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Module 2 Develop Programs for AVR Microcontrollers in C

M2.01 Examine C data types for the AVR microcontroller.
M2.02 Develop C programs for time delay and I/O operations.
M2.03 Develop C programs for logic and arithmetic operations.
M2.04 Develop C programs for data conversion and data serialisation.
M2.05 Describe the Normal and CTC mode of Timers
M2.06 Develop C Programs to generate time delays and count events using Timer/Counter.
M2.07 Explain Interrupts in AVR
M2.08 Illustrate Interrupt Programming in C

Contents:
AVR Programming in C – data types, C programs to generate time delay, I/O Programming, logic
and arithmetic operations, Data Conversion, Data Serialisation, Memory Allocation.
Timer and Counter: Timers and their associated registers, Normal and CTC mode, Programming
Timers in C, Counter Programming in C.
Interrupts : AVR Interrupts, ISR, Steps executing an Interrupt, Sources of interrupts, Enabling and
disabling Interrupts, Interrupt priority, Interrupt Programming in C.

AVR programming in C
major reason for writing programs in c instead of assembly language is
1. it is easier and less time consuming
2. easier to modify and update
3. you can use function library codes.
4. Is portable.

C data type for the AVR C

Data type Size in Bits Data Range/Usage

Unsigned char 8-bit 0 to 255
char 8-bit -128 to +127
unsigned int 16-bit 0 to 65,535
int 16-bit -32,768 to +32,767
unsigned long 32-bit 0 to 4,294,967,295
long 32-bit -2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,648
float 32-bit +-1.175e-38 to +-3.402e38
double 32-bit +-1.175e-38 to +-3.402e38

Unsigned char
• The unsigned char is an 8-bit data type the value range of 00-FFH(0-255).
• Most widely used data type.
• avoid the use of int if possible, because AVR microcontroller have limited
registers and data RAM locations.
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• By default C compliers use signed char.

Signed char
• Is an 8-bit data type that use most significant bit to represent - or + value.
• We have only 7 bits for the magnitude of the signed number values from -128 to +127.
Unsigned int
• Is 16-bit data type, value in the range of 0 to 65,535(0000-FFFFH).
• Used to represent 16-bit variables like memory addresses.
• Used to set counter values of more than 256.
• It takes 2 bytes of RAM.
• The misuse of int variables will result in larger hex file, slower execution of program.
Signed int
• Is a 16-bit data type that use most significant bit to represent + or - value.
• 15-bits for magnitude, range of -32,768 to +32,767.
Other data types
• AVR C compiler supports long data types, if want values greater than 16-bit.
Problem 1
write an AVR program to send values 00-FF to port B.
ans.
#include<avr/io.h> //standard avr header
int main(void)
{
• unsigned char i;
• DDRB=0xFF; //PORTB is output
• for(i=0;i<=255;i++)
• PORTB=i;
• return 0;
• }
Time Delay
• There are 3 ways to create a time delay in AVR C.
 Using a simple for loop
 Using predefined C functions
• Using AVR timers
1. Using a simple for loop
• In creating time delay using for loop, we must be mindful of two factors that can
affect the accuracy of delay.
 The crystal frequency connected XTAL1-XTAL2 input pins is the most important factor
in time delay calculation.
 Affects the time delay is the complier used to compile the C program.
2.Using predefined C functions
 Use predefined functions such as -delay-ms() and -delay-us() defined in delay.h in
WinAVR.
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 Drawback is probability problem, because different compliers do not use same

name for delay functions.
 Overcome by using wrapper or macro function.
 Wrapper call the predefined delay function.
3.Using AVR timers
 One way to generate a time delay is to clear the counter at the start time and wait
until the counter reaches a certain number.
The content of the counter register represents how much time has elapsed.
Problem 2:
Write an AVR program to toggle all thebits of port b continuously with a 100ms delay. Assume that
the system is ATmega32 with XTAL=8mhz.
Ans:-
#include<avr/io.h> //standard avr header
void delay(void)
{
unsigned char i;
for(i=0;i<1000;i++);
}
int main(void)
{
DDRB=0xFF; //PORTB is output
while(1)
{
PORTB=0xAA;
delay(); // call delay program
PORTB=0x55;
delay();
}
return 0;
}
I/O Programming in C
 All port registers of the AVR are both byte accessible and bit accessible.
• Byte Programming
 To access a PORT register as a byte, we use PORTx label, where x indicate
the name of register.
• Access the DDRx register , x indicate data direction of port.
• Access the PINx register, x indicate name of port.
• Bit Programming
• The I/O ports of ATmega32 are bit-accessible.
• We can access a single bit of I/O port registers.
• For eg: PORTB.0=1; Here we set the 0th bit of PORTB is equal to 1.
Also we can use the AND and OR bit wise operations to access a single bit of a given
register.
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Problem 3
Write an AVR program to get a byte of data from portb, and then send it to portc.
Ans:-
#include<avr/io.h> //standard avr header
int main(void)
{
unsigned char i;
DDRB=0x00; //PORTB is input
DDRC=0xFF; //PORTC is output
while(1)
{
i=PINB; //take the value of port b to a variable
PORTC=i; // send the value to portc
}
return 0;
}

