FOURTH EDITION

A PRIMER FOR NEW PROFESSIONALS

ANDREA M. GUILLAUME
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 A Primer for New Professionals

Fourth Edition

Andrea M. Guillaume
California State University, Fullerton

G.M. ELLIOTT LIBRARY

Cincinnati Christian Universit:

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Guillaume, Andrea M.
K-12 classroom teaching: a primer for new professionals/Andrea M. Guillaume.—4th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-13-256549-3
1. First year teachers—United States. 2. Teaching—United States. I. Title.
LB2844.1.N4G85 2012
371.102—dce22
2011003121

10 Di FNOUS Aa 0e iNew ie aes ae) abst

PEARSON ISBN-10: 0-13-256549-8

www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN-13: 978-0-13-256549-3
 About the Author

Andrea Guillaume began her career in education as a public middle school teacher. She
specializes in pedagogy, particularly in active teaching and content methods. At California
State University, Fullerton, she teaches future and current teachers foundations, mathemat-
ics and science methods, and educational research. She also enjoys working with teachers
new to their career in a local induction program. Andrea has written numerous texts and
articles related to teaching. She cherishes every second she spends with her husband, two
sons (Alex and Zach), and Black Labrador Lilah.

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For Marnie, forever.
 Brief Contents

CHAPTER1 The Nature of Teaching

CHAPTER2 Developing Your Stance Toward Education

CHAPTER3 Getting to Know Students and Families

CHAPTER4 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction

CHAPTER 5 Planning for Instruction

CHAPTER6 Advice on Instruction: COME IN 116

CHAPTER 7 Instructional Models and Strategies 142

CHAPTER 8 Student Assessment 180

CHAPTER9 Managing the Learning Environment 208

CHAPTER10 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 236

CHAPTER 11 Growing in Your Profession 268

Glossary 280

References 286

Index 306

Vili
 Contents

Preface xv

CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Teaching 2

Teaching Looks Easy .. . from the Outside 3
Every Teacher Is Part of a System 5
Teachers and the Law 5
Teaching and Learning in the 21st Century 7
Local Influences on Teaching Today 9
Circles ofInfluence: Opportunities and Challenges 9
Teaching Is Goal Driven 11
Teaching Is More Than Telling 12
There Is Agreement on What Teachers Need to Know and Be Able to Do 15
Teachers Can Be Effective and Yet Not Just Alike 17
Parting Words 19

CHAPTER 2 Developing Your Stance Toward Education 22

Three Curricula 24
Considering the Questions of Education 26
Conceptions of Education Found in Practice 27
Developing Your Stance 30
What Is the Good? Who Is the Good Person Living in the Good Society? 31
What Is the Purpose of Education? 31
What Should Everyone Learn? Why? 32
What Is the Nature ofLearning? 33
What Is (Excellent) Teaching? 33
What Does School Do? 34
Using Your Stance 34
Parting Words 35

CHAPTER 3. Getting to Know Students and Families 40

The Generic U.S. Classroom 41
Rough Terrain Ahead: Gaps and Inequities 42
Will the Real U.S. Student Please Stand Up? Getting to Know Your
Students and Families 44
Questioning Assumptions 45
Gathering Information About Students and Families 46

Note: The pronouns she, he, her, and his are used variously throughout the text to represent either teacher or student.

Note: Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the
Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses
listed in this textbook will change.
xX Contents

Working with Families 52

What We Know About Families and Schools 52
Start Now to Involve Families 54

Parting Words 58

CHAPTER 4 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 62

Treat Students as Individuals 63
Plan for All Students with Universal Design 64
Differentiate Instruction 64
Content 65
Process 65
Product 65
Use Varied Student Groupings 67
Grouping Decisions 67
Mixing It Up with Student Groups 68
Address Students’ Special Educational Needs 69
Some Statistics and Laws Related to Students with Identified Needs 69
Serving Students with Special Needs 71
Accommodate and Modify 71
Use Assistive Technology to Accommodate and Modify 72
Use Response to Intervention 73
Shelter English Instruction for English Language Learners 74
Language Acquisition 75
Teaching English Learners 75
Sheltered English Instruction 76
Challenge Gifted and Advanced Learners 78
Defining Giftedness and Identifying Gifted Learners 78
Meeting the Needs of Advanced and Gifted Learners 79
Foster Gender Equity 80
Create Safe Spaces 82
Parting Words 82

CHAPTER 5 Planning for Instruction 86

Planning Today 87
The Basics of Standards-Based Instruction 87
The Promise and Pitfalls of Standards-Based Instruction 87
All Means All 88
Planning Starts with the Students 88
Goals Drive Planning 90
Kinds of Goals 91
Goals versus Objectives 93
Determining Goals 94
Planning to Use Instructional Resources 95
Textbooks 95
Rich Instructional Resources 96
Long-Range Planning 100
Yearlong Planning 100
Unit Planning 101
Weekly and Daily Schedules 104
Lesson Planning 107
Writing Objectives 107
 Contents xi

Lesson Structure 108

Elements of a Lesson Plan 108
Parting Words 113

CHAPTER 6 Advice on Instruction: COME IN 116

Connect 117
Connecting People 117
Connecting Ideas 119
Connecting to the Outside World and Its Important Ideas 121
Connecting to Action 121
Organize Your Instruction 122
Organizing Content 122
Organizing Times and Tasks 124
Model 125
Enrich 127
Interact 130
Active Participation: Engagement and Progress Monitoring 130
Structured Interaction for Language Development 134
Physical Movement during Classroom Instruction 135
Consider Human Nature and Student Needs 136
Parting Words 137

CHAPTER 7 Instructional Models and Strategies 142

Information and Communication Technology Tools 143
Questions in the Classroom 144
Selecting Instructional Models 145
Deductive and Inductive Strategies 147
A Sampling of Instructional Models 148
Direct Instruction 148
Inductive Teaching 152
Inquiry Training 152
Concept Attainment 154
Learning Cycle 157
Concept Formation 157
Unguided Inquiry 163
Strengths and Criticisms of Inductive Strategies 164
Cooperative Learning 165
Parting Words 170

CHAPTER 8 Student Assessment 180

Principles of Assessment 181
Assessment Basics 182
Different Assessments for Different Purposes 182
Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Assessments 182
Standardized and Local Assessments 183
Formative and Summative Assessments 183
The Assessment Landscape 183
International Assessment Landscape 184
National- and State-Level Assessment Landscape 185
The School-Level Assessment Landscape 186
xii Contents

Classroom Assessment Step by Step 186

1. Choose Your Assessment Targets 186
2. Choose Your Assessment Strategies 188
. Include Your Students 193
. Employ Your Assessments and Analyze the Data 196
BR . Use What You Learn 199
A Note on Grading 200
A Sampler of Assessments 201
Traditional Tests 201
Attitude Surveys 202
Products 202
Portfolios 202
Journals 202
Performance-Based Assessments 202
Teacher Observations 202
Interviews 203
Drawings and Diagrams 203
Graphic Organizers 204
Parting Words 204

CHAPTER 9 Managing the Learning Environment 208

Creating Community: Managing Classroom Ambience 209
Know Thyself 209
E Pluribus... 210
... Unum 210
Creating Community Using a Range of Strategies 211
Managing the Physical Space 213
Is It Productive? 214
Ts It Efficient? 214
Managing Resources: The Stuff of Teaching 217
Paper Flow 217
Digital Equipment 217
Communications 218
Managing Time 219
Maximizing Academic Learning Time 219
Noninstructional Routines 221
Instructional Management and Routines 223
Your Own Management Plan 226
Parting Words 233

CHAPTER 10 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 236

Classroom Discipline as One Piece of the Puzzle 237
Physician, Heal Thyself: Discipline Starts with You 237
How Understanding Yourself Helps You as a Disciplinarian 238
Finding Emotional Control in an Emotional Endeavor 238
Choosing Your Authority Base 239
The Goal Is Self-Discipline 240
Establishing a Climate That Promotes Independence 240
Addressing Behavior in Ways That Encourage Self-Control 241
The Key: A Structured, Consistent, Supportive Environment 245
1. Structure 246
2. High Expectations 246
3. Support 246
 Contents xiii

4. Caring Communication 247

5. Clear Limits 247
6. Consistency 248
Relationships as Central 248
Establishing a Climate of Dignity and Respect 249
Responding to Behavior 250
Prevention, Not Reaction 251
1, Meaningful Curriculum and High Engagement 251
2. Motivation and Development 252
3. Anticipation 253
4. Positive Approach 254
5. Strong Presence and Nonverbal Communication 255
A Systems Approach 256
Group Size 257
Overlapping 258
Intensity of Response 259
Motivation for Misbehavior 260
Short-Term and Long-Term Redirection 260
Your Own Classroom Discipline Plan 263
Parting Words 266

CHAPTER 11 Growing in Your Profession 268

Engaging in the Professional Community 269
Becoming an Effective Staff Member 269
Growing from Feedback on Your Teaching 271
Pursuing Professional Development 273
Using Professional Ethics as Your Guide 275
Some Advice from the Heart 277

Glossary 280
References 286
Index 306
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 >reface

By learning you will teach; by teaching you will learn.

—Latin Proverb

K-12 Classroom Teaching: A Primer for New Professionals is a core text for elementary
and secondary preservice teachers who are taking introduction to teaching courses, field
experience courses, or general methods courses. It is also a quick but thorough core text
for inservice teachers who are gaining certification at the same time they are beginning to
teach. Instructors of specialized methods courses or foundations of education courses will
find this primer a useful supplemental text.
K-12 Classroom Teaching presents useful, practical points of view that can provide
meaning and direction behind new teachers’ actions related to a number of central educational
issues. It uses clear, reader-friendly language to concisely explore key aspects of classroom
teaching, including 21st-century teaching and learning, strategies for learning about students
and their families, educational stances, planning and assessment, inclusive and responsive
instruction, instructional models and strategies, classroom management and discipline, and
professional growth. Chapters include a balance of up-to-date discussions of educational
issues, research findings, and practical advice. The selection and presentation of topics is
guided by a conceptual approach that emphasizes the active nature of learning to teach.

Conceptual Approach
K-12 Classroom Teaching: A Primer for New Professionals is based on the premise that
teaching is goal directed, interactional, and mindful of the local setting in its efforts to en-
courage learners’ growth. Two core convictions are that classroom teaching is complex and
that today’s teachers face special difficulties given current demands and events at home and
abroad. It takes the conceptual approach that in the face of these challenging conditions,
teachers at their best are guided by:
¢ A commitment to understanding their particular students and placing students at the
center of every decision.
¢ A clear sense of what they hope to accomplish.
¢ An understanding of the context and of what research shows to be effective.
* A set of professional knowledge and skills.
¢ A sense of ethics concerning what is right.
¢ A sense of responsibility to value and enhance the learning of every student.

Building these dispositions, commitments, and understandings is hard work, so this

text approaches the process of learning to teach (and of learning in general) as an active,
social one. Through its content and through its approach, the text encourages readers to re-
flect on past experience, to question assumptions, to consider multiple sources of informa-
tion, and to commit to enacting well-defined notions of good practice that address learners’
diverse needs and honor the dignity of the human experience.
xvi Preface

Organization of the Text

the
Chapters are arranged topically, and content of later chapters draws from the work
reader accomplishes in earlier chapters.

In Chapter 1, the text begins with an exploration of the distinct character of class-
room teaching. Chapter | explores this character through six propositions of teaching
that lay a foundation for the entire text through their content and their implications
for each chapter’s presentation of information. These propositions include:
Teaching looks easy . . . from the outside.
Every teacher is part of a system.
Teaching is goal driven.
Teaching is more than telling.
There is agreement on what teachers need to know and be able to do.
ANWR
WN Teachers can be effective and yet not just alike.
Chapter 2 stresses the importance of understanding the philosophical bases found
in educational practice and of developing one’s own stance toward education.
Subsequent chapters ask readers to use their stance to guide their decisions related to
the chapters’ content.
Chapter 3 explores the growing range of strengths and needs exhibited by students in
U.S. schools and urges new teachers to use knowledge of specific students and fami-
lies as the starting point for their instructional decisions.
Chapter 4 argues that, because students are the basis of our decisions, instruction
must be inclusive and responsive to the very wide range of student needs and inter-
ests we find in every classroom. The chapter explores approaches that can respond to
issues such as gender, special educational needs, and English acquisition.
Chapter 5 addresses instructional planning both in the long range and in the short
term. It guides teachers in making decisions about resources and student group-
ings and presents a variety of unit planning approaches and standards-based lesson
planning.
Chapter 6 introduces six pieces of general advice for instruction using the mnemonic
device COME IN: Connect, Organize, Model, Enrich, Interact, and consider Nature
and Needs. The chapter argues that this advice can encourage rigorous learning
through rich and purposeful instruction.
Chapter 7 shares instructional models and strategies and discusses the strengths and
potential drawbacks of models such as direct instruction and inquiry.
Chapter 8 explores principles of assessment and offers a variety of assessment strate-
gies in keeping with those principles. Special attention is given to current concerns
about accountability and its focus on student achievement as required by the No
Child Left Behind Act.
Chapter 9 addresses classroom management. It focuses on the importance of produc-
tive relationships, structure, and proactive decision making.
Chapter 10 focuses on classroom discipline and encouraging appropriate student
behavior in ways that respect students, prevent misbehavior, and encourage
self-control.
Finally, Chapter 11 addresses issues of professional involvement and growth for new
teachers.

Features of the Text

Readers and reviewers of earlier editions of K-12 Classroom Teaching commented

posi-
tively on a variety of the text’s characteristics, and those have been retained in the
fourth
edition. They include the text’s condensed format, its readable style,
its useful ideas, and
its personal approach.
 Preface xvii

In keeping with the text’s active approach to learning, a number of special features can
also be found throughout the text.

Warm-Up Exercises. Because past experience influences present learning, chapters

begin with warm-up activities that help readers access their thinking related to
major points about to be explored.
Presentation of Information. Key concepts are presented in clear language. Figures
are often used to present information in a succinct format.
Teaching Tips. Plentiful practical classroom suggestions are placed in boxes through-
out each of the chapters. Readers find three types of tips: generic teaching tips,
inclusive and responsive teaching tips, and 21st-century teaching and learning tips.
Words from Teachers. The voices of previous readers, now teachers, offer advice
and writing samples that are presented in many chapters. Examples include advice
for building community, encouraging student participation, structuring a produc-
tive learning environment, and pursuing financial literacy.
Parting Words. Rather than concluding with a traditional summary, chapters con-
clude with some final words of advice related to the issues at hand.
Web Sites. Web sites related to the chapter’s content are provided. Web sites provide
connections to professional organizations and instructionally related resources and
materials.
Opportunities to Practice. Application exercises conclude each chapter. They are
meant to extend readers’ connections with the content in a variety of ways that
directly relate to the world of the classroom.
Blank Forms. Opportunities to Practice exercises, along with many figures through-
out the text, provide for structured practice and application of the chapters’ key
ideas. Examples include blank observation guides, lesson plan forms, and assess-
ment and management plans.

New to this Edition

The fourth edition of K—/2 Classroom Teaching: A Primer for New Professionals responds
to the dynamic conditions teachers today face. A number of updates enhance the text:
¢ The research and literature base has been thoroughly updated, and hundreds of new
citations have been added. Included are recent trends such as the Core Common
Standards movement, the growing body of knowledge related to the No Child Left
Behind Act, and the achievement and opportunity gaps for many groups of students.
* The seed of “starting with students” from earlier editions has blossomed into a conception
of inclusive and responsive teaching that provides the underpinnings of the fourth edition.
Inclusive and responsive teaching is introduced in Chapter | and explored in all chapters.
Notable examples include a new chapter, Chapter 4, Providing Inclusive and Responsive
Instruction and Chapter 10, Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior.
¢ The link between family and school has been tightened, including an expanded
treatment of the research related to the importance of family-school connections in
Chapter 3. Many strategies, such as home visits and surveys (Chapter 3), and part-
nership in student assessment (Chapter 8) are found throughout.
¢ A focus on the multifaceted demands of the 21st century is sharp in the fourth edi-
tion. Demands for the 21st century such as creativity, critical thinking, systems
thinking, collaboration, and multiple literacies (like Information and Communication
Technology—ICT—literacy) are thoroughly addressed throughout. Every chapter
has 21st Century Teaching and Learning Tips and technology-rich examples that
draw from Web 2.0 applications such as social networking and authoring tools. Each
chapter—such as Chapters 7, 8, and 9—addresses 21st-century demands as it dis-
cusses the knowledge and skills required of teachers of today .. . and tomorrow.
Chapter 11, for example, asks teachers to explore their fit with e-learning as they
consider professional development beyond their credential.
Xviil Preface

high school, and high

© Issues related to secondary teachers (middle school, junior
and perspectives
school teachers) have been incorporated more directly. Research
incor-
addressing the special conditions faced by secondary students and teachers are
porated throughout the text. Two examples include: .
* Research and suggestions related to working with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and
transgender (GLBT) students and families (Chapter 4).
¢ Research and practical suggestions related to classroom management and
discipline for secondary students (Chapters 9 and 10).

Supplements

An electronic instructor’s manual is available at www.pearsonhighered.com on the

Instructor’s Resource Center without cost to instructors using K—/2 Classroom Teaching:
A Primer for New Professionals as part of their courses. The comprehensive instructor’s
manual includes the following components:
Chapter overview and key outcomes. An at-a-glance preview of the chapter and a list-
ing of some outcomes students should be able to demonstrate after reading the chapter.
Chapter outline and graphic organizer. Two different presentations of the chapter’s
key points.
PowerPoint presentations. Slides that present information related to the chapter con-
tent and can be used to spark classroom discussions.
Sample class activities. Activities that can be used to access readers’ prior knowledge,
connect the text’s main points to their lives and practice, and extend their practice.
Test bank items. Assessment tasks and traditional test items.

* Acknowledgments
lam grateful to my colleagues at California State University, Fullerton, and the surrounding
schools for their expertise and assistance in the development of this edition.
¢ Thanks to Kim Case for her assistance in obtaining schedules from practicing teach-
ers, and to Richard Kravitz and Susan Zack for those schedules. Thanks to Loretta
for hers as well.
Thanks to colleagues who are current and former students—Dionne Sincire, Robin
Mackie, Philip Campos, Britni Hong, Brittany Even, and Dan Otter—for their will-
ing contributions and insights into teaching and learning.
Special thanks to Cynthia Gautreau for her expertise and generosity in reviewing the
information related to technology throughout the text.
Thanks, too, to family members:
* My mom, LuAnn Berthel, who worked hard not to call or email until I was finished.
* My boys—husband and sons—for friendship, support, and all they teach me.
Finally, thanks to my colleagues in the wider profession of education for their perspec-
tives and for the wisdom that continues to shape the evolution of this text.
* Thanks to those who reviewed the third edition and provided valuable insights
and directions for development of the fourth edition. They are Brenda M. Davis,
Randolph-Macon College; Michael F. Hawke, Tarleton State University; Elvira K.
Katic, Ramapo College of New Jersey; Christine A. Mayfield, California State
University, Fullerton; Marilyn Ruda, Hunter College; and Beth R. Walizer, Fort
Hays State University.The text is stronger as a result of their critiques.
I appreciate the support of Kelly Villella Canton. Her keen knowledge of the field
helped shape this text.
Thanks are in order, too, to the production team at Pearson. You’ve been terrific,
Annalea Manalili and Paula Carroll.
@ —The Nature of Teaching

» Before You Begin Reading

Learning is an active process. Your current beliefs, motivations, and goals will shape what you learn as you
interact with this text. Before you read, complete the following chart. What are your core convictions about
teaching right now? For example, do you believe teachers make all the difference in learning? Next, record
your goals as an educator. Why have you selected teaching? What do you hope to accomplish? Learning is a
process not only of adding to our knowledge stores, but of also modifying or discarding notions when neces-
sary. Revise your work as you continue learning about your profession.

Warm-Up Exercise for the Nature of Teaching

My Core Convictions about

M
Teaching and Learning Scale ae Teacher
 The Nature of Teaching

Children play school, spend many years as students in classrooms, and encounter count-
less media images of teachers. As a result, by the time we reach adulthood, it is tempting to
believe that we know all there is to know about teaching. However, our earlier experiences
with teaching may not provide accurate information that helps us to teach well. What is
teaching? How 1s it different from other things people do? How does one teach well? The
following six propositions help to distinguish teaching from other activities, combat com-
mon misconceptions about teaching, and guide us on the journey of learning to teach well.
1. Teaching looks easy .. . from the outside.
Every teacher is part of a system.
= Teaching is goal driven.
4. Teaching is more than telling.
5. There is agreement on what teachers need to know and be able to do.
6. Teachers can be effective and yet not just alike.

Teaching Looks Easy .. . from the Outside

The prevailing perception is that teaching is simple. The movies suggest that nearly
anyone can teach, and earning a teaching credential somehow doesn’t sound as daunt-
ing as the sleepless nights of a medical school residency. Also, current accountability
demands wrongly imply that raising student achievement should be a straightforward
matter (Amrein & Berliner, 2002, 2003; Cochran-Smith, 2003; Rose, 2004). In reality, the
relationships among factors like teaching, learning, and testing are often very complicated.
“Success at learning requires a combination of circumstances well beyond the actions of
a teacher” (Fenstermacher & Richardson, 2005, p. 191). Not until we examine the myriad
of factors that influence student learning, and not until we step in front of a classroom
ourselves, might we realize how difficult teaching can be. Perhaps it is for this reason that
some student teachers and interns become temporarily disillusioned when they begin their
field experiences (Goldstein, 2005).

Teaching looks easy from

the outside

Source: Scott Cunningham/Merrill.

 CHAPTER 1
+

Doyle,
Teaching is difficult partly because classrooms are complex (Douglas, 2009;
1986). First, teachers are required to serve in several roles. They need to serve as advocate
master,
(Kaplan, 2003), instructor, observer, evaluator, coach, activities director, supply
their varied roles, teachers make _many_
tech support, and confidante, for instance. In
decisions about different kinds of issues. Teachers make hundreds of decisions per day
(Danielson, 1996). They need to think about students’ safety, their learning, and their other
needs simultaneously, all while they also consider their own personal and professional
issues.

Exercise 2 in Opportunities to Practice at the close of this chapter presents a number of

recently offered metaphors for the many roles of teachers. Take a look, and think about your
own vision related to these roles.

Second; the number and rapidity of events make classrooms complex. Many things
happen at once, they happen quickly, and they tend to overlap. Classroom teachers must
make quick judgments without time to reflect or weigh the consequences of their actions.
Third, although classrooms have common elements, every learning situation is different.
Individual learners’ experiences and needs affect the nature of the class. Students start
the year in different places academically and socially, have different interests and
Good teaching is neither preferences, and go home to different circumstances. The physical, sociocultural,
obvious nor simplistic. and historical setting of the class varies as well. Consequently, as teachers and their
students spend time together, they build a shared and unique history. Perhaps you
—National Board for Professional
have noticed this yourself if you and your classmates have laughed at an inside joke,
Teaching Standards (2002)
one that only the people in your particular class could appreciate.
A fourth way in which classrooms are complex is that, because people affect each other,
the act of teaching is inherently uncertain (Helsing, 2007). It is difficult for even an expe-
rienced teacher to predict with certainty how a class will respond to a lesson. Classrooms
are also unpredictable because as teachers we may pursue goals that are unclear, our base
of authority may be in question, and we are usually unsure of the outcomes of our efforts,
especially long-range outcomes (Jackson, 1986). Although the desire to touch the future is
a strong draw for many teachers (Eisner, 2006), we are often left uncertain about the effects
of our efforts. What happens to students.after they leave.us? What did they learn? Did they
learn because of us or in spite of us? The Teaching Tip gives a quick strategy to discover

to-face interaction with students, It requires preparation, and it requires reflection and
revision. As a result, many teachers feel like their work is never finished (Lindqvist &
Nordanger, 2006). Because classrooms are complex, it takes years to master the craft of
teaching (Berliner, 2004; Cuban, 2010). Both careful study and reflective experience are
necessary. ag

Use exit cards to quickly discover some things about what your students learn during your les-
sons. At the close of a lesson, period, or day, distribute index cards or slips of paper and ask stu-
dents to respond to one or two brief prompts such as, “List one thing you learned today,”
“Solve
for x,” or “What question do you still have after today’s lesson?” Students leave the cards
in
a container by the door as their ticket out. Study the cards quickly and start the next lesson
by
addressing the exit card results.
 The Nature of Teaching

Do you remember the television commercial that hawks deodorant by warning “never
let them see you sweat”? That commercial seems to capture the first aspect of teaching:
Teaching looks easy . . . from the outside. Though public attention on teaching and on
student performance is high, few people witness the day-to-day conditions under which
teachers are expected to encourage learning and to manage the complexity of the classroom
without a drop of perspiration. Further, classroom complexity is compounded because
classrooms exist as part of a larger system.

Every Teacher Is Part of a System

No teacher is an island. Closing the classroom door does not seal away outside influences.
Instead, a teacher serves at the center of a set of nested circles of influence, as shown in
Figure |.1. Imagine an archery target. You, the teacher, are in the bull’s-eye, and the out-
ermost ring contains society in the broadest sense. What happens in your society and in
the world affects your classroom daily. Let’s explore a couple societal expectations and
influences that affect teachers and students—the demands of the where and the when of
teaching and learning today.

Teachers and the Law

As a teacher, you are expected to act in ways that are consistent with the rules and goals of
the place you live: your society. In addition to the rules that guide our actions as citizens,
laws govern many aspects of your behavior and professional practice as a teacher. Many
laws affecting teachers are summarized in Figure 1.2.

Circles of influence that affect classroom teachers.

Broadest Setting:
e Laws?
¢ Cultural expectations?
e Prized attributes?
e Professional
recommendations?
¢ Current events?

State and District:

e Expectations for teachers?
e State standards?
Your Classroom of
e Prized knowledge, skills, and
Learners
abilities?
Teaching and
Learning
Interactions
Local Setting:
e Learner characteristics?
« Family experiences and
goals?
¢ Community issues?
 Teachers and the law.

if the intent is not to worship.

1. Public schools must not promote worship. Schools may teach about religion
and allow religious-
If a public school allows some groups to meet there, it must provide equal access
based groups (such as religious clubs) to meet there as well. The groups cannot be school sponsored
(Alexander & Alexander, 2005).
Students cannot be required to salute the flag if their religious convictions or matters of conscience (in
some states) prohibit it (Fischer, Schimmel, & Kelly, 1999).
2. Academic freedom has limits. Education is a marketplace of ideas (Alexander & Alexander, 2005).
Teachers are permitted to address controversial topics and use controversial methods if they are
educationally defensible, appropriate for the students, and are not disruptive. School boards have
authority to set curriculum and methods.
3. Teachers’ private activities must not impair their teaching effectiveness. Although teachers hold the same
rights as other citizens, their conduct is held to a higher standard. When teachers’ private lives weaken
their classroom effectiveness, it is possible that they may be dismissed. Sexual relationships with
students are cause for dismissal (Fischer et al., 1999).
4. Students have rights to due process. Teachers’ and schools’ rules and procedures must be fair and
reasonable, and justice must be administered even handedly. Due process is important for such issues
as search and seizure, suspension, and expulsion (McCarthy, Cambron-McCabe, & Thomas, 1998).
Families of students with disabilities have additional due process procedures related to special education
services (Fischer et al., 1999).
5. Teachers must not use academic penalties to punish behavior. Students’ academic grades cannot be J
lowered as a result of disciplinary infractions. Students must be allowed to make up work that
accumulates during suspensions or other disciplinary periods (McCarthy et al., 1998).
6. Corporal punishment must not be misused. Fewer than half the states allow corporal—or physical—
punishment (Underwood & Webb, 2006). In states where it is allowed, corporal punishment must be
delivered while the teacher is not in a state of anger, it must fit the crime and the student’s age and
condition, and it must not lead to permanent injury or run the risk of such (McCarthy et al., 1998).
Disciplinary actions that serve to humiliate a child may be illegal too.
7. Teachers must protect children’s safety. Teachers must act in place of the parents (Alexander &
Alexander, 2005), providing prudent, reasonable supervision to protect children from harm. They can be
held negligent if they do not do so.
Teachers and schools can protect children’s safety by establishing and enforcing rules pertaining to
safety and by providing prudent, reasonable care in their supervision (Fischer et al., 1999).
8. Teachers must not slander or libel their students. Teachers must say and write only things about students that
they know objectively to be true. Even confidential files must not contain statements that demean a student's
character, background, or home life. Statements should be based on relevant observable behavior (Fischer
et al., 1999). Teachers must share information only with personnel who have a right to such information.
9. Teachers must copy instructional materials in accordance with copyright laws. The reproduction without the
author's permission of copyrighted instructional materials, including print sources, visual images, videotapes,
and computer software, is restricted to conditions of fair use. Examples of fair use are a single copy of a book
chapter for a teacher's own use, or a copy of a poem. Teachers may not make copies to replace collected
works, nor may they make copies of consumable materials. Teachers may not make copies of computer
software, and they are greatly restricted in their use of videotape in the classroom (Fischer et al., 1999;
McCarthy et al., 1998). Teachers should consider materials found on the World Wide Web to be copyright
protected, unless the materials state that they are public domain (Underwood & Webb, 2006).
10. Teachers must report suspected child abuse. All states require teachers to report suspected physical or
sexual abuse, and no state requires certainty, only reasonable cause to believe that abuse is present
(Fischer et al., 1999). If the state requires teachers to report suspected abuse to an agency, then a
teacher's report to a principal or district does not satisfy the agency requirement; the teacher must also
_. report to the agency (Underwood & Webb, 2006).
11. Teachers need to know the law. Ignorance is no excuse.
12. Teachers should be aware of emerging legal issues. One is educational malpractice, which can
be either
instructional (wherein students fail to learn) or professional (wherein school personnel misdiagnose,
provide improper placements, or misadvise students) (Underwood & Webb, 2006)

Source: Adapted from McDaniel (1979). Corroborated and updated with Alexander and Alexander
(2005); Fischer, Schimmel, and Kelly
(1999); McCarthy, Cambron-McCabe, and Thomas (1998); and Underwood and Webb (2006)

6
 The Nature of Teaching

The most sweeping example of legislative action on classroom practice is the fed-
eral No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001. A reauthorization of the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act, NCLB was motivated by persistent disparities in student
achievement—achievement gaps—between the performance of U.S. students overall
and subgroups of the population such as minority students, students with disabilities, and
students whose families face poverty. The act sought to improve student achievement
and increase school accountability for that achievement. Its major requirements include:

° Development by all states of student content standards

* Annual assessment of students in grades 3 through 8 (and once in high school) to
determine proficiency in mathematics and reading in line with content standards
* Measurement of all school districts for adequate yearly progress (AYP) and continu-
ous improvement based on this AYP benchmark
¢ Meeting of AYP for each of nine student subgroups (based on factors such as ethnic-
_ ity, physical disability, and poverty)
‘* Requirement for all schools to have highly qualified teachers

NCLB has changed our classrooms dramatically, and its effects are hotly debated.
Some benefits include (Center on Education Policy, 2006):
* Concerted efforts to align content standards (goals), instruction, and assessment
¢ Better use of student assessment data to plan instruction and meet student needs
¢ Increased student achievement on state tests, including the achievement for students
with disabilities (Aarons, 2009)

Some analyses (e.g., Lee, 2006), however, do not support a lessening of achieve-
ment differences. The National Assessment of Education Progress, or NAEP, as-
sesses student progress across the fifty states. Study scores yourself at http://nces.ed.gov/
nationsreportcard/. There you will see that, for 17-year-olds, reading and mathematics
scores have not varied much; 2008 scores are just one or two points higher than 1973 scores
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2009a). And approximately one-third of the
nation’s schools failed to make adequate yearly progress (AYP) in 2008-2009 (Center on
Educational Policy, 2010).
Critics of NCLB condemn its assumptions (Rose, 2004), and many point to deleterious
practices and effects associated with NCLB such as the following:
¢ The narrowing of the school curriculum, namely, to reading/language arts and math-
ematics (Berliner, 2009; Beveridge, 2010).
¢ A restriction of recess time, despite its cognitive, social, and health benefits
(Pellegrini & Bohn, 2005).
¢ A lack of attention to students whose performance is perceived as less crucial for
attaining targeted percentages of students deemed proficient. Such groups may in-
clude high-achieving students (Fordham Institute, 2008) and students whose perfor-
mance is so low that they are unlikely to meet proficiency requirements, even with
academic interventions (Booher-Jennings, 2006).
° “Gaming” practices wherein personnel focus on meeting achievement targets rather
than on fostering student learning (Booher-Jennings, 2006; Rose, 2004).
¢ Lower teacher morale (Roller, n.d.), particularly in schools deemed high poverty
(Byrd-Blake, Afolayan, Hunt, Fabunmi, Pryor, & Leander, 2010).

Current plans for the reauthorization of NCLB, among other things, attempt to address
concerns such as sanctions-based growth models, equity gaps, the narrowed curriculum,
and limits of current achievement tests (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). Through
NCLB and other laws and expectations, society influences classrooms deeply.

Teaching and Learning in the 21st Century

The when of teaching—the historical context—also shapes classrooms. Current events
change us. Imagine for a moment how different life is for Americans since the horrific
8 CHAPTER 1

as the 1999
events of September 11, 2001, or of the school-based acts of violence such
Columbine shootings or the appalling 2007 shootings at Virginia Tech. Though rare, these
events have shaped policies and procedures in schools, and they have affected the outlooks
of many students and their families. We are a different people now. .
Trends, too, matter. Your century—the 21st century—is one of globalization, re-
gional economies, and connectivity. We have shifted from an industry-based society to an
information-based one. Some telling examples of technology usage include such bits as:
¢ Americans have access to a trillion Web pages.
¢ Americans have 2 million televisions . . . in our bathrooms.
¢ During one month of his 2008 presidential campaign, Barack Obama earned $55 mil-
lion. . . all on social network services.
* The social networking, microblogging service Twitter provided a key mechanism for
mass protests in the disputed 2009 Iranian elections (Economist, 2009). Social media
played perhaps even a larger role in the Egyptian unrest of 2011.
Indeed we live technology-soaked lives. Nearly three-quarters of people in the United
States have access to the Internet at home (Internet World Statistics, 2010; U.S. Census
Bureau, 2009). According to the Economist (2009), 93 percent of U.S. adults own cell
phones, and the average teen sends 2,272 text messages per month. Not to be outdone, the
average preschooler spends approximately fifty minutes on a home computer each day
(Vandewater, Rideout, Wartella, Huang, Lee, & Shim, 2007). Today’s students are thus
often considered digital natives (Prensky 2001, 2005/2006) who have grown up wired.
The influence of technology in our society is indeed fierce and pervasive, and some
foresee that the rate of change fueled by technology will continue to increase and result in
an unpredictable future. Such a future requires that our students possess a broad range of
flexible skills. For example, a national organization, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills
(2009, p. 5) states, “People in the 21st century live in a technology and media-suffused
environment, marked by various characteristics, including: 1) access to an abundance of
information, 2) rapid changes in technology tools, and 3) the ability to collaborate and make
individual contributions on an unprecedented scale. To be effective in the 21st century,
citizens and workers must be able to exhibit a range of functional and critical thinking skills
related to information, media and technology.” See 21st Century Teaching and Learning
Tip for more on 21st century outcomes.

21ST CENTURY LEARNING OUTCOMES

Some organizations have specified standards for 21st century learners. For one set, visit www.p21.org for the Partnership for
21st Cenzztury Learning’s ideas about essential skills for the 21st century. Familiarize yourself with the framework, exploring
the four major student outcomes:

1. Core subjects (such as mathematics) and 21st century themes (such as global awareness and health literacy)
2. Learning and innovation skills
3. Information, media, and technology skills
4. Life and career skills

According to the American Association of School Librarians’ (2007, p. 3) Standards

for the 21st Century Learner, “Learners
use skills, resources, and tools to: ;
1. Inquire, think critically, and gain knowledge.
2. Draw conclusions, make informed decisions, apply knowledge to new situations, and create
new knowledge.
3. Share knowledge and participate ethically and productively as members of our democratic
society.
4. Pursue personal and aesthetic growth.”
Visit these standards at the Association’s Web site (ala.org)
 The Nature of Teaching

Do schools have the technology tools to meet 21st century challenges? According
to
the National Center for Education Statistics (2010a):

* Approximately 100 percent of public schools have at least one computer with
Internet access. In approximately one-third of the schools, that access is wireless.
¢ Nearly all (97%) schools have at least one instructional computer located in class-
rooms. The ratio of students to instructional computers with Internet access has
dropped to 3.1 to 1.
* In most schools (93%), there is access to digital cameras or interactive white-
boards (73%).
* Public schools provide handheld devices infrequently to teachers (15%) and
students (4%).

One-to-one laptop programs, where every student uses a laptop computer regularly,
show potential for many positive outcomes (Holcomb, 2009). Some critics do, though,
remain skeptical about expenses and effects of 1:1 computing (Cuban, 2006). Students are
increasingly drawn to online instruction, which offers flexible scheduling and connects
them with learners from all over the world. Even in 2005, 37 percent of U.S. school districts
had students enrolled in technology-based distance education courses (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2005). Clearly, the 21st century and its ubiquitous technology affect
who we teach, what we teach, and how we teach today, with more change in sight.

Local Influences on Teaching Today

By moving toward the center of the target in Figure 1.1, you travel through rings that
represent increasingly local and specific settings. The settings found in these rings often
have narrower and more explicitly defined purposes and expectations. For example, states
develop content standards across the curriculum, and these standards influence state and
local textbook adoptions, professional development activities for teachers, and learning
opportunities for students. Community conditions, traditions, and events provide more
local influences.
People, too, offer a variety of local influences. One integral group of people is the
family. Effective teachers respond to the values and dreams of the families they serve and
make use of the resources offered by families and their communities (Gonzalez, Andrade,
Civil, & Moll, 2001; Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005). In fact, research consistently links
effective family involvement programs with increased student achievement and other posi-
tive outcomes (e.g., Jeynes, 2005; Sheldon & Epstein, 2005). Others who affect new teachers
include their colleagues, administrators, and the experienced educators—mentors—who
supervise their growth and represent the interests and values of the profession.

Circies of Influence: Opportunities and Challenges

The relationships among circles of influence (Figure 1.1) are dynamic and often riddled
with tension and dilemma. Throughout history, the interactions among rings have fre-
quently been emotionally, culturally, and politically charged. Which influences should
receive priority? How do we as teachers manage demands and priorities from different
sources and levels, especially when they compete? What are the opportunities and con-
straints offered by the many sources of influence? Questions such as these require us to
consider—and reconsider—carefully the role of schooling in our society.
Sources of influence in the various rings offer many opportunities: The United States
is a wealthy nation and has an estimated literacy rate of 99 percent (Central Intelligence
Agency, 2010). We are leaders in fields such as technology and medical innovations.
These are potentially positive sources of influence. However, sources of influence also of-
fer constraints. Although the United States is a wealthy nation, we find huge disparities in
wealth and opportunities to learn. Berliner (2006) indicates that students who face poverty
face more severe health issues, lower academic achievement, and diminished life chances.
Kozol’s work (1991, 2000, 2005) painfully documents the experiences of students who
10 CHAPTER 1

experience institutionalized racism in unsafe and woefully understocked urban schools.

