Origin of coal references

Keith B Miller ([email protected])

Mon, 4 May 1998 20:04:01 -0600

Any interpretation of the origin of coals must be consistent with a wealth of existing data, and
must deal effectively with the highly integrated explanatory framework already in place.
Interpretations of geologic features, from a given bed or lamina to the entire stratigraphic column
of a given location, cannot be done in isolation.

Here are some important data/interpretations that must be addressed:

1) The coal-forming vegetation of the Carboniferous is part of longevolutionary history of

terrrestrial vegetation extending from at least theSilurian through the Present.

2) The evolution of terrestrial plants is integrated with the evolution ofterrestrial animal
communities in such a way that coherent ecologicalinterpretations have been made.

3) The coals occur within the context of cyclic sedimentary packages calledcyclothems. The
periodicity and stacking patterns of these cycles areconsistent with forcing by Milankovitch orbital
cycles. The sealevelfluctuations occur coincidently with known glacial epochs in Gondwana.

4) The facies within these cyclothems include a wide array of bothterrestrial and marine
depositional units. These units have been widelycorrelated (regional and conteinental scales)
allowing for detailedpaleogeographic and environmental reconstructions.

5) Coals commonly occur within stratigraphic units containing fluvialchannels. These river
channel patterns have been mapped for givenstratigraphic intervals. Tidally influenced deposits
also commonly overlycoals. Daily, monthly and years tidal patterns can be recongized withinthese
deposits. Furthermore the type of tidal regime (diurnal.semi-diurnal. mixed) can often be
determined by computer analysis of laminethickness. These patterns are virtually identical to those
found in moderntidal deposits.

6) The species composition of the coals, deduced from both plant fossilsand spores, varies both
laterally and vertically within coal beds. Speciesalso vary with characterisitics of coals (eg. clay
content). Thesepatterns of vegetational change can be used to reconstruct the ecology ofthe fossil
species.

7) Different types of swamps (eg. planar or domed) can be recognized fromthe type of coal and
the compositon and preservation of paleofloras.

8) Changes in the plant community composition of coals over time (from coalto coal) are
consistent with independent geologic evidence of climatechange. These climate changes can in
turn be modelled using plate tectonicreconstructions based on yet other independent data
(paleomagnetism).

9) Paleosols (ancient soil profiles) are ubiquitous within Carboniferousand Permian cycles. Some
of these are directly associated with coals,other are not. Soil features preserved at both the outcrop
andmicroscopic-scale enable paleosols to be classified using modern soilclassification systems.
(Note: I have previously posted a list of basicreferences on the identification of soil fabrics.)
Interestingly thesepaleosols show stratigraphic patterns in their development that areconsistent
with both sedimentologic data on cycle durations and with dataon ancient climate change.

10) The "underclays" of coal beds may or may not be related to theformation of the overlying
peat. In some cases the underclays arepaleosols formed during times of extensive exposure that
significantlypreceeded the development of peats. These may have developed undersignificantly
different environmental and climatic conditions from thosethat produced the coals. Some
extensive coals are associated withtransgressions of the sea over the previously exposed
continental margins.The paleosols produced during sealevel lowstands may be much
moregeographically extensive than the coal beds overlying them. There ispresent ongoing work
which has traced such exposure surfaces nearly acrossthe North American continent.

11) The water-saturated conditions of a swamp generate soils with poorlydeveloped structure.
This is because soil structure primarily results fromthe vertical movement of material and fluids
through the profile.

12) Many modern peats are formed by vegetation (including trees) that isdetached from the
underlying substrate. The decomposing bottom of the matcontributes the organic matter that
accumulates to form the peat. This isthe case for much of the Mississippi delta.

I do not intend to devote any significant time to this issue on this forumin the future. I am already
far behind in my own researchresponsibilities. My hope is that the active parties to this
discussionwill avail themselves of these sources. The amount of available data is soextensive that
discussing the origin of coal without familiarity with thisliterature will not be fruitful.

A very brief bibliography:

Note: many of the above were chosen as much for their bibliographies as fortheir content. By
searching the articles referenced in the publicationsabove, a person will quickly have literally
hundreds of sources at theirdisposal. The literature on these topics is vast.

