ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH LAB.

PRACTICE 11 (EHS 514)

SIMULATION OF CLEANING OIL SPILL IN WATER AND SOIL
What is an Oil Spill?
An oil spill is a form of pollution generally found in a marine ecosystem. However, oil spills
can happen on land too. An oil spill occurs when oil leaks or spills into the water. Oil spills
can also happen in rivers or lakes!
What causes an oil spill?
Oil spills are often caused by accidents, but they can also be caused by human error or
carelessness. These accidents involve tankers, barges, oil drill rigs and other places or
methods of transportation that store or hold large amounts of oil.
Why are oil spills harmful?
Oil spills are harmful to marine birds and mammals as well as fish and shellfish. Oil coats the
feathers and fur of marine life which leave them susceptible to hypothermia (being too cold)
because their fur or feathers cannot protect them from the weather.
Oil spills are hazardous as the marine ecosystem is affected, and the marine life existence
gets unnecessarily threatened. Since oil exploration from oceanic resources has become a
must, and oil spills occur accidentally, it becomes important to employ various oil spill clean
up methods.
Oil is one of the most abundant pollutants in the oceans. About 3 million metric tons of oil
contaminates the oceans annually. However, oil spills vary in severity and the extent of
damage they cause. This can be attributed to variations in the oil type, the location of the
spill, and the weather conditions present. In addition, the spread and behaviour of spilt oil in
the seas is governed by various chemical, physical and biological processes. But irrespective
of these, oil spills are a serious concern as they can inflict a lot of damage to the ecosystem.
The effects are experienced not only in the area of the spill but also expand over vast regions
to negatively impact shorelines and terrestrial wildlife thousands of metres away from the site
of the spill. Since oil density is lesser than water, it floats on the water surface when it leaks
or spills (saltwater or freshwater). It is for this reason that it is much easier to clean up an oil
spill.
It is easy to imagine the difficulty in cleaning up a spill if oil was denser than water, and as a
result, formed a layer along the bottom of the seas instead of the surface!
In recent years, many major oil spills have taken place– the Exxon Valdez in 1989, the
Prestige in 2002, and the Deepwater Horizon in 2010. Oil spills will continue to be a pressing
problem and source of pollution as long as ships move most of the petroleum products around
the world, and exploration of oil from oceanic resources is steadily on the rise.
Nevertheless, oil spills mostly occur accidentally, and thus it becomes increasingly important
to employ various clean up methods for tacking the menace they could pose to the marine
ecosystem.
Types of oil spills clean-up methods
Different methodologies can be adopted to clean up oil spills.
1. Using Oil Booms
The use of oil booms is a straightforward and popular method of controlling oil spills.
Equipment called containment booms acts like a fence to prevent the oil from further
spreading or floating away. Booms float on the water surface and have three parts –
• A ‘freeboard’ is the part that rises above the water surface, containing the oil and preventing
it from splashing over the top
• A ‘skirt’ is placed below the surface and keeps the oil from being squeezed under the booms
and escaping
• A kind of cable or chain that connects the parts to strengthen and stabilize the boom.
Connected sections of the boom are placed around the oil spill area until it is surrounded and
contained.
→ This method is effective only when the oil is in one spot.
→ It works when the spill is accessible within a few hours of taking place; otherwise, the area
of the spill becomes too large to manage
→ It cannot be successfully employed under rough sea waves, high wind velocities or
fluctuating tides.
2. Using Skimmers
Once the oil has been confined by using oil booms, skimmers or oil scoops can be deployed
onto boats to remove the contaminants from the water surface. Skimmers are machines
specially designed to suck up the oil from the water surface like a vacuum cleaner. They are
used to physically separate the oil from the water to be collected and processed for re-use.
Skimmers can be used to recover most of the spilt oil effectively, so it is economically viable.
The presence of debris poses a major roadblock to this technique, as skimmers can get
clogged easily.
3. Using Sorbents
Sorbents are materials that soak up liquids by either absorption (pulling in through pores) or
adsorption (forming a layer on the surface). Both these properties make the process of clean-
up much easier. Materials commonly used as oil sorbents are hay, peat moss, straw or
vermiculite.
The oil can be recovered, and this prevents wastage and further pollution.
After the absorption, the sorbent materials must be effectively retrieved. This is a difficult
task and may prove to be worse if ignored.
Sorbents, after absorption, become heavier (3 to 15 times their weight), and as a result, they
may sink, making them difficult to retrieve and pose a risk to aquatic life in the sea bottom.
They are most effective in small spills or to manage the leftover traces of a larger spill.
4. Burning In-situ
In this method, the oil floating on the surface is ignited to burn it off. This in-situ burning of
oil can effectively remove up to 98% of an oil spill, which is more than most other methods.
The toxic fumes released from the burning can cause significant damage to the environment
and marine life.
The procedure works on relatively fresh spills before the oil spreads to a larger area and
decreases in thickness.
5. Using Dispersants
When the spilt oil cannot be contained by using booms, the only option left is to accelerate
the disintegration of oil. Dispersal agents, such as Corexit 9500, are chemicals that are
sprayed upon the spill with the help of aircraft and boats, which aid the natural breakdown of
oil components.
They allow the oil to chemically bond with water by increasing the surface area of each
molecule. This ensures that the slick does not travel over the water’s surface and is easier to