Students in many urban and less affluent suburban schools, Kozol reports, can expect fund-
ing rates half those of nearby affluent schools. Less-than-fully-qualified teachers still dis-
proportionately inhabit high-poverty, high-minority schools (Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner,
2010; National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality, 2009). Reports (e.g., Fordham
Foundation, 2006) suggest that current reform efforts have done little to raise achievement
for the students who need us most. Paige and Witty (2010), in that vein, argue that the
Black-white achievement gap is the greatest civil rights issue of our time.
As another example of disparity, despite the prevalence of technology in our society
at large, some of our students view each other across a digital divide. White students are
more likely to use the Internet at home than are African-Americans or Latinos, and families
with higher incomes and educational attainments are also more likely to use technology
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). Latino immigrants are the least likely to have computer access
(Fairlie, London, Rosner, & Pastor, 2006). The same divide exists for students who have
physical disabilities.
Digital disparities are found in public schools as well. For example, a Florida study
shows that students who attend low-socioeconomic schools have significantly less access
to digital resources in every regard (Hohlfeld, Ritzhaupt, Barron, & Kemker, 2008). As
a side note, technology and achievement gaps based on wealth and demographic factors
occur across the globe, not just in the United States; try the search term “global digital di-
vide.” Still, even though the United States 1s a country rich with opportunities, patterns of
inequity exist, and those patterns affect what happens in classrooms and in the lives of our
students—in and out of school.
It may appear that the general direction of influence for the rings or sources of influence
is inward: Each of the concentric layers present daunting circumstances as well opportuni-
ties that press teachers to act in certain ways and to accomplish certain ends. Fortunately,
the schools and the people who work within them can push back. They can act to lessen
inequities in order to improve life and learning. For instance, in a growing set of schools
studied by Reeves (2003), 90% percent or more of the students are from ethnic minorities,
90 percent or more are eligible for free or reduced lunch, and 90 percent or more achieve
high academic standards. Clearly poverty need not be linked to low academic achievement:
committed, caring, ardent individuals make a measurable difference daily. In the case of
the digital divide, schools often also serve as an equalizing factor by providing access to
technology that may not be available in students’ homes (DeBell & Chapman, 2006).

Differences in achievement
or educational experience
based on gender, race,
or socioeconomic status
may be exacerbated by the
digital divide, or disparities
in access to high-quality
technology, the Internet,
and effective computer-
assisted instruction
(Lazarus & Mora, 2000)

Source: Thinkstock.
 The Nature of Teaching 11

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

Democratic Classroom PRACTICES up your circles to ensure that every person receives a com-
pliment within one or two sessions. Do not allow compli-
Democratic classrooms work toward three
ments that focus on appearance or possessions.
themes: liberty and freedom, justice and
* Use learning contracts or other self-selected learning plans
fairness, and equity and equal participation
(Pryor, 2004). Try some of these ideas to build democratic to encourage students to direct their own study. Provide
classrooms:
support along the way.
¢ Allow some choice in student homework.
° Have students help make the rules for classroom behavior * Allow students to conduct self-critiques of their work and
via collaborative rule making (Effrat & Schimmel, 2003). resubmit after revision.
* Hold a compliments circle. Instruct students in how to * Use learning activities where the expertise of every class
give a compliment to a peer who recently did something member is necessary, regardless of students’ status. For
that was helpful or noteworthy. Teach students, also, to instance, you may give each member of a small group just
receive compliments. Pass an item from speaker to listener. one bit of information. Each group member must rely on
(I recently used a foam rock, and students started their the others’ information to accomplish the goal.
compliments with, “You rock because . . .”) Caution: Set

Our students themselves also offer huge potential for shaping life within the classroom.
A large body of literature on democratic classrooms and education for democratic purposes
urges us to mold classrooms that reflect each student as a caring member of the class and so-
ciety (e.g., Allen, 1999; Banks, 2009; Bomer & Bomer, 2001; Education Commission of the
States, 2000; Fuhrman & Lazerson, 2005; Rush, 2006). In democratic classrooms, students
learn to care for each other and participate in decision making as they take responsibility for
their behavior and learning. Democratic practices are especially important in diverse class-
rooms because they equalize status differences that may arise given student differences. See
Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip for some ideas for encouraging democratic processes.
Students’ influence can extend beyond the classroom walls. For instance, Oakes and
Rogers (2006) vigorously describe California students who learn power and reshape their
woefully lacking public high schools by organizing and by working effectively with adult
school leaders and community members. A similarly impressive effort is Voices of Youth
in Chicago Education (VOYCE; voyceproject.org), where students conducted action re-
search and created a report of recommendations to lower the nation’s high school dropout
rates (VOYCE, 2008). As students examine local conditions, challenge existing practices,
and participate in social action or service learning projects (e.g., Allen, 2003; Darling-
Hammond, French, & Garcia-Lopez, 2002), they shape their communities and their world.
In sum, as a teacher you are expected to teach not only toward your own ideals and
aims but also toward the goals of the nested groups—rings on the target—to which you
belong. A major theme of this text is that your teaching must start with the students; you
must be inclusive of and responsive to your students and their families. You also have the
responsibility to consider your outward influences as well. No doubt you will have opportu-
nities to witness and manage tensions that result from the competing goals found in differ-
ent rings. Part of your job will be to negotiate at least temporary solutions for the dilemmas
found in competing goals. Take a few minutes to consider the goals and expectations of the
circles of influence that envelop you. What influence do you hope to have in each of the
rings? Try jotting your notes on Figure 1.1.

Teaching Is Goal Driven

Why are you here? Look back at your chart from the beginning of this chapter. Many teach-
ers select education as a profession because of the desire to help “light the candle” or watch
the “lightbulbs click on” as they help students learn. Others hope to help students realize
the power of an education to improve life. If so, you are not alone; teaching is driven by the
12 CHAPTER 1

know more deeply;

eoal of student improvement. Students should come to know more; to
or attitudes because of their time with you. Although
or to have enhanced skills, abilities,
their learners, and effective teachers all continue to grow
certainly teachers are affected by
is not the universal goal of teaching. The goal of teach-
over time, instructor improvement
ing is change for the learner. What changes are expected? Who creates the change? Which
methods are used? The answers to these questions vary, but always we expect that learners
will leave the setting different from when they entered it. Teachers strive for positive dif-
ferences in learners’ lives.
Teaching becomes complicated by the fact that teachers usually pursue many—and
sometimes conflicting—goals. For instance, although a teacher may strive to help learners
become more independent, she also needs to encourage order, and she may do so by prais-
ing conformity (“I like the way that Sung is sitting so nicely!”). Learners also pursue their
own agendas. In a recent survey, fully one-third of the grade 3-12 respondents agreed with
the statement, “I only do enough work to do as well as I need to get by in school” (MetLife,
2010). Here’s another example of a student agenda, this one from my son Alex. When his
first-grade teacher stepped into the hall for a brief conversation, Alex immediately seized
the moment and leapt onto his chair. Fists and face raised to the sky, he screamed “Let’s
party!” In the face of many—sometimes competing—agendas, effective teachers are driven
by the urgent goal of fostering change for the learners.
Do teachers in fact make a difference for learners? Research indicates that enhanced
teacher preparation is associated with improved student learning (e.g., Darling-Hammond,
2000; Laczko-Kerr & Berliner, 2002, 2003), and research reported by Berliner (2004) finds
that expert teachers have greater student achievement gains. Further, reviews of the literature
(e.g., Bumgardner, 2010; U.S. Department of Education, 2003) present compelling evidence
that individual teachers do, indeed, have a powerful effect on student learning. In a first-
grade study, the teacher was five times more predictive of students’ mathematics achieve-
ment than was family socioeconomic status (Croninger, Rice, Rathbun, & Nishio, 2007).
Teaching is goal driven: Effective teachers set high expectations for students and then
warmly demand that students meet those expectations (Kleinfeld; 1975). Warm demanders
build authentic relationships with their diverse students and then insist that they achieve
(Bondy & Ross; 2008; Irvine & Fraser, 1998; Ross, Bondy, Gallingane, & Hambacher,
2008). Overall, you—the teacher—are the single most influential in-school contributor to
student learning.

iy Teaching Is More than Telling

Part of the perception that teaching is easy stems from the mistaken notion that teaching
and telling are the same thing: If a teacher says it, students will know it. Hear, if you will,
that common though misguided teacher lament: “Come on, Class! We went over this!”
Certainly a good lecture can be a powerful learning tool, but knowledge does not travel
directly from the mouth of the teacher to the mind of the learner. Knowledge is constructed
as learners filter and operate on new information using their own perspectives and experi-
ences. Teachers need to help students connect new information to the known and to their
own lives. Factors such as teachers’ experience and expectations affect student learning,
and so do many factors such as students’ culture, physical characteristics, preferences, and
prior experiences.
Because classrooms are interactive and dynamic, “teaching as telling” does not capital-
ize on the learners’ goals or on the power of their experiences. It also does not draw directly
from current theories on how children learn. Figure 1.3 summarizes current views on how
people learn.
One trend that emerges from these views on how people learn is that learning seems
not to be a simple matter of reception. Instead, it appears to be about active engagemen
t,
about questioning, and about facing misunderstandings and building better understand
ings
by organizing information in meaningful ways (Bransford, 2000: Gagnon & Collay,
2001;
Marlowe & Page, 1998; National Research Council, 2000). Teaching as purely
telling also
 Influential views on how people learn.

Behaviorist Approaches
Hold that learning occurs continuously and can be intentional or unintentional.
Focus on observable behaviors and shaping them through rewards and punishments, or consequences.
Reinforcers include grades, praise, and tangible items. Punishment can take the form of time-outs,
detentions, and names on the board for misbehavior.
Theorists include Skinner (1971), and, more recently, Bandura.
Information Processing Approaches
Focus on how information is selectively perceived, stored in memory, and retrieved.
Liken the brain to a computer, a system with limited capacity that processes information according to
logic and rules. Information is received through the senses and then is perceived by the mind. It enters
short-term memory either from the process of sensation or from long-term memory. Concepts are stored
through schemata (systems of linked concepts).
Teachers should be systematic in their instruction to enhance learning. Some important activities are
gaining students’ attention, accessing background knowledge, focusing on organization of ideas,
providing feedback, and supplying meaningful practice.
Theorists include Gagne (1985) and Miller (Miller, 1956; Miller, Galanter, & Pribam, 1960).
Constructivist Approaches
Focus on processes by which students build knowledge rather than receive it.
Hold that we continually check new information against our mental rules in order to internalize and act on
information.
Purport that learning is social, and “disequilibration,’ or cognitively unsettling experiences, cause learners
to reorganize cognition at higher levels.
Students should confront their current thinking by actively testing and refining their ideas. Heterogeneous
groups provide opportunities for students to challenge and support each other's thinking.
Theorists and researchers include Bruner (1986), Driver (1989a, 1989b), Piaget (1952), and Vygotsky
(1978).
Multiple Intelligence Theory
Challenges the notion that intelligence is a single construct and suggests instead that people can be
smart in many different ways.
Holds that intelligences are many and currently include (1) logical or mathematical, (2) linguistic,
(3) musical, (4) spatial, (5) bodily or kinesthetic, (6) interpersonal, (7) intrapersonal, and (8) naturalist
intelligences.
Urges schools and teachers to broaden the kinds of experiences offered to children.
Practitioners find the theory powerful for questioning the assumption that a certain level of performance in
one area is necessarily associated with a similar level of performance in another area.
Developed by Howard Gardner, first in 1983, and explored more fully in recent works (including Gardner,
1999, 2006).
Brain-Based Research
Draws from neuroscience and suggests that the brain functions holistically, processing many kinds of
information (such as emotions and facts) at once.
Holds that the search for meaning and pattern making is innate.
School experiences should be directly guided by how the brain functions by providing numerous complex
and concrete experiences that are rich in sensory stimulation and embedded within human contexts.
Some writers (Bruer, 1997), including proponents (Jensen, 2000), caution against making large inferential
leaps to classroom contexts. Research is new and limited.
Popular proponents include Caine and Caine (1994; Caine, Caine, McClintic, & Klimek, 2005) and
Jensen (2005).

13
14 CHAPTER 1

Teaching is more than

telling

'

Source: Barbara Schwartz/Merrill.

short-circuits learning by ignoring the large variety of strategies that teachers can use to
help encourage growth. Skilled teachers have rich repertoires of instructional strategies.
For example, research identifies teaching practices such as helping students to identify
similarities and differences and to generate and test hypotheses as supporting student
achievement (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollack, 2001).
Teachers can also foster learning by encouraging students to learn via texts, by them-
selves via experiences, and from each other through discussion and inquiry (Finkel, 2000).
Teaching is more than telling, too, because it involves listening (Mosher, 2001;
Schultz, 2003). When people learn, they try to figure things out, to make sense of new
information. One effective way to help learners understand things is to listen to their
musings and questions. Listening is an important strategy that teachers can employ to
slow down the presentation of new information, to give learners an opportunity to sort
things out, and to help learners discover what they think. Finally, because teaching is
interactional, listening is an informal assessment strategy; it gives us information about

Try some of these ways to encourage active listening in your classroom—for you and the students.

Use and teach listening behaviors such as SLANT: Sit up, Lean forward, Ask questions, Nod,
Track the speaker.
Use and teach active listening strategies such as paraphrasing: “So what I hear you saying is . . .”
Wait a bit after asking a question, and again before responding. Teach students to do the same.
Call on multiple students to comment on any one question. Require students to link their
comments to the previous student’s comments.
Have students toss a ball made of something soft to each other as they comment. Only the
person holding the ball speaks.
If a student’s comments go unheard, don’t repeat the student’s comments for those who were
not listening. Instead say, “I know your peers want to hear that. Wait just a second until . . .
Okay, try again.”
 The Nature of Teaching

the learners’ reasoning that can be used to guide our instructional decisions, The Teaching Tip
gives suggestions to help you—and your students—practice active listening. The fact that
teaching is more than telling is reflected in the agreement on what teachers need to know
and be able to do.

There Is Agreement on What Teachers Need

to Know and Be able To Do
Despite the perception that most people who have attended school understand teachin g, and
although some individuals may appear to be “born teachers,” there is a body of knowledge,
attitudes, and skills that teachers can acquire. National and state panels codify the domains
that teachers consider in their work. One of the most influential boards that has considered
what it means to be an excellent teacher is the National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards (NBPTS; see http://NBPTS.org). The NBPTS sets forth five propositions of ef-
fective practice, and these domains are assessed as experienced teachers pursue National
Board certification. Domains of competence are assessed also for prospective and begin-
ning teachers. Danielson’s (1996) framework for teaching, for instance, explores domains
of practice for new teachers and forms the basis for the content assessed by the Praxis ex-
amination Educational Testing Service (ETS). The ETS has further explored the domains
of practice by surveying practicing teachers and administrators (Tannenbaum & Rosenfeld,
1997). Many states also publish their own standards for the teaching profession. Figure 1.4

Domains of teacher expertise.

Subject-Matter Understanding human learning and the many factors (e.g., culture and
Knowledge context) that affect it
Holding rich, organized understanding of the content and how it is used
Using specialized knowledge to help students build accurate and deep
understandings of the content
Planning Assessing and using students’ background knowledge and incorporating it into
instruction
Setting and communicating clear learning goals
Creating and selecting learning experiences appropriate for students and goals
¢ Creating and selecting a rich variety of resources to enrich learning
Instruction ¢ Committing to students and their ability to learn
¢ Providing instruction aligned with communicated goals
Building connections with previous learning
¢ Making content understandable for all students
¢ Teaching for meaning, critical thinking, problem solving, and creative thinking
* Monitoring student responses and adjusting instruction
Assessment * Creating or selecting assessment strategies consistent with learning goals and
student needs
¢ Measuring learning for groups and individuals
¢ Using multiple measures to assess growth
Classroom Management * Creating safe climates that promote fairness, autonomy, and respect
and Discipline ¢ Setting norms for social interaction
e Establishing and maintaining standards of student behavior
e Using routines, procedures, and time effectively

Professional Growth ¢ Modeling traits of an educated person

¢ Reflecting on goals and practice
¢ Building professional relationships
* Working with families, cornmunities, and the profession
16 CHAPTER 1

Bees
synthesizes general conclusions about excellent teaching, drawn from the National
(Educational Testing
for Professional Teaching Standards (2002), the Praxis domains
Service, 2002), and various state standards for teaching.
In general, effective teachers

* Create productive and humane learning environments.

* Understand their subject matter, human development, diversity, and learning.
* Use their knowledge to plan meaningful instruction.
¢ Teach in ways that help students learn deeply.
¢ Assess students’ growth carefully and use results to modify their instruction.
* Engage in their profession by working with families, communities, and other educa-
tors to reflect on and improve teaching and learning.

Large bodies of research examine schooling practices, both to capture the experi-
ences of teachers and learners and to determine promising teaching practices. Decades
of research have provided some insights into how students and teachers make sense of
the schooling experience, and this research provides many directions for practice (e.g.,
Berliner, 1984; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001; Reynolds, 1992; Richardson, 2001;
Stronge, 2002). This text distills past research and my own stance in urging you to become
a successful teacher, an inclusive and responsive teacher. Figure 1.5 summarizes the vi-
sion of inclusive and responsive teaching developed throughout this text.

Inclusive and responsive teaching.

Inclusive and responsive teachers .. .

1. Pursue understanding and continuous learning

Recognize their own biases and the limits of their knowledge

* Gather, analyze, and use data to replace assumptions and ignorance
Focus learning efforts on self, students, families, and the profession

2. Display attitudes and build relationships of acceptance, trust, support, and high expectations
Incorporate unfolding knowledge of students and families
View differences as normal
Build authentic relationships of warmth and trust
Set and communicate high expectations, pushing students to succeed
Do what it takes to support student success

3. Use inclusive and responsive instructional and assessment approaches

Incorporate unfolding understanding of students

Use a full range of resources to meet student needs
Use recognized approaches and strategies for meeting student needs
e Include student choice and meaning-based approaches

4. Use inclusive and responsive management approaches

Maximize learning through a task-focused, structured environment

Focus on community building and authentic relationships
Employ democratic practices
Work toward self control
 The Nature of Teaching 17

Questionnaire
for self-analysis of teaching.

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
| can explain how people learn. 1 2 3 4
2. | know my subject matter. 1 2 3 4
| can list some ways to find out who my students are 1 2 3 4
and what they know.
4. |can plana lesson related to a content standard. 1 2 3
5. | can demonstrate more than one instructional strategy 1 2 3 4
or technique that helps make the content clear to students
with varying needs.
6. | can assess students’ learning based on traditional tests 1 2 3 4
and at least one other measure.
7. | can modify my instruction based on what | discover about 1 2 3 4
students’ learning students treat.
8. | know how to help each other and me respectfully 1 2 3 4
during class.

The questionnaire in Figure 1.6 presents an entry-level self-assessment that you can
use to consider your current knowledge and skills. Mark areas that may figure prominently
in a plan for your professional growth. If you like, formulate questions to capture these
areas and record goals on your chart from the beginning of the chapter. You may also wish
to flip ahead to chapters that will address your questions.

Teachers Can Be Effective and Yet Not Just Alike

Although there are documented domains of teaching expertise, few prescriptions hold in
every circumstance. Teaching is uncertain and interactional. Part ofteaching well is using a
combination of one’s own talents, insights, skills, and professional judgments to encourage
students’ learning and development.
Cicero’s sentiment underscores the personal and giving nature of teaching:
When we teach, we offer gifts to our students—gifts that depend on our traits and What better or greater gift can we
triumphs as givers. Think back to two teachers who had a powerful effect on your offer the republic than to teach and
to instruct our young?
learning. What were their gifts? If you make lists of strengths for those two teach-
ers (Figure 1.7), you may find areas of overlap; the teachers probably shared some 2 Giese
common strengths and abilities. These instructors probably also made unique con- a
tributions to your learning. Your lists should contain both personal attributes and
professional skills, attitudes, and abilities.
When asked to consider their memorable teachers, my students often find commonali-
ties such as genuine regard for the learner, high expectations for student achievement, and
passion for the subject matter. However, the idiosyncratic contributions that their teach-
ers offered are many. Some mention humor, others reserve. Some mention competitive
learning activities, others mention collaborative ones. Teachers bring themselves and their
abilities to their students. What do you bring to the classroom? Use Figure 1.8 to display
your gifts.
18 CHAPTER 1

Characteristics of effective teachers I have known.

Personal Attributes Professional Skills, Attributes, and Abilities

Teacher One:

Teacher Two:

Personal characteristics that I bring to learners.

My Personal Attributes My Professional Skills and Abilities

 The Nature of Teaching 19

Parting Words
Common misconceptions hold that teachers work toward are many ways to practice the craft of teaching well. One
a single set of unquestioned goals, usually by standing place to start is by forming an educational philosophy,
in front of a calm classroom and talking. Instead, this a personal stance toward teaching, as is encouraged in
chapter suggests that teaching is a far more complicated Chapter 2.
act. It argues that teachers must encourage learner growth Between here and Chapter 2 you will find two end-
of many kinds while weighing often-competing demands of-chapter features. “Opportunities to Practice” asks you
and carefully considering their learners and the local con- to apply what you know and to connect chapter ideas with
text. Despite the complexity of teaching, we find some your own thoughts and practice. “Web Sites” provides an
agreement in the literature about the kinds of things teach- opportunity for you to join a larger community conversa-
ers should know and be able to do, and we know that there tion about teaching.

€2 Opportunities to Practice
au

iad
1. You know that good readers check their own Y Container of anxiety
comprehension. Without looking back through the text,
Y DJ
jot down a list of important words from Chapter 1. Now
VY Executive
compare your work with mine. Figure 1.9 is a word cloud
of the text from Chapter |. Compare your important words Y Shaman
list with the cloud. Any surprises? Y Facilitator and authority
2. Teachers and researchers alike use metaphor as a tool Y Hero
to examine the nuances and varied roles of teaching. An
V Leader
Internet search using the linked terms “teacher as” and
“metaphor” yielded the following recent analogies for what VY Learner
it means to teach. Place a checkmark near the ones that Y Rain dancer
compel you. Use them to think about your own metaphors Y Archetype of spirit
for teaching. You may elect to conduct your own Web
3. Connect the work you did in Figures 1.1 and 1.6. In what
search related to the metaphors that make you curious.
ways have various sources of influence affected your
Teacher as.. perceived abilities as a teacher thus far? How might they
influence your growth as a teacher in the future? Discuss
Y Cultural broker
the questionnaire in Figure 1.6 with a relatively new teacher
VY Consciousness of the collective

Word cloud.

& goalsmSOy
wee BA ot

a8
C3ws
2
==
sS-
“a
s

wea
 20 CHAPTER 1

Using WorDLE TO CREATE WORD CLOUDS

(www.wordle.net). You is os
I created the nature of teaching word cloud with a free Web 2.0 application called Wordle
sure to talk with your students about how
students will no doubt find many uses for this easy-to-use, appealing application. Be
design elements such as size, font, and color affect overall meaning.

and with an experienced one. You may wish to compare the what you read on the Web sites with one or more of the six
value they place on the content of each question. propositions of teaching. Talk with an experienced colleague
about recent history related to that issue.
4. Visit MyLabSchool and select two contrasting lesson
videos, perhaps two at different grade levels. As you 6. Interview a nonteacher about her views on effective
view them, complete the chart below to consider how teaching. Consider speaking with a parent, a student, or a
propositions of teaching play out in classroom interactions. professional who works outside of education and has little
contact with students or schools. What do good teachers
5. Go to one of the Web sites listed at the close of Chapter 1. do? What do students wish teachers knew? How closely do
First, find sources that influence what happens in classrooms. your interviewee’s insights match the propositions from the
Add them to your work in Figure 1.1. Second, connect chapter?

Lesson 1 Lesson 2

. What are the contextual features that seem to shape the lesson? (example: age of student,
geographic region, physical resources) (Teachers are part of a system.)

. What does the teacher appear to be trying to help the students learn? How is she or he
communicating high expectations and holding students to them? (Teaching is goal-driven.)

. What strategies (other than “teaching as telling”) does the teacher use to help the students learn?
(Teaching is more than telling.)

. What is one individual—perhaps contrasting—strength that each teacher displays?

(Teachers can be effective and yet not just alike.)

«Web sites
http://www.ednews.org/ http://www.servicelearning.org/
Education News.org. This site includes daily news related National Service-Learning Clearinghouse. A project of
to education, updates on education law and policy, links to Learn and Serve America, the Clearinghouse includes
college and university newspapers, and links to education national listservs and many service learning opportunities
organizations. for students kindergarten through grade 12.
http://www.ed.gov www.stateline.org
The U.S. Department of Education. Provides information A public service funded by the Pew Charitable Trusts,
on legislative and policy issues such as the No Child Left Stateline.org publishes news and policy information
Behind Act. The site has resources for students, parents, every week day. Choose a state or choose a topic, such as
teachers, and administrators. “education” or “technology.”
http://thegateway.org/ Although states are responsible for adopting their own aca-
The Gateway to 21st Century Skills. This site is a demic content standards, professional organizations and other
consortium-run digital library that provides access to groups are influential in developing and recommending subject-
Internet-based instructional materials. Browse or search the area standards. A current state-led move seeks to develop a set
catalog, or click on a term in the word cloud. of common core standards in mathematics and English language
http://www. globalschoolnet.org/ arts. States have the option of adopting these standards, and,
Global SchoolNet is the original virtual meeting place at press time, most have. View the standards and learn more
for those interested in education to collaborate. Its goal about the Common Core State Standards Initiative at http://
is to improve 21st century learning through Web-based www.corestandards.org/. Also view subject-based professional
collaboration. Check the Projects Registry to find projects organizations and their recommendations by Visiting the sites in
and partners. the following chart.
 The Nature of Teaching 21

Subject Related Web Sites Subject Related Web Sites

Area Standards and Organizations Area Standards and Organizations
Arts National Standards http://artsedge History Expectations of http://www.socialstudies.org
for Arts Education, -kennedy-center.org/ and Social Excellence: Curriculum National Council for the
developed by the kennedy-center.org/ Science Standards for the Social Social Studies
Consortium of National ARTSEDGE: National Arts Studies
Arts Education and Education Network Mathematics Principles and Standards http://www.nctm.org
Association for School Mathematics National Council of
English Standards for the http://www.ncte.org Teachers of Mathematics
Language English Language Arts National Council of
Science National Science http://www.nap.edu
Arts Teachers of English
Education Standards National Academies Press
http://www.reading.org National Research Council
International Reading
Technology National Educational http://www.iste.org
Association
Technology Standards International Society for
Foreign National Standards http://www.actfl.org for Students Technology in Education
Language in Foreign Language American Council on
Project the Teaching of Foreign
Note: For a concise history and summary of national standards
Languages
across the curriculum, visit the Mid-continent Region Education and
Health Joint Committee http://www.aahperd.org Learning site (http://www.mcrel.org/). Click on the “Compendium of
on National Health American Alliance for Standards & Benchmarks” quick link.
Education Standards Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance
see Developing Your Stance
Toward Education

Before You Begin Reading

Warm-Up Exercise for Developing Your Stance Toward Education

Below are six images of U.S. children. If you were these children’s teacher, who would you like to help
them become as adults? Your answer reflects your educational stance. Now study the captions. What
privileges did these children have? What challenges did they face’? How might knowing a bit more
about them change your thinking about the education they should receive?

Child 2: 1909. (Called “Bologna” ) Tony Casale, 11

years old been selling 4 years. Sells until 10 P.M.
sometimes. His paper boss told me the boy had
shown him the marks on his arm where his father
had bitten him for not selling more papers. He (the
Child 1; Early 1860s. Tad Lincoln, son of boy) said, “Drunken men say bad words to us.”
Children 3: 1934: Mexican girls, San Antonio Texas.
President Abraham Lincoln, in Union Army Hartford, Connecticut. (http://www.loc. gov/pictures/
Part of Lomax collection ofphotographs depicting
Uniform. (hitp:/www.loc.gov/exhibits/young/ item/ncl2004000788/P P/)
folk musicians, primarily in the southern United
young-exhibit.html) States and the Bahamas. (hitp:/www.loc.gov/
pictures/item/2007660002/)

:
.

Children 4; 1935. Pea picker’s child.

Two girls(?), head-and-shoulders
Child 6: 1944. Children playing on the roof of the
Child 5; 1941. Adolescent boy dressed Te: the Lighthouse, an institution for the blind, at 111 East
portrait. Nipomo, California. (http://
Easter parade, Chicago, Illinois. (http:/www.loc. Fifty-ninth Street. New York, New York. (http:/Awww.
www.loc. gov/pictures/item/97515137/0)
gov/pictures/iten/fsal 997015632/PP/) loc. gov/pictures/iten/owi2001038554/P P/)
 Developing Your Stance Toward Education 23

(a9
N.ow in teaching, as in several other things, it does not matter what your
philosophy is or is not. It matters mere whether you have a philosophy or not.
And it matters very much whether you try to live up to your philosophy or not. The
only principles of teaching which I thoroughly dislike are those to which people
pay only lip service.”

—George Polya, Mathematical Discovery

Your philosophy, or stance, is a systematic, rational statement of your convictions about

the ideals, purposes, and nature of education. It is your plan for teaching well. Bellamy and
Goodlad (2008, p. 556) warn that the schools, “lack educational mission, both individually
and collectively.” In the opening quote, why does Polya so emphasize the importance of
having a plan and of trying very hard to follow that plan? It’s because if we do not have a
plan, we may pursue the wrong goals, we might use methods that are unethical or unworthy,
or we might judge our work by the wrong standards.
The importance of a plan has never been greater than it is today, when the context of
accountability suggests to many (e.g., Keller & Bichelmeyer 2004) that the mission of our
schools has shrunk to the pursuit of test scores. Many teachers (e.g., Starnes, 2010) seem to
have a growing sense of unease, fearing that we are aiming toward the wrong things—or at
least are limiting our sights—and thus lowering the quality of our teaching.
Quality teaching has two components: good teaching (that is, teaching that follows an
appropriate plan with worthy aims and acceptable methods) and successful teaching (that
is, effective teaching, or teaching that results in learning) (Fenstermacher & Richardson,
2005). Thus, to judge the quality of our teaching, we must look to student learning, yes, but
not solely to student learning. We also have the responsibility to continuously reevaluate
our work in terms of the quality of our plan, of goals we seek and the methods we employ.
It is thus imperative that we teachers take guidance from a larger vision of what should be
(Duffy, 1998). Here are six more reasons that it is critical that you dream big and develop
a stance toward education today:

1. Inclusive and responsive teachers are guided by clear knowledge of their own per-
spectives and commitments. Your stance tells you who are you and what you are
hoping to accomplish.
2. Teaching today can be overwhelming, especially for the novice. So many
decisions need to be made. So many needs must be considered. A stance As a teacher, you have the moral
toward education provides a compass for decision making. and ethical responsibility to say no
3. Classrooms are so busy, and pressure for teacher and student performance is when no is the right answer.
so high, that it is easy to lose sight of the long-term goals and consequences SohbyAnn Stamnes 200d
of our actions. A stance can help you remember to maintain your focus on the
big picture of what we hope our schools will accomplish and to reflect over
your efforts.

MeEpDIA LITERACY: PHOTO ANALYSIS

The Before you Begin Reading exercise asked you to analyze visual media: Photos.
Media literacy is the ability to “access, analyze, evaluate and create messages in a variety OH HOMINIS, 5 oc Media literacy
builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for
you
citizens of a democracy” (Center for Media Literacy, 2007). There are many digital collections of images available to
World Digital Library are examples. Also try search engines to Merges
and your students. The Library of Congress and the
Check the
images (http://images.google.com/, http://images.search.yahoo.com/, and http:/www.picsearch.com/ are examples).
your students to both comprehend images (“Who and what do you see?” “What do you know
sites for fair use rules. Teach
period?”) and to analyze them as well (“What is the message conveyed?” “How might others interpret this
about the time
image differently?”).
24 CHAPTER 2

until actual
4. Mandates, such as for what we teach and how we teach it, are nothing
interpret mandates and how
teachers implement them. Your choices for how you
minute of the day make you
you enact them with your particular students each
powerful indeed (Elmore, 1979-1980; Web, 2002). ‘Your vision of education
provides you with guidance on how to breathe life into directives.
you to
5. Having your own stance and understanding of the stances of others allows
understand their perspectives and the kinds of criteria and evidence they accept. It
can allow you to select the language you use in speaking about issues with someone
who has a different stance.
6. Laws and policies have unintended consequences. Having a clear stance allows you
to assess the unintended consequences that result (or not) from legislative and policy
decisions. This can help you in determining whether the benefits of our decisions
are worth the inadvertent costs.

In sum, your teaching efforts will be richer and more cohesive when shaped by a
thoughtful stance toward education, and this chapter supports you in developing such a
stance. First, let’s explore one pervasive aspect of the complexity of classroom teaching
that necessitates a clear vision: the curricula that schools purposefully pursue and acciden-
tally achieve.

Three Curricula

The term curriculum may appear at first glance to be straightforward, but it is actually a
multifaceted, multilayered notion. Eisner (1979) argues convincingly that schools teach
three kinds of curricula:

1. The explicit curriculum

2. The implicit curriculum
3. The null curriculum

The explicit curriculum is the content intentionally selected and addressed through
instruction. Examples include traditional subject areas such as reading, mathematics, and
physical education. For English learners, English acquisition and content mastery are high
priorities in the explicit curriculum. The explicit curriculum also includes skills or habits
that teachers purposefully select and teach. Examples may include neatness, politeness,
and cooperation. For some students with disabilities, the explicit curriculum might be a
functional one where students learn self-care and life skills.
Content standards form the basis for many explicit curricula, including expectations
for ICT (information and communication technology). For example, the International
Society for Technology Education (ISTE, 2007) recommends six major technology out-
comes for K-12 students:
1. Creativity and Innovation: Students demonstrate creative thinking, construct knowl-
edge, and develop innovative products and processes using technology.
2. Communication and Collaboration: Students use digital media and environments
to communicate and work collaboratively, including at a distance, to support
individual learning and contribute to the learning of others.
3. Research and Information Fluency: Students apply digital tools to gather, evaluate,
and use information.
4. Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Decision Making: Students
use critical
thinking skills to plan and conduct research, manage projects, solve problems,
and
make informed decisions using appropriate digital tools and resources.
5. Digital Citizenship: Students understand human, cultural, and societal
issues related
to technology and practice legal and ethical behavior.
6. Technology Operations and Concepts: Students demonstrate
a sound understanding
of technology concepts, systems, and operations.
 Developing Your Stance Toward Education
25

What are these students

learning through their
interactions with their
teacher?

Source: Courtesy of the Library of Congress

Anthony Magnacca/Merrill

Visit the National Education Technology Standards (NETS) at ISTE’s Web site (www
.iste.org) and read the outcomes for students at your grade level, then think about the school
experiences that will lead students to the outcomes; the school experiences are the explicit
curriculum.
In contrast to the explicit curriculum, the implicit curriculum, or hidden curriculum,
is not purposefully selected. Rather, it includes the lessons taught tacitly through actions
and through unconsidered consequences. Some say that the hidden curriculum is “caught”
rather than “taught,” and for this reason it tends to be highly memorable. Examples of the
hidden curriculum may include competition and deference to authority. John Gatto, a New
York Teacher of the Year, is a supporter of education, but a critic of compulsory schooling
(1992, 2001). He captures his view of the hidden curriculum of U.S. schools with the les-
sons all teachers teach, including these two (1992) examples:

¢ I teach confusion. Everything I teach is out of context. I teach the un-relating of

everything. I teach disconnections.
¢ I teach emotional dependency. By stars and red checks, smiles and frowns, prizes, honors
and disgraces I teach kids to surrender their will to the predestined chain of command.
Do you agree with Gatto about the lessons we teach? Clearly few teachers would select
these lessons as their explicit curriculum; rather, the hidden curriculum is often a set of unin-
tended consequences that results from our conscious long-range decisions and our spur-of-the-
moment choices. Although the hidden curriculum is sometimes in conflict with the explicit
curriculum, there are positive aspects of the implicit curriculum as well. These include out-
comes such as kindness, respect, and the notion that people believe in one’s abilities to succeed.
One benefit of uncovering the hidden curriculum is that, once we expose it, we can
determine the extent to which we are teaching the lessons we intend, and we can address
the harmful lessons students may be learning with us. Additionally, many of our stu-
dents may need our assistance in understanding the tacit rules of behavior transmitted
through the implicit curriculum. As an inclusive and responsive teacher, you will need to
help make what is “natural and normal” to some of your students (such as those whose
home cultures match the school culture) is accessible to all of your students (Weinstein,
26 CHAPTER 2

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

UNcovERING SCHOOL CULTURE * What are the regular assemblies and competitions? ee
* What are the school-year opening and closing activities’
Part of the implicit curriculum is what * What are the school’s mascot, motto, colors, and other
students learn via their school’s culture. identifying symbols?

Teachers can begin (exams cu0u! * What are the avenues for regular recognition for outstanding
culture by analyzing school documents, rules, ceremonies, caiheverient?
rituals, and routines. Uncover school culture by examining * What are the school policies, and how well known and
questions such as the following (based on Wren, 1999): consistently enforced are they?

* What are the messages of the school newspaper, student ¢ Which students participate in which school activities?
handbook, and yearbook? * To what extent do different segments of the student
¢ What are the messages of the documents available for population experience the culture in the same ways?
faculty, students, families, and community members? In different ways?

Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). Begin by trying the Inclusive and Responsive
Teaching Tip to analyze school culture.
As another example of making the implicit explicit, students (such as those with
Asperger’s syndrome) who struggle to understand social relationships can benefit from
assistance in learning and using the rules by which people interact (Myles & Simpson,
2001; Tse, Strulovitch, Tagalakis, Meng, & Fombonne, 2007).
The third curriculum, the null curriculum, refers to what we learn because of the sub-
ject matter not taught. An example of what many students in the United States don’t learn
in school is a world language. In most U.S. schools, it is not mandatory to study a language
other than English, and most of us who do so wait until junior high or high school. This is
in contrast to the requirement in many countries (such as the European Union) that students
study at least one other world language, usually beginning in the primary grades. From not
learning another language, then, many Americans conclude that knowing English is enough.
Often, the force of history creates the null curriculum as it tramples one explicit
curriculum into extinction and gives rise to new, more relevant content. For example,
at her teacher’s college, my grandmother was graded on her penmanship. Neither of my
children learned to write in cursive. In high school, I learned to type; my children learned
keyboarding. My children’s children will learn a different skill set as the keyboard is
increasingly replaced with input devices such as touch screens (Gartner, 2010), voice recog-
nition (Rogers, 2006), eye tracking (Hadhazy, 2010), imaginary interfaces (Hadhazy,
2010), and brain wave control systems (Gaudin, 2009). Similarly, the childhoods of
As with all great teachers, his
the six children in the chapter opener spanned about 100 years. Look at the technol-
curriculum was an insignificant
ogy in the backdrops in the photos. No doubt 1940’s Child 5 learned about things that
part of what he communicated.
Eran Limivou didnvlctaet nett were pasty different from those that 1860 8 Child 1 could even imagine.
WApiteny fe Tolerance andaucdice! Eisner’s three curricula, the explicit, implicit, and null, warn that every action
fearlessness and pride, reverence a teacher takes—or does not take—can teach. Think about the powerful things you
and pity are learned in a course on learned in school that were probably not recorded in your teachers’ plan books. Even
long division if the teacher has those _Instantaneous decisions and fleeting behaviors convey our stance to our learners and
qualities. to our communities, so a coherent stance will serve as a reminder to be intentional
©
hilar aleuandey Pere with words and actions. Let’s begin the important work of developing your stance by
considering a set of enduring questions of education.

e Considering the Questions of Education

Philosophical questions are different from scientific questions. In science, we
rely on data
to answer questions about the natural world. But philosophy addresses
questions about
esoteric things like beauty, logic, ethics, morality, the nature of reality, and
the character of
 Developing Your Stance Toward Education 27

knowledge. Such questions never go away; answering them just once isn’t enough. In
education, questions such as “Should education prepare students for particular roles Every science and every inquiry, and
In society or for personal enlightenment?” and “Is a classical curriculum adequate for Similarly every activity and pursuit, is
today’s students?” (Noddings, 1995) are deliberated daily. It’s through deliberation “ought to aim at some good.
that we plan, individually and as groups, how to best educate our young.
—Aristotle
An especially useful set of questions regarding education was proposed by the
ancient Greeks and captured by Dillon (1987). These questions, which parallel the
concerns of the famous sixteenth-century philosopher John Comenius (Sadler, 1966), ask
the following:
i. What is the good? Who is the good person living in the good society?
What is the purpose of education?
What should everyone learn? Why?
What is the nature of learning?
What is (excellent) teaching?
RW
AW What does school do?
It may be helpful for you to study the answers to these perennial questions found in
existing conceptions of education as you develop your own answers to them.