problem 4
Write an AVR program to get a byte of data from port c. if it is less than 100, send it to port b ,
otherwise send it to port d.
Ans:-
#include<avr/io.h> //standard avr header
int main(void)
{
unsigned char i;
DDRC=0x00; //PORTB is input
DDRB=0xFF; //PORTC is output
DDRD=0xFF; //PORTD is output
while(1)
{
i=PINC; //take the value of port b to a variable
if(i<100)
{
PORTB=i; // send the value to portc
}
else
{
PORTD=i;
}
}
return 0;
}

Logic Operations in C
• One of the most powerful feature of C language is its ability to perform bit manipulation.
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The logic operators are

 AND(&&)
 OR(||)
 not(!)
• C also supports bit-wise operators. Those are
 AND(&)
 OR(|)
 EX-OR(^)
 Inverter(~)
 Shift right(>>)
 Shift left(<<)
• eg: 0x35&0x0f=0x05 /*ANDing*/
Bit-wise logic operators for C
AND OR EX-OR Inverter
A B A&B A|B A^B Y=~B
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0

find the value of the following

• 0x35&0xFF= 0x05
• 0x04|0x68=0x6c
• 0x54^0x78=0x2c
• ~0x55=0xAA
Problem 5
write an AVR C program to toggle only bit 4 of port b continuously without disturbing the rest
of the pins of port b.
Ans :-
#include<avr/io.h> //standard avr header
int main(void)
{
unsigned char i;
DDRB=0xFF; //PORTB is output
while(1)
{
PORTB=PORTB|0b00010000;
PORTB=PORTB&0b11101111;
}
return 0;
}
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problem 6
write an AVR program to monitor bit 5 of port c. If it is high, send 55h to port b,otherwise send
Aah to port b.
Ans:-
#include<avr/io.h> //standard avr header
int main(void)
{
unsigned char i;
DDRB=0xFF; //PORTB is output
DDRC=0x00;
while(1)
{
if(PINC&0b00100000)
{
PORTB=0x55;}
else
{
PORTB=0xAA;
}
}
return 0;
}
Compound assignment operators in C
• To reduce coding.
Compound assignment operator in C
Operation Abbreviated expression Equal C
expression
And assignment a &= b a =a & b
OR assignment a|=b a =a | b

problem 7
write an AVR C program to toggle only bit 4 of port b continuously without disturbing the rest
of the pins of port b.
Ans :-
#include<avr/io.h> //standard avr header
int main(void)
{
unsigned char i;
DDRB=0xFF; //PORTB is output
while(1)
{
PORTB|=0b00010000;
PORTB&=0b11101111;
}
return 0;
}

Bit-wise shift operators in C

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Bit-wise shift operators for C

Operation Symbol Format of shift operation •
Shift right >> data>>number of bits to be shifted right •
Shift left << data<<number of bits to be shifted left •

• eg: 0b00010000 >> 3 = 0b00000010 /* shifting right 3 times */

• to leave the generation of ones and zeros to the compiler and improve the code clarity, we
use shift operations. ~(1<<5)=11101111
• write the code to generate the following numbers
 a number that has only a one in position D7
 a number that has only a one in position D2
 a number that has only a one in position D4
 a number that has only a zero in position D5
 a number that has only a zero in position D3
 a number that has only a zero in position D1
answers
• 1<<7
• 1<<2
• 1<<4
• ~(1<<5)
• ~(1<<3)
• ~(1<<1)
Problem 8
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Data Conversion Programs in C

• In newer microcontrollers have a real-time clock(RTC) where the time and date are
kept even when power is off.
• Very often RTC provides data and time packed in BCD.
• To display them we must convert them to ASCII.
• BCD to ASCII convertion:- first convert it to unpacked BCD. Then the unpacked BCD
is tagged with 30H(0110000).
 e.g. packed BCD-0x29, unpacked BCD-0x02,0x09, ASCII-0x32,0x39
• BINARY TO DECIMAL CONVERSION-to display binary data, in ADC &RTC, we need to
convert it to decimal and then to ASCII.
 Hexadecimal format is a convenient way of representing binary data. Then
convert into decimal. First divide the number by 10 and keep the remainder.