degrade by microbes.
It can effectively be used for spills over large areas.
The use of dispersants can create tar balls. As the oil combines with water, it also gets mixed
with sand and debris present in the water. This results in the formation of large tar balls
floating on the water’s surface, which often finds their way to the shores.
The toxicity of dispersants can affect marine organisms, especially the non-mobile ones such
as corals and seagrass.
6. Hot Water and High-Pressure Washing
This procedure is mainly used in situations where the oil is inaccessible to mechanical
removal methods such as using booms and skimmers. It is used to dislodge the trapped and
weathered oil from locations that are generally inaccessible to machinery.
Water heaters are used to heat water to around 170°C, then sprayed by hand with high-
pressure wands or nozzles. The oil is thus flushed to the water surface, which can be collected
with skimmers or sorbents.
The released oil must be immediately and adequately recovered to prevent any further
contamination.
Organisms falling in the direct spray zone have a high chance of adversely affecting the hot
water.
7. Using Manual Labour
As the name suggests, the method requires hand-held tools and manual labour to clean up the
contaminants. It involves using manual means like hands, rakes, shovels etc., to clean the
surface oil and oily debris and place them in special containers to be removed from the
shoreline.
Sometimes, mechanized equipment may be employed for providing any additional help and
reach out to any inaccessible areas.
This method is applicable only for cleaning up the slick shorelines.
The process is more economically viable, as unskilled workers with minimal training can be
employed for the process.
Apart from being labour intensive, this process is also time-consuming.
The use of heavy machinery can inflict damage upon shorelines, so they should be avoided as
much as possible.
8. Bioremediation
Bio-remediation refers to the use of specific microorganisms to remove any toxic or harmful
substances. For example, various bacteria, fungi, archaea, and algae degrade petroleum
products by metabolizing and breaking them into simpler and non-toxic molecules (mostly
fatty acids and carbon dioxide). Sometimes, reagents and fertilizers may be added to the area.
These phosphorus-based and nitrogen-based fertilizers provide adequate nutrients for the
microbes to grow and multiply quickly.
This process is generally not used when the spill has happened in the deep seas and is
gradually implemented once the oil approaches the shoreline.
It is a time taking procedure and may even take years, so quicker solutions like using booms
and skimmers or sorbents may be used if any urgent action is required.
The fertilizers have an equally high chance of aiding the growth of unwanted algae, which
consume much of the available oxygen and cut off sunlight from going to the deeper water
levels. This can negatively impact marine life and prove to be counter-productive.
9. Chemical Stabilisation of oil by Elastomers
Right after an oil spill, the immediate concern is to prevent the oil from spreading and
contaminating the adjacent areas. While mechanical methods like using oil booms effectively
contain the oil, they have certain limitations to their use.
Experts have recently been using compounds like ‘Elastol’, which is basically poly iso-
butylene (PIB) in a white powdered form, to confine oil spills. The compound gelatinizes or
solidifies the oil on the water surface, thus preventing it from spreading or escaping. In
addition, the gelatine is easy to retrieve, and this makes the process highly efficient.
It is a quick action method, with typical reaction times of 15-40 minutes.
While PIB is non-toxic and commonly found in foodstuffs, the gelatine may risk entangling
or suffocating the aquatic animals.
10. Natural Recovery
The simplest method of dealing with the oil spill clean-up operation is to use the vagaries of
nature like the sun, the wind, the weather, tides, or naturally occurring microbes. It is used in
certain cases when the shoreline is too remote or inaccessible, or the environmental impact of
cleaning up a spill could potentially far outweigh the benefits.
Due to the constancy of these elements, the oil generally evaporates or is broken down into
simpler components.
It is one of the most cost-effective methods.
It is a highly time consuming and unreliable process and thus needs constant and close
monitoring. It should not be confused with ‘sitting down and doing nothing.
A pivotal factor in cleaning up an oil spill is the location where it has happened. Most oil
spills take place far out in the sea, so they are generally left to decompose in the environment
naturally. However, as they get closer to the shores, we gradually begin to treat them.
200 nautical miles and beyond – No treatment is used unless the case is very severe.
Between 20 and 200 nautical miles, booms and skimmers may be used.
Between 20 and 10 nautical miles, dispersants are used.
For areas very close to the shoreline, biological agents are used.
These are only general rules and can be altered based on the type of oil that has been spilt and
the prevailing weather conditions. No two oil spill cases are the same, so each one is
evaluated individually based on its own merit.
– Using oil booms
– Very simple and popular methods of controlling oil spills.
– Float on the water surface.
– Have three parts (freeboard, skirt and cable or chain)
– Only effective when oil is in one spot.
– Can’t be successfully employed under rough sea waves, high wind velocities or fluctuating
tides.
– Using skimmers
– Used after oil has been confined by oil booms.
– Skimmers can be deployed onto boats.
– They remove contaminants from the water surface.
– Machines specially designed to suck up the oil from the water.
– Oil can then be collected and processed for re-use.
– Economically viable.
– If there is debris in the water skimmers can get clogged easily.
– Using sorbents
– Materials that soak up liquids by absorption or adsorption.
– Absorption is the process of pulling in through pores,
– Adsorption is the process of forming a layer on the surface.
– Makes the process of cleaning oil spills much easier,
– Oil can be recovered