Conceptions of Education Found in Practice

Education holds a special place in a democracy. In fact, Jefferson saw education

as the foundation of a democracy; only well-informed citizens can be expected to The role of the teacher remains
govern themselves and throw off oppression. Indeed, the more educated people are, the highest calling of a free people.
the more likely they are to participate in political and civic life and to be tolerant and © the teacher, America entrusts
equity minded (Kingston, Hubbard, Lapp, Schroeder, & Wilson, 2003). re sii Res, tesourceialics
Curriculum researchers have traced U.S. views toward education, finding that esbieaie nie a ee ie
visions of education are fluid and responsive to the contexts of the people who cre- ee Anal see . wea ,
ate them while they simultaneously address the perennial struggles of education in — gemocratic society.
a democracy (Kliebard, 2002; Tyack, 2003; Tyack & Cuban, 1995). Events such as
—Shirley Hufstedler
the war on poverty and the race for space, for instance, influence the trajectory of the
nation’s views of the purpose of the schools and education.
For example, look again at Child 2 in the photos at the chapter’s opening. As Tony
sold his newspapers in the city, the United States was completing its transformation to an
industrialized society. It struggled with massive urban population growth, and child labor
was about to peak. Despite the fact that the National Child Labor Committee—which
aggressively sought labor reform—was established five years prior to the date of this photo,
boys 10 to 15 years old constituted one-quarter of the labor force (and girls 6 percent)
(Child Labor Public Education Program, n.d.; Whaples, 2005). Meanwhile, in Chicago,
John Dewey’s progressive notions of education took hold in his newly formed Laboratory
School and mirrored the progressive politics sweeping the nation. Tony lived in an era of
social change—for children and for the nation at large.
Along with change over time, we also find similarities across stances; that is, stances
can be grouped into families. Perhaps you have studied philosophies such as idealism, essen-
tialism, and realism. Prakash and Waks (1985) provide another categorization of educational
philosophies: the four broad families of conceptions of excellence shown in Figure 2.1 (tech-
nical, rational, personal, and social). As you study the figure, notice that each of the stances
has distinct visions of what we should accomplish and how to go about accomplishing it.
The technical conception of education tends to be prevalent in K-12 public educa-
tion, whereas the rational model tends to prevail in universities. The personal stance tends
to occur more often in private, or independent, schools and in less traditional educational
endeavors such as unschooling. However, some current powerful public school reform
efforts hold personalization as the key (Darling-Hammond & Friedlaender, 2008; Wolk,
2010). In personalized schools, students play a role in planning their own curricula and
teachers act more as advisors, helping students to educate themselves.
28 CHAPTER 2

of education.
Prakash and Waks’s description ofdifferent conceptions

does the
What a pahinn
What is | What is the purpose
IL of education? a What is learning? teache :
the good?
ici cy To produce high zin
Memorizizi
ing a tie information
Provides
Technical Efficien
Proficiency achievement Problem solving: St a
applying facts to q
To adjust productive
means to routines
measurable ends

Disciplined To transmit values by Problem solving: Presents ideas and

Rational
involving students higher-order concepts in a way
thinking
in worthwhile creative and that allows learners
itiati
pga activities logical abilities to see the structure

sg inati
diel Cognitive socialization
di
Building complex of We Sebject;
of youth schema Leads discussions
and projects

Acts as independent,
.

Learning through own

i .

Personal Self-actualization To create opportunities

r ak

(reaching so that individuals mistakes and aware individual

individual can develop along experiences Provides resources
potential) unique paths Introspection and space for
Being “centered” (in exploration
touch with self)

Social Individual To provide skills for Interacting with a Provides choices

development competence in group for group projects
within the civic life Thinking beyond “I” to and actions
context of the To teach the ability to “we” Facilitates problem
common good identify and solve Focusing on the identification and
Social responsibility problems related disciplines only so solution
to societal issues far as they relate Provides leadership
To foster the to relevant
dispositions needed problems
to take action t

The social stance also has vocal proponents today. Bellamy and Goodlad (2008,
p. 566) argue that the mission of the schools must include “providing students with the
knowledge, skills, and dispositions to become fully engaged participants in a democratic
society.” Banks (2008) emphasizes that schools must prepare students for citizenship in
a global age. One example of civic-minded practice is a student portfolio that explains
the author’s participation in the political process of the community (Glickman, 2009).
Which stance is most prevalent in your area? Can you find exceptions to the technical
conception?
What do these stances look like in individual teachers’ ideas? Figure 2.2 gives brief
phrases from two teachers’ (Rae Ann and Jaime) conceptions of education. See if you can
place Rae Anne’s and Jaime’s stances in one of the rows within Figure 2.1. They view
their jobs as helping young people value each other and work well in groups. They see
themselves as facilitators who will match their methods to students’ needs and help stu-
dents take an active stance in solving important problems. These positions are consistent
with the social realm. Their stances are relatively conservative within the social school of
thinking, however, because both Rae Anne and Jaime plan to teach core academic areas
 Developing Your Stance Toward Education 29

—
Excerpts from two teachers’ philosophies.

Rae Anne i Jaime

st
Who is the good Considers actions before committing Recognizes cultural differences and takes
person living in the them pride in diversity
good society?
Lives harmoniously and gains People work, socialize, mingle with
knowledge from his or her kindness and respect
surroundings in order to improve
Actively participates in the life of the
the present quality of life
community
Passionately engages in the pursuit of
knowledge

What is the purpose To create equal opportunities To draw from the lives of participants
of education? To provide the power to obtain one’s To encourage social development
goals and dreams
To provide the opportunity to discover
To broaden one’s thinking individual passions
To build self-esteem and character To prepare participants for active
engagement in the community
To encourage lifelong learning

What should That which will create citizens who Positive attitudes toward challenging
everyone learn? can contribute new ideas and subject matter
understanding to society Real-world applications of the subject
Problem solving matter
That which will allow citizens to
participate
=
What is the nature Building on previous information Comparing new experiences with
of learning? through interaction information from previous endeavors
Asking questions Trial and error
Understanding, not memorizing Watching
Varies by person: doing, observing, Examining physical representations
reading Interacting in groups
jo ees by safe environment

What is (excellent) Reaches greatest number of students Holds passion for education and children
teaching? possible Models actions and behaviors desired by
Is flexible and willing to change the society
methods to enrich students’ Commits to reaching every student and
learning meeting the needs of all
Creates many alternate plans Plans to incorporate different ways and
Searches for new information and rates of learning
improvement as teacher Respects the dignity of the learner
Taps into background knowledge

as a focus and to infuse problem solving within the schooling context. Some more radical
proponents of the social stance suggest that we use schools to reconstruct society. Had
they fallen within the technical stance, Rae Anne and Jaime would have placed greater
emphasis on mastery of basic skills and far less emphasis on group dynamics. As you
examine the work of Jaime and Rae Anne, you may think about the consequences of the
30 CHAPTER 2

no neutral poy
stances they hold. Prakash and Waks (1985) argue that there is
the drawbacks’?
What are the benefits of the stance you see as most prevalent? What are
Who wins? Who loses?
very
The usefulness of examining current stances lies in the fact that stances expose
different answers to often-unexamined questions. We all say that we want what is es
“best” is
the next generation and for the nation. Examining stances helps us to realize that
a matter requiring much deliberation. Bringing about the “best” requires even more. Our
with
stances are not disembodied ideals but rather important matters that play out daily,
great implications for the nation’s children.

Developing Your Stance

Do you recall the saying, “The last one to see the water is the fish’’? Answering the seem-
ingly simple questions of education may put you in the position of the fish, exploring the
world that has been your home and thus has many aspects that may be invisible to you.
Considering the questions of education means exposing some of your tacit notions about
how the world is and should be. It also entails considering the fact that there are alternatives
to your perspectives.
To address these questions, think solely about your own ideas—no need to quote
famous people. Write no more than a page to answer each of the questions, taken in order.
1. What is the good? Who is the good person living in the good society?
What is the purpose of education?
What should everyone learn? Why?
What is the nature of learning?
What is (excellent) teaching?
ANB
Wh What does school do?

You may stumble a bit in interpreting the questions. Interpret them any way you like, as
long as they guide you in discovering what you think and capturing convictions that are cen-
tral for you. Do not be tempted to include a little of every way of thinking; for instance, some
ideas from the technical conception and some from the social conception. If you did, elements
would probably contradict each other and would not provide guidance when you need it.
After you compose a first draft, check your answers for consistency from question to
question. Revise so that answers are coherent. Take out extra words. Read your answers
aloud to yourself and then to a friend to be sure that your answers truly communicate your
convictions. You will know when you have finished when not a word can be cut and when
each reading convinces you more fully of the soundness of your stance. The Teaching Tip
offers the long, if not somewhat macabre, view in considering whether you have gotten
your stance right. Here are suggestions related to the questions to get you started on com-
posing your stance.

A TEACHER’S EPITAPH
An epitaph is the inscription on a person’s tomb, plaque, or gravestone, commemorating
the life
that passed. Epitaphs are typically brief and often wry. Poets often choose their own
epitaphs,
as do others. For example, Ludolph van Ceulen, the mathematician who dedicated
his life to
the task of calculating the value of pi to thirty-five places, had it inscribed on his headstone.
Another mathematician, Paul Erdos, celebrated, “Finally I am becoming stupider no
more.”
Enjoy some literary and historical epitaphs at http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/epitaphs.html
. Then
write your own. Looking forward, what mark would you hope to leave on
the world through
your profession? Compose your own epitaph, and then attempt to live up to it.
 Developing Your Stance Toward Education 31

What Is the Good? Who Is the Good Person Living

in the Good Society?
As you consider the questions of “What is the good? Who is the good person living in the
good society?” consider your own upbringing. If you were raised as part of the dominant
culture in the United States, or if you interacted with people who were part of that culture,
you no doubt were exposed to American core values. Some macro culture U.S. ideals in-
clude (Banks, 2005; Pai, Adler, & Shadiow, 2006):

¢ Equality of opportunities
* Achievement orientation (we should all try to achieve higher goals through hard
work; successful people work hard and unsuccessful people do not)
* Individualism and its emphasis on self-reliance and originality (individual success is
prized above that of the family, community, and nation)
* Future time orientation (saving for tomorrow)
* Orientation toward materialism and exploitation of the natural environment
These values are not universal; other cultures, including nondominant U.S. groups,
often hold alternative values. Here are three tips to get you thinking about your own values
and convictions regarding the good person in the good society:

1. Consider your own test of a “good” society. Many have said that a true test of society
is how it treats its most vulnerable members. Do you agree? With a visual impairment,
Child 6 in the chapter opening photographs spent time at the Lighthouse Institute
in New York, 1944. The “house” had existed for three decades before Child 6 was
photographed in the roof garden, much anticipated at its construction. President Taft
laid the cornerstone (New York Times, 1911), and long before Child 6 played in the
garden, personnel had opened a similar institution in France for soldiers blinded in
World War I (New York Times, 1915). Personnel also had fought hard to have stu-
dents with visual impairments permitted to enroll in New York public schools. Still,
a common 1940’s attitude toward people with disabilities was pity and a desire to iso-
late them from society (Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 2007). Child 6’s president, Franklin
Delano Roosevelt, hid his own physical disability so the public would not see it as a
weakness. It was not until 1975 that all Americans were granted the right to a free and
public education, provided to the extent possible with typically developing (or nondis-
abled) peers (Public Law 94-142: Education of All Handicapped Children Act). What
responsibilities do you see the good society as having to each of its members?
2. Look back at your work in Figure 1.1. It encouraged you to consider the system
within which you teach. What expectations does your society hold for you? To what
extent do those shape your view of what is possible in society?
3. List no more than 10 core values or characteristics you think a good person or
society must possess. It is tempting to make a much longer list, but that will be less
useful in guiding your actions. Try making your own list, then compare it to the
thinking of others. My recent Web search for “universal values” resulted in no less
than 50 proposed values. Eleven recurring values were:

¢ Compassion e Equality ¢ Freedom

¢ Honesty ¢ Respect e Service
¢ Justice ¢ Responsibility ¢ Tolerance
« Peace ¢ Unity

To what extent are these values your values? Are there some you would delete? Which
must you add?

What Is the Purpose of Education?

In thinking about the purpose of education, consider carefully how it is that society brings
to the
its people to “the good.” Look back at your list of values and convictions related
is it that education serves as a vehicle to create “the
good person and the good society. How
32 CHAPTER 2

of each individual citizen.

ood society”? Some focus on education as the full development
essay on the purpose of education,
Here’s an excerpt of Martin Luther King, Jr.’s (1947)
which he wrote as an undergraduate student:
and to think criti-
The function of education, therefore, is to teach one to think intensively
must remember that intelligenc e is not enough. Intelligenc e plus character—
cally. ... We
that is the goal of true education.
next
Others assert that the purpose of education is to transmit the best of our society to the
soul
generation. For example, English essayist Chesterton wrote, “Education is simply the
of a society as it passes from one generation to another.” Still others believe that, through
education, we should transform society. What’s your view? What can and should we
accomplish through education?
Remember to think broadly about education. Education and school are not the same
things. Think about all of the different mechanisms (such as family and religious organiza-
tions) that educate and how those might work in concert (or not) to fulfill the purpose of
education.

What Should Everyone Learn? Why?

Considering what everyone should learn and why gives you an opportunity to think about
the subject matter that is important enough for each person in the society to learn. As you
consider subject matter, remember that what is considered “basic” in one part of the world
or at one time in history may be superfluous in another. For example, look at Children 3
in the chapter opening photographs. These children danced during the Great Depression
(1934) in San Antonio, Texas, a city hard hit by the mass migrations of people displaced
by lack of work in U.S. cities and by “repatriations” of people of Mexican descent (McKay,
2010). Schools were segregated: black, white, and Hispanic (Orozco, 2002), and because of
the Depression, many schools had closed or reduced their hours (Nelson, n.d.). Such dire
conditions heighten the importance of careful decisions about what people should learn.
Looking back, what content might have best helped all students (regardless of gender, race,
or ethnicity) stretch toward becoming “the good person” and have a hand in contributing
to or reshaping their society?
In your own stance, remember to think not just about what might be considered
traditional content but issues of character, skills, values, and abilities as well. Theodore
Roosevelt mused that, “to educate a man in mind and not in morale is to educate a menace
to society.” Be able to explain why people should learn what you suggest, and not something
else. Remember, too, that “everyone” means “every person”; this question addresses the
common core of learning to be mastered in the society. Here are five tips to get you thinking:
1. Look back at your list of values, characteristics, knowledge, and skills of the good
person. Do you believe the good person is “born good”? Probably not entirely.
Instead, he must attain (learn) at least some of those positive qualities. Look at
your list of characteristics of the good person and good society and determine what
knowledge, values, and skills people must learn in order to bring about the good.
That is core subject matter.
2. Look beyond your own school experience; it is place-bound. What seems “basic” to
you may not be basic at all in other schools or settings. Learning multiple languages,
dance, a musical instrument, or geometry is considered basic in some places.
Additionally, other countries tend to approach the “basics” differently than we do
with mathematics serving as an example (Schmidt, Wang, & McKnight, 2005).
Whereas the U.S. curriculum tends to focus repeatedly over the years on topics that
we see as basic (such as arithmetic), high-achieving countries tend to focus on their
basics in set grade levels and then move on to other subjects.
Look beyond your own school experience; it is time-bound. You may believe
that
knowledge is unchanging and should remain constant over time. That is a
defensible
position, one held by many others. An alternative perspective states that
as our world
changes, so must the knowledge and skills we must gain to find our place
in it. John
 Developing Your Stance Toward Education 33

Adams (1780) argued in a letter to his wife that, “I must study politics and war that
my sons may have liberty to study mathematics and philosophy.” A world that is
constantly changing may require a changing core of knowledge for its citizens.
4. Avoid suggesting that “all” subject matter is important. First, it is impossible to
learn everything that is known. Second, “all” would include a body of knowledge
that is odious (white supremacy doctrine?) or is now proven false (phrenology?).
5. Recall that we educate hugely diverse groups of students in the United States,
and that which should be accomplished by all is a matter of ongoing and heated
consideration. We wrestle with tensions such as holding high expectations for each
of our learners while we simultaneously attend to vast individual differences. For
instance, should your gifted students achieve the same curriculum as your students
with developmental delays? As you consider such tensions, it may help to list the
Subjects or outcomes that are important to you and then consider whether they could
in fact be grouped into categories such as things “everyone learns,” “some people
learn,” and “a few people learn.”
In sum, think broadly about subject matter; it includes life’s lessons in addition to
school subjects. School is but one of our educative institutions, and defining what should
be core requires you to think about all learners.

What Is the Nature of Learning?

The nature of learning includes the nature of knowledge, the nature of the learner, and the
processes by which we learn.
As you regard the nature of knowledge, ask yourself: Is it unchanging or tentative? Is
it objective, or is it constructed by people and thus inherently subjective? The branch of
philosophy that examines the nature of knowledge is deemed epistemology. Your episte-
mological convictions will influence your decisions about both what you teach and how
you teach it. For example, the conviction that scientific knowledge changes with evidence
brings the obligation to teach students values such as a preference for evidence and skills
such as the testing of hypotheses.
As you regard the nature of the learner, ask: Are people inherently bad? Inherently
good? What are your convictions about people in general? Will they usually do the night
thing, or must they have an external motivation to do so? Again, your convictions related
to human nature will permeate your classroom decisions related to factors such as how you
manage your classroom and interact with your students. For example, Kohn (2006) argues
compellingly that most approaches to classroom discipline are predicated on pessimistic
views of children, views that regard humans as power hungry, aggressive, and self-centered.
As you consider the nature of learning, ask: What are the processes by which all hu-
mans learn? How is that we take in information from the environment, make sense ofit, and
use it as our own? Within the larger framework of how humans learn, what are the relevant
differences in learning preferences? One suggestion: It will not be useful for you to con-
clude that “everyone learns differently.” If we can draw no common threads through human
learning, your attempts to address students’ needs will be random and most probably futile.

What Is (Excellent) Teaching?

You have begun to think about excellent teaching through your work in Chapter |. That is,
you have thought about how teaching is different from other endeavors, you have begun
to examine the domains of professional expertise, and you have thought some about how
excellent teachers might be different from each other. Perhaps these five sets of question
will continue to fuel your thinking:

1. Is there a set of personal attributes required of excellent teachers? To what extent is

an excellent teacher an example of “the good person”? What, if any, is the teacher's
special obligation to serve as a role model of a good person? For example, must he
employ all the 21st century skills that he expects his students to master?
34 CHAPTER 2

of “the good society”? To

2. To what extent is an excellent teacher an integral part
what extent do teachers actively shape that society?
To what extent as
3. Is it enough for an excellent teacher to be a good person?
do things that represen t a unique set 0
you agree that teachers know and can
professional skills? What, then, are the professi onal knowled ge, skills, and abilities
that excellent teachers have?
4. How important is it that an excellent teacher is a good learner?
5. What are an excellent teacher’s moral and ethical obligations?

What Does School Do?

As you consider this question, keep in mind that “school” is just one of the educative insti-
tutions in a society. Efforts such as home schooling and unschooling (Holt, ule indicate
that schools are just one type of institution for education. “The social curriculum includes
vehicles such as the media, the family, and the neighborhood, and institutions such as reli-
gion and youth groups (Cortes, 2000). What unique contribution does schooling provide?
Try these questions:

1. What should schools do? What should be our mission? Should we pursue student
achievement in reading and mathematics as our sole aim?
2. What can be the school’s role in bringing about the good society? Berliner (2006)
argues that schools continue to be asked to solve huge public problems while we as
a society ignore root causes, such as poverty, that contribute to differential student
achievement.
Because you are preparing for a career spent in schools, it is important that you consider—
and continue to reconsider—what those schools do and can do.
In closing, when you reflect on your answers to the six questions as a set, you will have
developed for yourself a stance toward education that can be a useful guide in selecting
your priorities and making professional decisions.

Using Your Stance

Your stance should be reflected in your yearlong plans, in your lessons, and in your minute-
by-minute interactions and decisions. Further, a conception of education offers should
statements to direct you. Questions such as “What should we teach?” and “How should
we group students?” are answered in terms of both philosophy and empirical evidence
(Fenstermacher’s and Richardson’s good and successful teaching). Use what you know
about findings from educational research to enrich your stance and guide your professional
decisions.
Your stance can be a useful guide for short-term instructional decisions. I know a
teacher who condenses her stance into a single sentence and then copies it onto an index
card that she clips to her plan book. Before leaving school each evening, sometimes
feeling harried and tired, she takes one last glance at that card. If she feels that she
worked in some way toward the greater good listed in her stance, she goes home happy.
My students find it useful, in fact, to condense their stances not into a single sentence
but into a single word (see “Word Journal” in Guillaume, Yopp, & Yopp, 2007) and
then to think about how that single word guides their actions daily. This year, some
examples include passion, care, cooperation, strive, and responsibility. Another teacher
I know shares his stance with his students via a poster and in words and occasionally
asks them to provide anonymous written feedback on the extent to which he
is living
his vision. Check the Teaching Tip for some other ideas on using your stance
in these
days of accountability.
Use your stance to guide your long-term instructional decisions, too. As
you work
with your colleagues in committees that address topics such as long-term
planning or
 Developing Your Stance Toward Education 35

UsING YOUR STANCE IN THE DAYS OF ACCOUNTABILITY

Try some tips for using your stance to remain true to your ideal in the days of educational
accountability:
1. Regardless of the importance of test scores, helping our students learn and use social skills
should remain a top priority as we educate competent and caring citizens of tomorrow
(Garrett, 2006). Use your stance to help you focus on important social goals that must
co-occur with academic goals. The National Association of School Psychologists (2002)
places social skills into four helpful categories:
* Survival skills (e.g., ignoring distractions and following directions)
* Interpersonal skills (e.g., sharing, joining an activity)
* Problem-solving skills (e.g., apologizing and accepting consequences)
* Conflict resolution skills (e.g., dealing with teasing and peer pressure)
. Consider state content mandates as a baseline rather than as the sole targets for what you
are to teach. Good schools go beyond requirements to reach for a vision that exceeds the
scope of narrow measures of learning (Keller & Bichelmeyer, 2004).
. Use your stance as the organizing principle for your professional portfolio.
. Post your stance-at-a-glance in your classroom. Before you shut off the lights at the end
of the day, ask yourself for at least one example of how you enacted that stance in concrete
ways. Set one goal for tomorrow.

assessment, continue to raise gentle questions related to the big picture of what you as a
team (and we as a profession) should be pursuing. As your colleagues speak, listen for their
convictions about the purpose of education. Look for common ground. Remind yourself
that when you choose one course of action, you necessarily reject others. For instance, if
you include primarily small-group projects, students have fewer experiences in working
on skills as individuals. Make sure your choices are in line with achieving excellence in
the long view.
Finally, revise your stance. You are an adult with many years of life experience, so
your stance may not change radically over time. On the other hand, it may. Thoughtful
teachers engage in frequent reflection on their experience and seek to improve their think-
ing as their thinking changes.

Today’s demands upon teachers’ attention are great. Time —_and co-curricular duties that are part of your professional
responsibilities. .
is short, lists of standards or outcomes to be mastered
are long, and priorities sometimes conflict. Maintaining With the completion of these first two chapters, you
a clear sense of focus about what you consider central to will have built a foundation for understanding the nature
your work as a teacher can help you decide at the close of of teaching and your own vision of education. This foun-
a hectic day whether you have contributed to the world dation will come to life in each of the dimensions of your
through your efforts as a teacher. Having a well-formulated professional decision making: planning, instruction, assess-
educational stance can help you to shape your participation ment, management, and—as the following chapter shows—
in the school policies, instructional practices, committees, basing decisions on a solid understanding of your students.
 36 CHAPTER 2

a4% Opportunities to Practice

DIEGO: “should include student portfolios, in
Ask students with whom you work to help you find what is
which students display their own style
hidden: the implicit and null curriculum. Secondary students
and approach to the subject matter.”
are often able to articulate their experience without much
prompting. For example, one secondary student told me d. Asa teacher, I try hard to...
recently that, through his school’s tracking practices, he ABIGAIL: — “place the learner at the center of all of my
has learned that some kids are valued as smarter than others choices. If an activity does not meet my
by the school: different classes for different kids, better students’ individual needs, we do not do it.”
teachers for more advanced students. Younger students may
BEN: “put my money where my mouth is. I
respond to more specific questions such as, “How do you
show commitment to charitable causes.”
know whether you have done a good job at school? What
behaviors do teachers like? What have you not learned in CARA: “make it fun for children to learn the
school that you would like to learn?” Do you find patterns in skills from the book.”
students’ responses? Is the news good? DiEGO: “emphasize that the students and I embark
Four imaginary teachers (each with a different conception on an exciting adventure together.”
of education) are being interviewed. Label each teacher e. My metaphor for teacher is “teacher as. . .
with the appropriate stance from Figure 2.1 technical,
ABIGAIL: — ‘a lens through which students can better
rational, personal, or social.
know themselves.’”
a. In my classroom I try to include lots of .. .
BEN: ‘a spark who can ignite the fire of action
ABIGAIL: “opportunities for kids to choose their for the common good.’”
own activities. They need to be able to
CARA: ‘a factory leader who uses resources
follow their own interests.”
efficiently for the best product possible.’ ”
BEN: “resources for kids to learn about
DIEGO: ‘a sage who helps students learn to judge
current, real-life issues. Then they need
performance.’ ”
experience in addressing those issues.”
Were you drawn toward any one teacher’s cluster of
CARA: “opportunities for kids to memorize
responses from the first exercise? These imaginary
important facts. These facts will help
them all their lives!”
statements may provide specific examples to help you
pin down your own stance toward education.
DIEGO: “chances for kids to think like experts
Key: Technical: Cara; Rational: Diego; Personal: Abigail; Social:
in the field, like artists or scientists, for
Ben.
example.”
Stretch your thinking by imagining the implications of
b. You will know children are solving problems in my
different stances on some common issues in classroom
class when...
teaching. Try to imagine how these different conceptions
ABIGAIL: “they have a clearer view of themselves would play out for the elements listed in Figure 2.3. Note
and use that information to confront that your own stance provides the final entries in the table.
challenges. That’s problem solving!” Check back to your row in Figure 2.3 as you read subsequent
BEN: “they find something that is happening chapters . . . you may already know the punch lines!
right now in the real world and I see them 4. Analyze school mission statements, beginning with your own
actually show the heart and courage to do school’s statement. Go online and check your site’s Web site
something about it!” or School Accountability Report Card (SARC). Or, if you
CARA: “children use their facts to solve more aren’t assigned to a school yet, go to the Internet and locate
complex exercises. The lightbulbs just some using the search term “school mission statements.”
glow!” Is it possible to place the statement in one of the families
DIEGO: “children use their creativity and logic of educational thought from Chapter 2? Look for areas of
to solve classical problems or to create agreement and disagreement with your own stance. Talk
something new. You should see what with experienced teachers about how mission statements
they come up with!” are written and discuss issues such as group consensus,
conceptual coherence, and enacting the mission statement.
c. Assessment of student learning . .
The circumstances of classroom teaching sometimes
ABIGAIL: “too often interferes with individual present obstacles for enacting one’s teaching stance. For
students’ dignity and sense of self.” instance, you may want students to be the ultimate judges
BEN: “is done in groups, with the criteria of their work, but you are required to give standardized
developed by the students.” tests. Use Figure 2.4 to help structure your thinking and to
CARA: “js valid only when it is an objective consider how to address potential obstacles. Heads up: You
measurement of children’s accuracy.” will need this chart in Chapter 6.
 Developing Your Stance Toward Education
37

Daily implications of conceptions of education.

ir
Common Prevalent
Learning Teaching Assessment Homework Expectations
Experiences Methods “| Instruments Assignments for Parents
Technical

Rational

Personal

Social

My own stance

6. Create an alternative display of your stance, one that does A six-word memoir: “Won’t teach how I was
not rely solely on linear text. Try one or more of these ideas: taught.” Another: “I promise to never stop
learning.” (search “Teachers’ six word memoirs”
e A word cloud (try www.wordle.net)
and try Smith Magazine’s memoirs at http://www
¢ An art piece such as a collage or painting
.smithmag.net/)
¢ A digital story (try Microsoft’s free Photo Story 3 for A podcast (see 21st Century Teaching and Learning Tip
Windows at http://www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/ on page 39)
using/digitalphotography/photostory/default.mspx or
use I-Movie for Macintosh)
38 CHAPTER 2

Enacting my stance toward education.

My Convictions Possible Obstacles Strategies to Consider

al -
A good society

What education
(and school)
should do

What everyone
should learn

How | should if
teach
 Developing Your Stance Toward Education 39

PODCASTING: YOUR STANCE AND YOUR STUDENTS

* Podcasting is a way of sharing audio and media files on the Web. Not a direct download, a podcast has a news feed that
allows it to be catalogued through programs like iTunes or Podcast Alley. Podcasts typically have many episodes, like a
weekly show. You can listen to or view podcasts through a portable digital media player or through your Web browser.
A podcast might be a great way to communicate your stance with students, families, colleagues, and potential employers.
Follow these three steps to create an audio podcast of your stance.
1. Use a script and record your most important points, limiting your recording to a minute or two. Use a program like
GarageBand for Macintosh or the free Audacity (www.http://audacity.sourceforge.net/).
2. Save your recording file as an MP3 file.
3. Publish your recording through a service such as the free Podomatic.
For more specific directions, download Vincent’s (2009) free, helpful podcasting guide for teachers and students.
Students and teachers are finding great enjoyment in taking learning outside the classroom by listening to and creating their
own podcasts for content area learning (e.g., Putman & Kingsley, 2009). See what’s out there using directories such as
http://www.podcastalley.com. Why not jump into podcasting with your 21st century students?

hy Web Sites
http://www.ffst.hr/ENC YCLOPAEDIA/doku.php?id=welcome http://philosophyofeducation.org/
Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Education. This site includes Philosophy of Education Society. This site includes
an alphabetic listing ofphilosophers of education and information on the Philosophy of Education Society,
relevant works. It also includes links to other Web sites that provides access to its publications, and includes links to
treat philosophy. other organizations and resources addressing philosophy of
http://tip.psychology.org/ education topics.
Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory into http://www.tolerance.org/
Practice Database. This site can help you think about your Tolerance.org. This Web site is a project of the Southern
stance on what it means to learn by exploring 5O theories of Poverty Law Center. If ideals such as tolerance, peace, or
learning and instruction. respect figure prominently in your stance, check this site’s
array of Web-based and free print materials to help you
http://cuip.net/jds/
The John Dewey Society. The society's mission is to “keep
enact your principles.
alive John Dewey’s commitment to the use of critical and Use the search words “My Philosophy of Education” to search
reflective intelligence in the search for solutions to crucial and view thousands of philosophies of education students from
problems in education and culture.” There are links to the around the nation .. . and beyond. For some inspirational video
society’s journals, including online access to articles. examples, use that same search term at YouTube.
sees Getting to Know
-@ ~~Students and Families

Before You Begin Reading

Warm-Up Exercise for Getting to Know Students and Families
Engage in a bit of personal introspection by writing an “I am from” poem. There is only one simple
rule: Each line must begin with the words “I am from.” As you compose your poem, think about all
the factors that make you who you are. You may wish to think about features such as your unique
qualities, your values, your ethnic heritage, your family experiences, your spiritual identity,
significant events, and about your favorites in life. There are no rules about length, rhyme, meter, or
sharing it with an audience.
| Am From

Read it aloud. Now reflect on your poem. What new insights (if any) did you gain? Excerpts from
some recently composed poems are found at the end of this chapter. As you read them over, look
for themes: Who are we? What matters to us? Themes such as immigration experiences ethnic and
national identity, conflict, the importance of family regardless of its structure, and a sense of growth
seem to speak clearly. Now imagine a world where schools knew where we were from and
embraced us.
 Getting to Know Students and Families 41

(79
line secret in education lies in respecting the student.”

—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Your students’ success depends on so many factors (Fenstermacher & Richardson, 2005).
One is quality teaching. Second, students must extend willingness and effort to learn.
Third, student success requires opportunity to learn. Your students need access to rigor-
ous content, time, and resources to learn. Finally, student success requires a supportive
surround, with factors such as caring families, peers, and effective social systems.
With so many things influencing success, it’s clear that your journey ahead is not one
to be taken lightly, nor is it one to be taken alone. It will require you to work closely with
whole teams—students, families, colleagues, and communities—on your students’ behalf.
In fact, building and sustaining effective relationships lies at the core of successful teach-
ing and learning. It is only when people know, respect, and trust each other that the task at
hand—student success—can come sharply into focus.
Inclusive and responsive teachers strive to be effective team members and leaders. In inclu-
sive classrooms, all students feel valued, cared for, and respected for who they are, regardless
of their particular shortcomings and strengths (McLeskey, Rosenberg, & Westling, 2010). In
culturally responsive classrooms, the cultural and other background experiences of all members
are valued and connected to content and classroom life. Traditional ways of conducting class-
room life are also reconsidered (Gay, 2002). An inclusive and responsive teacher communicates
to students:
¢ I care about you.
¢ You belong.
¢ What you think matters.
e Differences are normal.
¢ Your educational needs will be met.
¢ I will push you to succeed.
¢ I will do what it takes to help you succeed.
Further, inclusive and responsive teachers communicate attitudes of openness and a commit-
ment to continuous learning and understanding:
¢ Your experiences are valuable and valued.
* I know and understand some things about you, and I am committed to understanding better.
¢ We all have the responsibility to see things from others’ viewpoints.
* There may be a better way of doing things, and we can figure it out together.
Inclusive and responsive teachers communicate similar messages to students’ families.
This chapter supports you on your journey with the first steps of building good teams: getting
to know your students and their families. It is organized in the following sections:
¢ The Generic U.S. Classroom
¢ Rough Terrain Ahead: Gaps and Inequities
* Will the Real U.S. Student Please Stand Up? Getting to Know Your Students and Families
¢ Working with Families

The Generic U.S. Classroom

Class sizes vary, but imagine that your class has twenty-eight students. Let’s say your
twenty-eight students represent the nation’s student population at large. In your generic
classroom of twenty-eight, you have

¢ Twenty-four students whose parents completed high school (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2008a) A oil
¢ Nineteen students who live in married-couple families and nine in other family structures
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2009b)
42 CHAPTER 3

at home (U.S. Census

¢ Eighteen students with broadband access to the Internet
Bureau, 2009) oA ; | ; —
students who are racial or ethnic minoritie s (includin g six Hispanics ive
* Twelve
m doesn’t have
African-Americans, and one Asian/Pacific Islander) (Your classroo
does.)
an American Indian or Alaskan Native; go two doors down to find one that
(National Center for Education Statistics, 201 0b) .
Education
¢ Eight students eligible for free or reduced lunch (National Center for
Statistics, 2009c)
¢ Six students living in poverty (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009)
* Six students who speak a language other than English at home (USS. Census
Bureau, 2008) . _
¢ Four students receiving special education services (with two having specific learning
disabilities) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009d; 2010c) .
¢ Two students classified as gifted (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009e)

Are you looking forward to the richness and challenges such a group of students will
bring? Sorry, but there is no generic U.S. classroom. Although these statistics represent
students across the nation, they won’t represent your classroom. Figures vary dramatically
by region, state, and local area. For instance, all regions have increasing ethnic or racial
diversity, but the numbers and patterns differ. In the West, “minority” student numbers
exceed those of white students, with Hispanics predominating. In the South, African-
American student numbers exceed those of Hispanics. Poverty rates and numbers of
students living in large cities or rural areas vary widely, too. The patterns of distribution of
students in schools affect the makeup of your actual classroom and can lead to inequities
that present rough terrain as you pursue student success.

Rough Terrain Ahead: Gaps and Inequities

Many students and teachers alike face rough educational terrain in our schools. Figure 3.1
displays one such gap in student achievement, the gap based on parental education level.
Recent research supports long-term findings in revealing the following inequities:
* Schools have become increasingly segregated, and that segregation leads to wider
achievement gaps (Berends & Pefialoza, 2010).
* Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indian/Alaska Native students are more likely to
attend high-poverty schools than are Asian/Pacific Islanders or whites. Whites are
least likely. Limited English proficient students are also more likely to attend high-
poverty schools (National Center for Education Statistics, 2010c). This despite interna-
tional data indicating that all students tend to do better in higher-socioeconomic-status
schools (Perry & McConney, 2010).
* Teachers without full certification, experience, or advanced degrees are more prevalent
in high-poverty schools (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2010e).
African-American students are overrepresented in special education programs
(Blanchett, 2006) and underrepresented in gifted programs (Frye & Vogt, 2010).
* Students from poverty are more likely to be placed in lower tracks, have fewer
opportunities to learn high-status knowledge (Oakes, 2005), and receive lower-quality
instruction (e.g., Cummins, 2007; Watanabe, 2008).

Adding more bumps to the road, classroom structures reflect the interests of the domi-
nant culture, sometimes making classrooms unfriendly places for students from cultures
other than the dominant culture (Ladson-Billings, 2003; Nieto, 2004; Tyson, 2003).
The
gaps and inequities that present rough terrain in our pursuit of student success thus result
from a combination of unequal schooling practices (Ladson-Billings, 2006) and
larger
societal disparities (Berliner, 2006). Vast changes at all levels will be necessary to
pay off
the “education debt,” or significant educational inequities (Ladson-Billings, 2006),
that
have been accruing throughout our nation’s history.
 Getting to Know Students and Families 43

Parental education level—based achievement gap: 17-year-olds’ mathematics scores on the National
Educational
Assessment Program (NAEP) assessment, compared by parents’ level of educational attainment.
Semsuninmnmmereee RE

320 e
* 7 hes ee,
310 \4

300 a
2 wf

oO 290 A
©
PA AAa
A
& 280 A ai A A
oO

270 @ College
™@ High School
260
A No High School
250 T T
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year

Source: National Educational Assessment Program, 2008a.

Note: Go to the NAEP Web site (nationsreportcard.gov) to view other gaps and results, including your state’s results. Try comparing
national results with your state test measures. Find your state test measures at your state’s department of education site, typically
on a page called “testing.”