Problem

Problem
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Data Serialization in C
• Serializing data is a way of sending a byte of data one bit at a time through a single
pin of microcontroller.
• There are 2 ways to transfer a data serially:
• Using a serial port. The programmer has very limited control over the sequence of data
transfer.
• Transfer data one bit a time and control the sequence of data and spaces between them.
Problem

memory allocation in c
• in AVR, we have 3 spaces to store data.
• 1. SRAm- 64kbytes space, address range is-0000-ffffH. We store temporary variable in
SRAM.
• 2. Flash ROM- $mbytes space. Address range is 00000_1FFFFFH. It stores programs. It
is directly under the control of Program counter.
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• 3. EEPROM- it can save data when the power is off. When there is not enough code
space,we can place permanent variables in EEPROM to save some code space.
•

PROGRAMMING TIMERS
 The AVR has one to six timers depending on the family member.they are referred as
Timers0,1,2,3,4 and 5.they can be used as timers or counter.
 Every timer needs a clock pulse to tick.
 The clock source can be internal or external.
 If we use the internal clock source, then the frequency of the crystal oscillator
is fed into the timer.
 There for, it is used for time delay generation and consequently is called a timer.
 By choosing the external clock option, we feed pulses through one of the AVR's
pins. This is called a counter.
 In ATMega32 , there are 3 timers- Timer0, Timer1 and Timer3.in this Timer0 and
Tmer2 are 8 bit,while Timer1 is 16bit.

Basic registers of timers

• The timer registers are located in the I/O register memory.Therefore, you can read or write
from timer registers using IN and OUT instructions, like the other I/O registers.Basic registers of timers/counters are:-
1. TCNTn (timer/Counter)
2. TOVn(Timer Overflow)
3. TCCRn (timer/counter Control register)
4. OCRn(Output Compare Register)
5. TIFR(Timer/counter Interrupt Flag Register) register
TCNTn (timer/Counter)
 InATmega32, we have TCNTO, TCNTI, and TCNT2 registers.
 The TCNTn register is a counter.
 Upon reset, the TCNTn contains zero.
 It counts up with each pulse. You can load a value into the TCNTn register or read its
value.
TCNT0 and TCNT2

same as TCNT2

TOVn(Timer Overflow)
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 It is a flag register.
 When a timer over flows, its TOVn flag will be set.

TCCRn (timer/counter C o n t r o l register)

 This register is used for setting modes of operation.
 Figure shows TCCRn register. It is 8 bit register.
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TCCR1B
OCRn(Output Compare Register)
• The content of the OCRn is compared with the content of the TCNTn. When they
are equal the OCFn (Output Compare Flag)flag will be set.
TIFR(Timer/counter Interrupt Flag Register) register
• The TIFR register contains the flags of different timers.
• Figure shows TIFR register. It is 8 bit register.

TCCR1A
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Mode of Operations

1.Normal mode
 In this mode, the content of the timer/counter increments with each clock.
 It counts up until it reaches its max (for 8 bit, it is 0xFF, for 16 bit it is 0xFFFF).
 When it rolls over from maximum value to 0, it sets high a flag bit called
TOVn(Timer Over flow).
 This timer flag can be monitored.
2. CTC mode (Clear Timer on Compare Match)

 The OCRn register is used with CTC mode.

 In the CTC mode, the timer is incremented with a clock.
 But it counts up until the content of the TCNTn register becomes equal to
the content of OCRn (compare match occurs); then, the timer will be
cleared and the OCFn flag will be set when the next clock occurs.
 The OCFn flag is located in theTIFR register.

Timer0 programming

 Timer0 is 8-bit in ATmega32.