GAS FLARING
Gas flaring refers to burning off by-products of associated gas generated during different
processes, such as oil and gas production, coal bed methane (CBM) production, landfill gas
extraction, and petrochemical processes.
In addition to eliminating unwanted gas, gas flaring is practiced for economical, operational,
and safety reasons.
Also known as “associated gas” or “flare gas,” natural gas from oil wells exists separately as
“free gas” or dissolved in crude oil. A common practice is to flare natural gas that contains
measurable amounts of hydrogen sulphide gas (“H2S” or “sour gas”) to reduce the H2S gas’s
high toxicity.
A majority of natural gas flaring is observed in upstream production areas where flaring is
used during new well drilling and at refineries to prevent an explosive build up of gases. The
lack of direct market access and insufficient gas gathering and transportation infrastructure
are other major reasons for ongoing flaring across global regions.
Gas flaring is considered a wasteful practice as the amount of natural gas burned can either be
used productively or conserved for future use. Furthermore, natural gas flaring poses a
serious threat to the environment globally because it creates noise and air pollution.
Instead of wasting gas through flaring each year, using the flared gas responsibly will benefit
local communities, reduce an operator’s carbon footprint, and turn a wasted by-product into a
revenue stream.
Often, flaring results from economic limitations but has potential for economic gain—
improved utilization of associated gas enhances environmental stability and reduces lost
market opportunities.
Overcoming the barriers to flaring reduction is essential for improving energy access and
increasing energy security.
Types of Gas Flaring
i. Routine flaring
Routine gas flaring occurs during normal oil production operations. In the absence of suitable
geology or adequate facilities, it is not possible to reinject the produced gas, utilize it on site,
or send it to a market. Such situations require routine flaring that does not include safety
flaring.
Examples of routine flaring: Flaring from gas or oil separators.
Flaring from process units, such as glycol dehydration facilities, oil storage tanks, produced
water treatment facilities, and tail gas treatment units (unless meant for safety reasons).
In addition, flaring is possible when gas production exceeds existing gas infrastructure
capacity.
ii.Non-routine flaring
Other than routine flaring and safety flaring, non-routine flaring is intermittent flaring
(planned or unplanned) of short duration. Sometimes, non-routine flaring is required for
stabilization when process parameters are outside the allowable design or operating limits.
Non-routine flaring is possible during:
Temporary failure of gas equipment, such as compressors and controls, during normal
operations.
Temporary failure that prevents receipt of gas at specific facilities.
Preventive maintenance and inspections (scheduled).
Initial field/plant startup before the process reaches steady operating conditions.
Acidification and wireline interventions (such as reservoir or well maintenance activities).
iii. Safety flaring
Oilfield operators use gas flaring to de-pressurize equipment and manage large pressure
variations to prevent potentially destructive and long-lasting fires. Burning excess gas helps
control changeable pressures during crude oil extraction—this is where safety flaring helps to
ensure safe facility operations.
Examples include flaring of:
Gas resulting from an accident that compromises the safety of facility operations.
Blow-down gas after an emergency shutdown.Gas (fuel gas/make-up gas/purge gas) required
to maintain the readiness and safety of the flare system.
Gas needed for a flare’s pilot flame.
Components of the Gas Flaring System
-A flashback seal drum
-A flashback prevention unit to ensure the combustion flame does not cross the flare tip
-A liquid knockout drum to remove oil and water from the relieved gases
-A steam injection system to ensure efficient mixing and promote smokeless burning
-A pilot flame with an ignition system
-The flare stack with a flashback prevention section
Flaring for economic reasons stems from the need for early oil production before natural gas
capture and the lack of gathering, compression, and sales infrastructure due to financial or
operable non-viability. Such flaring is related to associated gas (also known as “casinghead
gas”) produced with crude oil.
Another important factor for flaring is a local market that is underdeveloped and/or pays low
prices for the gas. For example, remote oil fields, dysfunctional pricing, and limited financial
incentives lead to appreciable flaring and reduce the possibility of bringing associated gas to
market.
Pipeline shutdown and road restrictions preventing the transportation of liquids also
contribute to an increase in flaring.
Bans on gas flaring have been practically ineffective. Potential flaring solutions include
developing economically viable gas markets and smaller-scale uses of gas at/near the source,
such as building local gas-fired power plants and mobile CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
fuel stations.
How Does Gas Flaring Impact the Environment?
Natural gas is a gaseous combination of hydrocarbon compounds and non-hydrocarbon
gases. Methane is the primary component of natural gas that contains other hydrocarbons,
such as butane, ethane, propane, and pentanes.
Additionally, raw natural gas may contain carbon dioxide, helium, hydrogen sulphide,
nitrogen, water vapor, and other compounds.
Gas flaring is considered hazardous to the environment due to the release of global-warming
gases, such as methane, which has a significant impact on climate change.
Gas flaring is supposedly necessitated by the absence of gas gathering lines or processing
capacity. Moreover, the lack of incentives to sell natural gas promotes gas flaring—a known
contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. For example, even a low-producing oil well can
generate a large amount of hazardous methane emissions.
Flaring results in the release of various pollutants—depending on the gas’s chemical
composition and the flare’s efficiency and temperature.
While one of these pollutants is methane that is more potent than carbon dioxide (CO2), the
other climate pollutant released due to incomplete flaring is black carbon (soot or particulate
matter).
Black carbon particles can impair lung function and cause health problems like respiratory
diseases. Furthermore, black carbon emissions contribute to climate change in various ways,
such as by absorbing solar radiation in the atmosphere and accelerating snow and ice melt.
Other air pollutants released from natural gas flares include acetaldehyde, acrolein, benzene,
formaldehyde, hexane, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) like naphthalene.
Worldwide, gas flaring is regarded as a major hazard, which requires mitigation measures in
existing or new facilities. Some options to better utilize flared gas and reduce global carbon
emissions are:
On-site utilization or reinjection (routine flaring)
Enhanced facility design and/or operational procedures (routine, non-routine, and safety
flaring). In addition, commercial solutions for routine flaring facilitate mitigation at new or
existing facilities. On a large scale, flare mitigation opportunities are meant to reduce the
environmental impact of gas flaring and put flared gas to better use.
How to Curb Gas Flaring
Apart from posing a threat to agriculture, public health, and wildlife, gas flaring results in a
loss of billions of dollars worldwide. The equivalent of the wasted natural gas is enough to
heat millions of homes, and the harmful effect of flaring equals the CO2 emissions of
thousands of cars.
One of the main reasons for flaring is that it is cheaper to burn natural gas off than to recover
it. Effective, inexpensive, and technologically advanced ways to end flaring are vital to
capture and convert natural gas into environmentally safer and marketable materials.
A transparent data collection and disclosure system goes a long way in addressing the
challenge of poor or non-existent data collection, as well as auditing venting and flaring
volumes. Moreover, investing in pipeline infrastructure reduces the need for routine flaring.
When the potential reward is greater than the challenge, it is also worth investing in flare gas
recovery systems that minimize hydrocarbon loss and recover gases for reuse.
Here are some measures, which are crucial to curb current and future flaring volumes:
-Create a supportive environment for flare reduction investments
-Develop country-specific gas flaring reduction programs
-Embrace new public-private partnerships
-Enforce a ban on routine flaring/non-emergency flaring
-Impose tighter regulations
-Improve independent monitoring of gas flaring (Example: Satellite observations)
--Incentivize gas utilization
-Include climate standards as part of oil and gas asset sales
-Install flare meters and/or use satellite data to monitor flares regularly
-Invest in flare monitoring systems and flaring reduction projects and technologies
-Measure and report flaring and venting emissions
-Penalize gas flaring
- In addition, flare tips with more modern designs aid in adequate fuel-air mixing to reduce
emissions resulting from poor combustion efficiency.
Alternatives to Gas Flaring
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), “flaring provides a means
for handling the associated natural gas, especially when processing and transportation
capacities are unavailable.”
An oil company may flare or vent the gas if it is not economically feasible to market it.
However, it is still technically and politically feasible to reduce, and ultimately, eliminate
routine gas flaring that results in a waste of precious resources.
Aalternatives to gas flaring
Here are some promising alternatives with good potential to reduce associated natural gas
flaring and venting and convert the gas into marketable/usable products:
Power generation: Some ways of converting natural gas (recovered from landfill gases and
oil wells) into electricity include gas-driven micro and large turbines and steam-driven
turbines.
Secondary oil recovery: Reinjecting natural gas into aged wells restores decreasing natural
formation pressure, enhances secondary oil recovery, and significantly reduces black carbon
emissions from oil production.
Portable CNG facilities: Methane derived from landfills and oil wells can be compressed at
high pressure and stored in cylinders as compressed natural gas (CNG) for use as a fuel for
oil field activities or trucked to nearby gas-processing facilities. For example, the “last mile
fuelling solution” delivers CNG from the point of supply to the point of use (the final
distance/the last mile) without pipes on the ground.
Liquefied natural gas: Liquefying and storing associated gas is another safer and
economical alternative to gas flaring. The liquefied natural gas (LNG) is suitable for domestic
and industrial use.
NGL extraction: We can monetize flared gas by extracting the NGLs, liquefying them at the
site, and selling them to the local market.
Feedstock for petrochemical production: Instead of flaring associated gas from oil and gas
wells, it can be used as the main raw material in the production of ammonia, glass, paint,
rubber, syngas, etc.
Gas-to-liquids or Gas-to-methanol conversion plants: Small-scale technologies are
available to convert natural gas into chemicals or fuels on site, focusing on modular
conversion equipment.
Capturing condensate tank vapour: A technology has been developed to capture tank
vapour and recover the gas for sale using a proprietary catalytic system.
 Elevated Flare