Source: Barbara Schwartz/Merrill

So what’s the good news? The good news is that we, as individual teachers and as a pro-
fession, have the tools we need to navigate the tough road ahead. We have control over so
many factors that contribute to student success. Schools make a difference. Many studies find
that student success is far more a factor of high-quality opportunities at school than features
such as race or family socioeconomic status (Croninger, Rice, Rathbun, & Nishio, 2007;
44 CHAPTER 3

Inclusive and cultural self-assessment.

clothing...)
What are some of my favorite elements of my tangible culture? (art, food,
What are some aspects of my intangible culture? (Family rituals, dance, social
knowledge)
than
How do | feel about working with students whose values and beliefs are different
mine? Do | have a color-blind philosophy?
Do I care if all of my students feel like they have a good relationship with me?
How do | work with students with different traditions and customs?
What stereotypes or biases do | have about people in other groups?
What are the sources of my perceptions?
How might these perceptions interfere with my teaching students well?
ep
SS
eo
©
Qe How much do | know about the cultures and histories of different groups? About my
students physical and learning needs?
What do | need to do next to learn about groups and needs represented in my classroom?
4)

Sources: Many questions are influenced by Ford (2005; 2010); Ford and Kea (2009); and Montgomery (2001)

Darling-Hammond, 2007; Schmidt & Cogan, 2009). Schools can—and many do—take
an active role to ensure that students have quality and equitable opportunities to learn
(Borman & Dowling, 2010; Muller, Riegle-Crumb, Schiller, Wilkinson, & Frank, 2010).
The even better news is that the factor over which you have the most control—yourself—
makes a huge difference. “The teacher remains the key” (Shulman, 1983, p. 504). Teachers
contribute substantially not only students’ learning outcomes but to their social and emo-
tional development (Jennings & Greenberg, 2010). Beyond learning, students’ motivation
to learn is also directly influenced by the quality of their relationship with their teachers
(Jennings & Greenberg, 2010; Lewis & Kim, 2008; Pawan, 2008). It all begins, as Emerson
reminded us at the beginning of the chapter, with respect for the student.
Building warm, positive, and productive relationships with your students begins with
getting to know them. However, inclusive and responsive teachers realize that their own
cultural background and life experiences create the filters through which they see their
students. For this reason, start getting to know your students by getting to know a bit
more about yourself. Developing your stance (Chapter 2) and composing the “I am from”
poem as a warm-up to this chapter may provide some insights, and you can try the
questions suggested in Figure 3.2 to explore some of your own values and perceptions,
including working with students who are different from you. If you are (as I am) one of
the 83 percent of our nation’s teachers who are white (National Center for Educational
Statistics, 2009f), you might face the special challenge of cultural encapsulation, or a lack
of identity related to your race given the pervasiveness of whiteness in our society (Dutro,
Kazemi, Balf, & Lin, 2008; Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). Quick! From
the blog Stuff White People Like (stuffwhitepeoplelike.com); What’s number one on the
list of stuff white people like? Coffee!

Will the Real U.S. Student Please Stand Up?

Getting to Know Your Students and Families
Are you a European American who doesn’t like coffee? A Latino or Latina who does? If
so, you illustrate firsthand a bit of the complexity of identity and the problems of using
categories to describe people. First, each of us is a product of many sources of identity,
 Getting to Know Students and Families 45

and those sources combine differently for each of us. Race or ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, language, age, class, and more all coalesce in ways that make it impossible to
describe any of us as members of solely one group. We each have commonalties that make
us members of certain groups, but we also all have unique experiences that factor into who
we are. Each of us is a dynamic product of the many painful and sweet experiences life
has to offer.
Further, the “categories by which we classify people are constantly evolving, over-
lapping, mixing” (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004, p. 30) so that identity
formation is a process without end and any description of culture can be no more than
an “approximation of reality” (Gay, 2000, p. 12). Two examples include the categories
of English language learners and race and ethnicity. The category “English language
learner” sounds homogenous. It’s composed of people who are working to master English,
right? Yes, but English language learners can vary widely. They might include students
from well-established linguistic groups such as Native American communities across the
nation, French-speaking communities in the Northeast, or Spanish-speaking communities
in the Southwest. You might also have English learners whose families are more recent
arrivals. And within the group of recent arrivals, students may be literate in their home
languages, or they may be new to school. Race and ethnicity provide another example
of fuzzy categories. The number of individuals identifying themselves as members as
more than one racial or ethnic group is on the rise, and the literature documents some of
the complexities they face in schools as a result (e.g., Dutro, Kazemi, Balf, & Lin, 2008;
Williams, 2009).
Thus, just as there is no generic classroom, there is no generic child. No child can
serve as an ambassador for any culture, and we cannot rely on our assumptions or on our
existing, limited knowledge of groups to know our particular students. There is no sub-
stitute for real information about the specific students before us. Inclusive and responsive
teachers gather, analyze, and use data to make decisions that best serve their students.
Learning about students and their families involves us in questioning our assumptions
and gathering information that will direct us in our efforts to address student needs and
foster success.

Questioning Assumptions
Ronald, one of my middle school students, was struggling with medical and home-life issues,
so I made a special point to make personal contact with him during class each day, to look him
in the eye and converse with him about his life. At a conference a few months into the school
year, his mother told me that Ronald hated my daily conversations. The shock and discomfort
I still feel in recounting Ronald’s episode reflects the extent of my surprise in discovering
what a horrible job I had done in discovering my student’s actual needs and preferences.
My assumptions about what I thought would be right for my student were deeply rooted and
unquestioned: I assumed that my effort to engage him personally would be a good thing and
that there was just one way to go about establishing contact: my way. In Ronald's experience,
my efforts were anything but helpful. Thanks, Ronald, for teaching me an important lesson:
question assumptions.

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

THINK: WHat Ese? Here is one for practice: One-third of your middle school
students had no family members attend Open House.
Try this: When you are tempted to draw One conclusion: They don’t value education. What else?
a conclusion, list for yourself several alter- They forgot. What else? They work nights. What else? They
native explanations for what you see. Try work days, too. What else? They don’t feel welcome at school.
asking students to do the same. It can help them learn to take What else? Their student begged them not to go. What else?
other perspectives and draw conclusions based on evidence.
46 CHAPTER 3

es quickly
Part of our human intelligence stems from our ability to draw inferenc
allow us to make sense of the world, our infer-
from limited information. Although they
inferenc es about others are based on limited
ences can also get us into trouble. When our
information, we run the risk of making faulty and counterp roductiv e decision s. Instead,
accurate
we need to realize that our assumptions may be incorrect and replace them with
information. mm! .
Rather
Perhaps the best synonym for “inclusive and responsive teacher” is “learner.”
than relying on assumptions, approach every situation as an opportuni ty to learn more about
to
life for your students. See the Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip for an exercise
help you avoid assumptions. ,
Sometimes life’s rapid pace does indeed require us to make assumptions. When those
occasions present themselves, it is important that we draw the most helpful conclusions
possible. As my colleague Pat Keig unfailingly urges, we can make the polite assumption.
It is far more productive to assume the best about people than to assume the worst. Making
the polite assumption opens doors for further collaboration; making negative assumptions
closes them. Gathering accurate information about our students also allows us to serve
them well.

Gathering information About Students and Families

Inclusive and responsive teachers are committed to continuous learning, including ef-
forts to increase our cultural competence, or knowledge about our students’ heritage and
culture (Brown, 2007; Gay, 2002). To do so, we commit to admitting that our own knowIl-
edge is necessarily limited and to observing quietly and asking, in gentle and respectful
ways, questions that will help us learn. “I thought I could learn about [the students’ ]cul-
ture by just having them in my classroom, but I now realize that when they’re in the class-
room, they’re experiencing my culture, not theirs,’ remarked a teacher struggling to get
to know her sixth-graders (Frank, 1999, p. 20). To begin to understand your students, you
will need to gather information about their lives both outside the classroom and within it.

Learning About Students’ Lives Getting to know our students requires us to step
outside the classroom and learn about their lives (Grant & Sleeter, 1998). Kottler (1997)
suggests that we teach as if we are anthropologists, focusing on people’s cultural practices,
on the knowledge base they share with others in their group that guides their thoughts,
feelings, and actions. Kottler (p. 98) urges us to address a number of questions:
* How are my cultural values and biases getting in the way of honoring those among
my students who are different from what I am used to?
* What is it that I do not know or understand about this child’s background that might
help me make sense of what is happening?
* What is it about where this student comes from that leads him or her to respond to
others the way he or she does?
* How might I investigate further the customs of this child’s family?

Ethnographers, one branch of anthropologists, use naturalistic methods such as observa-

tions and unstructured interviews to address questions such as those just noted. We can
use these methods to gain insider information about our students’ ways of living. See the
Teaching Tip for methods to get to know students using the lens of an ethnographer.
Some teachers visit students and families at home to reach out and honor the places
students live (Baeder, 2010; Faltis, 2001: Ginsberg, 2007). Home visits are an excellent
means to learn more about students and families. Visits also shift the power balance
in
favor of the family, and they give teachers information they can use to bridge the school
curriculum to students’ lives. See Opportunity to Practice Exercise 1 at the close
of this
chapter if you’re ready to try home visits. Attending community happenings
such as
holiday celebrations or sporting events also places you on the students’ turf. For example,
when my son Zachary was in first grade, his teacher came to watch one
of his soccer
 Getting to Know Students and Families 47

GETTING TO KNow STUDENTS USING THE LENSES OF AN ETHNOGRAPHER

Frank (1999) suggests a number of helpful methods for getting to know students using the
lenses of an ethnographer.
1. Mapping: Get a neighborhood map and pinpoint each student’s home. Walk (or drive)
to them all to physically see where each student lives.
2. Observation: Go to a location where students congregate after school. As unobtrusively
as possible, watch how they interact. If it is appropriate and they invite you, join in their
activities with the goal of learning about their lives.
. Interview: Lead a conversation with a student or family member that follows the topics impor-
tant to your interviewee. Ask a combination of “grand tour” (or big picture) questions and more
specific questions about topics such as space, time, events, people, activities, and objects.
. Note taking and note making: During observations and interviews, take two-column notes.
In the left column, record your observations. In the right, record your inferences, or the
meanings you derive from your evidence.
. Case study: Gather data about one particular student from a variety of sources and
in multiple settings. Analyze data from across sources to find patterns related to the
student’s perspectives and preferences.

games. Eleven years later, I saw her at a restaurant and was compelled to walk over and
say, “Thanks again.”
As you learn about families, it can be helpful to remind yourself: “If I don’t know, I won’t
assume. Ill ask!” One thread of research suggests that teachers’ assumptions about families
are indeed sometimes faulty. For example, in one study, teachers in low-socioeconomic
schools underestimated the technology available to families. As a result, they did not assign
homework that involved computers (Warschauer, Knobel, & Stone, 2004). Had the teachers
used a quick family survey (see the 21st Century Teaching and Learning Tip), they would
have had data to combat their misperceptions and could have used homework opportunities
to support the development of 21st-century skills.
Surveys are a quick and easy way to get information from your families. Near the
beginning of the year, students and family members alike can provide information about
students’ general interests via attitude inventories, surveys, and brief questionnaires. The
questionnaires may ask for information such as each student’s preferred learning experi-
ences, possible ongoing school-related struggles, and strategies for working successfully
with the student. For instance, sample prompts for students include:

¢ If I were in charge of the world...

¢ What I appreciate about my family is...
¢ One thing I’m proud of is...
¢ One unfair thing is...
¢ If I could help someone in need, I would...
¢ I wish school...
¢ It helps me learn when...
* One thing I would like to learn at school is . . .
¢ In this class, I hope we never...
¢ I’d like you to know that...

Of family members, you might ask:

¢ Some of the things that make my child special include . . .
* Past teachers who did well with my child were successful by .. .
* A struggle my child has experienced in the past Sto
¢ This year, I hope my child learns...
¢ The information or resources we could use at home are . . .
48 CHAPTER 3

TECH SURVEY
students complete it in class. Results
Send home a brief survey to discover the kinds of technology use regularly. Or have older
a brief excerpt of a sample survey.
will allow you to build home-school connections and provide support. Here is
Dear Families,
I can plan to help your students
Sometimes families own or use machines that can help students and teachers do a better job.
you own or use
better if |know whether you use any of the following devices at home. Please place a mark by any devices
frequently at home.

Cell phone Desktop or lap top computer with Internet

____ Digital camera (still __ video__) access
___ CD player Handheld device:
_____ DVD player MP3 or MP4 player
Printer Other (such as fax machine)

Do you have special expertise with some form of technology that you could contribute to our class? Does anyone
else at your home? If so, please write your contact information and expertise here. Thanks!

Have respondents answer only those prompts with which they feel comfortable, and
think about whether you need to provide your questions in a different format, such as a
translated handout or an oral interview, to make them accessible.
You can also get to know about your students’ lives through artifacts they bring in and
display on a bulletin board, or that they share electronically. The 21st Century Learning
Tip shares one strategy for building and sharing digital scrapbooks of student-selected
materials.
The time and effort you expend in getting to know students and families will reap huge
rewards in your ongoing relationships, your classroom management, and student learn-
ing. Here are some final suggestions for becoming acquainted with students and families
beyond the classroom door.

¢ Visit the school’s Web site and the Web site of the city in which the school is located.
What are the local issues and priorities?
* Drive or walk through the community. Visit its places of business. Talk with shop-
pers. If you have a good relationship with a family in the community, ask for a
guided tour.
* Meet with families and talk with them about their students. Ensure that the meeting
times and places accommodate families’ schedules and preferences. Some of these
may work:
* Meeting at school for breakfast, coffee or tea, or a potluck.
* Meeting at sites in the community where families usually gather.
* Meeting at a park for a back-to-school barbeque or picnic.

GETTING TO KNOW STUDENTS THROUGH DIGITAL PRESENTATIONS

There are many Web-based tools that allow students to safely post and share information about themselves with you and
their
classmates. For example, you might use a protected Google doc presentation with each student completing
one slide, or students
might try scrapblogging (scrapblog.com). Figure 3.3 shows a poster Zachary created using Glogster (free
at edu.glogster.com) to
share messages about himself. Remember that 75 percent of U.S. homes have ready access to the Internet.
Rather than assuming
your students don’t have access, ask. If they don’t have home access, provide alternative Internet access
such as through the pub-
lic library or your classroom computers. As a last resort, go low-tech with paper versions of students’
self-presentations.
 Getting to Know Students and Families 49

Zach’s Glogster (Created at www.glogster.com).

50 CHAPTER 3

family
¢ Search out and respect families’ communication preferences. Find out which
member(s) have responsibility for the student, and ask which form of communi cation—
such as school-door conversations, cell phone calls, or e-mails—they prefer. Be respect-
ful about where you send messages and the number of messages you send. Also ask
which language families prefer to use with school personnel. Get help from a translator
as appropriate.
¢ Find out about families’ goals for their students. Relationships are often based on
shared goals, and inquiring into families’ goals can build common ground.

Learning About Life at Schoo! Students and family members can also provide
information throughout the year to help you plan learning experiences in the classroom
and at home. For example, some student teachers recently developed brief family surveys
to determine how they could link science learning at school and home (Family Links).
They delivered the survey in a manner that fit their class (e.g., translated or delivered by
students). They (and their master teachers) were surprised at high response rates and by
the families’ enthusiasm about having their voices heard. Student teachers found a wide
variety of family members willing to act as guest speakers on topics such as anthropology,
electricity, and heart disease. The student teachers also were able to send home inexpen-
sive materials for science experiences and to recommend high-quality Web sites based on
families’ feedback. One student teacher concluded:
I want you to know that I was inspired to find ways to include parents who may not speak
English. The language divide may prevent some teachers from trying to involve parents in
science learning, but it was refreshing to see that there are ways to engage them and make
family connections that transcend language.

Opportunity to Practice Exercise 2 invites you to try Family Links with your families.
Many of the techniques noted for home and community use can be useful for getting to
know students within the classroom context as well. You might map the classroom and
observe students during breaks, for example. Also, the Inclusive and Responsive Teaching
Tip gives a classroom observation procedure intended to surface facets of a single stu-
dent’s style and interactions. It may help you to gain information about a student whose
particular strengths and struggles may otherwise go unnoticed. Keep your eyes open, too,
for experienced teachers’ methods of getting to know students. Some use lunch with the
students, and many learn much about students by simply listening to their stories and
perspectives (e.g., Thorson, 2003).

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

UNDERSTANDING A STUDENT c. Does he have any skills or behaviors for avoiding notice?
THROUGH OBSERVATION d. Does he initiate contact with peers? Which ones?
How do they respond?
1. Select a student who does not immedi- €. How does he interact with the content? Is he on task?
ately attract notice. This student may What evidence is there that he understands?
quietly pass the days without much 4. Analyze your observations:
demand for your attention. a. Would this student be learning more if he were more
2. Unobtrusively observe the student for a sustained period actively engaged?
of time. Better yet, select varied times over the course of b, What forms of active engagement can you use that
several days. might show this student that you are teaching him as
3. Take notes that describe the student’s behavior: well as others?
a. What does this student care about? c. In what ways is this student exceptional?
b. Does this student show discomfort or fear? Of what? d. What could you do to get to know the student better?
 Getting to Know Students and Families 51

Other techniques for gathering information include some of the assessment

strategies
addressed in Chapter 8. Examples include:

* Attitude surveys (“Please rank these class activities in order of your preference.
”’)
* Interviews (“Bring in an object that represents your favorite pastime and be ready
to
tell us about it.’’)
* Journal entries (“What is the best thing that happened in class this week?”’)
* Drawings and diagrams (“Draw a picture of your face as you study biology.”’)

Surveys can be administered on paper, orally, or online. Examples of free online survey
services include surveypirate (surveypirate.com), surveymonkey (surveymonkey.com),
and zoomerang (zoomerang.com). Try your hand at an online survey in Opportunities to
Practice Exercise 3. In summary, students and their families can provide unique information
about students’ strengths, needs, and accomplishments over time, within the classroom, and
beyond.

Learning About Students’ General Progress and Needs You also need to get to
know students academically. You might begin by checking on student records and past
assessments. Look for information on students’ reading levels, English language levels,
and special needs. Who has an Individualized Education Program (IEP)? What special
physical, emotional, social, and cognitive needs are present in your class? Once you dis-
cover your students’ needs, educate yourself. How much do you know, for example, about
childhood diabetes? About specific learning disabilities? Today’s the day to start learning.
The amount of information available regarding students’ progress can be overwhelm-
ing. Many school districts use data management systems. Another way to manage numeric
data so that it is useful in your planning is to create a spreadsheet that lists current assessment
information for each student. The benefit of a spreadsheet is that it can be easily re-sorted so
that you can view students’ scores in a variety of ways. For instance, you might sort by one
variable (such as English language level) to form heterogeneous groups and another variable
(such as reading level) to view the range of students’ achievement. Imagine pasting re-sorted
lists onto a clipboard to help you make student grouping and other planning decisions.

Learning Styles and Preferences Many teachers find gathering information on stu-
dents’ learning styles appealing. A learning style is the combination of factors that together
indicate how a person prefers to perceive information, interact with it, and respond to the
learning environment. A familiar example divides learners’ sensory modalities: visual,
auditory, and kinesthetic. These divisions differentiate among students with preferences
for learning by seeing, by hearing, and by doing.
Assessments of learning styles are usually made in one of two ways: student self-report
or teacher observation. Common self-report measures are questionnaires that give agree/
disagree statements such as, “I like to see models and make things” and “I like helping
other people” (Gregory & Kuzmich, 2004, p. 33). Many free versions are available online,
accessible through the search term “free learning style assessment.” Be cautious in your
selection, however, because most inventories are meant to be informal and have not been
carefully validated.
There is another, more pressing reason to be cautious in assessing and using learning
styles. The notion is that if instruction matches our learning styles, we learn better. However,
research does not clearly support that notion. The link between learning-style-based instruc-
tion and student achievement is tenuous at best (Coffield, Moseley, Hall, & Ecclestone,
2004: Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork, 2008). Some researchers are concerned that
adherence to learning styles can actually perpetuate stereotypes and limited instructional
practices (Scott, 2010). Still, assessing learning styles might spark some interesting conver-
sations. Figure 3.4 suggests some ways to use learning styles thoughtfully in the classroom.
In sum, there are many aspects of students and families that are important for you to learn
information eG M. EL ihlO _iBRA Ry
about, and there are many tools at your disposal to achieve this objective. That
Cincinnati Christian University
can help you work successfully with families.
52 CHAPTER 3

Using learning styles thoughtfully in the classroom.

styles to open discussion about learning

Create a “lexicon of learning” by teaching terms related to learning
(Coffield et al., 2004).
Questions such as “What's
_ Teach students to be aware of their own preferences, strengths, and struggles.
easy for you?” “What's hard?” can help.
assess their goals, motivations,
- Students in control of their learning are powerful learners. Teach students to
teach them to judge the environment
and learning strategies (Harrison, Andrews, & Saklofske, 2003). Also
and the demands of the task at hand.
. Teach students learning strategies.
Flexible learners are powerful learners. Teach flexibility by providing both instructional “matches” sh
but
“mismatches” for students’ learning preferences. Working within one’s style is comfortable and easy,
working in a mismatch encourages stretching and building new life skills.
. Gather ongoing assessment information and adjust instruction to students’ progress. For eight excellent
educators, teaching to learning styles meant teaching with a constant eye toward assessing learners’ Success
in the moment and adjusting instruction based on that success (Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002).
. Use students’ preferences as a starting point to re-envision practice. Studies of students with attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder found a distinct preference for afternoon (rather than morning) learning
(Brand et al., 2002). How might that information affect scheduling decisions?
. Be careful not to make it simple! People are complicated. Rather than using learning styles as one more
way to label students, and thus limit possibilities, use learning styles as another set of variables that add
to human complexity.

ij ~ Working wi
th Families

Strong family-school connections have incredible potential for fueling students’ success.
This section explores the research on family involvement and suggests things you can do
to build bridges with families.

What We Know About Families and Schools

There is overwhelming evidence that family participation has positive effects on a number
of student outcomes (Epstein, 2005; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Jeynes, 2005; Sheldon &
Epstein, 2005). Positive outcomes associated with family involvement include student
attendance, social skills and adaptation to school, enrollment in higher-level curricular
programs, and achievement. Family participation is twice as predictive of student success
as is family socioeconomic status. Also, parental involvement can counteract factors such
as poverty that have a negative effect on students.
However, not all families feel welcomed by schools, and most families want more and
better information from schools (Civic Enterprises, 2008; Epstein, 2008; Quiocho & Daoud,
2006). Some discouraged teachers assume that parents—especially those of certain groups
such as students of color—just do not care about their children’s progress. Don’t fall into that
trap. Research indicates solidly that families in different ethnic groups do care about educa-
tion and their students’ success (e.g., Valencia & Block, 2002). In a recent survey of high
school parents, all ethnic groups valued education, including the importance of college (Civic
Enterprises, 2008). Similarly, in a recent nationwide survey, parents of all ethnic or racial
groups reported participating in general school meetings and parent conferences at the same
levels (National Center for Education Statistics, 2008b). It is essential, then, that schools
and
teachers—that’s you!—take the initiative and reach out to build connections with families.
There are many strong examples of family-school partnerships (e.g., Black, 2010; Henderson,
Mapp, Johnson, & Davies, 2007; Rodriguez-Brown, 2009). Common threads include:
1, Participants need to recognize that each of us is steeped in our own culture and
values and be willing to explore those values and to accept that there are alternative
s to
 Getting to Know Students and Families 53

them. This awareness allows each partner to be vigilant about remaining sensitive to others’
perspectives. The greater the mismatch between a parent’s experience and the culture of
the school, the greater the likelihood that the parent will feel estranged from the schooling
process, and the more trust and support in understanding this new culture the teacher may
need to establish.
2. Partnerships need to be two-way and balanced. Both parties need to be seen as
having valuable knowledge and perspectives. Effective family involvement programs
begin with the assumption that parents are knowledgeable, influential people who have
contributions to make to students and their education. According to Nieto (1996), strong
parent programs hold parent empowerment as a main goal.
3. There is mutual accommodation, in that teachers seek to learn about students’
communities and cultures and about how to communicate effectively with families. Parents
new to the United States or the region may need teachers to serve as ambassadors, explain-
ing aspects of the local education system such as expectations for family involvement
(Rodriguez-Brown, 2009). This is especially important for family members participat-
ing in the IEP process (Sheehey, Ornelles, & Noonan, 2009). Schools that accommodate
families “never say no” (Black, 2010). They partner with community organizations to meet
family needs.
4. There are clear, frequent, and multifaceted attempts to communicate. The communi-
cation needs to be respectful, in the language of the home, and it needs to take many forms
including both written and oral messages. Care must be taken not to offend families with
requests that they may consider inappropriate (Davidman & Davidman, 1997). The 21st
Century Teaching and Learning Tip includes gives Web 2.0 tools that can expand the range
of how students, families, and teachers communicate.
5. Partnerships need to expand traditional options for family involvement. Epstein
(2002, 2008) reminds us to broaden our views of family participation, which can exist
through six kinds of activities:

¢ Parenting e Learning at home

¢ Communicating ¢ Decision making
¢ Volunteering ¢ Collaborating with the community

Examples include literacy programs where parents join school-based writing clubs
and units of study that incorporate the funds of knowledge of the community. Funds of
knowledge are the rich understandings and networks of support that community members
develop and use in daily life. In expanding participation options, special effort must be
given to draw in parents who speak a language other than English and those who are
bicultural (Olivos, 2006). Think, too, about other families who may need special effort
on your part to participate. One group might be families who live in homeless shelters
(MacGillivray, Ardell, & Curwen, 2010). For example, such families may have restrictions
on their time for school involvement and homework completion.

COMMUNICATING THROUGH THE WEB

Try these free Web 2.0 tools to open more doors for communicating with students and families.
post document files,
* Edmodo (edmodo.com): A social networking site for educational purposes. You can post homework,
| .
send messages to individuals and groups, and host discussions.
with file sharing. You and your
* Tokbox (tokbox.com): A free video chat tool that allows up to twenty people to video chat,
one way to introduce yourself to families!
students can record video messages and send them via e-mail. Here’s
and share photos. You,
* Fotobabble (fotobabble.com): A photo-sharing site that allows you to easily upload, voice narrate,
can share personally meaningful images, and you can extend content learning with
your students, and family members
images.
54 CHAPTER 3

provide sug-
6. Partnerships need to grow over time, and as trust builds, teachers can
2001).
sestions for how parents may support their students’ school success (Faltis,
Such
Many successful partnerships now focus sharply on student achievement as well.
efforts might provide opportuni ties for family participat ion in learning at home (as in the
Family Links activity described earlier), might provide family members with informati on
on how to support student achievement at home, or might focus on student-achievement
conversations by studying data in teams at school (Epstein & Salinas, 2004; Henderson,
Mapp, Johnson, & Davies, 2007).

Start Now to Involve Families

From the start, you can work toward effective family participation by encouraging family
members to play an active role on the education team. Let parents know that you value
their expertise about their children and that you can teach the student together much better
than you could alone.
Act on your conviction that the world looks different from their perspective, and that
you can benefit by learning about those perspectives. Here’s an example. As a new and
childless middle school teacher, I had little understanding of the stresses that my monthly
book reports and 30-minute nightly homework assignments added to families, especially
when compounded with students’ assignments from other classes and the three or four
weekly quizzes students took each Friday. The world looked very different later from my
perspective as a parent of two teenagers. Research documents the stress that homework can
bring to families (e.g., Solomon, Warrin, & Lewis, 2002). Further, it has questionable con-
tributions to academic and nonacademic outcomes, particularly for students younger than
high school age (Kohn, 2006). As a teacher, I wish I had challenged my own assumption
that the homework I assigned unquestionably supported our learning goals. I wish I had
invited families to sit and talk with their students about the content rather than assigning
another page from the text. I wish I had asked a few more questions.
Use concrete strategies to welcome family input and to communicate openly. Capitalize
on the power that “back-to-school night” and other formal meetings have to establish
partnerships, especially since formal meetings are one of the most common avenues for
family participation. The Teaching Tip gives a to-do list for back-to-school night; items on
the list are meant to help you build bridges with families from the start (Guillaume, Yopp, &
Twardos, 2006).
Use a variety of forms of communication as well. For instance, if appropriate,
send a letter home during the first week of school asking families about students’
experiences and families’ hopes and wishes for their children’s education. Call or
send home a note, written in the home language, during the first month of school
to share each student’s success. Use a newsletter or Web site (see the 21st Century

hing Tir
BACK-TO-SCHOOL NIGHT To-Do LIsT

Dress to convey respect.

Use nonverbal communication that is welcoming and conveys your competenc
e. Smile.
Stand up. Don’t put physical barriers between you and families.
Tell why you are a teacher. Make sure your reasons include students.
Explain the important things students will learn and be able to do as a
result
of this year.
Show your passion for the subject matter.
Show why your classroom is a good place to be.
Build the family—school team.
Address agenda topics required by your school.
 Getting to Know Students and Families 55

Teaching and Learning tip) to keep families abreast of classroom events. Try e-mail if
that is appropriate, or establish telephone trees to spread information to each family.
Sometimes standing in front of the school after dismissal allows teachers to talk with
parents or other caregivers.
It is essential that you find different ways for families to be involved in education.
For those who can volunteer in your classroom, arrange for activities such as small-group
tutoring and materials preparation. Send projects home for parents to complete with their
students. Try sending home literacy backpacks for younger students (Bright, 2006) or
other projects that engage families. Include a range of involvement opportunities so that
all families can experience success with their students. For example, parents may have the
option of (a) listening to their student recount an event from the day or (b) participating in
an interview about family experiences related to the day’s story.
Additionally, Jeynes (2010) reminds us to expand our view of “family participation.”
Some of the more subtle aspects of parental involvement may be among the most effective
in supporting student achievement. He recommends that we educate parents that their high
expectations and clear communication without a doubt affect student achievement. Next we
should help parents to act on those subtle aspects of parental involvement.
Establishing effective partnerships is long, hard work. Despite your best efforts,
you may occasionally grumble about an obstinate parent. Sometimes the job may feel
more difficult because of actively engaged parents. If you find yourself in this situ-
ation, it may help to remember that parents are experts on their students. Most have

USING THE WEB TO STAY IN TOUCH

The Web is nearly ubiquitous. Use it to stay in contact with your families.

¢ If your district or school uses online systems to maintain and share grades with families, keep your information up to date.
Include homework information and individual comments on student progress.
* Determine whether your district houses faculty Web pages. If so, create one and keep it current.
* Use a free Web page tool to create your page. Examples are wix (wix.com) and google sites.
* If your school or district doesn’t host an e-mail system, try www.gaggle.net for safe e-mail for students and their parents.

See a sample teacher blog entry, Maestra Manifesto, at the chapter’s close. It is composed by sixth-grade teacher
Dionne Sincire.
56 CHAPTER 3

>
(eee TEACHER BLOG: MAESTRA MANIFESTO (FROM P. 55)
ty pee aton ie
Sixth-grade teacher Dionne Sincire keeps families and the communi
Mani esto. a
impressive accomplishments in her district-sponsored blog, Maestra
creativit y and innovali on, whic invo Mee
committed to 21st-century learning skills including
y with others, and impleme nting innovati ons es p
thinking creatively, working creativel
2009), as shown in a recent blog entry. For example, (https: cal2.fs ;
for 21st Century Skills,
Center.html). Dionne an
k12.ca.us/users/dionne_sincire/weblog/cfdef/Creativity_and_Arts_
cultural icon,
her students share a group grid drawing they did of their choice of the decade’s
art show at which the work was displaye d, links
Michael Jackson. The entry shares links to the
student writing that captures what students learned through
to local press coverage, and
the project, which took them across the curriculum in meaningful ways.

=snes po
Negi serine
eit
gece RATT, Tie

seas

Creativity and Arts Center

4
spent years tending these young lives. They know some things about their students that
teachers may never understand. They also have a right to make some choices about
what they perceive as best for their students. Work to separate your own feelings from
a parent’s emotional demands. Whether or not you agree with the course of action
suggested by the parent, consider the possibility that the parent is motivated by his or
her ideas of what is best for the student. Welcome input and retain your stance as an
instructional leader. Figure 3.5 shares some strategies for communicating effectively
with family members.
Another motivation to consider is that parents’ egos and protection defenses can be
deeply involved. For many parents, nurturing a child is an act without comparison. Many
of us discover the depths of love when we become parents. That deep love—and some
ego—can color the way parents interact with teachers and other professionals. Please be
gentle with parents who defend their children in the face of a perceived threat or criticism
or who live through the accomplishments of their children.
Parenting can be stressful, and some students are more difficult to parent than others
(Dyson, 2010). If you feel frustrated when it appears that parents are falling short of your
expectations, it can be helpful to make the polite assumption. Instead of assuming that
family members do not care about their child or they would ensure that daily homework is
completed, think about what other things might account for the fact that homework is not
getting finished: Does the parent perceive that the student needs to take sole responsibility?
 Getting to Know Students and Families 57

Does he view it as outside the scope of his authority so that it would be an affront to
your
professionalism if he were to step in? Is there a tough softball schedule? Is the student
car-
ing for younger siblings? When you assume that families do not care, you close the door
on
your chances of working with them on behalf of the student. Assume the best.

Suggestions for communicating the family members.

7
L1. Set a warm and supportive tone for your conversation.
eae 4
Establish yourself as Use genuine concern for students and your expert knowledge base to build trust with
an authority figure. families. You may be new, but you are a professional.
Be certain that the care you feel for each of your students is reflected in your words
and actions.
Use nonverbal Communicate your concern for students by choosing a collegial location for
communication. conferences (not, for instance, you behind an imposing desk). Share your care and
enthusiasm in your handshake, your posture, and your facial expression.
Celebrate and suffer. Appreciate—don’t evaluate—families’ successes and struggles with their children. It’s
hard work to be a parent. Remember, your work with the students stops every day.
Families are in for the long haul.
Actively listen. Use body language to indicate that you are fully attentive.
Paraphrase your understanding of what parents say. Show that you understand the
parents’ concerns.
Keep things positive. Keep the tone of your conference hopeful and assertive: This is an effective team!
Use laughter. Express shared commitment and communicate your sense of certainty that together
you and the family can help the student. Use humor appropriately to keep a sense of
perspective.

2. State your concerns fairly and without evoking defensiveness.

Use a strength Begin with a statement of the student’s tremendous strengths. Use that as a context
refresher. for what you can work on next. We can all improve.
Use /-messages to You can lessen parents’ defensiveness by not placing blame. Not: “You aren’t
communicate your checking that homework is done” but “When Joey does not complete homework,
concerns. / worry that he won’t master these fundamental concepts”
Address the behavior, Talk in specific terms about what you see the student doing and saying. Then talk about
not the person. the consequences. Steer clear of phrases that label. Provide specific evidence, including
work samples and grade-book marks, to illustrate the student’s strengths and struggles.

3. Work on addressing issues as a team.

Ask for family insights. Draw on families’ considerable years of experience: “What has been effective in the
past?” Talk frankly about what seems effective and ineffective in your own efforts.
Establish clear Give parents clear guidelines of things they can do to help. Share professional
expectations. literature. Give lists of suggestions. Especially if parents are feeling ineffective, you'll
need to give concrete suggestions for things to try Remember, you need a license to
be a teacher, but parents typically have no training for their role. We all can use some
friendly suggestions, especially when shared by someone we trust and respect.
Offer choices and Suggest for parents some specific options for strategies to help their students. When
respect decisions. parents make a choice, respect it instead of suggesting others.

Follow through. Do what you say you'll do. Check to see that the parents do the same. If they don't,
talk about changing the system to make it more manageable for them.
Talk about addressing Discuss possible motivations for misbehavior. For example, are things going well for the
issues in many ways student at home? In Scouts? In day care? Make a plan to address issues in the short
and on different levels. run and in the longer range. Be certain the plan includes both home and school aspects.

(Continued)
 58 CHAPTER 3

Suggestions for communicating the family members. (Continued)

4. Avoid ugliness.

Model emotional control. Even if parents express emotions inappropriately, you need to remain calm and
professional.
lf parents have difficulty collecting themselves, use a supportive statement that
recognizes their right to feel strongly.
You may want to suggest that you talk another time.
Do the same if you are no longer in control:“l care so much about this issue that I’m
having trouble remaining calm.I’d like to excuse myself. We can talk again tomorrow
evening.”
Use anger shields. Occasionally parents become so emotional that they can no longer behave with the
best interests of their children in mind.
Don’t talk to a parent who angrily interrupts your instruction.Instead suggest that the
parent stop by the office and make an appointment to see you after school or during
your conference period.
lf a conference takes a hostile turn, stand up and excuse yourself:“Isee you care
deeply about your student. However, this conversation is no longer professional.I'll be
glad to talk to you at another time when the principal is able to join us.’

Parting Words
If we are to teach students well, we must make genuine ef- 3. Make the most helpful assumptions possible.
forts to understand their strengths, needs, perspectives, and 4. Include families as essential team members. Use
experiences. We must also establish effective partnerships inclusive language and plan for solutions together.
with their families. Some core suggestions for working 5. Provide different ways for families to be involved.
ith families include:
babes | stata Remember the powerful role you play in forming effec-
1. Draw on their broad and long history with their tive home-school teams and in leading learning. Teachers
children. who think that they can make a difference do.
2. Remember that parental ego and protection defenses
can be deeply involved in parenthood.

‘4% Opportunities to Practice

. io 1. Home visits are a powerful way to build bridges. Try just learning about family strengths, and learning about
one visit to get started. Here’s a checklist. student interests and concerns.
VY Clear the visit with your administration or university. VY Schedule the visit. Use the phone, e-mail, or a note
V Research at least one website on home visits (try depending on family preferences.
“teacher home visits” as your search term). Or, read V Arrange for a translator if necessary.
at least one article on home visits (Baeder, 2010,
V Limit your visit to 30 minutes. Consider bringing
and Ginsberg, 2007, are excellent).
something to share with the family, but let them lead the
V Establish a purpose for the visit. Common purposes visit. Take notes of their concerns and desires.
include: establishing rapport and communication,
 Getting to Know Students and Families 59

2. Create, administer, and analyze a family survey regarding 5. Remember that most students with identified special needs
an upcoming unit. Then build a Family Links choice sheet spend at least half their day in the general education classroom.
based on your results. Spend some time learning about the IEP process and special
Sample Survey Questions education services by trying one or more of these ideas:
a. We would enjoy having our student bring home science a. Find the IEP form your district uses and ask to see a
activities to share with us. St
b. We would enjoy receiving information about b. Htthis is not Pee. go online and use the search term
incorporating science activities into our family life els arcu) orale the search Dyrghe agding
(i.e., places to visit, projects, online activities). eae Oe ae alee Ce ae a
that the IEP components are very similar, despite some
c. We have frequent access to the Internet. local differences.

Sample Elementary Family Link Activities for a Unit on c. Shadow a special education specialist for a day.
Weather (Families chose 3 items from a longer list) d. Ask if you can attend an IEP, 504, or BIPS meeting.
a. Look online and record the weather conditions of two If you are a student teacher, you are often considered
different locations for one day. Practice math skills and part of the professional team for whom meeting
have your student find the difference between the two attendance is appropriate, but family (and staff)
temperatures and analyze the results. permission is important.
b. Writing Together: Reminisce with your student about a Collect materials such as agendas and samples and take
time the weather played a role in a family experience or careful notes to document your discoveries. Compare your
vacation. Write a story and draw a picture to recapture findings with those of a peer who might be working in
this memory. a different setting.
c. Take Home Bag: Use the thermometer and cup in this 6. Delpit (1995) finds that schools may Gey aLue students’
bag. Take the temperature of a glass of water at room home language and thus decrease students commitment
temperature. Then put it in the sun or under a lamp. Let to school. If your home language was not English and
it sit for a while and then take the temperature again. you attended an English-speaking school, compare your
The sun warming the oceans makes a big difference experiences to Delpit’s finding. Otherwise, interview a
a rournrestien! person who spoke a language in addition to English as a
: RES young student. Analyze your school’s culture in terms of
3. Use one of the tools, tips, or activities in the chapter and the acceptance of languages other than English.
share your results with a peer.
4. Create a free survey and try it with friends or students.
Figure 3.6 is a sample created using Doodle. (www.doodle.com)

Sample student survey (created at www.doodle.com).