Block diagram Timer0 in ATmega32

Steps to program Timer 0 in Normal mode

 To generate at time delay using Timer0 in Normal mode, the following steps are
taken:
1. Load the TCNTO register with the initial count value.
2. Load the value into the TCCR0.
3. Keep monitoring the timer over flow flag(TOV0) to see if it is raised.
4. Stop the timer by disconnecting the clock source.
5. Clear the TOVO flag for the next round.
6. Go back to Step 1 to load TCNTO again.
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Timer1 programming
 Timer1 is a16-bit timer.
 Its 16-bit register is split in to two bytes.
 The TCNT1 is referred as TCNT1L (Timer1 low byte) and TCNT1H (Timer1 high
byte).
 Timer1 also has two control registers named TCCR1A(Timer/counter1 control
register and TCCR1B.
 TheTOV1 (timer over flow)flag bit goes HIGH when over flow occurs.
 There are two OCR registers in Timer1:OCR1A andOCR1B.
 There are two separate flags for each of the OCR registers.
 Whenever TCNT1 equals OCR1A, the OCF1A flag will be set on the next clock.
 When TCNT1 equals OCR1B, the OCF1B flag will be set on the next clock.
 As Timer1 is a 16-bit timer, the OCR registers are16-bit registers as well and they
are made of two 8-bit registers.
 For example, OCR1A is made of OCR1AH (OCR1A high byte) and OCR1AL
(OCR1A low byte).

Block diagram Timer1 in ATmega32

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counters- timers can be used as counter if we provide pulses from outside. Example for counter
as shown above

INTERRUPTS
 There are two methods by which devices receive service from the microcontroller:
interrupts or polling.
 Whenever any device needs the microcontroller's service, the device notifies it
by sending an interrupt signal.
 Upon receiving an interrupt signal, the microcontroller stops whatever it is doing
and serves the device.
 The program associated with the interrupt is called the interrupt service routine(ISR)
or interrupt handler.
 For every interrupt, there must be an interrupt service routine(ISR),or interrupt
handler.
 When an interrupt is invoked, the microcontroller runs the interrupt service routine.
 For every interrupt there is a fixed location in memory that holds the address of its
ISR.
 The group of memory locations set aside to hold the addresses of ISRs is called
the interrupt vector table.

Interrupts vs. polling

Interrupts Polling
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Whenever any device needs service,The microcontroller continuously monitors the

it send an interrupt signal. status of a given device; when the status
condition is met, it performs the service.
can serve many devices not at the same time Can not assign a priority.It checks all devices in
using priority. a round-robin fashion.
It can ignore a device request. It cannot ignore a device request.
It avoids the tying down the micro controller. It wastes much of the time by polling
devices that do not need service.
More efficient Not efficient
Steps in executing an interrupt

1. It finishes the instruction it is currently executing a n d saves the address of the

next instruction ( program counter) on the stack.
2. It jumps t o a fixed location i n memory c a l l e d the interrupt vector
table. The Interrupt vector table directs the microcontroller to the address of the
interrupt service routine (ISR).
3. The microcontroller starts to execute the interrupt service subroutine until it reaches
the last instruction of the subroutine, which is RETI(return from interrupt).
4. Upon executing the RETI instruction, the microcontroller returns to the place
where it was interrupted .First, it gets the program counter (PC) address from the
stack by popping the top bytes of the stack into the PC. Then it starts to execute
from that address.
Sources of interrupts in the AVR
 Depending on which peripheral is incorporated in to the chip, there are many interrupts.
 The following are some of the most widely used sources of interrupts in the AYR:
1. There are at least two interrupts set aside for each of the timers, one for over
flow and another for compare match.
2. Three interrupts are set aside for external hardware interrupts. Pins PD2
(PORTD.2), PD3(PORTD.3), and PB2(PORTB.2) are for the external hardware
interrupts INT0 ,INT1, and INT2, respectively.
3. Serial communication's USART has three interrupts, one for receive and two
interrupts for transmit.
4. The SPI interrupts.
5. The ADC (analog-to-digita lconverter).
Enabling and disabling an interrupt
 At starting, all interrupts are disabled (masked), meaning that none will be responded
to by the microcontroller if they are activated.
 The interrupts must be enabled (unmasked)by software in order for the
microcontroller to respond to them.
 The D7 bit(I flag) of the SREG(Status Register)register is responsible for enabling
and disabling the interrupts globally.
 Bits of status register is shown below:
Steps in enabling an interrupt
1. Bit D7(I) of the SREG register must be set to HIGH to allow the interrupts to happen.
This is done with the "SEI" (Set Interrupt) instruction.
2. If I= I, each interrupt is enabled by setting to HIGH the interrupt enable (IE) flag bit for
that interrupt. If I=0,no interrupt will be responded.
PROGRAMMING TIMER INTERRUPTS
 There are 2 timer interrupts.
1. Overflow 2.Compare match
Rollover timer flag and interrupt
 The timer overflow flag is raised when the timer rolls over.
 When the timer overflows, the TOV0 flag will set.
 If the timer interrupt in the interrupt register is enabled, TOYO is raised whenever
the timer rolls over and the microcontroller jumps to the interrupt vector table to
service the ISR.
Compare match timer flag and interrupt
 We load the OCR register with the proper value and initialize the timer to the CTC
mode.
 When the content of TCNT matches with OCR ,the OCF flag is set, which causes the
compare match interrupt to occur.

