotor rotates. The
same occurs in a paddlewheel,
except the paddlewheel's blades
are perpendicular to the direction
of flow. In both cases the angular Copyright Hoffer Flow Controls, Inc., Elizabeth City, NC
velocity of the rotor is proportional
to the velocity of the fluid.
A magnetic pickup coil is mounted outside
the pipe. The turbine or paddlewheel blades
are made of or contain magnetic material. As
the fluid flows and each blade passes by the
coil, the magnetic flux through the coil
changes, causing a voltage pulse. A sensor
measures the pulse rate and from that
determines the flowrate. To obtain the
constant velocity profile necessary for an
accurate measurement, turbine and
paddlewheel meters require a straight
section of pipe upstream and downstream of
Maheedhar B(No Date ). Turbine Meter [Video file].
the flow meter. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OnrHinGZi5A
This of flow meter make use of a natural phenomenon that occurs
when a liquid flows around a bluff object. Eddies or vortices are shed
alternately downstream of the object. The frequency of the vortex
shedding is directly proportional to the velocity of the liquid flowing
past the bluff object. The three necessary components of a vortex flow
meter are a bluff body mounted in the flow meter bore, a sensor to
detect the presence of the vortex and generate an electrical impulse,
and a signal amplification circuit. The main advantages of vortex
meters are their low sensitivity to variations in process conditions and
low wear relative to orifices or turbine meters.
OMEGA Engineering(2019, February 14). Learn How a Vortex Flow Meter works!
[Video file]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QxCeVVXF2ng
Speed measuring instruments vary with the job. Whether
measuring traveling speed, wind speed, acceleration or
engine speed, there is a proper instrument for calculating that
form of speed. Police use RADAR and LIDAR to measure
traffic speed. Cars have speedometers for travel speed and
tachometers for engine speed. Accelerometers are also used
with car speed measurements. Meteorologists use
anemometers and radar to create their weather forecasts.
Tachometers measure the engine speed
in revolutions per minute (rpm). This
instrument determines the rotational
speed (how fast it's spinning) of a shaft
or disk in the engine and displays the
reading on a calibrated analog dial
display on the dashboard of a car,
aircraft or other vehicle.
Speedometers measure the traveling
speed of land vehicles. They are used to
help drivers determine their driving
speed and maintain it at save and
realistic levels. These meters use
magnets and a set of rotating cables
connected to the transmission to
determine the rate of travel, which is
shown on an analog display on the
vehicle's dashboard.
Anemometer
Anemometers are wind speed instruments used by meteorologists. These devices
have 3 or 4 cups attached to a central spoke. As the cups catch the movement of
air, they spin on the spoke, and the revolutions per minute are converted to an air
speed or wind speed.

LIDAR for Determining Vehicle Speed

LIDAR stands for Light Detection and Ranging. Police use LIDAR to calculate car
and truck speed much like RADAR is used, only LIDAR uses light instead of sound.

Accelerometers for Measuring Acceleration and Deceleration

Accelerometers measure the rates of acceleration and deceleration of a vehicle to
determine whether the drive train and braking systems are functioning correctly.
• Larry Jones and Foster Chin (2010), Electronic Instruments and Measurements.

• Tony R. Kuphaldt (2019) , Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation

• https://www.maxmachinery.com/what-is-a-flow-meter/velocity-flow-meters/

• https://www.omega.com

• http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php?id=3601

• Whetsel, J. (2017, January 21). Speed Measuring Instruments. Retrieved from owlcation:
https://owlcation.com/stem/Speed-Measuring-Instruments
Feel free to ask questions!