Summary: 3 participants, 0 comments, 0 files more ...

Andrea Guillaume has created this poll

"Give your opinion. Mark each statement you agree with. Add a comment if you like.”

Yourname
 CHAPTER 3

“| Am From”
(excerpts of poems by prospective teachers)

| am from New Jersey, Florida, Germany, and Samoa. | am from a salvaged home where all is bright on the
| am from California, China, Singapore, Thailand, and outside and has been saved on the inside.
Australia. | am from a land where no word can speak without a
| am from divorces, an immigrant, and a soldier. beckon, and where no answer can but agree.
| am from opposing forces, wild horses, and fires that | am from a rejection of the self to acceptance of the
continue to smolder. reflection in the mirror.
| am from two brutal brothers who helped me to grow. | am from many places, but headed for only one place.
| am from a single mother, always off to work she’d go. —Janny Kim
| am from both good and bad, a fair mix of the two.
lam from ...hmm I'll need to think more before I’m | am from my faith that guides me.
truly through. | am from the mother inside me.
| am from the land of the Hispanic.
—Joseph DeLuca
| am from a coast of diversity.
| am from life’s experiences of laughter, pain, and joy. | am from the love that changed me.
| am from an Italian, Japanese, German, and | am from the education that fills me.
Czechoslovakian heritage. | am from the family who cares for me.
| am from the era of the bubble gum, punk, pop music, | am from the God who made me.
and fluorescent colors. —Trista Matthews
| am from a mind that yearns and seeks for knowledge.
| am from a universe where mere existence intrigues
my soul to treasure every breath | take.
—Jennifer Junio

| am from a family that prepares meals from recipes

brought to America in steamer trunks.
| am from a dysfunctional family that keeps the dark
issues private.
| am from this same family; we cling to our strengths
and display them proudly.
| am from this family. It is mine.
—Julie Clark

All excerpts used with permission.

ee

>) Web sites

http://www.csos.jhu.edu/p2000/center.htm http://www.census.gov/
Center on School, Family, and Community Partnership. U.S. Census Bureau. An incredible wealth of demographic
The Center encourages schools and communities to work information about the United States and its people. A quick
to together organize and sustain programs for family and start: In the site’s search line (or in Quick Facts), type
community involvement. Check the Success Stories for your city or county. You'll get quick facts about people,
inspiration for local action, and see Teachers Involving businesses, and geography, and you can compare your
Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) for interactive homework. locale to the nation’s statistics.
http:// www.hfrp.org/family-involvement/projects http://www.chadd.org
Family-Schools Partnership Project at Harvard University. Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity
This site includes research and resources such as teaching Disorder. This organization provides information and assistance
cases to help families and schools work together. related to ADHD. Especially useful is the link to its National
http://www.teachervision.fen.com/education-and-parents/ Resource Center on ADHD, which includes information for
resource/3730.html families and teachers to help children with ADHD.
The Teacher Parent Collaboration section of Teacher http://www.cec.sped.org
Vision Web site offers practical suggestions for working Council for Exceptional Children. Try the “Teaching &
with parents, including questionnaires and handouts that Learning Center” in this international professional
can be used for parent education. organization's site. Some resources are restricted for
members only.
 Getting to Know Students and Families 61

http://www.|donline.org concerning learning disabilities. There are early childhood,

LDOnline is an educational program service of public K-&, and high school sections that provide helpful
television station WETA in Washington, D.C. This site information for people with learning disabilities and their
touts itselfas the world’s leading Web site on learning teachers. For example, teens can learn tips for getting
disabilities. It includes numerous helpful and easy-to-find organized and building social skills.
resources for teachers and parents relating to learning
http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/
disabilities and ADHD. National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition &
http://www.nabe.org Language Instructional Education Programs. This site
National Association for Bilingual Education. This shares information about language instruction educational
organization is one of a kind at the national level. It programs for English learners. You can ask an expert your
includes links to its state affiliates and research and other questions and visit links that will be of interest to you and
resources related to bilingual education. your students. Start with the tabs for “resources about”
http://www.nagc.org/ and “practice.”
National Associate for Gifted Children. Check contacts for http://www 2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela/index.html
gifted education in your state at “Gifted by State,” and view Office of English Language Acquisition, Language
the many informative resources at the “educators” tab. Enhancement, and Academic Achievement for Limited
http://www.nameorg.org English Proficient Students (OELA). This site contains
National Association for Multicultural Education. Join information on federal and state initiatives for English
the listserv or check out the Resource Center. learners. It has helpful resources and links for parents
and teachers.
http://www.ld.org
National Center for Learning Disabilities. This site gives
factual information and policy and advocacy information
Providing Inclusive
and Responsive
Instruction
iS

Before You Begin

Congratulations! You got the job! A photo of your classroom is below. Study the photo as you think about the
range of needs and interests your students are likely to present. Quick! What are the five most important things
you need to check or do right now to ensure that your room is accessible and inclusive of each of your students?

PhotosToGo

The Top Five Things | Need to Check or Do to Make My Room Accessible and Inclusive
ie

Hints: Think about factors like students’ physical abilities, . culture Ss (home and pop), interests,
i ac i
language levels, and about your technology priorities. Ce eG pe ce
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 63

“D emocracy is a small hard core of common agreement, surrounded by a rich

variety of individual differences.”

—James B. Conant

The rich variety of individual differences that are central to who we are as a people are alive
in our classrooms, and our responsibility as educators is to embrace our students and their
differences while we encourage each to flourish in a strong community. Thus, responsive
instruction involves mutual accommodation (Nieto, 1996). Students must meet exacting
standards, adjust to the culture of schooling, and become participating members of our
democracy (Goodlad, 1997). However, teachers and schools must also adjust; we must
accommodate students’ perspectives, cultures, and needs to help them succeed. We must
continually ask ourselves, “What can I do better to help this student learn?” and “How can
I learn more to foster success?”
Chapter 3 addressed the importance of and strategies for getting to know your indi-
vidual students and their families and for beginning to build relationships and a classroom
community. This chapter introduces you to a variety of student needs and characteristics and
gives nine general approaches for meeting the diverse needs of students in our classrooms.
Although presented individually, the approaches are often used in concert (e.g., Walker-
Dalhouse et al., 2009). The approaches are:

1. Treat students as individuals

2. Plan for all students with universal design
3. Differentiate instruction
4. Use varied student groupings
5. Address students’ special educational needs
¢« Accommodate and modify
¢ Use response to intervention
6. Shelter English instruction for English language learners
7. Challenge advanced and gifted learners
8. Foster gender equity
9. Create safe spaces

Treat Students as Individuals

The foundation for providing responsive instruction lies in treating students as individuals.
Though this may seem obvious, some teachers proudly proclaim that their goal is to treat
everyone the same. Such a desire is found in the color-blind perspective (Schofield, 2005),
whereby educators aim to treat students as if their group affiliations (such as race) and prior
experiences have no instructional implication. One danger in treating the students the same,
according to Grant (1995), lies in the fact that it does not enhance students’ learning about
themselves as members of many groups. Grant (p. 10) urges: “The individual diversity and
humanness that each and every student brings to school must be accepted and affirmed.
Those who tend to see (or want to see) every group, and every member of that group, as the
same, miss or deny the beauty of human diversity and variety.” .
Although all students deserve high expectations and deserve to be treated fairly and
with respect, different students need different things. Treating each student the same can
be inherently unfair. Nonetheless, teachers’ emphasis on sameness often translates to their
classroom practice. In many general education classrooms, students are indeed treated the
same. According to Cole (1995, p. 12), “Instead of being presented in a variety of modes,
instruction in U.S. schools tends to be abstract, barren of application, overly sequential,
and redundant.” Fortunately, schools are beginning to combat overstandardization with
attempts to personalize education. For instance, in New Jersey, middle and high schools
students develop individual learning plans based on ongoing assessments of their strengths,
needs, and preferences (Hu, 2010).
64 CHAPTER 4

m. You can
There are many ways you can treat students as individuals in your classroo
in your lessons. You can use
see students for their strengths and incorporate their interests
onal strategies , an enriched Ghee
democratic classroom management, a variety of instructi
nts of each student S
ing environment, and student choice, all based on ongoing assessme
progress. To meet the needs of your students, you must accompli sh both big things that
take much time (for instance, developing a range of assignments and activities for a single
outcome, learning new instructional strategies, setting long-range goals, or changing your
interactional style for particular students) and smaller things that can be implemented
quickly (for instance, shortening homework assignments for those who take more time or
moving a student toward a helpful peer). Universal Design is one approach that can help
you provide instruction that is responsive to your students as individuals.

Plan for All Students with Universal Design

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) seeks to provide instruction that is built from the
start—rather than modified later—to address varying needs, interests, and preferences. It
arose from an interest in accessibility in architecture (see Pisha & Coyne, 2001). Rather than
designing a house that must later be modified to meet the needs of occupants (perhaps by
cutting curbs, widening doorways, adding grab bars, or adjusting counter heights), Universal
Design suggests that the house be designed from the ground up to address the needs of a
variety of people who might live there. Ramps, for instance, would not only help people using
wheelchairs, but would also help those pushing strollers, using walkers, or carrying heavy or
bulky items. So it is with Universal Design for learning: Instruction should be planned from
the ground up to meet a variety of learning needs such as English acquisition, giftedness,
emotional or behavioral difficulties, differences in motivation, and learning or physical dis-
abilities. New technologies often play a central role in Universal Design. As you plan your
units and lessons, Universal Design (Center for Applied Special Technology [CAST], 2010)
recommends that you accomplish three tasks by providing multiple means of . . .

° Representation—To help students transform information into usable knowledge, we

must provide options for how ideas are represented. We must include information
in a variety of formats so that it is perceptible to all students (for example, we might
need to provide printed text, digital text, and audio recordings of a work). We must
provide information in a variety of forms (such as vocabulary terms, graphs, im-
ages), and we must ensure the clarity of that information. Finally, we need to provide
options to ensure comprehension.
* Action and Expression—To allow students to demonstrate what they know, we need
to provide options regarding physical movement and expression and for students’ use
of executive functions such as goal setting and progress monitoring.
* Engagement—We need to use a variety of options in how we build student interest,
Support students’ ongoing effort and persistence, and for regulating their own learning.

Teaching Every Student on CAST’s Web site (http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/)

provides UDL resources and model lessons that use the principles of Universal Design. The
principles of Universal Design provide an important criterion by which you judge the quality of
your instruction: How well do your lessons provide information in accessible ways that foster
comprehension, encourage each of your students to engage in instruction, acquire information,
and express what they know? A related approach is differentiated instruction.

Differentiate Instruction

Differentiated instruction helps you address your students’ different levels

of readiness,
interests, and learning profiles. Key elements of differentiated instruction
are a sharp focus
on essential learning, student choice, flexibility, and ongoing assessmen
t. Research on
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 65

the effectiveness of differentiated instruction is in its early stages, but available

evidence
Suggests that differentiated instruction can be effective for encouraging success across
the
student spectra (Huebner, 2010).
Differentiation begins when teachers gather information about their students’ readi-
ness (current progress), interests, and learning profiles. Next, according to Tomlinson
(2001), teachers use that information to differentiate their plans in response to information
about students in three ways:
* Content—what students learn or how we give them access to it
* Process—the activities students pursue to make sense of, or process, the content
* Product—the longer-term endeavors students create to display their learning

Here are some recent examples of how teachers have differentiated instruction for these
three categories.

Content
* Spread (Rock, Gregg, Ellis, & Gable, 2008): To determine the extent to which they
need to differentiate learning goals, teachers examine the spread of student achieve-
ment on a given assessment: How far is it between the top and bottom scores? How
does the rest of the distribution fall out?
* Reading Choices (Knowles, 2009): Students have plentiful opportunities to read
widely from good literature of their choice and document their reading on a log.
¢ Levels of Support (Kelley & Clausen-Grace, 2009): Teachers observe students to
determine what level and kind of support they will need. For independent reading,
for example, teachers observe students to place them on the independent reading
continuum (from fake readers to book worms) and provide differential support to
stretch all readers. Fake readers, for instance, need close monitoring and special
assistance in selecting interesting books.
¢ Running Assignments (Nunley, 2006): Students pursue ongoing assignments of their
choice during independent work times throughout the semester. An example is an
inquiry into a topic of the student’s choosing.

Process
¢ Input Choices: Students explore information using varied sources such as different
kinds of text, expert interviews (face-to-face or through tools such as chat, e-mail, or
discussion boards), audio recordings, and multimedia recordings.
¢ Blogs (Colombo & Colombo, 2007): To expand learning time outside of the class-
room, teachers create content-based blogs that contain rich resources like video and
audio files and strategy instruction. Students with different needs focus on the parts
of the blogs that meet their immediate needs. For example, a reader who struggles
might listen to an audio file of the teacher describing strategies for reading the text-
book. There are plenty of free audiobooks online; Story Nory (http://storynory.com/)
has examples for younger students, and Open Culture (http://www.openculture.com/
freeaudiobooks) has many works of classic literature.
© Choice Boards (Anderson, 2007): Students receive individual listings of learning options
and select from among them. Only the teacher knows that options vary by students based
on readiness.

Product
¢ Product Option Contracts (Anderson, 2007): Students select from a list of options or
suggest their own product, give their choice of individual or group work, and state
their timeline on a contract submitted for teacher approval.
* Varied Technologies (Painter, 2009): Students select the tools by which they will
create their products. Examples include multimedia programs, publishing software,
66 CHAPTER 4

Sample questions to guide planning for differentiated instruction.

Readiness Profile Interest

ice Together or alone? e How can choice be

Content alee Same or different
learning objectives? e Which intelligences? built into the
Primary language learning goals?
or English? What student
choices in materials?

Process | * Which instructional ¢ Auditory or visual? ¢ How to build new

strategies? ¢ More structured or skills based on
(Read Chapter 7). more open? students’ favored
¢ Which small-group ¢ Togetheror alone? skills? ;
activities? Individual ¢ What choices in
|__assignments? activities?
Product ¢ How to apply or ¢ Variety of formats? ¢ What choices in
extend basic e Which skills to products?
ideas? teach to support ¢ What real-world
e Same criteria or product development? interests can provide
different? a context for
How to support product development?
strugglers and
push advanced
learners?

paint/draw programs, cartoon programs (e.g., Go Animate and ToonDo), and word
processing programs.
¢ Culturally Sensitive Assessments (Thousand, Villa, & Nevin, 2007): Students can show
what they know in a style that is comfortable for them. Examples include translated
tests, instructional conversations, and other alternatives to paper/pencil assessments.

Figure 4.1 draws from Tomlinson’s ideas to provide a grid with questions that can guide
your planning as you think about differentiating instruction.
There is no single approach to differentiated instruction, but a general procedure might
include steps such as these:

1. Assess students’ interests and current understandings of upcoming content.

2. Select learning outcomes based on assessment data. Remember that students
study the same curriculum; to the extent possible, the content standards provide a
minimum—not maximum—expectation.
3. Plan learning activities that address the outcomes and provide student choice based
on interest. Students pursue activities only for content they have not yet mastered.
4. Use flexible groupings such as partners and small groups based on a variety of
criteria as appropriate for student interest and content outcomes.

Teaching Ti
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION QUICK START
Ready to jump into differentiated instruction? An easy way to begin is to provide a couple
options for students’ independent work after a lesson (Nunley, 2006). Example: “Your choice:
(a) Complete the worksheet, (b) Use a class computer to create a graphic organizer using
Cacoo (cacoo.com/) and upload it to our website, or (c) Write 10 questions and answers
about
the content. We’ll use these for review.”
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 67

5. Use formative assessment frequently to gather information on student

success and
adjust activities and outcomes. Analyze summative (final) assessment results
in
light of essential understandings.
Differentiated instruction utilizes a variety of grouping structures, an important
aspect of
responsive instruction.

Nes

Use Varied Student Groupings

You have a number of choices to make as you decide how to group your students for
instruction. Some common student groupings include:
* Whole class: All students receive the same lesson from the teacher, at the same time.
During work time, all students work on the same task.
* Small group: Students work with a few other students, often in groups with three to
five members. All groups may have the same task, or each group may receive differ-
ent instruction or tasks. Groups can be homogeneous (that is, similar to each other
based on a selected variable such as interest or achievement level) or heterogeneous
(that is, composed of members who are different from each other on the selected vari-
able). Groups can also be randomly formed and can be teacher or student selected.
* Partners: Students work in groups of two. Just like small groups, partners can be
formed heterogeneously, homogeneously, or randomly. Partners can also be selected
by the teacher or by students. Tutoring (the same or across grades) is a special version
of partner work.
* Individuals: Students receive one-on-one instruction from the teacher or work on
tasks that are different from those of their neighbors.

Grouping Decisions
Grouping decisions are not simple. Answers to the question, “Who should learn what
with whom?” are hotly debated. For example, it took federal legislation to ensure that
students with special needs are educated with their typically developing peers. Oakes
(2005) documents impoverished expectations and opportunities for high school students
placed in lower academic tracks. In fact, many schools are now “‘detracking” in an effort to
promote equity and close the achievement gap (e.g., Burris, 2010). According to Fordham
Institute (2008), the scores of high-achieving students stagnated after NCLB as teachers
focus on bringing lower-achieving students up to par. Do gifted students, then, have a right
to be placed in homogeneous classes to receive more instructional attention, an advanced
curriculum, and a quicker pace?
Which grouping patterns should you employ? Your stance regarding the good society
and the purpose of education clearly will provide some guidance. So can research. Small-
group instruction tends to be effective for many students (Lou et al., 1996), but static ability-
based groups, such as primary-grade reading groups, tend to provide poorer opportunities
for students in lower groups (e.g., Chorzempa & Graham, 2006). If you do use ability
grouping, to maximize effectiveness, be sure that your groups:

¢ Are based on assessment of specific performance related to the content to be mastered

rather than on a single static measure of perceived student ability.
¢ Are flexible rather than long-standing. That is, groups should be dissolved and
re-formed as needs change.
¢ Address a narrow range of student need (e.g., a specific skill, procedure, or interest)
rather than a general perceived level.
¢ Provide opportunities to work with a variety of peers over time (Caldwell & Ford, 2002).
In general, the research suggests that grouping alone does not cause positive effects:
Instruction does. Positive effects of grouping on achievement are strongest when teachers
are trained in using small-group instruction and when they vary their content and instruction
68 CHAPTER 4

a SMe:
based on their groups. Thus, a variety of strategies can be effective, and
whole-group and small-group configura tions supports student learning. Figure 4.2 provides
some factors for you to consider as you plan to group students.

Mixing It Up with Student Groups

Gregory and Kuzmich (2004) provide a helpful suggestion regarding student groups:
TAPS. During each unit, give students opportunities to work in the total group, alone, in
partners, and in small groups. In the total group, you may present information or model a
procedure. Alone, students may complete journal entries or self-assess. In pairs, students

Things to think about as you make grouping decisions.

aoe Possible Benefits Possible Drawbacks Use It When...

Whole class Can build a store of Can be difficult to meet e Students all have necessary
shared experience full range of student and equivalent background
Can make manage- needs knowledge
Examples: ment easier Can decrease student The objective is appropriate for
Can allow teacher to interaction all students
e Introducing a
focus preparation time Can decrease opportu- All students can understand and
new concept
on one lesson instead nities for student choice benefit from the same
e Read-aloud
of several instruction
e Whole-class
Can maximize teacher-
discussion
directed instructional
time

Small groups Can free up time for Can require preparation You want students to interact
teacher to work with of several lessons, sets Your goals include social ones
struggling students of material, or activities Students can enhance each
Examples Can provide flexibility Can complicate other's learning
for the teacher in management There is a range of needs or
¢ Cooperative learning
modifying objectives, Can decrease student interest related to the
activities (see
pace, and activities accountability objective
Chapter 7)
based on student Students need to be
e Literature circles
needs taught to work together
¢ Group projects
Can enhance
opportunities for
student interaction
Partners Can maximize student Can decrease student You want students to talk
interaction accountability Your goals include social ones
Examples: Can enhance Can decrease time Students can further each
motivation on task other’s learning
¢ Partner reading
e Peer tutoring Students need to be
taught to work together
Individuals Can pinpoint instruction |. Can decrease overall * Students have highly specific
for highly specific instructional time with needs
needs the teacher
Examples: Can provide valid and Can decrease
specific assessement accountability for others
e Reteaching a
information
missed concept
¢ Targeting a skill
important for one

_
student
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 69

might conduct Internet research or peer edit. In small groups, students might brainstorm
or
solve a problem.
So, as you plan your groups, think about what students like, what they know—based
on assessment data of a variety of types—and what they need related both to your goals and
specific content objectives. Set the groups in a variety of ways, including student selection,
random grouping, and teacher selection. Ensuring that students have opportunities to work
regularly with different peers provides them with opportunities to gain social skills and can
equalize inevitable differences in power and status. Guillaume, Yopp, and Yopp (2007)
suggest a variety of random grouping strategies, including:

s7Numbernne ort Cl, 273, 1.2.3.7 =)

* Having students find a partner with the same number of siblings (or birth month, etc.)
* Distributing picture postcards, cut in half, one half per student, and then having students
find the other half of theirs
* Distributing playing cards and then having students meet with peers who have the
same number and color (for partners), or same number (for groups of four), or same
suit (for larger groups)
* Having students sign up for partners and then meeting with those partners during
different times of the lesson

Grouping students effectively means matching your students with your goals through a
variety of structures.

Address Students’ Special Educational Needs

Varied student groupings and approaches such as Universal Design and differentiated
instruction will help you meet student needs across the whole spectrum. Some of your
students will, additionally, have needs that are addressed by more formalized guidelines,
those related to special education services. Let’s examine some student statistics and laws
before approaching two major approaches for addressing special needs.

Some Statistics and Laws Related to Students

with Identified Needs
In 2008, approximately 6.6 million students in U.S. schools received special education services
(13% of all students; National Center for Education Statistics, 2010c). “Students with disabili-
ties” are one of the student subgroups that must make adequate yearly progress under NCLB.
State data, such as those for California in Figure 4.3, reveal that we have considerable work
to do to ameliorate the achievement gap between students with disabilities and those without.
IDEA specifies thirteen categories of special education services; the two most prevalent
categories account for the majority of students receiving services. Most students receiving
special education services (39%) have specific learning disabilities. Students with specific
learning disabilities have adequate cognitive functioning, learn some skills well, and struggle
in one or more others. The majority of students with learning disabilities face severe literacy
problems. “Speech and language impairments” is the second most prevalent category, com-
prised of 22 percent of those students with special needs. Other categories (such as health
impairments and autism) constitute 10 percent or fewer of students receiving special services.
A number of federal laws govern the services students with disabilities receive. The
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) is perhaps the most
important. Established in 1975 as Public Law 94-142, this legislation sought to ensure that
all children receive appropriate educational services—regardless of their disabilities. Read
the law and see related resources at http://idea.ed.gov/.
Under IDEA, students with identified special needs have the right to a free appro-
priate public education in the least restrictive environment. As a result, students with
disabilities have the right to an education that is tailored to their specific needs, and these
students are to be educated, to the maximum extent possible, with their peers without
70 CHAPTER 4

j
ichieve ment based on students’ disability; status.
s’ disa
j language arts student achieve
orniia English
Achievement gap for Californ

70% 74

60% :

50% —

40%

Disablilit
30% 7 J
™® No Disablitity

20%

English/language
arts
in
proficient
10%

advanced
who
students
of
Percentage
or
score
0%

Grade

source: 2009 California Standards Test Scores. Scores given at http://star.cde.ca.gov/star2009/

disabilities. Indeed, in 2007, almost all (96%) of students with disabilities were served in
typical schools, and of those, most (78%) spent at least 40 percent of their day in a general
education setting (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009b). Only when the gen-
eral education classroom does not provide an appropriate setting are other more restrictive
settings, such as a special day class or special school, considered.
Today we emphasize inclusion, or the education of students with disabilities in the
general education classroom. Our commitment to inclusiveness should be reflected in the
language we use to refer to our students. The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip gives
advice for putting the person first.
IDEA also mandates the development and implementation of Individualized
Education Programs (IEPs) for all students with special needs. IEPs are plans. These
plans must specify annual goals, and staff and family members must meet regularly to
discuss the student’s progress. In addition to IDEA, two other federal laws notably address
the education of students with disabilities:

* Section 504 of the Veterans’ Rehabilitation Act of 1973: This law prohibits exclusion
(based solely on handicaps) of people with disabilities from participating in federally
funded programs and activities. Section 504 covers any condition that interferes with
learning. Conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, asthma, depres-
sion, or diabetes might generate 504 plans, which mandate instructional modifications.

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

Put THE PERSON First in terms of a single exceptionality, and it emphasizes the
; it “having” of a condition rath “being”
When speaking and thinking about stu- up: §ti eons reien oak a mo oe Henk oe
dents, put the person first. For example say, hess Mee s 8a
perceive their condition (such as autism or blindness) as
“Tam thinking of my student with ADHD,”
valued, central part of their identity. Not sure? Take the lead
not “She’s my ADHD student.” Putting the exceptionality
from your students and families.
second staves off the tendency to define a person entirely
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 71

* Hughes Bill: This bill addresses students with behavioral problems. Before students
can be referred for special education services for behavior disorders. they must receive
an assessment in their natural environment and, based on the results of the assessment,
a behavior intervention plan (BIP) that details positive behavioral supports must be
developed and implemented.

Serving Students with Special Needs

As achievement gap data (Figure 4.3) suggest, vigilant attention to your students with special
needs is essential. You will act as a part of a team of family members, advocates they may
enlist, and professionals who work together to meet students’ educational needs. A resource
specialist, educational psychologist, speech therapist, occupational therapist, and adminis-
trator may be among those on the team. You will need to check students’ records carefully
to ensure that you are implementing their mandated plans, and you will need to monitor
your instruction and students’ responses to ensure that you are helping them move forward.
At times you will work with students who struggle but have not been identified as
having special needs. They might have persistent trouble learning, communicating, or
interacting with you or the other students. If you suspect that a student has special needs
that have not yet been identified, make careful observations, document those observations,
collect student work samples, speak with specialists at your site, keep close contact with the
family, and find out about referral processes such as Student Intervention Teams or Student
Study Teams at your school. Throughout this process, continue to adjust your instruction
to the student’s benefit. Accommodations and modifications allow you to proactively
address individual student needs.

Accommodate and Modify

“A truly inclusive school reflects a democratic philosophy whereby all students are valued,
educators normalize differences . . . and the school culture reflects an ethic of caring and
community” (Baglieri & Knopf, 2004, p. 525; emphasis added). Indeed, a core principle of
inclusive classrooms is that all members see differences as normal. Inclusive teachers help
students realize that nobody is perfect (in the traditional sense), and our imperfections con-
tribute to who we are, adding richness to the ways we perceive and interact with our world.
Along this line, none of us has a disability, and all of us do. The construct of disability
is not one that lies within the individual. Rather it is defined by context, by the interactions
between the individual and the environment (Broderick, Mehta-Parekh, & Reid, 2005). For
instance, the fact that Zach uses some pretty impressive unconventional spelling mattered
very much in second grade as he was learning to read and write; it matters far less now as
he completes high school with its emphasis on strong thinking and argumentation (and as
he employs spell check). The context and tools determined whether Zach’s spelling eccen-
tricities interfered with his success. Accommodations and modifications help us incorporate
students’ inevitable differences through environments and instruction that allow students to
work to potential. Accommodations and modifications have been shown to increase student
academic engagement and decrease teacher’s time spent on classroom management (Lee;
Wehmeyer, Soukup, & Palmer, 2010).
Accommodations make room for the abilities and needs of your students without sub-
stantially altering what they are expected to learn. Accommodations change the way students
are presented with information or display their learning. Depending on student needs, you
might make accommodations to the physical environment, ways you present informa-
tion, materials students use, or conditions under which students display their knowledge.
Examples include modified furniture, a preview of the lesson (in English or in the student's
native language), textbooks with large print, a weekly homework log signed by a family
member, and an oral (rather than written) test. Accommodations change conditions without
much altering expected outcomes.
On the other hand, modifications substantially alter what students are expected to learn.
Modifications may require that students use materials at a different instructional level or
72 CHAPTER 4

al students,
that they be evaluated according to different performance criteria. For individu
assessment, and pro-
cutting a spelling list in half, allowing the use of a calculator on an
tions are
viding a word bank for use during a test are examples of modifications. Modifica
mental delay
typically made for students with significant disabilities, such as severe develop
or traumatic brain injury. We know that students come to us with a variety of needs. It is
the technolo gical aids that can help each of your students
your responsibility to search out
to achieve to full potential.

Use Assistive Technology to Accommodate and Modify

Assistive technology (sometimes called assistive and adaptive technology) addresses
students’ physical and cognitive needs. Broadly, assistive technology includes any invention
that enhances the performance of people with disabilities. A wheelchair is an example. In
terms of computers, assistive technology includes both hardware and software that support
student performance. Assistive technology encompasses input devices—devices that allow
users to feed information more easily into the computer—and output devices—devices
that communicate the users’ meaning in alternate forms. A few examples of assistive input
devices include:
¢ Alternative keyboards (including those with larger or smaller keys, reconfigured
keys, or keyboards made for one hand)
¢ Touch screens
* Sip and puff systems (activated when the user inhales or exhales)
* Electronic pointing devices (which allow the user to move the mouse on screen by
use of a means other than the hands, such as eye movements)

Output devices include mechanisms such as:

¢ Braille embossers (which allow users with visual impairments to print from the
computer)
* Screen magnifiers (to enlarge the screen display)
* Text-to-speech or speech synthesizers (so that users with reading or visual difficul-
ties can hear what is presented on the screen; these also provide users without oral
communication a voice)

Assistive software also includes any program that enhances a person’s ability to
perform. Consider how spell checkers, calculators, and text magnification functions can
help each of us at times. See the 21st Century Teaching and Learning Tip for accessibility
features in software applications.
Audio downloads of novels or other text materials can be useful to support the compre-
hension of students who struggle with text or would benefit from repeated readings. Many
text-to-speech programs are available, some for free, on the web. Cell phone videos might
allow students to view a peer’s performance multiple times as they learn to emulate that
performance. Because you are responsible for student learning, you need to assess student
needs carefully, then search out and implement technologies that meet those needs.
Required accommodations and modifications are listed on students’ IEPs and other educa-
tional plans. By now, though, you will have no doubt concluded that teachers have a professional

UsinG ACCESSIBILITY FEATURES

Common applications like word processing programs and spreadsheets usually contain many functions
designed to enhance pro-
ductivity in the face of special needs. Accessibility features make the software more useful to
people with needs such as lower
vision or limited dexterity. Macros (shortcuts for sequences of keystrokes or mouse clicks),
keyboard shortcuts, and customized
toolbars are examples. In your word processing program or other application, search “help”
for “accessibility” for more.
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction
73

Student using assistive

technology device

Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit

responsibility to account for all learners’ instructional needs, regardless of legally mandated
plans. Driven by the goal of powerful learning for all, you will no doubt look for opportunities to
make room for student needs whether or not students have formal plans on file.

Use Response to Intervention

With the 2004 reauthorization of IDEA came a change in how learning disabilities can
be identified and addressed. Previously, students were identified after assessment results
showed a discrepancy between their intelligence and their academic performance. As a re-
sult, most learning disabilities were identified in grade 3 or later, after students had already
experienced academic failure. IDEA allows for this discrepancy model’s continued use,
and the majority of states still allow for it (Zirkel & Thomas, 2010).
But now schools are also allowed to use a different model for assessing and instruct-
ing students with learning disabilities: response to intervention (RTI). To be identified
as having a learning disability, students must show nonresponsiveness to systematic
instruction. This change shifts the focus from determining eligibility to providing intense
instruction for struggling students and making early identification as necessary so that all
students can be well served before they start to fail and so that students are not misidentified
as qualifying for special education merely as a result of poor instruction (Fuchs & Fuchs,
2005). Basic tenets of RTI are these:

1. Careful Screening: Rigorous assessments are used to determine all students’ initial
needs.
2. Tiered Interventions: Students receive increasingly intense, well-researched
instructional interventions when they do not respond to interventions at lower tiers.
3. Student Assessment: Student progress is frequently and systematically monitored
through careful assessments. Assessment data are used to maintain, decrease, or increase
the instructional interventions (Griffiths, VanDerHeyden, Parson, & Burns, 2006).

In RTI, all students are screened and receive rigorous instruction in the general
education setting (that’s Tier One). If assessments show that they do not respond to (suc-
ceed with) that instruction, students move to Tier Two, which serves a smaller number of
students and provides more intense intervention. Some schools use a three-tiered model;
74 CHAPTER 4

Response to intervention.

Increasing intensity oie Tee Increasing group size

individual
students services
through formal
plans (approximately
5% of students)

others use four or five tiers. A very small number of students is served by the most intense
tiers. Response to intervention is commonly used in reading instruction—where most
students with learning disabilities struggle—-and it is also used to address student behavior.
Figure 4.4 gives a common depiction of RTI.
Local districts pursue their own RTI models, and they are at different stages in doing so.
Schools that have implemented RTI for a number of years are beginning to report gains in
student learning and large drops in special education referrals (e.g., Butler, 2010). Vaughn
et al. (2010) obtained small positive effects for RTI for middle school students, but RTI
brings to secondary schools special issues that affect feasibility and success. In junior high
and high schools, it can be difficult to implement rigorous, differentiated instruction at Tier
One (Brozo, 2009), scheduling is difficult, and many students experience low motivation
to learn, after experiencing years of difficulty in schools (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2010).
In sum, RTI as an approach to preventing learning disabilities and supporting student suc-
cess is evolving and is part of a multipronged approach to meet special educational needs.
Students who are acquiring English need a different set of approaches.

Shelter English Instruction

for English Language Learners
Linguistic diversity has always been a part of our U.S. heritage. Did you know that
nearly 400 languages are spoken in the United States, including dozens of indigenous
languages (Modern Language Association, 2010)? In terms of numbers of speak-
ers, Spanish takes second place to English, and Chinese third (Modern Language
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 75

Association, 2010). In 2007, approximately 21 percent of U.S. children spoke a lan-

guage other than English at home (National Center for Education Statistics, 2010g).
Although all states have English learners, the prevalence of speakers of languages other
than English tend to be highest in the West and lowest in the South and parts of the
Midwest (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008).

Language Acquisition
Your English learners—also called English language learners or limited English proficient
students—have a difficult job: They must simultaneously master challenging academic
content standards as they acquire a new language (English). Additionally, it is important
that students work to maintain their primary language. Multilingual skills are recognized as
important resources (Bilingual Education Act of 1994), and fluency in the home language
boosts fluency and academic achievement in English (Karathanos, 2009; Krashen, 1997:
Thomas & Collier, 2001).
Although conversational aspects of a language often develop in just a couple years,
it takes at least five years—often longer—for a student to develop a second language
(WongFillmore & Snow, 2000). Students’ acquisition of English will depend on factors
such as their level of literacy in their home language and their previous school experi-
ences, but all students pass through a number of predictable stages in acquiring a language
(summarized by Holmes, Rutledge, & Gauthier, 2009):
* Stage 1—Pre-Production: Students actively take in the sounds and structure of the
new language.
¢ Stage 2—Early Production: Student utterances are short.
¢ Stage 3—Speech Emergence: Confidence and language skills increase. Vocabulary
is still limited.
¢ Stage 4—Intermediate Fluency: Students can read with fluency; decontextualized,
academic language presents challenges.
¢ Stage 5—Advanced Fluency: Students’ language complexity and vocabulary approxi-
mate that of native speakers.
You will know students’ language levels through a variety of mechanisms including
classroom observations and analysis of their writing samples. Also, under NCLB, English
learners’ language proficiency is assessed annually, and you will receive score reports
that give your students’ progress in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. All of these
assessment results will help you provide instruction that fosters your students’ language
acquisition and content learning.

Teaching English Learners

The civil rights case Lau v. Nichols (1974) expanded the rights of English learners in the
United States by finding that linguistically appropriate modifications must be made so that
English learners are not denied equal education opportunities. English learners are now
educated in a variety of settings, such as bilingual education programs, pullout programs,
and mainstream English settings. State law and local policies dictate these decisions. Some
states such as Arizona, California, and Massachusetts require instructions to be primarily
in English through structured immersion. Check the directives for your state and district on
your state department of education’s Web site. tay .
Achievement and opportunity gap data (e.g., Abedi & Herman, 2010) indicate just how
much work we and our English learners have ahead of us. In the classroom, educational
efforts typically focus on two goals: English language acquisition and content mastery.
The regular classroom teacher often is primarily responsible for both. Other specialists
may assist, particularly in the case of English language development. An approach called
sheltered English instruction helps English learners build content knowledge despite lim-
ited English proficiency.
76 CHAPTER 4

Sheltered English Instruction

content accessible for English learners, we modify lessons by lightening the
To make
2000).
cognitive, cultural, linguistic, and learning loads that can present barriers (Meyer,
goal. So does
The use of Universal Design and differentiated instruction addresses this
sheltered instruction, Sheltered instruction attempts to provide “a refuge from the linguis-
by
tic demands of mainstream instruction” (Echevarria & Graves, 1998, p. 54) and is called
,
various names in different regions, including content ESL (English as a second language)
s
ESL content, and specially designed academic instruction in En glish (SDAIE). Itaddresse
grade-level curriculum standards but makes content accessible by embedding instruction
into meaningful contexts and a supportive learning environment. Each of the strategies
you employ will be based on your knowledge of student needs given their language de-
velopment levels. Experts generally agree on methods of sheltered instruction (Center for
Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence, 2002; Cummins, 1981; Echevarria, Vogt, &
Short, 2004; Fillmore, 1982; Gersten, Baker, Shanahan, Linan-Thompson, Collins, &
Scarcella, 2007; Hill & Flynn, 2006; Holmes, Rutledge, & Gauthier, 2009; Janzen, 2008;
Krashen, 1981; Meyer, 2000; Swain, 1985; Thomas & Collier, 2001). They are:

1. Supportive Environment. In a supportive environment, students’ cultures, home

languages, and background experiences are seen as assets from which students can
draw rather than as deficits that detract from their English acquisition. The teacher
respects preferences for communication styles that may differ from her own.
Examples include discourse patterns and rules on interrupting, eye contact, and turn
taking. The environment provides a context where people feel comfortable experi-
menting with language and asking questions about it. The teacher minimizes direct
correction and shapes accurate English through modeling and provides frequent
positive reinforcement for students’ legitimate successes.
2. Focused Content. Teachers focus instruction on the acquisition of three kinds of
English: social English (such as that required by informal conversation), academic
English (which is more sophisticated and complex and requires more time to
develop), and subject-specific language that is used exclusively within particular
content areas (including specialized terms such as “sextant” and “velocity’”). Each
lesson’s content objectives focus on just a few carefully selected main ideas.
Content objectives must be rigorous and reflect grade-level expectations. A small
handful of key content-related vocabulary terms are explicitly developed during
each lesson.
3. Embedded Content. Teachers should embed instruction within meaningful contexts
where language is used for a purpose and connected to wider experiences. The
acts of explaining something to a younger child or of writing a letter to a peer
are examples of potentially meaningful contexts. Teachers set a context for
new information by explicitly tying it to past learning and to students’ previous
experiences and background knowledge, gained at home and in the community.
4. Comprehensible Input. Language can be made more understandable by modifying
it (text and speech), guiding understanding, and scaffolding. Teachers may
provide recorded versions of class material (such as tape recordings, audio files,
and podcasts) so that students can preview material and revisit it multiple times.
Teachers may also provide outlines of the text, rewrite important passages in
simpler language, highlight it, provide graphic organizers, or use alternate readings
(such as text materials provided in students’ primary language). To make their
speech more accessible, teachers may focus on caretaker speech, which mimics the
language caretakers provide for charges by focusing on communication rather than
on form. Examples of speech modifications include speech appropriate for students’
proficiency level and slower but still natural speech.
5. Increased Interaction. English learners need plentiful opportunities to interact
with
peers and with their teacher to make purposeful use of the language. A variety
of
grouping structures, such as pairs and small groups chosen in different ways
such as
matching or contrasting language levels, interest, and random groupings
are used.
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 77

USING THE INTERNET AS A LANGUAGE LEARNING TOOL

At school or at home, the Internet provides great opportunities for hearing native speakers, revisiting content, learning
new
vocabulary, and using English. Try some of these tools:

* Video quizzes: You and your students can create multiple-choice questions to
accompany your choice of YouTube videos at ESL Video (eslvideo.com).
* Language podcasts: You and your students can record and post podcasts
or audio files. Audicity (http://audacity.sourceforge.net/) is a free and easy
audio recorder. Search for “language podcasts” for many free podcasts
designed for English learners.
* Vocabulary flashcards: You and your students can develop e-flashcards for
targeted vocabulary. Quizlet (quizlet.com) lets you save and share your cards
on the Web, and it has some effective teaching tools (like games) to make
practice more engaging.
* Language games: Sites like Digital Dialects (http://www.digitaldialects
.com/index.htm) have free games for learning and practicing a number of
target languages. Make your own games at classtools.net.
* Conversing using Voice Over Internet Protocol: Tools like Skype or Google
Talk allow students to practice English in relaxed settings.
¢ And one more for fun: Voki (www.voki.com). Students create avatars, record
their voices conveying a brief message in the target language, and share. You
can require certain vocabulary and sentence complexity. Students typically
rehearse their recordings several times, giving purposeful opportunities for
language practice, and the audience is real, heightening motivation. Here’s a
screen shot of a Voki: My dog Lila using descriptive language to convey the
mountain scene behind her. ah

2 ACN
~~ ~=)——VocaB CARDS
Before your lesson write three to five key terms on large cards. Give students their own smaller
copies. Use these cards in a variety of ways for introducing, developing, and practicing new
words. For example, begin a lesson by asking students to nominate their favorite words, or the
most and least familiar words. Have them predict the word(s) that will be most important during
the lesson. At their seats, ask partners to pick a card they know something about and tell their
neighbor what they know. During the lesson, have students practice saying the words aloud and
developing meanings in multiple ways such as drawing pictures on the backs of cards. To close
the lesson, revisit students’ predictions, say the words again, and use each in a sentence. Practice
these words on a different day, using the cards in engaging ways. For instance, ask students to
pick two cards whose words are related, or unrelated. Ask them to give examples or use them
in sentences (after Spencer & Guillaume, 2009).