Archer, A.W., 1991, Modeling of tidal rhythmites using modern tidalperiodicities and implications
for short-term sedimentation rates: KansasGeological Survey Bulletin 233: 185-194.

Archer, A.W., Lanier, W.P., and Feldman, H.R., 1994, Stratigraphy anddepositional history within
incised-paleovalley fills and related facies,Douglas Group (Missourian/Virgilian; Upper
Carboniferous) of Kansas, USA:SEPM Special Publication 51: 175-190.
Behrensmeyer, A.K., Damuth, J.D., Di Michele, W.A., Potts, R., Sues, H-D.,and Wing, S.L.,
(eds.), 1992, Terrestrial Ecosystems through Time:Evolutionary Paleoecology of Terrestrial Plants
and Animals: Chicago,University of Chicago Press, 568 p.

Cecil, C.B. and Eble, C.F., 1992, Paleoclimate controls on Carboniferoussedimentation and cyclic
stratigraphy in the Appalachian Basin: USGS OpenFile Report 92-546.

Cross, A.T. and Phillips, T.L., 1990, Coal-forming plants through time inNorth America:
International Journal of Coal Geology 16: 1-46.

Crowley, T.J. and Baum, S.K., 1991, Estimating Carboniferous sea-levelfluctuations from
Gondwanan ice extent: Geology 19: 975-977.

DiMichele, W.A. and Aronson, R.B., 1992, The Pennsylvanian-Permianvegetational transition : A

terrestrial analogue to the onshore-offshorehypothesis: Evolution 46:807-824.

DiMichele, W.A., Pfefferkorn, H.W., Phillips, T.L., 1996, Persistence ofLate Carboniferous
tropical vegetation during glacially driven climatic andsea-level fluctuations: Palaeogeography
Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology125: 105-128.

Eble, C.F. and Grady, W.C., 1990, Paleoecological interpretation of aMiddle Pennsylvanian coal
bed in the central Appalachian basin, USA:International Journal of Coal Geology 16: 255-286.

Heckel, P.H., 1986, Sea-level curve for Pennsylvanian eustatic marinetransgressive-regressive

depositional cycles along midcontinent outcropbelt, North America: Geology 14: 330-334.

Joeckel, R.M., 1995, Upper Pennsylvanian paleosols in the Platte andMissouri valleys,
southeastern Nebraska. IN, Geologic Field Trips inNebraska and Adjacent Parts of Kansas and
South Dakota: Conservation andSurvey Division, University of Nebraska-lincoln, p. 121-135.

Miller, K.B., McCahon, T.J., and West, R.R., 1996, Lower Permian(Wolfcampian) paleosol-
bearing cycles of the U.S. midcontinent: evidence ofclimatic cyclicity: Journal of Sedimentary
Research 66: 71-84.

Parrish, J.T., 1993, Climate of the supercontinent Pangea: Journal ofGeology 101: 215-233.

Phillips, T.L., and DiMichele, W.A., 1998, A transect through aclastic-swamp to peat-swamp
ecotone in the Springfield Coal, MiddlePennsylvanian age of Indiana, USA: Palaios 13: 113-128.

Phillips, T.L. and Peppers, R.A., 1984, Changing patterns of Pennsylvaniancoal-swamp vegetation
and implications of climatic control on coaloccurrence: International Journal of Coal Geology 3:
205-255.

Phillips, T.L., Peppers, R.A., and DiMichele, W.A., 1985, Stratigraphic andinterregional changes
in Pennsylvanian coal-swamp vegetation: environmentalinferences: International Journal of Coal
Geology 5: 43-109.

Stewart, W.N., 1983, Paleobotany and the Evolution of Plants: Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 405 p.

West, R.R., Archer, A.W., and Miller, K.B., 1997, The role of climate instratigraphic patterns
exhibited by late Palaeozoic rocks exposed inKansas: Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology
Palaeoecology 128: 1-16.

Keith B. MillerDepartment of GeologyKansas State UniversityManhattan, KS

66506[email protected]http://www-personal.ksu.edu/~kbmill/