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENTS (EIA)

EIA can be defined as the various aspects of the environmental effects, both adverse and
beneficial of proposed development including the identification of measures for mitigating
the adverse effects. It is a study designed to identify and predict the impact on the biophysical
environment and on man’s health and well-being.
Laboratory and Its Field’s Works in EIA
The role of the field’s work in EIA study is the collection of samples on the Fields. The field
work in Environmental Impact Assessments study would not be complete without the
complementary effort and input of the various tests to be conducted on the field samples
collection. From the fields, all the samples taken, from all the various environmental media
would be conveyed to the Laboratory for various analyses. This signifies the relevant role of
Laboratory and its Fields work in EIA studies.
In industrial project areas such as mining, cement, oil and gas, etc. where high level
particulates are emitted in to the environment, all the airborne metal particulates could be
collected and determined by using sophisticated laboratory equipment. The air quality
parameters, such as, the total suspended particulates (TSP) are quantitatively determined
gravimetrically and broadly analyse in the laboratory.
The water samples both the surface and the underground are also subjected to physio -
chemical laboratory analysis in order to ascertain the concentration level of pollution load in
them or their quality before the commencement of the project.
The soil samples are also subjected to various physio - chemical laboratory analyses as to
determine and quantify the various metallic ions, the pH and other related parameters. The
geotechnical and engineering aspects of the various soil profiles are also to be determined.
Thus the results obtained are also related to the purported project or projects.
Additionally, the read-out from the various portable monitors such as Nitrogen oxides,
Hydrogen sulphides, Carbon mono oxide, Hydrocarbons, Hydrochlorides, Phosphates, etc.
are to be down loaded and the quantity so far read is related to the type of the project the EIA
study is to cover. These parameters report the baseline data to these sampled points or
locations, not characterising the samples conditions but serve as a baseline data in order to
avoid unnecessary litigations in the near future of the project.
 Modern Science Laboratory Technology
Research on environmental impact assessments and statements (EIA/S) wholly depended on
series of laboratory experiments and fields work with relevance to samples collection which
is the base rock of the project. However, modern laboratories have been developed,
sometimes as a replacement for traditional laboratories which require the expertise of science
laboratory technology, which involves the application of Nanoscience craft skills.
Nevertheless, the recent discoveries cannot replace or be in position of the traditional
laboratories in which laboratory is a major key factor to be reckoned with, to stress that, the
role of this age – long or olden profession will not be over emphasized. This is being coming
more relevant than ever since it is the linkage between the founded scientific theories,
hypothesis, invention, innovation and physical reality of all scientific and technological
adventure.
Laboratories are the crucial engine power house of the science, technology and innovation.
They provide midwife or husbandry in crucial areas such as environmental impact
assessments and environmental impact statements, environmental engineering and
technology, wildlife technology, biotechnology and water technology, to mention few. They
also provide a critical link in the knowledge industry.
Concept of Environmental Impacts
An environmental impact assessment and statement as a management tool is designed to aid
stakeholders, policy makers, managers, and officials who mostly take decisions on or about
major development projects in predicting the effects on the environmental consequences of
such projects before and after their implementation and planning measures for avoiding or
mitigating adverse environmental impacts.
The Objectives of EIA
The main objectives of EIA are to search and improve the suitability of projects within their
Environment and ensure a more efficient use of resources and engender sustainable
development. An Environmental Impact Assessment is expected to achieve specifically, the
following:-
• To predict the nature and magnitude of impact from projects on the environment and
ecosystem.
• To address and identify the physical, biological, socio-economic and cultural effects of
developmental project in concern.
• To document the indicators to be used in assessing the impacts.
• To assist in the identification of possible alternative sites and or processes.
• To construct confidence in planning system by providing public participation and or
consultation processes.
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
Environmental impact statement (EIS) is a written statement of the effect on the environment
of an existing or proposed factory or development, or a scientific study undertaken in order to
write such a statement.
The EIS, formal process used to predict how a developmental project or proposed legislation
will affect such natural resource such as water, air, land and wildlife. Environmental Impact
Statement was first introduced in 1969, in the United States of America as requirement of
National Environmental Policy Act. Since then, an increasing number of countries have
adapted the process, introducing legislation and establishing agencies with responsibility for
its implementation. EIS have mostly been applied to individual projects and have led to
various offshoot techniques, such as health impact assessments, social impact assessments,
cumulative effects assessments and strategic environmental assessments (environmental
assessment of proposed policies, programmes plans). In some cases, social and economic
impacts are assessed as part of the Environmental Impact Statements. In order cases, they are
considered separately.
Steps of Environmental Impact Statement
An Environmental Impact Statement usually involves a sequence of steps, these are:-
• Screening to decide if a project requires assessment and to what level of detail.
• Preliminary assessment to identify key impacts, their magnitude, significance and
importance.
• Scoping to ensure the EIS focuses on key issues and to determine where more detailed
information is needed.
• Implementing the main EIS study, which involves detailed investigations to predict impacts,
assess their consequences, or both.