For example, partners might together select, study, read, and question each other
on a content text (Ogle & Correa-Kovtun, 2010). The teacher is included as a
participant in interactions and monitors and guides students’ collaborations and use
of language. The vocab cards presented in Teaching Tip can be used to encourage
student conversations that include content vocabulary. The room is arranged to
facilitate conversation, and the students talk as much—or more—than the teacher
does to rehearse the content and practice English. .
6. Emphasis on Higher-Level Thinking. Sheltered instruction focuses on nudging
English learners to use higher-level thinking through activities such as adhering
to challenging content standards; using questions that ask students to interpret and
78 CHAPTER 4

the whole picture

analyze ideas; providing activities that encourage students to see
parts; and requirin g ee nine
related to the content in addition to its smaller
. Expecta tions must remain hig
the text and other evidence to support their opinions
(Parish et al., 2006).
earliest
Sheltered instruction is most effective with students who are beyond the
n, although it is still better than unsuppor ted immersio n into a
stages of English acquisitio
class for fostering student success. Even the best-shel tered
mainstream English language
achievem ent gap between English-o nly students and English
instruction reduces the
thing
learners only by half (Thomas & Collier, 2001). Although it is a relatively easy
it is quite another to put them into practice Se day in
to suggest effective practices,
ways that respond to specific students and their varied profiles. There are no three easy
steps,” no magic answers to provide instruction that responds to culturally and linguisti-
cally diverse students (Bartolome, 1994). Doing so is a difficult undertaking that requires
ongoing assessment, strategic teaching, sustained effort, and a constant commitment to
learning. It is often an uncertain enterprise in which participants give focused attention
to respecting each other’s cultures and perspectives, negotiate meaning, and find their
way together.

Challenge Gifted and Advanced Learners

A student might qualify for special education services in reading, but have great mathemati-
cal talent. Gardner (2006) reminds us that there are many ways to be smart. Indeed, each of
our students has gifts. However, a small segment of the population is designated as “gifted”
and receives services based on that classification. In 2006, more than 3 million students in
U.S. elementary and secondary schools were classified as gifted (6.7%; National Center
for Education Statistics, 2009c).

Defining Giftedness and Identifying Gifted Learners

Definitions of giftedness vary, and states have different criteria and policies for determining
eligibility. In general, gifted or talented students show performance high above that of their
age mates in intellectual, creative, artistic, or other endeavors. Gifted students are diverse,
but many are problem solvers who benefit from addressing open-ended and complex
problems, often related to their own interests. Many are considered to be emotionally and
academically intense (Manning, 2006). Teachers who think life would be easy if their room
were full of gifted students are often mistaken. In addition to their incredible gifts, advanced
learners may also face a number of issues that affect classroom performance. According to
Manning, classroom issues that may stem from giftedness include problematic work habits
and a heightened sensitivity to others. In one study, highly gifted boys and boys with learn-
ing disabilities were alike in their classroom behavior (Shaywitz et al., 2001). Once again
we are reminded that no one classification explains a person fully and that all students have
needs that can stretch their teachers’ skills.
Decisions about how best to serve gifted students are often heated. Examine some of
the issues by reviewing the National Association for Gifted Children’s (http://www.nage
-org) standards for exemplary gifted programs. Check with your school site to determine
the arrangements within which students classified as gifted are served. Some districts
have magnet schools for gifted students. Additionally, many schools have self-contained
gifted classes. Others have Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) clusters within larger
classes. Gifted students also frequently attend general education classes and visit resource
programs or receive all of their education within their regular classroom.
Check for the referral process for identifying gifted students at your location. Although
the identification process should include more than one screening device (Smutny,
2003),
it often begins with a parent request or observations by the classroom teacher.
When you
suspect that a student may be gifted, observe the student carefully and ask questions
such
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 79

as, Does the student learn rapidly and possess a large store of information? Does the student
exhibit originality in written or oral expression? Does the student use materials in extremely
creative ways? Does the student contribute to class discussions with unique and insightful
perspectives? As you observe students, be sure that you are watching all for signs of gifted-
ness, including those exhibited by students who might be less visible than others, such as
students with disabilities, students who belong to ethnic or racial minorities, and students
who are acquiring English.

Meeting the Needs of Advanced and Gifted Learners

Responsive instruction entails not only providing instruction that makes content accessible
but also pushing students to their limits to grasp content that is as deep and as rich as their
current capacities will allow. Advanced learners often require substantial modifications
to the general curriculum to ensure that they, too, find new meaning each day at school.
Advanced learners include those classified as gifted and those who are intensely interested
in or performing at high levels for particular content areas.
Many teachers find that meeting the needs of advanced learners can be more of a
challenge than meeting the needs of struggling students because gifted learners often enter
a grade or class knowing significant amounts of the content, move beyond grade-level
content standards, and sometimes bring strong independent approaches to their learning
goals and choices. They ask tough questions, too. Yet our responsibility to ensure that
students working at advanced levels make substantial academic progress is the same as
our responsibility to the rest of our students. Gifted students’ needs to learn and develop
will not be met by correcting spelling tests for us, tutoring peers for most of the day, or
completing additional worksheets on the same topic.
Approaches such as Universal Design, RTI (Rollins, Mursky, Shah-Coltrane, & Johnsen,
2009), and differentiated instruction (Manning, Stanford, & Reeves, 2010) provide useful
frameworks for addressing the needs of advanced learners. Inquiry-based learning experiences
(see Chapter 7) are often appropriate as well. Additional strategies you may try include accel-
eration, curriculum compacting, and modification of the depth and complexity of instruction.

Acceleration In acceleration, students are moved to other settings to receive instruc-

tion at their level. A junior high school student may, for example, take mathematics at the
high school or a nearby college. Or they may work with materials from higher grade levels
within their regular classroom.

Curriculum Compacting In curriculum compacting, all students are given a preas-

sessment such as a written test to determine which content in an upcoming unit they have
already mastered. Students receive instruction with the rest of the class for nonmastered
objectives and spend the rest of their instructional time pursuing projects and independent
work that is more appropriate for their needs (Reis & Renzulli, 1995). Strategies that
replace classroom instruction during curriculum compacting may include acceleration,
community service projects, independent research, and enrichment activities. Systematic
assessment of students’ entry knowledge is essential for compacting to be effective.

Depth and Complexity Advanced learners can also address the same topics as their
peers, but in greater depth or complexity (California Department of Education & California
Association for the Gifted, 1994). Many school districts are pursuing depth and complexity
to meet gifted needs in GATE programs. To alter the depth of the content students might:
¢ Pursue the tools and language used by specialists in the content.
¢ Go into greater detail.
* Look for patterns related to the content, such as trends over time.
¢ Study the underlying structure of the content.
¢ Examine ethical considerations related to the content.
¢ Pursue unanswered questions.
80 CHAPTER 4

Interactions with a variety

of materials and people
can help address students’
learning needs

Source: Scott Cunningham/Merrill.

To study the content in greater complexity, students might examine relationships

within the content, or relationships between the content and a different entity. They might
also examine different points of view related to the content. Alterations of depth and
complexity can be accomplished by mechanisms such as learning or interest centers (for
an example, see Wilkins, Wilkins, & Oliver, 2006), differentiated assignments, student
contracts, and small-group projects.

Foster Gender Equity

Gender continues to be a variable of interest the world round. U.S. figures show, for example,
noted disparities related to gender:
* Females, equally trained, continue to earn less than men (about 73%; Pay Scale, 2010).
* Females pursue high-status science, technology, engineering, mathematics (STEM)
schooling and careers at lower rates, and progressively fewer pursue advanced STEM
degrees. Figures are particularly pronounced in physics, chemistry, and engineering
and for women of color (De Welde, Laursen, & Thiry, n.d).
¢ Males are incarcerated at rates 100 times greater than those of females (Prison Policy
Initiative, 2005).
¢ Males’ suicide rates are four times that of women (suicide.org, n.d.).
¢ Males now constitute a minority of college students (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
¢ Males drop out of school more often than do females (Greene & Winters, 2006).
¢ Males comprise the majority of students receiving special education services (Tyre, 2008).
¢ As measured by grades and test scores, female achievement typically equals or
exceeds that of males. For example, the gender gap in reading achievement starts early
and is persistent, with 17-year-old females outscoring their male peers by 11 points on
the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, 2008b).
* Boys are referred for discipline issues more frequently than girls (Kaufman et al., 2010) and
experience more conflict with and distance from their teachers (Koepke & Harkins, 2008).
Such differential outcomes seem to be a result of combined effects of factors such as
biology, culture, the media, and society. Schools, too, contribute to some differences. In sub-
tle ways, despite efforts to be fair, schools treat male and female children differently in ways
that limit members of both groups. For example, some research indicates that teachers have
gender-related beliefs about classroom discipline (Erden & Wolfgang, 2004), and based on
gender, we tend to praise students to hold different standards for behavior and participation.
Initial concerns about gender equity grew out of alarm over ways that schools were
shortchanging girls (Wellesley College Center for Research on Women, 1992). Indeed,
strategic efforts are still required as we strive to help girls remain engaged in science-related
studies and perceive a full range of options for advanced studies.
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 81

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

STRATEGIES FOR ACHIEVING information about outcomes and processes, (c) challenges
Genpver Eourry incorrect conclusions, and (d) corrects students’ flawed
self-assessmments,
1. Study your classroom to assess your 6. Encourage appropriate attributions. Help students
own gender biases. Check the physi- explain success and failure by linking performance with
cal environment, activities, student effort, encouraging internal explanations for success,
feedback, and classroom management and emphasizing specific and temporary explanations
fo ensure that student opportunities are for failure. Help students focus on making choices and
not limited by gender. exercising control.
2. Encourage students to take risks and set goals. This helps 7, Challenge stereotypes. In neutral settings, ask stu-
students to take ownership over goals and see them as dents to think about common stereotypes. Address
achievable. Focus on progress goals (not solely perfor- stereotypes found in the media. Model gender-fair
mance goals) to encourage intrinsic motivation. Include language and behavior. Value both typically masculine
intermediate and long-term goals. and typically feminine perspectives and activities, and
3. Help students value their successes and learn from mis- value a fuller range of what constitutes “masculine”
takes. Classroom activities should encourage legitimate and “feminine.”
eau saat perc of the time. Students need 8. Use groups flexibly. Encourage children to work well
4 ies 12 coniete a within a variety of settings. Vary group compositions
. Keep CXPCAAODS OS 196 high and send positive frequently, perhaps including single-gender groupings as
peal caseiRefrain from sending the message that you one learning option. Monitor students’ interactions and
do NOt Expect success from some students or that certain intervene for support.
kinds offailure are acceptable based on gender. Avoid 9. Teach the null curriculum. Include readings and other
excessive praise for substandard performance. activities that address the varied contributions of men
5. Provide good feedback. Good feedback (a) focuses and women in nonstereotypical ways.
students on the relevant aspects of the problem, (b) gives

To these gender concerns we add apprehension regarding differences that seem to

place males at a disadvantage. Some experts argue that schools have become unfriendly
places for boys (Mulvey, 2010; Tyre, 2008). They cite explanations such as a more adult-
driven society with fewer unstructured play opportunities for children, the accelerating
curriculum (difficult for some boys, who tend to mature later), declining opportunities for
physical activity in school, and schools’ push for skills that may not come as easily to some
boys (such as organization, neatness, and collaboration).
Schools are responding to gender differences with a variety of approaches. There is much
interest in single-sex schools, for example, and the research gives “mild to moderate” support
for such schools on a variety of student outcomes (Mael, Alonso, Gibson, Rogers, & Smith,
2005). Horgan’s(1995) strategies remain fresh for today’s classrooms, adapted in the Inclusive
and Responsive Teaching Tip. To these, we may add the following promising paractices:
* Encourage mentoring experiences.
* Provide opportunities for physical movement and action.
* Provide opportunities for both collaboration and competition.
or
* Expand the reading options available. Nonfiction materials, books with adventure
(such as graphics), series of beloved
danger, materials with interesting text features
Werderich,
characters, and books by favored authors are good bets for boys (Farris,
Nelson, & Fuhler, 2009).
rely on stereotypical
As with all student needs and characteristics, it is important not to
to gender, the areas
images based on gender—what boys or girls are like. When it comes
regions of difference
of overlap in performance and preference are far greater than the
characteristics and needs,
(Campbell) & Storo, 1994). As is the case with other student
gender provides you the opportunity to:
what happens for some
1. Build an understanding of the research and consider that
groups of students may also relate to your students’ experiences.
and their preferences.
2. Gather varied data to understand your actual students
82 CHAPTER 4

expectations for
3. Communicate high expectations for all and push them to broaden their
, and career options available to them.
the range of options life experience, schooling
available in your classroom , providing
4. Expand the range of classroom options
.
for some student choice in terms of content, activities, and independent activities
Examples include physical movement, noise level, competitive and cooperative
structures, and mode of communication.

Creating inclusive classrooms also entails ensuring that all students feel safe to learn.

Create Safe Spaces

Issues facing gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) students and their families
are increasingly the focus of national conversations. In the last century, we have moved
from the perceived dangers of homosexual teachers to the risks schools present for GLBT
students (Griffin, & Ouelett, 2003). GLBT students face a school environment than is more
hostile than for the general school population. The National School Climate Study reveals
that general negative comments (“That’s so gay!” “Fag!”) are common and widely toler-
ated, and in some cases are perpetrated by teachers (GLSEN, 2009). In that study, students
perceived that teachers’ interventions to stop such language were infrequent. GLBT middle
school students were more vulnerable than high school students in many respects. GLBT
students also historically report an increased threat of bullying and physical violence at
school, sometimes to the point of skipping school for their perceived safety (Safe Schools
Coalition of Washington, 1999; GLSEN 2009). Further, GLBT parents noted hearing
negative remarks or feeling excluded from schooling activities more than did the general
population (Kosciw, & Diaz, 2008).
In such a climate, it’s not difficult to understand why some students would have
concerns about physical and emotional safety that might take precedence over academic
concerns. Many teachers are hesitant to raise or respond to students’ questions, comments,
or issues related to sexual orientation or gender expression, but teachers and schools are
essential for creating safe spaces—inclusive spaces—for all of our students.
GLSEN (2009) gives suggestions for creating safe spaces for student who are GLBT or
are members of GLBT families. Check your biases and educate yourself on issues related
to sexual orientation. What are the issues at your site? Serve as an ally for students. Ensure
that they know that you are a safe person who advocates for all students; be a role model of
acceptance. Use inclusive language (such as “partner’”’). Respond to anti-GLBT language.
Let it be known that harassment is not tolerated, and hold students accountable for their
behavior. Overall, we teachers need to question assumptions, educate ourselves, listen, be
ready to advocate for our students, and seek out resources that can allow all students to feel
safe and included at school.

Parting Words
Each of these nine approaches for providing responsive students’ learning needs related to sexual orientation,
instruction—and others—will require deep and sustained gender, giftedness, exceptionality, language, or culture
inquiry and practice. I introduce them here for two rea- are not layered upon those of their “regular” needs. You
sons. First, I hope to help you build an initial awareness build instruction from the ground up that addresses the
and an emerging repertoire of strategies to use now, variety of needs possessed by each of your students and
in your early days as a professional. More important, encourages each of them to strive forward in their growth
I hope to help you build an inclusive mindset. Your as individuals.
 Providing Inclusive and Responsive Instruction 83

48 Opportunities to Practice
a 1. Inclusive and responsive teachers pursue understanding identified as gifted. The Web sites from this chapter and
and continued growth. Choose one approach for inclusive from Chapter 3 provide some suggested resources.
and responsive teaching addressed in this chapter where
2. Use Figure 4.5 to complete a scavenger hunt for resources
you judge your knowledge to be limited. Examples include
at your site. Tell people it is for an assignment but take
sheltering instruction and meeting the needs of students
careful notes for later.

Site scavenger hunt: Inclusive and responsive teaching resources.

At your site, find someone who...

1. Can point you to translation Name:

services and procedures Service or procedure:
2. Teaches students with Name:
identified needs who Location or contact information:
are taught in the Teaching responsibility:
general education setting for
at least a portion of the day
3. Has expertise or Name:
responsibility for teaching Location or contact information:
students identified Expertise:
as advanced or gifted
4. Differentiates Name:
instruction regularly Location or contact information:
One sample strategy:
5. Has certification or Name:
expertise in working Location or contact information:
successfully with One piece of advice:
English learners
6. Has a great Name:

Z
reputation for Location or contact information:
including families One piece of advice:
At your site, find materials that...
7. Use assistive Equipment:
technology or or Location:
general technology
8. Provide challenges Materials:
for eager learners or Location:
to increase depth or complexity
9. Help you arrange the Materials:
learning space for Location:
students who need fewer distractions
At your site, find services that...
10. Help you meet the Services:
needs of families Accessing the services:
with limited income
. Help students who Services:
are working on clear Accessing the services:
speech
12. [Pick a need based Services:
on your students] Accessing the services:
Need:
84 CHAPTER 4

Ow Play with one of the tech tools recommended throughout 5. Interview an experienced teacher at your site regarding
the chapter, perhaps in the 21st Century Teaching and response to intervention. Is it being implemented at your
Learning Tips. site? What model is in place? Is there current evidence
4. Make a set of vocab cards (see the Teaching Tip) for an
of effectiveness? How can you learn more? How can you
upcoming lesson, or for ten terms that are found in the contribute?
content standards for your discipline.

Web Sites
http://www.rti4success.org/ Strategies. This site is rich with tutorials and resources for
National Center on Response to Intervention. The Center’s many kinds ofspecial education needs.
mission is to provide assistance in implementing research- http://www.glsen.org/
based models of RTI. The library is a great place to start. Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network. The network
http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu is focused on ensuring safe schools for all students. Check
The IRIS Center. Special Education Resources for Inclusion, Research and the Educator Resources under Tools and Tips.
Scientifically-Validated and Evidence-Based Instructional The Safe Space Tool Kit is a great place to start.
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Before You Begin Reading
As an adult who has experienced some success in navigating through life and its opportunities, you already
know a bit about planning. Before you read Chapter 5, think about your own life and how you have planned
for it thus far. Jot down some first-impression notes in response to these questions.

Warm-Up Exercise for Planning

1. When do you plan? (Hints: Think small and large. Do you plan on a daily basis? Do you plan for the
distant future?)

2. What format do you use to capture your plans? (Hints: Do you use to-do lists? Do you build flow
charts? Do you store plans in your memory?)

3. What do you notice about your efforts to plan? (Hints: How do plans help? How do you respond to
changes?)

4. How do you know when you have accomplished your goals?

As you read Chapter 5, compare what you know about planning in the broader sense to classroom
planning. Points of similarity may include, for instance, that teachers plan at different levels and use
their plans to ensure that they meet goals and maintain focus on priorities?

“Cheshire Puss... Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?”
“That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,” said the Cat.
“I don’t much care where—” said Alice.
“Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,” said the Cat.

—Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

 Planning for Instruction 87

This chapter will help you devise plans to increase the likelihood that you and your
students
end up where you want to be. It has six major points:

Planning today is shaped by our context of accountability and drive to provide

high-
—.

quality learning opportunities for all students.

2. Planning starts with the students.
3. Plans are driven by what we want to accomplish, by our goals.
4. Plans should include thoughtful use of instructional resources.
5. Long-term planning usually precedes short-term planning; it provides a structure for
daily events.
6. Short-term planning, or lesson planning, arranges activities in logical ways for daily
instruction.

~ Planning Today
Planning today is shaped by our context. We live in a culture of standards-based account-
ability. Central to education reform efforts that began in the 1980s was the development
and implementation of rigorous statements of expectations for student learning: content
standards or student performance standards. Content standards tell what students are
expected to know and be able to do and performance standards tell how they will show it.

The Basics of Standards-Based Instruction

In standards-based instruction, the educational community first develops content stan-
dards and operationalizes them through performance standards. Next, educators develop
or select tools to assess student mastery of those standards. Common assessment tools are
paper/pencil tests and teacher observation. After checking students’ entry-level perfor-
mance related to the standard, educators plan instruction to bring about student mastery of
the standard. They develop or select materials that will help teachers guide students toward
mastery. Next, teachers present information and check students’ progress along the way.
Then students are assessed for mastery of the standard. Finally, educators analyze results
and determine the next course of action: Do they move on or provide further development
on the standard at hand? A critical attribute of standards-based instruction is that all ele-
ments are in alignment: the goals, the resources, the instruction, and the assessment.

The Promise and Pitfalls of Standards-Based Instruction

You enter the profession of education at a time when we as a community have wrestled for
years with standards-based accountability. Standards initially were seen as the key to raising
our expectations for what all students should learn, a critical step in raising student achieve-
ment. Standards’ partner, assessment, would be used to hold students and schools account-
able for mastery of those expectations. Two key lessons learned along the way are these:

¢ There is considerable variation across the 50 states in terms of the content students
are expected to learn, when they are expected to learn it, and the criteria by which
students are judged as having mastered it (Center for the Study of Mathematics
Curriculum, 2006; Schmidt & Cogan, 2009). This is one reason that efforts to develop
voluntary national standards are now afoot (see http://www.corestandards.org/ for
the Common Core State Standards Inititative).
* Setting rigorous content standards is not the same as achieving them. Time, resources,
and opportunity to learn are all required for the mastery of rigorous content standards,
and those quantities have not been equitably distributed (Oakes & Rogers, 2006). In
some instances, students have taken educational inequities to the courts, noting that if
all students are to meet the same standards, they must receive the same resources to do
so (e.g., Williams v. State of California, see Powers, 2004).
88 CHAPTER 5

what students
Content standards have opened the educational conversation about
learn it, and how their learning should be mea-
should learn, how and when they should
g ina
sured, These conversations address many deep and persistent dilemmas of schoolin
for personal ization rather than standard ization
diverse society. For instance, should we aim
(Noddings, 2010)? Should we aim for developmental appropriateness or the same standard
insight
for all (Rettig, McCullough, Santos, & Watson, 2004)? Perhaps the most important
gained is that standards can, at their best, serve as powerful tools to help us focus purpose-
d
fully on our students. Our journey has led us to the point that standards are now accepte
as part of the educational landscape and are viewed as importa nt for educatio nal improve -
ment (National Research Council, 2008). Expanding high-quality learning opportunities
to meet rigorous and appropriate standards is a next step in our journey as inclusive and
responsive teachers.

All Means All

Planning today means meeting an increasingly broad range of student needs and warmly
demanding that all students meet high expectations. Inclusive and responsive teachers aim to
consider students’ perspectives, current experiences, and needs and abilities and to push all
students unfailingly forward in their learning and development. Your students’ learning is too
important a responsibility to abdicate to others, such as textbook publishers, software devel-
opers, or the teacher next door, and careful planning is necessary for helping your students
learn and grow as much as possible during the short time they will spend in your classroom.

Planning Starts with the Students

You have a responsibility to base your instructional decisions—what, when, and how you
will teach—on a firm foundation of knowledge regarding who your students are and what
they need. In fact, the major criterion for your planning decisions should be access to pow-
erful learning for each of your students.
Effective planning begins with gathering and analyzing a variety of kinds of
information related to your students. When you plan instruction that draws from what
students already know and can do, from their strengths and needs, and from their inter-
ests and perspectives, your lessons are far more likely to result in powerful learning for
each individual and for the classroom community. Chapter 3 introduced several factors
related to students as individuals and as members of groups that can be useful to you
as you plan. It included gathering holistic information from families and students and
information about students’ general progress and needs, Examples include a review of
existing records (such as IEPs and levels of English acquisition) and use of interviews
and general surveys.
Planning also includes preassessment of students’ content-specific needs and interests.
Formative assessment, or assessment that guides instruction (see Chapter 8 for more),
allows you to discover what students know, believe, or can do prior to your instruction.
Caution! Some teachers, feeling pressed for time, skip the formative assessment stage of
planning. Don’t be tempted to skip early assessments! Formative assessment is consistently
linked with student achievement (Marzano, 2007). Some Strategies to gather formative
information include brief pretests, informal conversations, self-checks, and journal entries.
Figure 5.1 shows two teachers’ use of audience response systems to gather, record, and
analyze formative assessment data at the click of the students’ button. Gregory and Kuzmich
(2004) suggest that teachers use rapid preassessments to discover what students know.
Examples are homework assignments and group problems, as in these sample tasks:
* In a primary-grade mathematics lesson before a unit on quadrilaterals, small groups
of students attack a nonroutine problem, “How many squares are on a checkerboard?”
Their teacher observes and takes notes on the concepts they possess, the processes
they employ to solve the problem, and the gaps in their reasoning that may be present.
 Planning for Instruction 89

Audience response syst

forems
formative assessment.

After the prompt was displayed on the screen, students sent their responses to the teachers’ computer
via
handheld devices, informally called clickers. This figure shows students’ displayed responses. In 5.1A, the
high school teacher held a subsequent discussion based on students’ opinions. In 5.1B, the fourth-grade
teacher used students’ data—most students (70%) were incorrect—to plan his geology lesson. Although many
audience response systems exist, these teachers used Turning Point (through Turning Technologies)

Ghandi said: “Those who know how

to think need no teachers.”
Do you agree? ik

1. Strongly Agree
2. Agree
3. Disagree
4. Strongly Disagree

Earthquakes reshape the earth’s |

surface more than any other process.

1. True
2. False

Drawing by Annie Fuller

¢ For a junior high science homework assignment, students analyze the errors in a
hypothetical student’s explanation for an observed phenomenon. The prompt reads:
“Martin predicts that the water level in a container will rise as the ice it holds melts.
Where does Martin’s thinking go wrong?” Students discuss their analyses before
submitting them.

When conducted far enough in advance, such assessments yield information that
can shape instructional planning in productive ways so that you neither duplicate what
students already know nor take too big a step beyond their current understandings.
90 CHAPTER 5

INTEREST INVENTORIES
study. Here is an
Try writing brief surveys to assess students’ interests for upcoming units of
example from a history class.

Interest Rating: What Do You Want to Learn about U.S. Social Issues?
the
We will be learning about some of the issues faced by people in the United States during
study. I want to know which issues are
late 1800s. Here are some of the social issues we will
assignments will be based on your interests. Number your
most interesting to you. Some of your
to 5. Number | should be the item that is most interesting to you, and number 5
choices from |
should be the item that is least interesting to you.

Treatment of minorities
Child labor
Growth of cities
Problems faced by immigrants

Other. Tell me more:

You might have family members or know other people who could help us understand these
issues. If so, list their names and how they might help.

In addition to students’ content knowledge related to the topic, you should also
consider their interests. By considering the facets of the content of most interest to the
students, you can connect to their own goals and increase their motivation to learn. Your
observations of the free reading books students choose and the activities they pursue will
provide some information about their interests. Additionally, you can try using simple
inventories directly related to your upcoming instruction. For example, as part of their
course on U.S. History Studies since 1877, Texas high school students study social changes
in the United States from 1877 to 1898. To plan his unit, one teacher might distribute an
interest inventory, excerpted in the Teaching Tip. The teacher plans to have all students
read the textbook, but students will, based on survey results, form interest groups to read
other materials and complete independent assignments, too. Also, the teacher plans to have
students share their issue-specific knowledge later in mixed groups so that the class draws
some broader generalizations about U.S. history.
Chapter 4 introduced you to principles of Universal Design, differentiated instruction,
and accommodations and modifications. Such approaches should be at the forefront of your
thinking as you plan daily: To what extent do your lessons meet the wide range of learning
needs? How will you accommodate your students with physical disabilities? How will you
push your advanced learners? How do you help struggling readers improve their skills while
simultaneously helping them gain access to the content? In what ways do you encourage
language development for your English learners?
As the next step in planning instruction for diverse student needs, this chapter helps
you plan in ways that consider students’ specific profiles to design clear and appropriate
goals, to use an expansive variety of resources, and to develop and organize your instruc-
tion in the long and short term. Understanding your students helps shape the next phase of
planning: goal setting.

Goals Drive Planning

As the Cheshire cat reminds Alice, if we do not have a goal in mind, it does not much matter
how we spend our time. But you and your students have places to go! You need a clear set
of goals to guide you.
 Planning for Instruction 91

Kinds of Goals
What are our overall goals for our students? What kinds of knowledge or skills do we want
them to possess? Our visions and concerns shape our goals for what students should know
and become. For instance, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills presents the rainbow
found in Figure 5.2 to encompass the broad range of outcomes they deem essential for
today’s students. Note that the outcomes encompass not only core subject matter knowl-
edge but also skills deemed necessary for life today and tomorrow. The pool beneath the
rainbow represents the support systems necessary to affect the broad outcomes found in
the rainbow.
Standards are one influence on our goals for student learning. Look again at your
stance toward education (see Chapter 2). It provides another, probably spanning far
beyond the traditional content delineated in your state’s content standards. Your greatest
hopes for your students, your goals, are probably related to their attitudes and actions. Are
you interested in your students exhibiting persistence? Exercising objectivity? Taking
responsibility? Employing empathy? Communicating effectively? These interests show
up on many teachers’ lists of goals. For instance, there is increasing interest in the goal
of emotional intelligence (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006; Goleman, 1995,
1998). Emotional intelligence allows us to do such things as identify and manage our
emotions, empathize with others, and persist in the presence of frustration. Emotional
intelligence is highly prized as effective teamwork becomes increasingly important. The
Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2004), for example, lists life skills such as

¢ Flexibility (adapting to varied roles, jobs responsibilities, schedules and context in a

climate of ambiguity and changing priorities)
¢ Time and goal management (setting goals, prioritizing, and balancing short- and
long-term goals, managing resources)
¢ Effective interaction (knowing when to listen and when to speak; conducting oneself
in a professional manner)
¢ Intercultural communication (respecting cultural differences and working effectively
with a range of people)

Educated people not only know things, they also feel things and can do things.
Theorists have, for this reason, divided the world of educational goals into three domains:

Partnership for 21st Century Learning’s rainbow of student outcomes.

x : information,
Life and Po Sa me
| Career Skills ; ce ogy
: a” ee ihe

Standards and
Asseserrents

Curricular: and Instruction

Professional Development

Learning Environments

ex.php?option=com_content&task=
Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2004) http://www.p21 .org/ind
view&id=254&ltemid=119 Used with permissio n.
92 CHAPTER 5

the cognitive, the affective, and the psychomotor domains. Figure 5.3 presents commonly
used taxonomies—or classification systems—for each of these domains. Note that in each
taxonomy, the first entry is the simplest and requires the least from the learner. Higher
levels place increasing demands on the learner. The more complex levels require that the
learner draw on the lower levels, and each level contributes to a fuller understanding, appre-
ciation, or performance. The value of these taxonomies is that they remind us of two things.
First, we teach more than just cognitive information. We need to specify goals related to
different kinds of learning. Second, within each of the areas we teach, there are levels of
understanding and action. Teachers need to provide opportunities for mastery across many
levels. Students need to process information in increasingly deep and complex ways and to
respond to their worlds via sophisticated thoughts, feelings, and actions.
The most widely discussed taxonomy in schools is Bloom’s taxonomy for the cogni-
tive domain. A variety of levels is typically represented in state standards, and teachers are
expected to help students work at all levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, not just at the rote recall]
level. Examine, for instance, a sampling of Ohio’s mathematics standards for grades 11-12
(Ohio Department of Education, 2001; emphasis added):
* Develop an understanding of properties of and representations for addition and mul-
tiplication of vectors and matrices.
¢ Apply various measurement scales to describe phenomena and solve problems.
¢ Analyze functions by investigating rates of change, zeroes, asymptotes, and local and
global behavior.
* Create ... tabular and graphical displays of data, using appropriate tools, including
spreadsheets and graphing calculators.

Take some time to carefully study the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy and work with them
until they become part of your vocabulary and practice. Opportunity to Practice Exercise 6 at
the end of the chapter can get you started. As you work with the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy,
you may uncover some of the common criticisms of it. The levels are probably not linear.

Taxonomies for the domains of learning.

Domain Levels

Cognitive Domain Knowledge: recall

Thinking Comprehension: show understanding
Application: use knowledge in a new setting
Analysis: identify logical errors; differentiate
Synthesis: make something new
Evaluation: form judgments; make decisions

(Bloom, Englehart, Hill, Furst, & Krathwohl, 1956)

Affective Domain Receiving: be aware of certain stimuli

Feeling Responding: react to stimuli when asked
Valuing: act on a belief when not asked to do so
Organization: commit to a set of values
Characterization: display behaviors that are all consistent with one’s set of beliefs

(Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964)

Psychomotor Domain Imitation: repeat an action after observing a model
Doing Manipulation: perform an action without a model
Precision: perform a refined action without a model or directions
Articulation: sequence and perform a series of acts with control, timing, and speed
Naturalization: perform actions that are now routine and spontaneous

(Harrow, 1969)
Ss
 Planning for Instruction 93

Revised levels of the cognitive taxonomy.

Original Level and Order Revised Level and Order

Knowledge Remember
Comprehension Understand
Application Apply
Analysis Analyze
Synthesis Evaluate
Evaluation Create

For example, synthesis may not always be predicated on analysis (Marlowe & Page, 1998).
As a result, Anderson and colleagues (Anderson, 2005; Anderson et al., 2001) revised the
taxonomy. In the revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy, two of the cognitive processes have
been reordered, and their labels, originally nouns, have been replaced with verbs, as shown
in Figure 5.4.
Additionally, the revised taxonomy recognizes the multidimensional nature of knowl-
edge that can be possessed at each cognitive process level: the factual, conceptual, proce-
dural, and metacognitive dimensions. Anderson et al. (2001, p. 29) define each dimension
of knowledge as follows:

* Factual: The basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline
or solve problems within it
* Conceptual: The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger struc-
ture that enable them to function together
¢ Procedural: How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills,
algorithms techniques, and methods
° Metacognitive: Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and knowl-
edge of one’s own cognition

The revised taxonomy is presented as a table, with the cognitive process level serv-
ing as column headings and the above four dimensions serving as row headings. Both the
original and the revised taxonomy serve an important function: to remind teachers to pro-
vide both a solid core of basic knowledge and opportunities to act on that knowledge in
more sophisticated ways. Teachers also find that the revised Bloom’s taxonomy can serve
as a useful tool to help them differentiate their tasks for a broad range of student needs
(Noble, 2004).
Goals, then, can fall into a number of domains, including cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor. The educational outcomes teachers set also vary in terms of specificity.

Goals versus Objectives

Outcomes that are broad or general are typically termed goals. Goals drive our long-term
planning. General goals encompass more specific and detailed statements. Deemed objec-
tives, these specific statements guide daily instruction. Thus, objectives can be considered
to be the intermediate steps students must master before their end goal is achieved. See if
you can sort the statements from Figure 5.5 into goals and objectives.
Notice that the goal statements are lofty pursuits that are not yet operationalized, or
put into a form that specifies students’ exact actions. The specific objective statements in
Figure 5.5 will help students build toward an understanding of the larger goals. Notice that
though the statements in Figure 5.5 differ in terms of specificity, they are alike in a very
important way: Both goals and objectives are worded in terms of what the student should
be able to do. Teaching is goal driven. As you examine national and state content standards,
you will note that they also are phrased in terms of student outcomes. This keeps the focus
94 CHAPTER 5

Goal or objective.

Set One: Mathematics

1. Given paper and pencil, students will add two-digit numbers with 90% accuracy.
2. Students will improve their computation skills.

Set Two: Science

how humans can
1. Without reference materials, students will draw a diagram of the water cycle and describe
affect the cycle at two points at least.
2. Students will use scientific principles to make decisions in their own lives.

on students and their learning. As an example, here is a draft core common standard for
fifth-grade language arts in the area of writing:

Conduct short research projects that use several sources to build knowledge through
investigation of different aspects of a topic. (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2010)

A few objectives to help students reach this standard might include:

1. The learner will be able to locate different types of sources related to a topic.
2. The learner will be able to synthesize information from more than one source.
3. The learner will be able to compose a one-page report that conveys new knowledge
(conclusions) from information from more than one source.

Teachers develop and implement hundreds of objectives, and the lesson-planning

portion of this chapter will help you to write instructional objectives. Your objectives,
though, will be shaped by your broader vision of what needs to be accomplished, by
your set of goals.