INTERRUPT PRIORITY IN THE AVR

 If two interrupts are activated at the same time, the interrupt with the higher priority is
served first.
 The priority of each interrupt is related to the address of that interrupt in the interrupt
vector.
 The interrupt that has a lower address, has a higher priority.
 When the AVR begins to execute an ISR ,it disables the I bit of the SREG register
,causing all the interrupts to be disabled, and no other interrupt occurs while serving the
interrupt.
 When the RETI instruction is executed, the AVR enables the I bit, causing the other
interrupts to be served.
Context saving in task switching
 In multitasking systems, such as multitasking real-time operating systems
(RTOS),the CPU serves one task(job or process)at a time and then moves to the
next one.
 In these cases, we can save the contents of registers on the stack before execution
of each task ,and reload the registers at the end of the task.
 This saving of the CPU contents before switching to a new task is called context saving
(or context switching).
 Interrupt latency
 The time from the moment an interrupt is activated to the moment the CPU
starts to execute the task is called the interrupt latency.
 This latency is 4machine cycle times.
 During this time the PC register pushed on the stack and the I bit of SREG register
clears. i.e all interrupts are disabled.
Interrupt Programming in C
• in C language , there is no instruction to manage the interrupts.
• In AVR programming the following have been added to manage the interrupts.
◦ Interrupt include file:- include the interrupt header in our program.
#include<avr/interrupt.h>
◦ cli() and sei():- these macros do clear and set the I bit of SREG register.
◦ Defining ISR:- to write an ISR for an interrupt we use the following structure.
▪ ISR(interrupt vector name)
{
//our programmer}
}
▪ for the interrupt vector name we must use interrupt vector name in AVR.
▪ e.g. ISR(TIMER0_COMP_vect)
{
}
• the c compiler automatically adds instruction to the beginning of the ISRs, which save the
contents of all of the general purpose register and the SREG register on the stack.
Video links:
1.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U9B6j1I06rI
2.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EnC387Rtas0
3.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i_CeYCd4A80
4.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MeRb6bY0rxs
5.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICIKWlUjYuw
6.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gqDGeWKg62I

Important questions:
1. explain C data types for the AVR microcontroller.
2. Describe the Normal and CTC mode of Timers.
3.Explain Interrupts in AVR
4.Illustrate Interrupt Programming in C .
5.Explain memory allocation in C.
6. how to create a time delay in AVR C.
7. Explain the basic registers of Timer.
8. what is ISR( Interrupt service Routine).
9. Explain the methods to receive service from the microcontroller.
10.How to enable and disable an interrupt.
11. Which are the sources of interrupts.
12. What is the difference between PORTC=0x00 and DDRC=0x00?

One word questions:

1. give two factors that can affect the delay size.
2. to access the data direction register of port b, we use DDRB. True or false.
3. find the content of portc after the execution of the following code.
Portc=~(0<<3);
4. find the content of portc after the execution of the following code.
Portc=0;
portc=portc|0x99;
portc=~portc;
5. the AVR family has a maximum of ..........of program ROM space.
6. The ATMega128 has ..........of program ROM.
7. how many timers do we have in the ATMega32?
8.Timer1 is 16 bit timer. True or false.
9. in CTC mode , the counter rolls over when the counter reaches.......
10. for counter0, which pin is used for the input clock?
11. timer0 supports the highest prescaler value of .....
12. TCCR0 is a ...........bit register.
13. what is the job of TCCR0 register.
14. which register holds the TOV0 and TOV1 bits.
15. state the difference between timer0 and timer1.
16. in the ATMega32 what memory area is assigned to the interrupt vector table.
17. for each of Timer0 and Timer1, there is a unique address in the interrupt vector table.
Problems
1. write a c program to toggle all bits of portb every 200ms.
2. write a c program to toggle only bit 3 of PORTC every 200ms.
3. write a c program to count up port b from 0-99 continously.
4.write a c program to convert packed BCD 0x34 to ASCII and display the bytes on PORTB and
PORTC.
5. write a c program to convert ASCII digits of ‘7’ and ‘2’ to packed BCD and display them on
PORTB.
6. write a c program to send out the value 23H serially one bit at a time via PORTB,pin 4.the
MSB should go out first.