Post- Audit of Environmental Impact Statements

After a project is completed a post-audit is sometimes done to determine how close the EIS’s
predictions were to the actual impacts. These days, a growing number of businesses
commission independent audits that help set environmental performance targets, particularly
regarding wastes disposal and energy use (bio - fuel, nuclear energy, solar energy, and e.t.c).
The term Environmental Audit is applied to the voluntary regulation of organisations
practices in relation to its environmental impact.

HEALTH IMPACT ASSESSMENT

What is a health impact assessment?
A health impact assessment (HIA) is the estimation of the overall effects of a specified action
on the health of a defined population. It is an approach that ensures that decision making at
all levels consider the potential impacts of policies, programmes or a project on health and
health inequalities. HIA identifies actions that can enhance positive effects and reduce or
eliminate negative effects. It is a systematic process that can also be used to assess service
models or programme delivery by helping to evaluate the environmental, health and well-
being impacts of these developments. It is a combination of procedures, methods and tools by
which a policy, programme or project may be assessed for its potential and effects on the
health of a population, including the distribution of these effects within the population.

Health impact assessments have been used on a wide range of policies from rural
development to mental health. Examples of HIA include looking at the impact of a new
motorway in a city, expansion of an airport, effects of waste management, economic
development, the impacts of noise and air quality from traffic, new housing
developments and commercial ventures. Health impact assessments are gaining popularity
both within the UK and internationally, particularly in relation to urban health impact
assessments. Two tools have been developed for this - Urban HIA Screening Tool (UrHIST)
and Urban HIA methodology (UrHIA).
Aims
1.To assess the potential health impacts, both positive and negative of projects.
2.To improve the quality of public policy decisions by making recommendations that are
likely to enhance predicted positive health impacts and minimize negative ones.
What does a health impact assessment do?
1.It focuses on social and environmental justice
2.It involves a multi-disciplinary, participatory approach
3.It involves positive encouragement of public participation in the debate about public health
issues
4.It can bring public health issues into the foreground when organisations and parties are
making decisions and policies
Four Core Values of a Health Impact Assessment
HIA is based on four values:
1.Democracy
2.Equity
3.Sustainable development (i.e. development that meets the needs of the present without
damaging the health or environment of future generations)
4.Ethical use of evidence

Stages of a Health Impact Assessment

1.Screening
2.Scoping - with multidisciplinary steering group and negotiating favoured options
3.Appraisal
4.Recommendations
5.Implementation
6.Monitoring and evaluation
Screening
-Select and analyse policies, programmes or projects for assessment.
-Profile the selected population - who is likely to be affected and their characteristics
-Use the screening process to see whether or not a full-scale HIA is needed.
Scoping
-Identify the potential health impacts by getting the information from the range of people who
have an interest in the policy
Appraisal
-Evaluate the importance, scale and likelihood of the potential impacts (analysis is similar to
decision analysis)
-Utilise health indicators to detect variations in impact on different populations or groups. In
other words, being able to assess health inequalities.
-Utilise mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative) in data collection. Consider any
available health profiles and impact analysis.
-Synthesize the evidence available in the published and unpublished literature with evidence
from stakeholders and experts.
-Use a hierarchy of evidence to be able to classify the strength of your recommendations
(similar to conducting a systematic review).
Recommendations
-Report on the impacts and make recommendations for managing the impacts
Monitoring
-Monitor actual impacts of your recommendations and take action where necessary.
 -This is likely to include process, impact and outcome evaluations.
Population Impact Analysis
Population impact analysis is a framework for applying the findings of systematic reviews of
public health literature to estimating the impact upon a local population. The aim is to help
decision making by showing how scare resources can best be invested and the likely
population impact of an intervention on a specific context. This includes estimating the lives
saved, admissions prevented and risk factors reduced by implementing an intervention and
comparisons with other interventions.
It's a four-step process:
1. Ask - identify the need and formulate a well-specified question
2.Collect & Calculate - estimate the benefit and harm to the population of the
intervention/policy. (Population X baseline risk of hospitalisation/death/other outcome X
population attributable risk)
3.Understand - present the data in a clear understandable and relevant way.
4.Use - feed into decision making process and implement change.
Population impact analysis can help with the synthesis of information to estimate the
potential anticipated and unanticipated outcomes of proposed interventions or policies.

REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing is broadly defined as science and information about objects, area of phenomenon
from distance without being in physical contact with them. Remote Sensing is the process of
obtaining information about an object, terrain or phenomenon through the analysis of data
acquired by a sensor device without actual physical contact with that object, terrain or
phenomenon.
In the present context, the definition of remote sensing is restricted to mean the process of
acquiring information about any object without physically contacting it in any way regardless of
whether the observer is immediately adjacent to the object or millions of miles away.
Human eye is perhaps the most familiar example of a remote sensing system. In fact, sight, smell
and hearing are all rudimentary forms of remote sensing.
However, the terms remote sensing is restricted to methods that employ electromagnetic energy
(such as heat, microwave) as means of detecting and measuring target characteristic. Air craft and
satellites are the common platforms used for remote sensing.
Collection of data is usually carried out by highly sophisticated sensor (i.e. camera, multispectral
scanner, radar etc.) The information carrier or communication link is the electromagnetic energy.
Remote sensing data basically consists of wave length intensity information by collecting the
electromagnetic radiation leaving the object at specific wavelength and measuring its intensity.
Photo interpretation can be considered as the primitive form of remote sensing. Most of the
modern remote sensing methods make use of the reflected infrared bands, thermal infrared band
and microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The sensors operating from a convenient platform emit and reflect electro-magnetic energy from
the features of the earth’s surface to acquire necessary data in pictorial or in digital form. The data
thus censored is examined by various viewing and interpreting devices to compile maps, tables
and computer files.
They will be merged with reference data and geological information system so that the final
information becomes user friendly to facilitate decision making.
Classification of Remote Sensing:
Remote sensing is broadly classified into two categories. They are Passive remote sensing and
Active remote sensing.
Passive Remote Sensing: It is used as an existing source of EM energy and records the energy
that is naturally radiated and or reflected from the objects. Ex: Sun rays.
Line scanners are passive systems that employ a rotating system to scan successive strips of
ground along the track of the aircraft or satellite.
Active Remove Sensing : It uses its own source of EM energy, which is directed towards the
object and return energy is measured. This is the essence of RADAR (Radio Detection and
Ranging System).Idealized Remote Sensing System-an idealized remote sensing system consists
of the following stage :
-Energy source.
-Propagation of energy through atmosphere.
-Energy interaction with earth’s surface features.
-Air borne/space borne sensors receiving the reflected and emitted energy.
-Transmission of data to earth station and generation of data produce.
-Multiple – data users.
Basic Principles of Remote Sensing :
a.Electromagnetic Energy: it is a form of energy that moves with the velocity of light (3
x 108 m/ sec) in a harmonic pattern consisting of sinusoidal wave, equally and repetitively spaced
in time. It has two fields: (i) Electrical field and (ii) Magnetic field, both being orthogonal to each
other. The sun is the most obvious source of electro-magnetic radiation for Remote Sensing.
However, all matter at temperatures above the absolute zero (-273°C) continually emits electro-
magnetic radiation. The total energy emitted by an object varies as the fourth power of the
absolute temperature of its surface.
An ideal radiator is that which totally absorbs and re-emits all energy incident on it. It is also
called a black body. It is a hypothetical one. Electro-magnetic energy radiates in many form such
as visible light, radio waves, ultra-violet rays, x-rays etc.
There are three theories available to explain the radiation viz.
-Wave theory.
-Quantum theory or Particle theory.
-Weins Displacement Law.
1. Wave Theory: Electro-magnetic energy is assumed to consist of photons which have particle
like properties such as energy and momentum. They move with the speed of light describing
simple harmonic motion i.e sinusoidal waves. If ‘C’ is the velocity, ‘λ’ is the wave length i.e,
distance between successive peaks of the wave and ‘f’ is the frequency i.e, the no. of cycles done
per unit time, wave theory slates that c = f . λ
Since velocity of light is constant equal to 3 x 108 m/ sec, frequency and wave length will be
inversely proportional to one another. Frequency is measured in Heertz, Kilo Heertz etc.
-Hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle/second
- Kilo Hertz (kHz) = 10³ Hz
-Mega Hertz (MHz) = 106 Hz
- Nano Hertz (NHz) = 109 Hz
-Giga Hertz (GHz) = 1012 Hz
2. Quantum Theory or Particle Theory: according to this theory, Electro-magnetic energy
consists of photons or quanta whose energy is proportional to its frequency.
Q = h.f
Where
Q = energy of quantum in Joules ,
h = Planck’s constant 6.626 x 1034 Js
f = frequenc in Hz
But from equation of wave theory, frequency is inversely proportional to wave length. Hence it
will be obvious that energy levels will be inversely proportional to the wave lengths. Hence lower
levels of energy correspond to longer wave lengths and vice versa. Thus if the surface features of
the earth emanate longer wave lengths, it will be more difficult to read their radiation that in the
case of short wave length radiations.
3. Wien’s Displacement Law: the dominant wave length or the wave length at which a black
body radiation curve reaches a maximum is related to its temperature by wein’s displacement law.
,=
Where,
λm = wave length or maximum spectral radiant existence (μm)
A = 2898 μm k
T = Temperature (°k)
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Although visible light is the most obvious manifestation of EM radiation, other forms also exist.
EM radiation can be produced at a range of wave lengths and can be categorized according to its
position into discrete regions which is generally referred to electro-magnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum is the continuum of energy that ranges from meters to nano-meters
in wave length travels at the speed of light and propagates through a vacuum like the outer space
(Sribine 1986)
The electro-magnetic spectrum has a very wide range of wave lengths ranging from as small
as 10-11 m and less in the case of gamma rays going upto radio wave, having more than 0.1 m
passing along x-rays, ultra violet rays, visible portion, infra red rays and micro waves.
The visible portion of the spectrum is an extremely small band of wave length
from 0.4 to 0.7 micrometer. In this portion the maximum radiation occurs at 0.5 micrometer. This
wave length is most useful in photogrammetry.
The various regions of wave lengths of electro-magnetic spectrum are shown in fig. To provide a
realistic view, instead of wave lengths, their logarithms are taken on the horizontal axis.
Most of the sensing systems operate in one of the several visible, infrared or microwave portions
of the electro-magnetic spectrum. In below figure the expanded portion of the spectrum useful in
Remote Sensing is shown.
In the 0.7 to 3 micro-meters wave length region, sensing can be made using infra-red sensitive
films. In the invisible portion of 3 to 5 micro-meters wave length of thermal infra-red band the
radiated energy cannot be sensed by photographic emulsion.
Special sensor devices like crystal detectors have to be used to detect the signals. The region of
wave lengths from 1 mm to 300 mm is used in Radars. Remote sensing systems which supply
their own sources of energy i.e, man-made sources to illuminate the features of the earth
interested in sensing are known as ‘Active systems’ of Remote Sensing. Eg, Radars, camera with
flash bulbs.
The kinds of Remote sensing systems which make use of naturally available energy only are
called ‘Passive systems’. Eg: Camera flash bulbs using only sun-light, the portions of the
spectrum which have high transmission of electro-magnetic radiations are known as ‘atmospheric
windows’. Such wave lengths produce good images in Remote sensing.
The maximum spectral radiant existence the earth’s surface features occurs at a wave length
of 9.7 micrometers in the thermal infra-red portion. In this portion, thermal infra-red systems can
function round the clock.
Method of Remote Sensing
The currently used methods of remote sensing are as follows :
-Photogrammetry and Aerial Photogrammetry including interpretation Aerial Photography.
-Thermal and Multispectral Scanning.
-Microwave Sensing
-Earth Resource Satellites .
Photogrammetry :this method will enable in obtaining reliable measurements and maps of
earth’s features. This method is mostly used in preparing topographic sheets besides application in
forestry, geography, geology, planning, soil science etc.
Thermal and Multi Spectral Scanning :in this method, sensing is done in the thermal infr- red
band of 3-14 micrometers wavelength and radiant temperatures are measured by the sensors. One
multi-spectral scanning, a wider range of the spectrum from the photographic to the thermal band
can be made use of.
Microwave Sensing: this method of sensing enables securing very valuable environmental and
mineral resources information using the microwave band of the spectrum. These sensors are
capable of working in adverse weather conditions such as haze, light rain, snow, clouds, smoke
etc.
Radar is an active microwave sensor. While microwave radiometer is a passive sensor. LIDAR
(Light Detection and Ranging) uses laser light.
Earth Resources Satellites: this is the latest technique used to study the earth from space.
Sensors are borne in the space to assist in the weather and crop forecast, mineral exploration,
detection of pollution, commercial fishing etc. LANDSAT’s of the USA and INSAT series of
India are examples of this kind of remote sensing techniques.