Determining Goals
Professional teachers are charged with making important decisions: What should be
taught? To whom? When? These decisions need to be guided by your consideration of the
larger system. To develop your classroom goals for the term or year, you need to examine
various sources. Recall the bull’s eye of sources of influence from Chapter | (Figure 1.1).
As you write a set of goals for student learning, consider the following suggestions, alone if
necessary but in a group with other teachers if possible. For some suggestions, the perspec-
tives of other stakeholders such as family members will enrich your thinking. These tips
apply to a set of overarching goals for the year or term, and many apply to the goals you’ll
develop as you plan specific units too.
* Think again about broad contexts. What are the larger issues facing your students
and families? Your state? For example, how are subgroups of students such as stu-
dents of color, students with special needs, and students who are acquiring English
succeeding in school? (Examining test results for your state, district, and local school
can provide some insights.) What are the community priorities?
* Analyze information about your students. What do they know now? How do they
learn? What would they like to learn? What are their interests and plans? What sup-
port will they need from you as they master challenging standards?
Review your stance. What are your hopes for students? Check your school’s mission
statement as well.
Review content standards. Spend some time studying the content expectations to
which you and your students will be held. Merely glancing over them will not pro-
vide the deep understanding you need. Many teachers find it helpful to work together
to examine connections across subject areas and to look for common core concepts
such as “change” or “structure” (Hurt, 2003). Be sure to include 21st-century learning
 Planning for Instruction 95

skills as well. How can you incorporate, for example, communication and collabora-
tion? Critical thinking and problem solving?
* Consider content standards in light of your students. Will you need to differentiate
your goals based on students’ progress, needs, and interests? For example, will some
of your students require a set of intermediate goals to address missing knowledge?
Will some need goals that take them far beyond grade-level expectations? Which
students need English language development goals? What are the goals specified in
IEPs and other individualized plans?
* Check grade-level articulation. What are students expected to learn in the year or years
before your grade? What will their teachers in future grades expect them to know?
* Examine your materials. What goals are identified in your adopted curricular materi-
als such as your textbooks? How do they align with your standards?

Jot down information from each of these sources. Look for areas of overlap and
areas where goals seem dissimilar. Use a critical eye: Whose perspective is left out of
your list of goals? Could a different set of goals be used to improve existing practice?
Talk with experienced teachers and other colleagues. Prioritize the goals. You will keep
these goals in mind as you develop your long-term plans, develop your daily schedule,
and plan individual lessons. For example, if you hold goals that focus on intercultural
commnunication, you may need to structure your schedule to include projects with
investigations into other cultures. If empathy and community connections arose as
essential, you may plan a service learning project that includes collaborating with a
local retirement home.

Planning to Use Instructional Resources

Once you have set goals, the world is your oyster. Look around you and determine which
materials and resources are most likely to foster students’ learning and development toward
goals. Based on what you have discovered about your students’ prior experiences, interests,
abilities, and needs—and based on the high expectations you place upon students to master
content—search out the resources that will push all of your students forward. A vast array
of tools is available to help you and your students reach your goals.

Textbooks
Most teachers start with adopted materials such as textbooks as they make their planning
decisions. In fact, many schools mandate their use, in some cases their strict use. Textbooks
provide a reasonable starting point because they are composed by teams of experts, are
subjected to extensive reviews, are field tested, and undergo periodic revision. Textbooks
can be effective supports for student learning (Elsaleh, 2010; Wakefield, 2006). Too, many
students and districts find that plentiful online materials for textbooks make them more
interactive and supportive (Sunkin, 2010).
However, a long history of controversies surrounds textbooks and their shortcom-
ings. Some authors argue that texts are boring, bland, or dumbed-down (Dorrell & Busch,
2000: R. Jones, 2000; Ravitch 2003a, 2003b). Textbooks may not address standards well
(O’Shea, 2005) or follow research-driven recommendations for learning. For example,
Brenner and Hiebert (2010) found that, despite the fact that teachers are required to follow
their core reading textbooks closely, major texts included just a fraction of the number of
words that third-graders should read per day to improve as readers. Through their analyses,
authors have also found that many textbooks include content inaccuracies (Levy, 2000;
Loewen, 1996; Jehlen, 2000) and biases such as class privilege (Dutro, 2009).
For these reasons, it is important to study texts carefully, render your own well-supported
decisions, and use textbooks judiciously. Start by examining your goals, objectives, and
related standards, and then study the text for its relation to those targets. Examine the accuracy
and completeness of the text, and search out possible biases. Determine the extent to which
96 CHAPTER 5

CHECKING THE LEVEL OF TEXT MATERIALS

processing programs often now
You can more easily match text to students if you know the reading level of the text. Word
different text ratings as part of the “tools” package. One measure of the text’s difficulty is its Lexile rating.
report one or more
A Lexile measure is based on two factors: sentence length and word frequency. You can search the Lexile Web site (http://
www.lexile.com) for books already rated, and you can get Lexile ratings of your own materials. Try using the analyzer on
processing program has “Lexile” as a tool. As another use, some teachers complete
the Lexile Web site, or see if your word
Lexile ratings of students’ writing to help them track changes over time. Readability depends on many factors (such as student
interest and the conceptual abstractness and developmental appropriateness of the text), so readability formulas offer just one
more piece of information, or a starting point, to match texts to students.

the reading level of the text matches your students’ current abilities (the Teaching Tip,
Checking the Level of Text Materials, gave an idea for matching students with text). Then
think about ways to use the text in support of your goals.
It will be important for you to determine the amount of judgment local policy allows
you to exercise in deciding how you will use textbooks. Ask the person in charge how
closely you are expected to adhere to text materials. Are you required to “stick to the text”?
If the answer is yes, ask a few more questions. What does it mean in your district to “stick to
the text”? It can mean very different things, ranging from “‘use each of the activities exactly
as written in the teacher’s edition” to “teach to the text’s objectives using your choice of
activities (text and other) that will encourage learning best for your particular students.” In
making decisions about using texts, I encourage you to exercise your professional judgment
to the fullest extent allowed so that you can provide responsive instruction. For situations
in which teachers are granted wide latitude, Dunn (2000) offers suggestions for strategic
use of textbooks. She suggests using the textbook as

e A framework to find key ideas.

e A source of questions and possible activities.
¢ Background reading and reference.
¢ The basis for cooperative learning activities.

As you consider using your text, remember to use it as just one of many resources that
can help students accomplish their aims. Supplement textbooks with other rich resources.

Rich Instructional Resources

Plan your instruction to include rich resources such as primary sources, manipulatives,
realia, a variety of sources of print, software, maps and globes, outside speakers, family
members, and multimedia. Using rich resources serves many purposes. First, it increases
your opportunities to include materials that build a learning environment that incorporates
students’ worlds. Second, it helps students learn to think the way experts in the field think.
Social scientists, for example, know how to interpret primary sources, conduct and analyze
oral interviews, and use maps. Third, using a variety of materials ensures that students with
different needs can gain access to the information. Students who struggle with reading, for
instance, are placed at a disadvantage if instruction is entirely text-based (Frey, Fisher, &
Moore, 2005). Also, rich source materials deepen student learning by inciting student
interest and curiosity, by making the content more accessible and memorable, by helping
students connect with the content, by allowing them to more effectively comprehend and
practice the material, and by grounding it more fully in the real-world context within which
the content will be used. Although gathering rich resources takes some thought and time,
it
need not necessarily require a large budget. The Teaching Tip gives some ideas for securing
resources when budgets are tight.
Include technological resources in your instructional planning, both in lesson
pre-
sentations and for 21st-century learning goals. Many schools have projection systems
so
 Planning for Instruction 97

?. Pacning Tip
Ne FINDING RESOURCES WHEN Money Is SCARCE

Resources do not need to be expensive to be useful. Imaginative teachers use strategies such as
the following to obtain resources to enrich their plans.

Talk with your parent-teacher organization. Many grant small amounts of money for
instructional materials.
Look for grants. Contact district personnel to scout out opportunities to fund promising
projects.
Get corporate support. Businesses near you will welcome the opportunity to serve the local
community by donating supplies. You can also electronically register for donations from
organizations around the world. See dozens of sites for donations at the American Federation
of Teachers’ database (http://www.aft.org/yourwork/tools4teachers/fundingdatabase/), for
example, or try Donors Choose (www.donorschoose.org).
* When you purchase materials, tell businesses that you are a teacher. Many businesses
offer discount programs for teachers. Others provide materials at drastically reduced prices,
or at cost.
* Ask families. Send a note home (translated as necessary) asking for supplies. Do not assume
that families will not contribute simply because they have low incomes. Many teachers who
work with families of limited means find that families contribute generously. Throwaways
such as paper tubes, plastic grocery sacks, and cardboard may become treasures in your room.
¢ Visit thrift shops. I bought a whole class set of white men’s dress shirts to use as lab coats for
$2.00 a shirt.
¢ Use your scouts to visit garage sales. Tell family and friends what you need (board games for
your game center? uncommon musical instruments?) and put them on the lookout. Give them
a tough budget: 50 cents for a puzzle?
e Encourage your students to raise funds as a class. Some classes run recycling programs and
use the proceeds to fund field trips or social action projects. Check school polices on fund-
raising first.
¢ Head to the public or university library. You can check out books, or you can stock your
classroom library by attending libraries’ book sales, where books are often sold for pennies.
¢ Borrow. Many organizations have lending libraries of materials that stretch far beyond texts.
Check your local museums and state agencies. Or go national. The National Gallery of Art
(http://www.nga.goy), for example, will ship loaner recordings and art samples free of charge.
e Use free Web-based materials. Search, for example, for free e books for teachers as students.
e Share. Work with other teachers in your department or at your grade level to make the best
of scarce resources.

teachers can display presentations and other files. Use the Internet’s vast array of resources
to enhance your lesson presentations. An endless collection of video clips, webcam feeds,
multimedia files, still photographs, and the like is literally at your fingertips and waiting to

UsinG DIGITAL FILES IN LESSONS

* Use digital images that you or your students take, or find them on the Web through an image search. Fliker (Fliker.com) is a
popular photo-sharing site. é
* Use your own audio or video files or find them on the Web through sources like YouTube (youtube.com) and TeacherTube
, .
(teachertube.com).
(keepvid.com) to download
* Can’t access video sites at school? Use a conversion site like Zamzar (zamzar.com) or KeepVid
i .
and save files so you can play them anytime, without Internet access.
In general, teachers can use small amounts of information for educational
* Remember to check and follow copyright rules.
purposes. When in doubt, ask for permission.
98 CHAPTER 5

some ideas
enhance student learning. See the 21st Century Teaching and Learning Tip for
for using digital files in your lessons.
Whenever you can, have students use technology to work toward mOnmtation and
communication technology standards in addition to their content work. If you don’t have
local technology standards, you can rely on ISTE’s student standards (ISTE, 2007). For
example, as you plan, ask yourself what resources and opportunities are available to help
students work toward goals like using technology systems better and using digital tools to
gather, use, and evaluate information.
To stretch toward ICT goals, find out what resources are available for you and your
students. Most U.S. schools do have some equipment (recall Chapter | statistics). Most
classrooms have desktop or laptop computers with Internet connections. Many teachers
also augment the effectiveness of their computers by adding equipment such as cameras
for videoconferencing, measurement instruments for collecting science data, and assis-
tive technologies to increase access for students with physical disabilities. Internet access
opens the world of Web-based learning (check out the longstanding Web quest page http://
webquest.org/index.php) and social media for student learning. Social media such as
blogs, wikis, social bookmarking and networking, and virtual worlds democratize learn-
ing by allowing all to become content producers who share and interact with information
and other producers.
Many schools have interactive whiteboards (IWBs). Research on IWBs is fairly new,
and it’s mixed. IWBs can support student motivation, engagement, thinking and achieve-
ment (Lopez, 2010; Metiri Group, 2006; Torff & Tirotta, 2010), but effects are small and
uneven. For example, in the research reviewed by Marzano (2009), in one-quarter of the
studies, [WB classrooms did worse than those without IWBs. As a result, some educators
judge IWBs as unworthy of their required substantial investment (Johnson & Hirsch, 2010;
Meeks, 2009). To maximize IWB effectiveness, Marzano (2009) suggests our use of them
should:

¢ Present information in logically organized bits during well-paced lessons.

¢ Ensure visual information supports main content points.
¢ Use results from voting systems as part of the lessons, not ignore results.
¢ Use reinforcers (like virtual applause audio files) judiciously and focus on why re-
sponses are correct.

Research (e.g., Kulik & Kulik, 1991; Metiri Group, 2006) indicates that technology
can support teacher effectiveness and student learning outcomes such as achievement, so-
cial development, and attitude toward the subject matter. The extent to which technology
does facilitate teaching and learning rests largely in the care taken by the teacher to consider
purposes carefully and to implement technology as a tool effectively. Technology presents
us with tools; the expense of the tool matters, and it’s the skill of the teacher who holds
the tool that typically makes the difference. Be sure to use the tools you select in ways that
enhance student engagement in the content and in the process of learning.
You have a responsibility to be aggressive in your search for tools that can promote stu-
dents’ development, content mastery, and 21st-century learning. If you work at a site with
limited resources, remember the responsibilities that schools have to help bridge the digital
divide and other gaps. You'll need to be proactive. Look around. Check storage rooms for
older computers. See if families might donate their older equipment. I have a friend who,
realizing the classroom potential of a document camera, found an old but serviceable one
on eBay for $20. Another teacher, without classroom computers or classroom volunteers,
brings in her personal laptop computer and uses PowerPoint presentations she has narrated
to lead physical movement centers for her kindergartners. Responsive teachers do what
it
takes for student success.
In summary, early in your planning, consider the full range of resources available to you
and your students. Figure 5.6 can be used to brainstorm the kinds of resources relevant
to
particular lessons or units. Note that some resources may occur in more than one row,
which
is fine for brainstorming. Use these resources in your long-range and short-term
planning.
 Planning for Instruction 99

Brainstorming instructional resources.

Lesson Unit or Topic: ]

Standard or Essential Question:

Types of Resources Brainstorming: List ideas for this type of

resource (Possible sources? Actual titles?)
Techno Tools
¢ What technological resources
should you demonstrate?
¢ Which tools should students use?
(Think: productivity tools, research
tools, communication tools)
¢ How can technology help meet
diverse needs? (e.g., assistive
technology, primary language
support, support for
struggling readers)

| Text Materials
e Textbook sections
¢ Variety of types of print
(newspapers, books, charts,
manuals, letters, etc.)
e Print in the students’ environment
e Print in students’ home language
| e Student-created text

Visual Images
e Think about photographs,
video clips, works of art, etc.
e List potential Web sites or
search terms

Language of the Discipline

¢ What tools do experts use?
* Consider a variety of
measurement tools, software
applications, artistic media,
data gathering strategies such
F as interviews, calculators, etc. ws

Field Experiences
¢ What expertise might family
members have? Example:
interviews about historical events
or current experiences with
the world at large
e Which community members
could contribute?
e What sites could you use for
visits to make the world
your classroom?
e Which contacts with
: faraway people may help?
100 CHAPTER 5

Many teachers bring

coherence to their long-
term plans by planning
collaboratively.

Annie Fuller

Long-Range Planning

Although teachers plan differently, one reasonable approach is to move from the broad-
est level of planning down to the most specific. Long-range planning entails using your
knowledge of your students, potential resources, and set of goals to map out the year (or
term) and set out a structure for weekly and daily activities. It also includes unit planning.
The Teaching Tip gives some advice for long-range planning.

Yearlong Planning
With knowledge about your students and your overarching goals in mind, study your
content standards for every area you teach. Then, because you teach as part of a system,
ask whether there is a pacing guide for your grade level or subject area. The pacing guide
will give you direction about which standards to teach when, and it will make suggestions
about the materials to use to address those standards. A pacing guide, though, is no excuse
for you not to become well versed in the curricular goals your students are to attain. Only
through careful study of your standards will you be able to teach in thoughtful ways that
meaningfully connect ideas over time and to students’ worlds.
If there is no pacing guide, create a curriculum map for the term or year. To do so,
some teachers photocopy standards onto colored paper (one color per content area, such
as “technology” and “language arts”). They cut apart the slips and group them logically.

ADVICE FOR LONG-RANGE PLANNING

. Base your planning on student assessment data.

2. Be sure that your decisions about how to use instructional time reflect your goals
and priorities.
3. Remember that most lessons and units can take about twice as long as expected, unless we
are very careful with time.
. Worry less about “covering” the material than about “uncovering” it.
 Planning for Instruction 101

Others use spreadsheets for this task. Electronic copies of your standards, downloaded from
your state department of education Web site, can start you on your way. As you examine
standards, look for underlying concepts that might capture enduring ideas and serve as glue
to hold a variety of standards together. Hurt (2003, p. xv) lists helpful questions that can
guide you in studying state standards:
1. What is so important about this standard that students should know?
2. What is within, beyond, beneath, and behind standards that makes them so important?
3. How can I use this standard to teach students about something that is more durable?
4. How can I use standards to help students transfer learning to other facets of their
lives and to the world around them?
Where to start if you teach multiple subjects? Many teachers find it helpful to use so-
cial studies or science as a starting point and then progress to the other subject areas. Note
that this process asks you to integrate content. Integration can create powerful learning by
tying standards to real-life contexts or tapping into deep understandings about life’s central
or enduring ideas. However, not all standards can be integrated meaningfully. Let “stand-
alone” standards remain separate from your grouping and plan to address them through
other structures such as opening exercises or mini-units during the year or term.
Once standards are grouped logically, they can be sequenced over the year. As you
decide how much time to devote to each area of study over the year, examine a school cal-
endar for months, scheduled breaks, and local traditions. You may choose to glue to a large
chart those colored strips you have organized so carefully in the preceding step.
Although your textbook may play a central role in determining what to teach when,
examine your texts only after you have studied your standards carefully. Begin review-
ing the text by examining the scope and sequence (a chart that gives a suggested layout
for the term) and other information in the teacher’s editions to determine the units or
standards that are treated in good depth in your adopted materials and those that will need
additional support. This will also help you locate possible extraneous material that does
not support your content standards. Use the brainstorming chart (Figure 5.6) to consider
rich resources to supplement or replace the text. Think, too, about whether certain units
make more sense at certain times of the year as you decide when to teach each topic. Fit
your topics into the school calendar by becoming more specific in your planning: Move
to unit planning.

Unit Planning
Glance through a teacher’s edition and you will see that authors arrange instruction in units.
A unit is a set of related lessons that address a single topic, theme, or skill. For example, a
literature unit might address a particular book or genre. A social studies unit might address
a particular group of people or a time in history. A math unit might include a single skill
area such as measurement. Units range in length from just a few lessons (perhaps a week in
length) to many lessons (perhaps 2 months). Four to six weeks tends to be a typical length
for instructional units.
There are several approaches to planning units. Here are three that allow you to ad-
dress your goals while maintaining flexibility in developing (or selecting) and sequencing
learning activities: backward planning, the “big idea” approach, and thematic instruction.
The first format is increasingly popular as teachers plan units to meet content standards.
It is called backward planning or backward design (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). This
model begins with the conviction that a student’s performance is key to determining what
the student knows. First, the teacher identifies what students should know and be able to
do at the unit’s end. Second, the teacher considers what evidence the students would need
to provide for the teacher to determine that they have mastered the content. After the end
performance is clearly in mind, the teacher develops activities to help students prepare for
the performance. To use backward planning you might:

1. Select content standards or outcomes for mastery.

2. Unify these outcomes through a theme, an issue, or a “big idea.
102 CHAPTER 5

students’ deep
3. Compose an essential question that, if answered, would demonstrate
thinking about the content. Develop supporting unit questions as well.
4. Determine performance that you would accept as evidence that the students have
mastered the content. Consider multiple measures as appropriate.
5. Develop rubrics, with the students if possible, or other measures to assess each
performance. (Rubrics and other assessments are addressed in Chapter 8.)
6. Select activities that lead students toward mastery.
7. Review and revise until each component of the unit supports the others.

The power of the backward-planning model is that it turns the “teach my favorite
activities” approach on its head and instead focuses on providing instruction that will help
students meet the end goal.
A second unit planning format is recommended by experts in content areas such as
social studies (Ellis, 1998; Savage & Armstrong, 2000) and science (Gega & Peters, 2002).
We will call it the “big idea” approach.

1. Begin by determining the major ideas related to the content. Major ideas, or gener-
alizations, are statements that connect facts and concepts. For example, “tree” is a concept,
or aclass of ideas with identifiable attributes. “Some trees lose their leaves” is a fact. “Trees
and other organisms respond to environmental stimuli” is a generalization. It is a more in-
clusive statement that relates several concepts and has greater explanatory power. A sample
generalization in social studies is, “All human societies change.” In analyzing your content
standards during yearlong planning, you probably identified these generalizations. You can
also find them in teacher’s editions, often under the heading “Chapter Concepts.” Chapters
typically include three to four big ideas.
2. Once you find generalizations, write standards-based objectives and then locate
activities that can help your students learn the generalizations. In selecting activities, you
may draw from your texts and from other sources such as literature, current events, and
trade books (which are any nontextbook books, including literature and teaching materi-
als devoted to particular topical areas, typically housed in curriculum libraries or offered
for sale at teacher supply stores). An earlier section of this chapter urged you to consider
an abundance of resources in your planning, and Chapter 6 will reinforce the importance
of rich learning experiences that will lead to student mastery of important generalizations.
Examples of enriching experiences include field trips, guest speakers, and multimedia
projects (Green & Brown, 2002).
3. Then arrange the activities for daily instruction. Good instruction builds bridges
between the students’ lives and the content. You can plan lessons that begin with a “bridge”
to take students from their lives into the content via an engaging question, demonstration,
or other activity.

Note that, on their way to learning content generalizations, students will learn facts and
concepts that should slowly coalesce to form larger understandings. It is indeed important
to teach facts and specific information. The big idea method of unit planning ensures that
facts build into larger, more coherent structures of understanding.
Another strength of this planning approach is that your focus on big ideas will ease
decisions about which daily activities to cut or extend. Most teachers feel pressed for time.
Using the big idea method of unit planning, you can drop activities that are less likely to
help students build understanding of key concepts and spend more time on productive
learning experiences.
A third popular approach to unit planning is thematic instruction. Many teachers
find that integrating their content through themes allows them to address content standards
efficiently and in ways that are interesting to students. Instead of being based solely on core
ideas related to particular subject matters, thematic units are interdisciplinary, with learning
activities emanating from the theme (Kovalik & Olsen; 2001; Pappas, Kiefer,
& Levstik,
2006; Roberts & Kellough, 2008; Ronis, 2008). Thematic units can be helpful because they
present content holistically, as it might appear in life, rather than as discrete entities. Further,
thematic units hold the promise of helping students with high-incidence disabilities,
whose
 Planning for Instruction 103

educational experience may be fragmented as a result of receiving instruction in a variety

of settings, to experience content in ways that transfer across subject areas and into real-life
settings (Gardner, Wissick, Schweder, & Canter, 2003). These authors suggest that thematic
units, particularly when they are enhanced with technology, help students with disabilities to
gain and practice lifelong learning skills by using tools that can assist them throughout and
beyond their school career.
Themes lie at the core of thematic units. Examples of themes include, for young
students, homes, and for older students, discoveries or interdependence. Concepts from
different subject areas are surfaced and linked through the use of the theme. Also, thematic
units usually include choices for students, allowing students to select at least some of the
learning experiences in the unit. The elements of choice and group discussion can develop
a sense of ownership and community as students learn together and share their results.
Pappas et al. (2006) suggest the following steps for planning thematic units:

1. Select a theme. The theme needs to be broad enough to encompass information from
many subject areas but not so broad that meaningful connections are lost. Keep your
larger goals and students’ interests in mind.
2. Create a planning web. Brainstorm to create a web—a semantic map—that explores
the many instances in which the theme arises. Figure 5.7 gives an abbreviated
version of a planning web. Notice that it does not include mention of traditional
subject areas such as mathematics or history; it should break away from traditional
compartmentalized thinking. As you web, you will note connections among ideas

Sample planning web.

ih
How can students
shape their Who makes
communities? them?
Who enforces

What role do virtual Explore through People need them?

Use mathematical communities play? field trips, interviews, video, rules to get along
data to make reading, and the Internet
predictions What if they're
broken?
1G How do they :
Commonalities get changed?
Present:
our community How are communities
around the world
alike and different?

Study students’
families’ past : nets wee
communities eel TiN08) People's different, afety
needs are more easily eee
Throughout People living iti
met through communities ublic services
Hee
¢Past)
history together Play
Study examples
from favorite
historical works How are they CCommuntry )

Families eng: + .

are different Information

Support systems _ technology
are different is affectin
g Animals
communities
living together
Depend on
the environment Plain
Changing one
link affects Interdependence
other links Rain Qcean Desert
forest
104 CHAPTER 5

resources,
and can begin to categorize your ideas into groups. Jot down your ideas for
resources
including books, technological materials, concrete materials, and community
as you web.
rich
3. Select resources. This chapter and Chapter 6 argue that teachers should create
learning environments. As you plan, aim to provide a wealth of resources. Include
the arts, literature, other print sources, tangible materials, technology, and community
resources; flip ahead to Figure 6.4 (p. 126) for other ideas.
4. Plan activities. Choose or create activities that address the theme, utilize rich
resources, and encourage students’ progress toward learning goals. Remember to
include opportunities for students to choose their learning activities.

Next, teachers organize their classrooms for instruction and implement their units. It
is also important to consider plans for assessment.
Experts in multicultural studies advocate thematic approaches to planning because
such approaches allow teachers and students to dissolve the traditional subject-matter
distinctions in favor of content organizations that revolve around topics seen as immedi-
ately valuable and powerful. By restructuring the boundaries of curriculum, we may open
our classrooms to more democratic and inclusive study.
How do you plan? Some teachers use index cards so they can rearrange activities as
necessary. Some keep their plans in a loose-leaf notebook so that it is easy to insert other
materials. Others create templates and word process their plans so that they can easily copy/
paste information such as content standards into their plans. Others use fee-based Web-
based programs such as Taskstream or OnCourse to author, store, and share their plans.
PlanBook Edu (planbookedu.com) has a free lesson planning tool that saves your plans to
the Web. Experiment and see which strategy works best for you.
In his book on ethnic studies, James Banks (2005) presents a unit-planning approach
that has both an interdisciplinary focus, as does thematic planning, and a focus on key gen-
eralizations, as does the big idea approach. This approach allows students to gain informa-
tion through many diverse examples to build universal, cross-disciplinary generalizations
related to such multicultural education topics as ethnicity, socialization, intercultural com-
munication, and power. Banks argues that this planning approach allows learners to gain
the knowledge and multiple perspectives required for participation in their increasingly
diverse world. Further, Banks and others remind us that the decisions a teacher makes,
including decisions about curricular planning, are not purely technical. The ways in which
we arrange our content and instruction—across the year, in units, and in weekly and daily
schedules—mirror our visions of what we want for our students.

Weekly and Daily Schedules

Once you have determined a broad view of what should happen when, devise a schedule
of daily and weekly events. A well-designed garden provides an analogy for a thoughtful
weekly classroom schedule. According to Benzel (1997) every garden needs plants to serve
as “bones,” “binders,” and “bursts.” Bones, permanent and sturdy, provide the structure for
the garden. Trees may serve as the bones, for example. Binders connect elements of the
garden so that they relate smoothly to each other. Binders might be shrubs and large peren-
nial plants. Bursts infuse the garden with color and excitement—think colorful flowers.
In weekly planning for teaching, time structures provide the bones, routines and recurring
events provide the binders, and engaging lessons provide the bursts.
Figure 5.8 shows two experienced teachers’ classroom schedules, fourth and fifth
grade at the same school, bones only. Notice that both Richard and Susie have devised
structured, stable time schedules to ensure that they use their time well and to provide
students with a sense of predictability and direction. Both teachers include similar subject
areas, and they have devoted substantial instructional time to the language arts. You can
see structured use of family volunteers. You also see that the school works to provide a
balanced curriculum and uses specialists in technology, physical education, and the
arts.
Because all teachers at the site utilize the specialists, neither Richard nor Susie is free
to
choose the times for these subjects.
 Planning for Instruction 105

Two teachers’ daily schedules.

Richard’s Class Susie’s Class

(fourth grade) (fifth grade)

7:50-8:00 Opening 7:50-8:05 Opening

¢ Bell work * Opening exercises

e Attendance * Homework collection (with parent helpers)
e Lunch count
¢ Flag salute
¢ Homework check

8:00-9:40 Math 8:05-8:45 PE. or Music

e Warm-up * (alternating days: T, Th and W, F)

¢ Homework correction 8:45-9:45 Math
e Math instruction

9:45-10:07 Recess
————s

10:07—12:20 Language Arts 10:07—12:20 Language Arts

¢ Journal writing (We sometimes fit in a social studies or science

¢ Small reading groups and reading or writing activity here if needed.)
guided practice, follow-up
activities
¢ Grammar lessons
e Writing instruction
e¢ Read-aloud
¢ Silent reading
¢ Vocabulary
¢ Spelling
12:20-1:05 Lunch

1:05-2:00 Social Studies 1:05-2:00 Social Studies or Science

and Science (alternating days)

2:00-2:10 Closing 2:00-2:10 Agendas and cleanup

¢ Write in homework agendas
e Cleanup

Special Notes: Special Notes for Language Arts Time

¢ Computer lab: T 10:20-11:05 | (10:07—12:20):
¢ Music: T and Th 8:45-9:25 | GATE reading group with librarian on
(don't forget instruments) T (30 min)
¢ Library: Th 10:15—10:45 and ¢ GATE computers on W with parent
as time permits volunteers (30 min)
¢ Parent volunteers help with language arts T and Th
e PE.: Th 1:25-2:10 and F
8:00-8:45 (need appropriate ¢ Computers on Th (45 minutes)
shoes)

2:10 Dismissal
106 CHAPTER 5

Binders are found in the routines and recurring events of these scheduled time periods.
For instance, during the opening in Richard’s classroom, students know they will complete
“bell work” (brief review assignments that commence when the morning bell rings) and
check their homework. These activities can provide a personal and academic focus for the
remainder of the day’s work. Another example of a binder can be seen during the closing
activities, where both teachers have students write in their agendas. Bursts are the engag-
ing activities that happen during the day during content-area instruction. Examples include
hands-on investigations in science and projects during social studies.
Bones, binders, and bursts apply to teachers in departmentalized secondary schools
who work within the confines of a tight bell schedule as well. They just compress their us-
age of bones, binders, and bursts to serve them well during a 55-minute period. Figure Sie)
shows how Loretta, a junior high teacher, structures her time over a day and a week for one
period near the beginning of her year.

A junior high Language Arts teacher’s schedule.

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Daily Schedule ° Topic * Literature e Literature e Literature e Test on

introduction connected to connected to connected to vocabulary or
Period 5 8th- language skill
vocabular vocabulary vocabulary
grade sheltered ¢ Vocabulary y
English from literature | ¢ Practice e Practice e Practice
language skill language skill language skill
(excerpt from e Language skill
plan book)
e Test-taking skill
——<——

Bones ¢ Six-period day, with periods 50 minutes in length.

Rotating schedule. Periods stay in order, but the first one of the day rotates through Periods 1-6.
Period 1 has five extra minutes for pledge, anthem, announcements.

No rainy day schedule. Lunch is 30 minutes long and cannot be shortened.

No assembly schedule (assemblies not held).
| Binders Attendance: Call roll. Students must answer with the phrase of the day. “I did/did not do my
homework.” “| like my English teacher.’ This is quick oral language practice.
* Opener: Students do Daily Written Language (correct errors in passages placed on overhead
transparency) and get materials ready before attendance has been taken.
* Closure: Examples: “Tell your partner two things you learned about sonnets.” “Share with
someone the next step you need to take in writing your persuasive essay.”

Notes on
Planning
¢ Nightly homework: Practice skills for Friday’s test.
e Major planning documents:
—District curriculum guide, based on California content standards
ert
and —Drawn from language handbook (teacher’s edition of text)

Instruction —Overview schedule that lists writing activities, literature, test items to be mastered, and skills.

(Bursts) ¢ Instructional methods: Using direct instruction. Sharing pictures or photographs, reading
poetry
aloud, acting out vocabulary words, partner reading of literature selection, cooperative learning
activities, student drawings of vocabulary words, creating flash cards with terms.

* To Do: There is no coordination of topic or skill between the four items on the overview
schedule
and curriculum guide. Students might read a story about persuasion during the trimester
when
they are writing response to literature essays, but not during the trimester when they
are writing
persuasive essays. My grade-level team wants to work to coordinate these elements
——
in the future.
 Planning for Instruction 107

-. Lesson Planning
A lesson is a relatively brief instructional sequence that focuses on one or a few instruc-
tional objectives. When students master the objectives from one lesson, they are a step
closer to building more complex ideas, attitudes, and actions related to the overall unit and
to your guiding goals. Although lessons vary from 10 minutes to a week in length, depend-
ing on the content and on the age and sophistication of the students, lessons typically last
less than an hour. The distinguishing characteristics of a lesson are that

1. It uses a set, logical structure.

2. Activities relate to each other and aim toward exploring ideas or skills related to a
very limited set of objectives.
Although objectives take on different forms (e.g., Gronlund, 2004), a commonly used
version is the behavioral objective (Mager, 1997). A behavioral objective is a specific state-
ment about how students will be different at a lesson’s close in terms of their knowledge,
skills, attitudes, or abilities. Especially in your early days as a teacher, behavioral objectives
can push you to focus on students and outcomes: What should students be able to do after
your lessons?
Although many new teachers initially find that writing good objectives is time consum-
ing and may feel artificial, repeated practice streamlines the time required and sharpens
their instruction. It is worth the time. Objectives will clarify for you exactly what you want
students to know, which increases the chance that students will learn it. Without objectives,
plans tend to become mere scripts of what teachers do during lessons. The Teaching Tip
gives advice for writing objectives.

Writing Objectives
Look again at the following objectives, found earlier in Figure 5.5:

1. Given paper and pencil, students will add two-digit numbers with 90 percent accuracy.
2. Without reference materiais, students will draw a diagram of the water cycle and
describe how humans can affect the cycle at two points at least.
These objectives have the three components typically specified for behavioral objec-
tives (Popham & Baker, 1970): behavior, conditions, and criteria, described in Figure 5.10.
For more examples of instructional objectives, examine your teacher’s editions and other
curricular materials. Check to see that each objective includes the three typically identified
components of a behavioral objective.

Components of a behavioral objective.

¢ Behavior: What, specifically, should you see the students do as a result of your instruction? (What is the
students’ observable action on mastery?) In the first objective above, students will add. In the second, they will
draw and describe.
© Conditions: Under what conditions should students perform? (Are there limits on time? What materials may
they use?) The conditions of performance are found at the beginning of each of the objectives listed. You can
imagine how the conditions would change based on both the students’ characteristics and the teacher's
expectations for appropriate performance.
the
© Criteria: How well should students perform? (How many? How fast? With what degree of accuracy?) Above
first objective gives a percentage rate for acceptable performance, and the second sets a minimal number of
for your
discussion points. You will need to think carefully about the kind and level of criteria that are appropriate
students because your definition of success will influence the decisions you make as you plan instruction.
108 CHAPTER 5

WRITING BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES

do
_ Be sure to focus on the intended outcome of the lesson, not on what students will
throughout the lesson.
2. Focus on the skill or concept involved, not the technique you will use to measure perfor-
mance. (Why, for instance, have students “complete page 43’”?) If you do not state the
main intent, your objectives may appear trivial (Mager, 1997).
. If the outcomes you seek are covert, add an indicator such as “circle” or “list.”
4. List only the criteria and conditions that you will actually use. For conditions, think about
what students may use—or not use—to demonstrate understanding, and think about real-
world conditions in which they will need to use their knowledge. For criteria, if you will
not check to see that all students attain 90 percent accuracy, do not list it in your objectives.

Despite their potential to focus attention on student learning, behavioral objectives are
criticized on several grounds. They are criticized, for instance, as being too driven by the
teacher and as being so mechanistic that little room is left for spontaneous learning. Opinion
is divided in terms of how carefully teachers should compose and adhere to objectives.
Mager (1997) instructs teachers to focus on observable behaviors. Gronlund (2004) does
not. Many teachers elect to include only the observable behavior, leaving the conditions
and criteria implicit. I adopted this approach in a fossil lesson I taught to second-graders
(see Figure 5.12). Until you develop skill at writing objectives and using them to guide your
teaching, you probably need to write full behavioral objectives. That way, if you decide
to use shorthand objectives later, your choices will be based upon a full understanding of
what is implied in the objective, even if it is not stated. As you become more comfortable
with planning, select the format that is most useful for you in encouraging student learning.
Once you are clear on what you intend for students to learn, you are ready to make decisions
about structuring your lessons.

Lesson Structure
Lessons are composed of activities that are joined meaningfully into a regular structure
that addresses the objective(s). Although there are many helpful planning formats, lesson
formats share similar components. Every lesson has three sections: open, body, and close.
The open sets the stage for the lesson to come. The lesson probably begins with a
“hook” that catches students’ attention or a “bridge” that allows students to travel from
their own worlds into the topic of the lesson. It is common to state the objective in student-
friendly language and give a purpose for the lesson. The teacher might also state behav-
ioral standards for the lesson; such standards tell the students in clear terms how they are
expected to behave during the lesson. During the body, students develop concepts related to
the objective. To close, the teacher and students consolidate and extend what they learned.
They might bridge back out from the content to their lives outside of class. Figure 3.11
offers some options that may help you as you think about structuring your lessons according
to the open-body-close format.
The fossil lesson (shown in Figure 5.12) demonstrates some of these activities in its
open-body-close format. Perhaps as you review the lesson, alternative ways of opening,
developing, and closing the lesson come to mind. Also, I taught this lesson in a room with
little technology available. Think how technology might be used to enhance the lesson and
differentiate learning experiences. The fossil lesson illustrates elements common to most
lesson plans.

Elements of a Lesson Plan

In addition to structuring each of your lessons to include an opening, a development
phase,
and a closure, you should include in your plans information that will keep you
organized
 Planning for Instruction 109

Activities
for different lesson stages.

Activities for Different Stages of the Lesson Sequence: Open, Body, Close

Open 1. Capture the students’ attention: Share a real object, or try using a story, a picture, a book, a
video clip, or a song.
Present a problem. (Challenge students to solve the problem through the lesson.)
Provide warm-up or review exercises to engage students.
Elicit students’ prior knowledge, experience, or opinions about the content.
State your objectives.
Preview the lesson.
Give your expectations for students’ behavior.
ges State the purpose of what they will learn.
Cal
tey!
SNI
e)
ES)
Body Present information verbally and through graphic representations.
Point out critical attributes, examples, and counter-examples.
Model. (Described in Chapter 6.)
Read.
Discuss.
Use hands-on materials.
Work in cooperative groups to solve a problem.
Make charts and graphs.
Use your questions and those of students to explore the content.
Do research at the library or on the World Wide Web.
Use computer-assisted instruction.
| NH
ek
es SOODBNDDAONH
Check on students’ understanding. Adjust instruction based on their responses.
Close - Restate the objective.
Gather individual lesson pieces into a coherent whole.
Draw conclusions.
Summarize what was learned.
Give a brief quiz to assess understanding.
Ask students to state something they learned.
=H
NOORWN
Revisit prior knowledge charts or graphs from the lesson’s opening. Revise to reflect new
information.
8. Show students how the learning applies to real life, or ask students to make the connections.
9. Ask what students would like to study next, or record their unanswered questions.
10. Write in journals.
11. Connect this lesson to the next by describing the problem to be solved or idea to be
explored for tomorrow.
12. Hold a gallery tour (described in Figure 6.6) for students to appreciate each others’ work.

and that will help you communicate your intentions to yourself during teaching and to
others who may wish to follow your instruction. Although you will find a great variety in
lesson plans, six elements commonly included in lesson plans include the following:
1. Housekeeping Details: Include contextual information about the students (such as
their English language proficiency, reading levels, and behavioral needs) to ensure
that you are providing inclusive and responsive instruction, include information
about the materials you will require, and address other contextual information that
may affect the lesson.
2. Concept, Generalization, or Skill: Remind yourself of the “big idea” you are
working toward. Individual lessons should add up to bigger things. You may
elect to phrase the larger learning in terms of an essential question. Include target
vocabulary terms as well, keeping the number of terms fewer than five.
3. Objectives: State the intended outcomes of your lesson using an observable student
behavior, the conditions for performance, and the criteria for success. List the
110 CHAPTER 5

Fossil lesson.