Applications of Remote Sensing

Remote Sensing pervaded almost all types of modern human activity. Its applications are not
restricted to surveying and engineering but found in various fields.
Environmental Applications : for weather prediction, pollution control and management,
profiling the atmospheric conditions like pressure, temperature, content of water vapor,
measurement of wind velocity etc.
Mineral Exploration : Locating and detailing mineral wealth and providing basic geological
data.
Agricultural Applications : for assessing land use and land cover, forestry of monitor the extent
and type of vegetation cover, its state of health, mapping soil types, forecasting crop yield,
erosion of soil etc.
Applications in Disaster Control and Management : for detection of earthquakes, land slides,
volcanic eruptions, floods and assessing the extent of damage suffered due to these causes etc.
Archaeological Applications : for recognizing pre-historic sites of civilization etc.
Military Application : to monitor movement of vehicles, military formation and assessing the
terrain.
Hydrological Application : for assessing water resources, forecasting run-off etc.
 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS)
What is GIS?
A GIS is an integrated collection of computer software and data used to view and manage
information connected with specific locations, analyze spatial relationships, and model spatial
processes. The majority of data in environmental health has a spatial (location) component, to
which GIS adds a powerful graphical and analytic dimension by bringing together the
fundamental epidemiological triad of person, time, and the often-neglected place.

GIS technology integrates common database operations, such as query and statistical analysis,
with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps.
These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable to
environmental health organizations for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning
strategies. In this sense, GIS is much more than a computer map; it is a decision support system
that integrates spatially referenced data and statistical analyses to address environmental health
problems. GIS is a powerful tool for examining population-level effects of exposures as reflected
in the geographic and spatial distribution of populations. Mapmaking and geographic analysis are
not new, but a GIS performs these tasks better and faster than the old manual methods. Before
GIS technology, only a few people had the skills necessary to use geographic information to help
with decision making and problem solving.
The major EH challenges in the world today all have a geographic component. GIS organizes
geographic data so that a person reading a map can select data necessary for a specific project or
task. A thematic map has a table of contents that allows the reader to add layers of information to
a base map of real-world locations. GIS is a useful tool for nearly every field of knowledge within
EH.

A good GIS program is able to process geographic data from a variety of sources and integrate it
into a map project. Many countries have an abundance of geographic data for analysis, and
governments often make GIS datasets publicly available. Map file databases often come included
with GIS packages; others can be obtained from both commercial vendors and government
agencies. Some data is gathered in the field by global positioning units that attach a location
coordinate (latitude and longitude) to a feature such as a health facility or a storage tank. The wide
availability of rugged hardware devices (tablet PCs, ruggedized PDAs, etc.) combined with recent
advances in the mobile components of server GIS technology make GIS even more useful for EH
agencies.
GIS maps are interactive. On the computer screen, map users can scan a GIS map in any
direction, zoom in or out, and change the nature of the information contained in the map. They
can choose whether to see the roads, how many roads to see, and how roads should be depicted.
Then they can select what other items they wish to view alongside these roads such as hazardous
waste sites, vegetation, or population density. Some GIS programs are designed to perform
sophisticated calculations for tracking storms or predicting erosion patterns. GIS applications can
be embedded into common activities such as verifying an address.

Many people associate specialized software and powerful computers with the idea of geographic
information systems. A GIS actually has five equally important components: people, hardware,
software, data, and applications. GIS technology is of limited value without the people who
manage and use the system, ranging from technical specialists to spatial analysts to casual users.
Possibly the most important and costly component of a
GIS is the data. Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased
from a commercial data provider. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and
can use a database management system (DBMS), used by most organizations to organize and
maintain their data, to manage spatial data. A successful GIS operates according to the data needs,
models, and operating practices unique to each organization. Applications are designed to
enhance and automate everyday procedures or produce informative statistics on the state of EH or
the results of a given program. There are many extensions, plug-ins, and other enhancements to
GIS software that are relevant to EH organizations. Examples include Geostatistical Analyst,
Spatial Analyst (ModelBuilder™), and the Rapid Inquiry Facility (RIF) tool.

Environmental Health Business Processes and GIS

GIS provides tools and capabilities for performing a wide array of activities associated with
geographic and spatially referenced information. Associating data with location optimizes
analysis, visualization, and reporting/communication of information, thus maximizing the value
of the data. Below are examples of enhancing EH business processes (organized by three core
functions) with GIS.
■ Assessment. In the field, using GIS/GPS capabilities facilitates better navigation (e.g.,
finding locations) as well as the ability to geocode precisely the point sources of EH risks and
pollution through GPS. Precisely measured locations and distances enable not only
immediate decision support but also a higher degree of precision in future analyses. Once EH
data is geographically enabled, GIS provides a platform for making assessment data more
actionable through multilayer data analysis (e.g., determining populations within specific
distance buffers for emergency notifications) and more advanced spatial and statistical
analyses. Increasingly, geocoding, buffering, and kriging are utilized in methods assigning
exposure in EH studies. EH professionals digitize data (e.g., district boundaries), geocode
residential or business addresses, and link to a variety of data (e.g., satellite, aerial
photography, third-party, and census data) for exploratory spatial data analysis and pre-
fieldwork.
GIS also empowers EH professionals to prepare for field visits while still in the office. They
use satellite photography, soil layers, and various geoprocessing tools to predetermine best
locations for septic tanks. GIS also helps EH organizations conduct specific surveillance and
meet tracking requirements. During emergencies, GIS quickly calculates the depths of floods
and numbers of affected homes and can speed up reimbursement from emergency
management agencies. Increasingly, EH professionals are utilizing spatial statistics tools and
GIS analysis to proactively identify significant community health problems.
■ Policy development. EH organizations use GIS-based models to determine the impacts of
proposed EH policies. GIS-based site location models help determine the best locations for
hazardous waste and the safest routes to get it from point A to point B. Such analyses may
incorporate multiple layers (e.g., population density, transportation networks). Increasing GIS
synergies with common document formats, such as PDF reports, enable the publishing of GIS
layers when communicating policy and administrative decisions to partner agencies,
regulated entities, and other constituents. Business intelligence software is increasingly
integrated with GIS, facilitating enhanced analysis, visualization, and reporting options.
■ Assurance. EH organizations use GIS to increase efficiency. GIS facilitates targeting
vector control efforts. Agencies use GIS tools and methodologies to measure compliance
 with specific legislation (e.g., specific types of industry/businesses being prohibited from
operating within certain distances of rivers or other environmentally sensitive areas or
restrictions regarding advertising tobacco within certain distances of schools). GIS helps
determine the prudent use of staff in implementing EH inspections (calculating location-
based workload assessment, finding efficient routes, and determining which vehicle should
serve each location in the best stop sequence). Geocoding and address management help
reduce undeliverable mail and save time and money spent correcting wrong addresses

GIS Relevance to Essential Environmental Health Services

Essential Service GIS Relevance

1. Monitor
environmental and GIS is a tool for assessing EH, analyzing trends, and communicating EH problems
health status to and risks to the public through static or interactive maps. GIS also has many
identify and solve functions helpful for exposure assessment, data aggregation, data management, and
community EH other linkages.
problems.
GIS supports EH surveillance systems with more efficient data collection
2. Diagnose and
methodologies, better understanding of disease transmission dynamics, and a
investigate EH
framework for outbreak investigation and response. There is universal consensus that
problems and
a GIS can be a useful aid at the beginning of an environmental epidemiology or risk
health hazards in
assessment study. GIS also facilitates targeting of prevention and control measures
the community.
based on priority locations.

3. Inform, educate,
GIS facilities targeting health communication geographically and demographically.
and empower
Desktop GIS and web-based portals such as ToxMAP educate and empower people
people about EH
to understand EH issues.
issues.
4. Mobilize
community Maps are great tools for community engagement. Desktop GIS and web-based
partnerships and portals help mobilize community partnerships that provides a framework for
actions to identify analyzing and solving many other EH problems (e.g., lead poisoning mitigation and
and solve EH prevention and integrated vector control to prevent malaria or dengue).
problems.
5. Develop policies The quote "Documenting need is not enough; documenting where there is need is
and plans that critical to intervention strategies to holds true for EH practice. GIS has helped policy
support individual makers understand the scope of environmental health emergencies, the built
and community environment, and the "zone of influence" of mobile sources of air pollution. GIS also
EH efforts. plays a central role in environmental health impact assessments.
GIS-based methods help measure compliance with local laws (e.g., environmental
6. Enforce laws and setback regulations) and spatial advertising restrictions in local and national laws
regulations that (e.g., tobacco advertising near schools). GIS-based methods are also utilized to
protect EH and geocode facilities and sites under regulation, route the inspectors who regulate them,
ensure safety. and track progress. GIS-based models allow planners to consider the safety of
citizens.
7. Link people to
needed personal
EH services and
GIS helps identify underserved populations and barriers to service and coordinate
ensure the
service delivery among multiple agencies. GIS-enabled services locators help citizens
provision of health
understand what services are available in their area and which offices are responsible.
care when
otherwise
unavailable.

8. Ensure Agencies and researchers have utilized GIS to assess workforce gaps in many
competent different professions, including the EH workforce. Geospatial analysis can
EH and personal characterize the pattern of deployment of the EH workforce and (with statistical
health care
modeling) analyze factors associated with the deployment pattern.
workforces.
9. Evaluate
effectiveness,
GIS provides a framework for monitoring and evaluating programs and services. One
accessibility, and
of the most popular applications of GIS in health and human services is analyzing
quality of personal
access to services.
and population
based EH services.
10. Search for new GIS enables testing and considering options in both temporal and spatial contexts.
insights and Geospatial accuracy provides EH professionals and research partners with a more
innovative specific baseline for implementing and evaluating EH interventions and programs.
solutions to EH GIS helps researchers aggregate data and understand complex, multidimensional
problems. relationships between pollution and disease.