Lesson Plan: How Fossils Are Made

Subjects: Science and Reading

Grade: Second (7-year-olds)
Students: 20 children; all English speakers, some readers
Time: 1 hour 35 minutes

Objectives
1. Students will describe the process by which fossils are made in nature.
a
2. Students will summarize text by sharing two important points from their reading of self-selected portions of
nonfiction text on fossils.
3. Students will explain how the mock fossils they create are the same as and different from real fossils.

Procedure

ee Portion (35 minutes)

1. Open: On the rug: Complete a five-item opinionnaire on fossils to find out what children know. (In an
opinionnaire, respondents mark their agreement with statements such as “Real fossils are made in factories.”)
Encourage discussion of each item to get kids talking. (8 minutes)
2. Body: Pair up the children (more accomplished readers with newer readers) and pass out multiple copies of
the fossil book. Read the introduction together. Glance at the table of contents. Encourage them to read the
table of contents to choose the sections that interest them. Draw upon surprises from the opinionnaire.
(5 minutes)
3. Release them to partner read anywhere they like in the room. Those who wish to stay and listen to the
teacher read may stay and read along. (10 minutes)
4. Back at the rug discuss something surprising that the children learned by reading. Draw from students’ ideas
to explain the process by which fossils are made. Use illustrations from text as support. (8 minutes)

Science Portion (1 hour)

1. On the rug: Show real fossils. Contrast them with a sample fossil made from plaster of paris.
2. Have students make their own mock fossils. Model procedure, then students work as individuals:
a) Pass out and soften plasticine (non-hardening) clay.
b) Release students back to their tables to select items for imprinting: shells, leaves, plastic dinosaurs
(already placed at tables).
c) When ready, have students go to back of room on hard floor to mix their own plaster of paris, pour
carefully onto plasticine mold.
d) When dry, remove fossils.
3. Close: (May need to follow lunch recess.) Reread the text, compare the process and types of real fossils with
class’s mock fossils.
4. Assign homework: “Tell someone at home what you know about fossils. Use yours as an example.”

Assessment: Students describe the fossil-making process, referring to texts and mock fossils.

relevant content standards. The typical lesson includes one to three objectives.
Don’t forget the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
Procedure: Use the open-body-close format to structure what you will do during
each step of the lesson. Primarily use general descriptions of what you will say and
do. For important points, or when the content is difficult or new for you, include
scripted quotations. Include enough detail so that a substitute teacher could pick up
 Planning for Instruction 111

your plan and teach from it, but work on limiting the text. Think of the procedure
as a to-do list that you can glance at quickly to remind yourself of what comes next.
Include information about student groupings (remember TAPS—+otal group
alone, partners, small groups), the activities different individuals or groups may
engage in, and about accommodations and modifications. Include time estimates for
good time management and to help you develop realistic expectations for how much
time the activities might take.
sh Assessment: Include a plan for how you will assess student learning in terms of the
objectives and incidental learnings. Consider how you will assess your teaching as
well. Note that objectives, activities, and assessments must all align.
Differentiation: Include any final notes on special considerations you need to take to
attend to students’ needs and interests as appropriate for this lesson.
Figure 5.13 gives a lesson plan format that can be used in many situations. The fossils
lesson followed this format, as do lessons in future chapters. As you review these lessons,
you may also notice that I tend to plan in fine detail. I am convinced that careful planning
enhances teaching, so I encourage you to take great care in preparing good lessons for your
students. The more specific and careful your individual lesson plans are, the more confi-
dent you can feel in front of the students, the more you will be able to focus on students’
learning rather than on your own words and behaviors, and the more quickly you will learn
from experience and be able to streamline your planning. So planning in detail is one “do”
for lesson planning.
Lesson planning can be daunting for beginners. Perhaps some “do’s and don’ts” may
prove useful. When planning lessons, Don’t...

1. Reinvent the wheel. Begin with existing materials—of what teachers have already
tried—and check your resources. Modify based upon your own stance, students, and
standards. Lesson plans are yours for the taking. Your adopted text probably has
good ideas. Select from its many ideas those activities that meet the needs and in-
terests of your particular students and that are directly related to your objectives and
standards. If you are required to follow the textbook with little variation, study the
text to analyze the quality of its activities. You can tweak it just a bit, as necessary,
to ensure that you provide well-structured lessons that are appropriate for your stu-
dents. At the very least, ensure that you can provide a solid rationale for each in-
structional move you make.
The Internet is a rich source of lessons as well. Try using a search engine to search
for “lesson plans” related to your topic at your selected grade level. A few likely
sources are listed in the Web sites section at the chapter’s close. The 21st Century
Teaching and Learning Tip gives criteria for selecting high-quality lessons from the
thousands that reside on the Web. Even if you are inspired by a lesson from the Web,
make sure you adapt it to meet your students and standards.

Let materials make your important decisions. Planning is not the same as finding
worksheets to fill the time until lunch, or glossing over lessons so that you can finish
the book by June. .
Be intimidated if the content is new to you. Check out some books and hit the
Internet to study the information you will be teaching. All teachers should expect to
continue to improve their subject-matter knowledge. :
Be lured by the promise of “fun.” Student engagement is important (critical in fact),
but not everything that is fun encourages student learning.

Dome

1. Focus on thorough and rigorous treatment of the content. Most teachers feel as if
they are pushed along by the hands of the clock. Rather than simply mentioning top-
ics without exploring them in depth, consider cutting out topics that do not reflect
key standards or that you cannot fully explore. Devote your planning efforts to en-
couraging lasting and meaningful learning.
112 CHAPTER 5

Lesson plan format.

Lesson Plan

Students:

Time:

Materials:

Concepts/skills:

Objectives:

Open: (Time:

Body: (Time:

Close: ine.

Assessment:

Differentiation:
 Planning for Instruction 113

JUDGING THE QUALITY OF LESSONS FROM THE INTERNET

Start your search with highly reliable sources such as professional organizations like the National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics, the International Reading Association, and the National Council of Social Studies. Also check university-
and state-based sites.
When you find a lesson, look for its match with your content standards. Be sure to go beyond a surface-level match
and aim for the bigger, transferable ideas.
Select lessons that address more than one set of standards. For example, lessons can address social outcomes,
technological outcomes, and English language development standards as they simultaneously address standards from
another content area.
Look for components of effective instruction (more to come in Chapter 6). For instance, lessons should connect with
students’ prior knowledge and encourage student interaction.
Look for rigor and depth. Songs that have students memorize algorithms (such as “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally”
for the order of operations) may be catchy, but they do not encourage conceptual understanding; they don’t teach the why,
or transferable learning.
Remember, a worksheet printed from the Internet is not inherently better than a worksheet torn from a workbook.

2. Plan with a partner or team. Experience and a rich supply of ideas help.
3. Anticipate students’ varying responses. Develop alternate plans to address the things
that may possibly go wrong.
4. Rehearse, especially if it is the first time you have taught the lesson or if you have a
tough audience.
5. Prepare your materials so you are ready to go. Have your materials at your
fingertips so that you feel calm and prepared as you begin your lesson.
6. Be prepared to scrap your lesson if you need to rethink it or pursue some other
path that is likely to lead to significant learning. This applies even if you are being
formally observed.

One of the reasons that teaching is more difficult than the you devote to considering what your particular students
uninitiated might expect is that so much time is spent out- need to learn and how you can help them learn it, the more
side of instructional hours preparing effective learning ex- likely they are to succeed.
periences. There are no shortcuts to good planning. Even Teaching is goal directed. This chapter was intended
teachers who are handed scripted materials and are asked to to help you think about structuring experiences likely to
follow the text closely need to bring students and content to- result in learning, and Chapter 6 gives advice on breathing
gether through careful planning. The more time and thought life into your plans through your instruction.

1. Connect. Join a social network for teachers. A great place 2. Pick a content area and grade level of interest to you.
to start: Classroom 2.0 (classroom20.com). Browse the Compare national standards for that area and level with
“groups” listed. See if the Classroom 2.0 Beginners group, your state’s standards. How close is the match?
or some other group, is the group for you. By the way, 3. Pick a single content standard. Write an essential question
Classroom 2.0 is a network created on Ning, an online for it. List some objectives. List a large variety of resources
platform where people create their own social networks. that could be explored in conjunction with it.
114 CHAPTER 5

4. The taxonomies of educational objectives (cognitive, e. Tell the story in your own words.
affective, and psychomotor domains) are useful in helping f. Make a painting or construction to represent the main
teachers to broaden their scope during planning. However, characters in the story.
the domains have been criticized in their application to
Key: a: Evaluate, b: Analyze, c: Apply, d: Remember,
classrooms. Think about a classroom instance where you e: Understand, f: Create.
learned something that you value greatly. Analyze that
experience in terms of the domains of objectives: 7. Write behavioral objectives for some of the following skills
a ane and concepts or choose some concepts from your upcoming
¢ Which domain or domains were primarily involved? eae
e Which levels of understanding or performance
red? ¢ Composing a five-sentence paragraph
were required’
ve : ¢ Identifying plot structure in a narrative story
e What, if anything, can you conclude about the
classroom use of educational taxonomies? * Troubleshooting a computer glitch
Examine an existing unit that is touted as having a ¢ Forming letters in cursive
multicultural emphasis. Use Banks’s (2005) levels of ¢ Explaining causes and effects of an important
planning (from Figure 5.14) to determine the extent to historical event
which the unit can help students develop a knowledge base
¢ Solving challenging story problems in mathematics
and view issues meaningfully from multiple perspectives.
In terms of its depth of treatment, how representative is C Creating a device that throws marbles at least 5 feet
the unit you selected of other approaches that claim to < Serving a volleyball
be multicultural? Which level of multicultural curricular
planning do you see at your site? Is that good or bad? ¢ Responding to a piece of music

6. Practice Bloom’s taxonomy by identifying the level of * Analyzing the use of color in a painting
each of the following general teacher statements. Then try e Balancing chemical equations
writing your own statement at each of the levels.
e Doing a cartwheel
a ae oe CHESS SLO CSTE ON Scar Analyze your objectives to be certain that each has
why not?
e An observable verb (an action the students will take to
b. Organize the story into parts and give a good title for :
g y P g 2 demonstrate mastery). Underline the verb.
each part.
¢ Conditions for performance of the observable action.
c. Tell about some people in real life who have the same Cis (he eine
problems as the person in the story.
; e Criteria for acceptable perform: 5 iteria.
d. Name the characters in the story. a ee eee ou gen,

Banks’s (2005) levels of integration

for multicultural content.

Level 1: The Contributions Approach

¢ The mainstream perspective remains unchallenged.
* Study focuses on discrete elements that various cultures have contributed to the mainstream culture: their
heroes and holidays.

Level 2: The Additive Approach

¢ Deeper content is introduced to the curriculum, but the structure of the curriculum remains unchanged.
* Books, readings, or lessons are added to existing materials.

Level 3: The Transformative Approach

¢ This approach shifts the assumption that there is one mainstream perspective and
infuses the perspectives of
several groups to enable students to view themes and issues from several perspectives.
* The structure of the curriculum is changed.

Level 4: The Social Action Approach

° Learning activities not only allow students to analyze issues from many perspectiv
es but also require them to
commit to personal social action related to those issues.
 Planning for Instruction 115

Explain your work to a devoted friend. Plan a lesson using the open-body-close format. Use the
8. Try sketching out a lesson plan for a video recorded form in Figure 5.13. Choose some objectives for your
or observed lesson segment. own students or rewrite one of the plans presented 1n this
chapter. Use this format for other plans that you teach in
* Write behavioral objectives to guide the lesson. Write
your own classroom as well. For extra credit, plan this
one for both the cognitive and affective domains.
lesson with a peer. Note the benefits of collaborative
¢ What materials are required? planning.
* Write a brief open-body-close lesson plan for the lesson.
Write a “close” that is logical based on what you see in
the video.
¢ How will you know whether students have mastered
the objectives?

Web Sites"
http://www.coe.uga.edu/epltt/bloom.htm http://www.merlot.org
Bloom’s Taxonomy: Original and Revised. This site Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and Online
explores the original Bloom’s taxonomy and the revised Teaching (MERLOT). This site contains a searchable
version. It includes links to other resources. collection of peer-reviewed online learning materials. Go to
http://www.cast.org/research/udl/index.html “education” and browse.
Home page for CAST, the Center for Applied Special http://teachnet.com/
Technology. This site includes rich resources for Universal Teachnet’s goal is to link teachers and allow them to share
Design for learning, including teaching modules and model resources. It includes lesson plans and links, power tools,
lessons. and a forum for sharing your work. Be forewarned of
http://www.curriki.org/ plentiful advertisements.
Curriki. You can find free education resources here, and Use search terms to search the Internet for additional infor-
you can publish your own. mation on selected topics, such as:
http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/ accommodations and modifications
Home of the IRIS (IDEA and Research for Inclusive backward planning (sample units are found on many sites)
Settings) Center in the Peabody College of Education at differentiated instruction
Vanderbilt University. Click on “resources” and explore interactive whiteboard (or, if you have an interactive
plentiful information on special education, including board, search by your brand. For instance, Promethean
accommodations. Browse by topic or try the learning Planet (prometheanplanet.com) has many resources for
modules. Promethean’s active board, and Smart (smarttech.com)
http://www.eduref.org/Virtual/Lessons/ has them for the Smartboard.
The Educator’s Reference Desk. This site allows you to lesson plans (you can list grade level and topic in an ad-
search more than 2,000 lesson plans by grade level and vanced search)
subject. revised Bloom’s taxonomy
thematic instruction
http://www.free.ed.gov/
Federal resources for excellence in education. This site links
your resources from a number of federal agencies. C heck
out the image collections.
_—- Advice on Instruction:
a COME IN

Before You Begin Reading

Take your pick of Exercise A or B, or, if you like, do both.

eyareun Exercise A Warm-Up Exercise B

Think back to Chapter 1, which presented Think back to an instance when you, with the help
six propositions for the nature of of a coach or mentor, learned a new physical skill.
teaching. How many propositions can you Examples include sports and crafts. Make a list
remember? Write as many as you can; of the things that your coach or mentor did that were
then refer back to Chapter 1 to complete helpful. What made the coaching successful
the list and check your work. or unsuccessful?

The Nature of Teaching Physical skill:

1. Teaching looks

(2s

3. Things that helped me to learn the skill:

4.

5
, Things that interfered with my success:

Good for you for taking the time to review

and write! The six points you just reviewed
provide the foundation for the advice
you will find in this chapter. For instance, Now generalize. Mark the points on your list that
because that teaching is goal directed, seem to provide advice for classroom teaching.
| suggest that you be organized when Keep them in mind as you read this chapter’s
you teach. As you read, think about how advice on instruction. (Thanks to Charlotte
these six propositions about teaching are Danielson at Educational Testing Service for this
reflected in the chapter’s suggestions. exercise.)

(<9
V oyager, there are no bridges, one builds them as one walks.”

—Gloria Evangelina Anzaldua

 Aavice on Instruction; COME IN 117

Perhaps teachers’ most vital role is to serve as bridge builders with their students, helping
them to construct meaning and forge connections to create their places in the world. We
do so through our instruction. Through our instruction, we help students reach for high
expectations. We convey to students that they are capable learners whose perspectives mat-
ter. We provide goal-driven, organized opportunities to help all students engage deeply in
working with new information, building connections, and formulating and testing theories
about the world.
Our instruction must be driven by a sense of urgency about what we must accomplish
in the very short time we are allotted. It must be driven by our genuine regard for our stu-
dents, by our unfailing belief in their potential, and by our passion for the subject matter
and its transformative power (Bowman, 2007; Delpit, 2006; Schussler, 2009). Challenge
motivates learning and a sense of pride in our accomplishments presents true motivation
to learn (Bowman, 2007). Our instruction must create meaningful challenges—challenges
that students believe they can meet—and assistance in meeting those challenges. As you
strive to provide excellent instruction, consider:

* Your Inclusive and Responsive Mindset: Your instruction starts with your under-
standing of your students, places them at the center of your decisions, and provides
flexible opportunities to meet learning goals. It builds bridges of relevance between
home, school, community experience (Ford, 2010) and helps students challenge
today’s inequities and shortcomings (Delpit, 2006).
* Your Stance: Your instruction is guided by your notions of your place in the big pic-
ture of education, what you believe about humans and how they learn, what you know
to be true about what you need to accomplish, and how you should accomplish it.
¢ Goals: Your instruction is driven by student learning goals such as specific con-
tent standards and more general outcomes such as 2Ist-century learning goals. For
example, your instruction will push students toward critical and creative thinking,
successful collaboration, and technology literacy.
¢ Research on Teaching and Learning: Your instruction incorporates what we know
from the research about human development and learning and about effective teaching.
This chapter helps you make decisions about instruction by exploring six pieces of advice
for instruction. Together, these six pieces of advice invite you to help your students .. .
COME IN.
1. Connect.
2. Organize your instruction.
3. Model.
4. Enrich.
5. Interact.
6. Consider human nature and student needs.

Connect

Human learning is biologically and socially an endeavor to form connections. Thus, one
of our central instructional responsibilities is to connect and to help students form connec-
tions. As instructors, we form connections with and among people, we help students con-
nect ideas, and connect their ideas with the real world and action. The rationale for each of
these connections is made here. Figure 6.1 assists you and your students in making these
varied connections.

Connecting People
to
“All of us yearn for a sense of relatedness or belonging, a feeling of being connected
are their
others” (Kohn, 1999, p. 21). The first people with whom teachers must connect
and
students. Authentic, caring, and respectful relationships lie at the heart of teaching
118 CHAPTER 6

Tips for “Connect”

6.6),
Connecting People See Ideas for Encouraging Interaction and Active Participation (Figure
numbers 2, 5, 18-24, 29, and 31.
* Contact students before school to welcome them.
Learn students’ names the first day. Encourage them to learn each others’ names.
¢ Make participants’ culture a part of classroom life and the curriculum.
Give students a space in the room to display items that are important to them.
your
¢ Share appropriate information about yourself that reveals your love of learning,
willingness to make mistakes, and your eagerness to apply the content.
Laugh—and cry—with your students. Tell your own stories and listen to theirs.

r Connecting to prior Try Figure 6.6, Ideas for Encouraging Interaction and Active Participation.
knowledge and See numbers 4-6, 12, 18-20, 22, 24, 28, and 29.
experience

Connecting with the Use problem-based learning (Chapter 7).

outside world and its Use strategies that place the content in a real context. One example is analyzing
important ideas news Stories.
¢ Show how information has been important to real people in different times and in
different ways.

Connecting to action Use action projects that allow students to apply their learning. Examples include
letter-writing campaigns and community improvement projects.
Have students share what they know with other audiences, such as families, other
students, or the community.
Try simulations and role play.
Use guest speakers.

learning. Students who report connections with their teachers report better attitudes toward
education and school, and they have positive school experiences (Markow & Martin, 2005).
The relationships you forge with families also offer connections that strengthen your instruc-
tion. Chapter 3 presented strategies for connecting with your students and families by getting
to know their cultures, interests, and needs through strategies like home visits, surveys, and
conversations. Incorporate this knowledge into your instruction and continue to build on it.
You must also help classroom participants to connect with each other. Helping stu-
dents to form a cohesive group encourages a safe environment, and it can help students
learn important lessons about working as members of a group. Additionally, learning
strategies that require students to work together are effective in supporting academic
achievement (Bowen, 2000; Hall & Stegila, 2003; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Maheady,
Michielli-Pendl, Mallette, & Harper, 2002; Marzano et al., 2001), language development
(Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence, 2002; Faltis, 2001), and social
and emotional growth (Goleman, 1998).
There are plenty of strategies for building a sense of community in a classroom. Most
important, teachers must model respect, revealing genuine interest in students as people,
and they need to encourage students to do the same for each other. If one student ridicules
another, the teacher’s lesson of the day must necessarily shift to address expectations for
how community members are to treat each other. Efforts to build community should incor-
porate students’ individual cultures and work to build a shared culture. Several engaging
techniques can foster a sense of community, as follows:

1. Share expectations: Hold a discussion, perhaps preceded by a journal writing ses-

sion, of what class members expect from each other. What can students expect from
their teacher? How do they expect to be treated by their peers?
 Advice on Instruction: COME IN 119

When classroom members

form a cohesive community,
they can support each other
in learning.

Shutterstock

2. Use activities that help students get to know each other: Choose from among many
published activities that allow students to learn about each other. In an activity called
“Trading Places” (Silberman, 1996), students write a favorite (e.g., book, place,
song) on a sticky note, place the note on their shirts, and circulate to discuss each
other’s ideas. They negotiate trades of sticky notes based on self-selected criteria.
3. Develop an outward symbol or sign to signify a sense of group identity: Create a
work of art, a name, a handshake, a logo, or other identification that signals your
cohesion as a class. For instance, based on student Jodi’s advice from her great-
grandmother, my class recently decided on its motto: “Be good. And if you can’t be
good ..=be careful.”*
4. Build a class wiki (e.g., Google presentation) and have students take a digital photo
to represent some interest or value and upload it to the presentation.

Kagan (2000) similarly gives many games that can help build a sense of team spirit in
noncompetitive and enjoyable ways. In “Smile If You Love Me,” one student (Cupid) stands
in the center of the circle, makes faces, and uses motions, words, and sounds to make another
person smile. When people in the circle smile, they join the center of the circle as Cupids.
Technology, too, provides plenty of opportunities to increase connections among
people within and beyond the classroom walls. We can harness students’ connections via
mechanisms such as blogs, social networking, and discussion boards to share perspectives
and ideas, that can equalize students’ social power. As a tongue-in-cheek usage of the fa-
miliar elementary technique of awarding good behavior with stars on a chart, for example,
my graduate students recently created a virtual “star chart” using a wiki and gave them-
selves and each other stars for appreciated efforts and achievements (Figure 6.2).

Connecting Ideas
Helping students to connect ideas involves two components: connecting to prior knowledge
and connecting ideas across contexts.

Connecting to Prior Knowledge and Experience Learners have experiences and

ways of thinking that strongly influence what they will learn and how they will learn it.
Research reviewed by Marzano (2004) shows a high positive correlation between what

'Used with the permission of Jodi Elmore.

120 CHAPTER 6

Wiki star chart.

something | don't. r
Here are E-cohort members earning gold stars. You might know
it. (Remember to hit
Add a gold star (yours or a peer’s) and tell how the owner earned
“edit” to add to this page.)

4 Who stuck Who seconds |

Your Your
How you earned it} it to the chart that emotion? |
name star

Ashley ~» | Skype scholar Sarah

Stee Ny Belinda Sarah, Sammy

nels supportive

| An excellent Maria Sarah

Eade pe

Sarah Vocabulary expert | Laurel Warren

Wrote and
Ana received my first Ana Belinda
grant!

students know about the content when they walk in your door and what they will know
when they leave. Let’s test this with a popular exercise. What does this sentence mean? The
notes were sour because the seam split. You know each individual word in the sentence, but
for most people, the words are not combined in a way that makes sense. However, if you
know that the topic is bagpipes, then the meaning of the sentence becomes clearer. Your
comprehension depends on your background knowledge.
Research also indicates that the background experiences we all have sometimes run
contrary to established fact and accurate explanations of the world. These alternative or
growing conceptions can be difficult to change (Driver, 1981; Marzano, Pickering, &
Pollock, 2001; National Research Council, 2000).
Thus, it is critical that you help students find out what they bring to the current learning
situation, revise it as necessary, and link it to the new information. Formative assessments
(from Chapter 5) such as pretests and sample problems serve this purpose. So do strategies
such as knowledge charts and clinical interviews. Chapter 8, Student Assessment, gives
additional strategies that can be of use to you as you make it a point to include preassess-
ment to guide instruction.
We help students link the new to the known through our scaffolds, our efforts to sup-
port students’ developing constructions of the subject matter. In introducing new content,
we should select analogies, metaphors, and experiences that are familiar to students and thus
allow them to connect to school knowledge (Delpit, 2006). In one study, teachers’ knowl-
edge of cultural scaffolds was limited in comparison to the many other scaffolds they used
to help English learners acquire content (Pawan, 2008). Once again we see the importance
of understanding students’ worlds; it helps us help students bridge the new to the known.

Connecting Ideas Across Contexts What did you have for dinner last Friday? You
probably can’t answer that question immediately. To recall that information, you probably
ask yourself a series of questions perhaps beginning with one like, “What was I doing last
weekend?” You can probably retrieve your menu once you trace back the related links.
This exercise argues for how information is stored in our brains—not as isolated bits
but as networks of related ideas. To increase the likelihood that information is retained, can
be recalled, and is useful in a variety of settings, then, we can help students strengthen the
 Advice on Instruction: COME IN 121

networks in which information is situated. As bridge builders, you and your students can
consider questions such as: “How does this concept apply in another subject area?” “Where
in history do we see this notion?” and “Is this term’s usage in the current context related to
its usage in another field?” We need to be explicit in our efforts to help students connect
their ideas and use them across contexts.

Connecting to the Outside World and Its Important Ideas

In connecting to the outside world, teachers provide students with authentic settings for
using and developing their academic content. Reality-based approaches provide students
with opportunities to enhance their skills at analyzing problems, gathering and summariz-
ing important information, solving problems, and reflecting on their solutions (Cole, 1995).
Examples of real-world connections include problem-based learning (Chapter 7); reading
primary sources such as historical documents and the newspaper; beginning lessons by
presenting photographs or realistic problems; and inviting guest speakers such as scientists,
writers, or elected representatives into the classroom. Digital storytelling is another (see
the 21st Century Teaching and Learning Tip). In digital storytelling, students create mul-
timedia stories that place the content in context. Students studying the Great Depression,
for instance, might capture the narratives of family members who remember it. Connecting
to the real world heightens students’ sense of relevance and enhances motivation to learn,
perhaps especially important for your disengaged learners (Kajder, 2006; Schussler, 2009).
Authentic experiences are linked most closely to the settings in which students will
use their new understanding. Important ideas are the ones worth having. For Duckworth
(1996), the essence of intellectual development is the formation of connections or, in her
terms, “the having of wonderful ideas.”” Wonderful ideas
need not necessarily look wonderful to the outside world. I see no difference in kind
between wonderful ideas that many other people have already had, and wonderful ideas
that nobody has yet happened upon. That is, the nature of creative intellectual acts remains
the same, whether it is an infant who for the first time marks the connection between seeing
things and reaching for them . . . or a musician who invents a harmonic sequence. . . . In
each case, new connections are being made among things already mastered. The more we
help children to have their wonderful ideas and to feel good about themselves for having
them, the more likely it is that they will some day happen upon wonderful ideas that no one
else has happened upon before. (p. 14; emphasis added)

Connecting to Action
Your long view of learners is probably related to students’ future behavior patterns and
decision-making abilities. What we teach children, from kindergarten on, should connect to
the ways we want them to act now and as adults. They deserve immediate opportunities to

DIGITAL STORIES

Digital stories are short (e.g., 2 minutes) multimedia productions that include visual images accompanied by a musical
soundtrack and a narration, usually from a piece of personal writing. They tell the lives of everyday people. Digital storytell-
ing is catching on as a way to empower youth while building both literacy and technological competence. Look at your unit
plans and decide how you can include digital storytelling as one option for an upcoming assignment. Then look around you
project
for available tools: What cameras are available? What software is available for sound editing? For now, simplify the
you and your students have available, perhaps using widely available presentation software with still images and
to use what
for
narration. Get more information at sites like the University of Houston (digitalstorytelling.coe.uh.edu/) and the Center
with grandparents
Digital Story Telling (storycenter.org/). Students are also recording cross-generational stories to connect
(http://www.umbc.edu
and preserve their personal histories. University of Maryland, Baltimore County, has one such project
oit/newmedia/studio/digitalsto ries/index .html).
122 CHAPTER 6

Teachers and students

engaging in service
learning, community action
project

Thinkstock

act on what they learn. Social action projects can serve as a powerful mechanism to shape
schools and communities into more humane and inclusive institutions (e.g., Banks, 1997;
Bomer & Bomer, 2001; Nieto, 2004). Another chance for students to take action is through
service learning, wherein they test and apply their content learning by serving the commu-
nity (Allen, 2003). Examples include encouraging voter registration, teaching or tutoring
younger students, and planning community gardens.

& Organize Your Instruction

Effective instruction involves a high degree of organization. When you organize content,
time, and materials thoughtfully, you maximize student learning time. Teachers who waste
little instructional time and ensure that students are engaged affect student achievement
positively (Miller & Hall, 2009). You need to be organized on more than one level: You
need to organize content within and across individual lessons, and you need to organize
times and tasks within the larger teaching environment.

Organizing Content
Information processing theory reminds us that the human brain chunks information into
manageable pieces (Miller, 1956). Think back to Exercise B at the beginning of this chap-
ter, where you were invited to think about what a good coach does well. One often-cited
coaching skill is the ability to break a complicated task (for instance, sailing, golfing, or
driving a manual-transmission car) down into smaller, more easily mastered skills. As does
a coach, you need to analyze the content you are teaching. It needs to be broken into chunks
before it can be presented in your classroom. What size should the chunks be? What shape?
In which order should you present them?
The importance of scaffolding (introduced on p. 120 as part of connecting to prior
knowledge) also will drive your decisions about how to organize content. Scaffolds allow
us to “prop up” our students, giving them just enough support to succeed until they can suc-
ceed independently. We organize instruction to gradually withdraw assistance as students
demonstrate increasing mastery. Because students vary, you will need to provide more
scaffolding for some, less for others, and different sorts of support for still others.
 Aavice on Instruction: COME IN 123

Teaching and Learning Tip.

INTERACTIVE GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

Graphic organizers aren’t just teacher tools. They can help students organize information as they build a number of
21st-century learning skills such as systems thinking, problem solving, logical reasoning and creative thinking. Plenty of free
interactive graphic organizers and mapping tools are found online at sites like these:

Holt (http://my.hrw.com/nsmedia/intgos/html/igo.htm)
Read Write Think (http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/student-interactives/)
Lexicon (http://www. lexiconsys.com/graphic_organizer.html)
Bubbl.us (http://bubbl.us/)
DropMind (http://web.dropmind.com/)
Free Mind (http://sourceforge.net/projects/freemind/). For older students; download is required.
Wise Mapping (http://www.wisemapping.com/). Sign in is required.
Mind Node (http://www.mindnode.com/). For Mac.

Many of these sites allow for collaborative editing. Be sure to preview the sites before using them with students to ensure that
you are ready to troubleshoot. Find more organizers using a search term like “interactive graphic organizers” or “interactive
mind maps.”

The manner in which you organize the content depends on your knowledge of the
students, the amount of time you have with them, and your knowledge of the content itself.
Before you teach, ensure that you have a firm grasp of the major concepts you will be
teaching and that you understand the relationships among these ideas. Check your under-
standing by constructing a diagram or other visual representation of your knowledge. One
example is a concept map, which relates ideas in a hierarchical structure. Figure 6.9, found
in Opportunities to Practice Exercise 3 at the close of this chapter, is a concept map of this
entire text. Try the free trial version of popular concept mapping programs, Inspiration and
Kidspiration, at http://inspiration.com.
Being able to organize your ideas into a one-page diagram helps you discover the
main points and supporting details so you can structure instruction and arrange your time
appropriately. Additionally, using graphic organizers, diagrams, and other nonlinguistic
representations of the text supports student achievement (Marzano et al., 2001). See the
21st Century Teaching and Learning Tip for more on graphic organizers.
By presenting information in particular ways, your curriculum materials will also
provide clues for content organization. Often textbooks follow predictable structures in pre-
senting content. Some typical patterns for the structure of text are suggested in Figure 6.3.
Also think about the organization that would best suit your purposes, even if it differs
from the organization used in your curricular materials. Your learners’ developmental levels
provide one clue in organizing instruction. A general rule of thumb is that the less experience

Some organizational patterns of content.

Organizational Pattern Example

Time sequence Historical events presented chronologically

General principles to specific examples Scientific laws and then real-world examples of them
Specific examples to general principles Letters of the alphabet as examples of vowels or consonants
Topical Aspects of family life within a culture: recreation, food, and work

Cause and effect Historical events and new laws they inspired
Compare and contrast Plants and animals
Problem and solution An enigma and then its solution
124 CHAPTER 6

learners have with the content, the smaller the chunks of content need to be. For example,
need
kindergartners, who tend to have fewer background experiences from which to draw,
informa
consistently smaller pieces of content. So do teenagers when exposed to complex
tion with which they have limited experience. Age and other elements such as the students
capacity to learn and language proficiency affect the amount of experience students have
with the content and hence the size of the chunks of information their teachers present.
The most common mistake novice teachers make when organizing content is to include
too much information (too many chunks) in a single lesson. I also made that mistake when
I taught a reading and science lesson to second graders, as I described in Chapter S. You
read my plan (Figure 5.13) for the hour-and-a-half lesson. I planned to guide the children
through some reading experiences and then have them make their own fossils to build an
understanding of how fossils are made. Upon reflection, I overestimated second-graders’
experience with text and could improve the lesson by breaking the reading portion of the
lesson into even smaller chunks spread over more time.

Organizing Times and Tasks

The content that you so thoughtfully arrange within individual lessons is placed in a frame-
work of how activities will flow over the course of the day, a daily structure (recall Chapter 5’s
discussion of planning). When you are ready to teach, make certain that the class understands
and accepts the organizational scheme you have devised. Even if you teach from great les-
son plans, your learners may leave dazed unless you provide clues about the organization of
content and activities—or they may leave indifferent if they perceive that they had no input
into the agenda. Learners deserve both an overall sense of where the day is headed and clues
to let them know where they are on the day’s map. The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching
Tip provides some techniques for building and sharing your organizational plan.
As you teach, events will conspire to encourage stalls and side trips. Because class-
rooms are crowded, busy places, it is easy for plans to be forestalled. Students, for instance,
may raise interesting questions or bring up points that warrant exploration. Instances like
these—teachable moments—are not found explicitly listed in the daily plan book, but
they present wonderful opportunities for learning. One difficult aspect of your job will be
to decide which moments to pursue because of their rich promise and which opportunities
may not be worth the time invested. That decision is not always easy, and not all students
will perceive your adherence to or diversion from the plan with the same optimism.
When the situation arises in my classroom, I sometimes tell students “You are raising
important issues! We can certainly explore them now. We will need to modify our agenda
to make room for it by deleting X. Shall we?” Use your professional judgment, and refer
back to contents standards and your stance toward education and its important goals, as you
decide which paths to pursue. The point is to remain intentional. Keep your goals in mind.

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

| TECHNIQUES FOR BUILDING AND SHARING Briefly tell students what will happen during the lesson.
‘@ Your ORGANIZATIONAL PLAN Preview the lesson’s major points.
If you intend to lecture, provide a note-taking form that
* Ask students for their expectations at the
helps student organize the information.
beginning of a class (e.g., “What do you
During the lesson, use internal summaries and transition
hope to learn this year?”).
sentences so that students see when you are switching to
Include an overview to the course, the year, or the
a different point or activity.
upcoming unit on your Web site. Include your regular
Refer back to your agenda or chart as the lessons
schedule, too.
progresses.
Write a daily agenda on the board. Try allowing learners to
Draw each lesson to closure. Try summarizing by asking
provide input by adding, deleting, or rearranging items.
students to share an important point or ask for input for the
Provide a graphic organizer that shows how your instruc-
next agenda.
tion will be organized.
 Advice on Instruction: COME IN 125

:
Ls
he? GIVING CLEAR DIRECTIONS

Ensuring that your directions to students are crystal clear will help you and your students remain
organized and productive. When giving directions, remember the following:

. Limit your directions to no more than three steps.

. Use more than one form of input: Say your directions aloud, post them on the board,
and model them. For older students, using just two forms of input may suffice.
- Hold up your fingers to count steps as you state your directions: “The first thing you will
do is .. .” Be certain that, for older students, you use natural phrasing and do not
overemphasize the gesture.
4. Check for understanding of the directions before you release students to work: “What is the
first thing you will do?” Reteach until students demonstrate understanding.
. No matter the age of the learner, give your directions immediately before you want
students to follow them. Students may forget what to do if you give directions and then talk
about something else before releasing them.

You will no doubt discover that the clearer you are in your priorities and the more
organized you are, the less time gets wasted. This is especially true with giving directions.
If your directions are clear and students know just what to do, they can jump in and get to
work. If directions are disorganized and unclear, your students will waste time and materi-
als, and you will waste your time and energy reteaching individuals who have made a mess
or wandered off course. The Teaching Tip suggests advice for giving clear directions.
It is also easy to lose track of time. If we were to list Murphy’s Laws of Classroom
Teaching, at the head of the list might be “Things always take longer than expected.” Keep
one eye on the clock and maintain your sense of urgency for all that needs to be accom-
plished. Use students’ time well.

Model

In life outside the classroom walls, we often learn by example, by being shown how to
conduct ourselves. Modeling, or showing students how to carry out a skill, is a powerful
instructional strategy (Cole, 1995). For instance, students taught ICT skills through a mod-
eling approach maintain higher computer self-efficacy than those taught without modeling
(Moos & Azevedo, 2009). Figure 6.4 gives some examples of modeling.

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE MODELING

. As you plan, think about the most important elements of the skill or process you will
model. List them you draw students’ attention to critical attributes and remember that in
many cases students’ performances need not match yours. Their efforts may be both differ-
ent from yours and good.
. Verbalize your decisions; talk about what you are thinking and doing. This models
metacognition and shows that we understand and have control over our thinking.
. Provide plenty of good examples, including student models. Point out when the examples
are different from each other and say what they have in common that makes them good.
Showing different examples—multiple embodiments—helps students focus on the criteria
for a successful performance.
A. If the behavior is complex, model sections of it and slow down your performance.
_ Model desired behaviors more than once. The less familiar students are with the skill, the
more careful repetitions they need to see.
_ As students emulate your performance, observe carefully and provide specific feedback.
126 CHAPTER 6

Four examples of teacher modeling.

—

Concepts and Skills Modeling

see clearly.
Tying shoelaces ¢ Mr. Alvarez positions himself on the rug so his six kindergartners can
* He demonstr ates each step of tying a bow, exaggera ting and slowing his
motions to make the steps obvious. mad
* He asks the students to verbalize the procedure with him as he ties several
times before handing each student a shoe to tie while he watches.

Cooperating with peers * Having assigned his fourth graders to work in pairs, Mr. Pease reviews his
expectations for partner work: “Partners support each other by reaching
decisions together. Partners help each other when they get stuck.
* He invites a student to the front of the room to play the role of his work
partner. '
¢ The partners show the class how to compromise to reach decisions and how
to use helpful words to get unstuck.
° Mr. Pease reminds the class: “Here’s what cooperation /ooks like, and here is
what it sounds like.”
° Now his students have some specific advice and behaviors to help them work

Writing a persuasive —. together.

* On a projected computer display in her seventh-grade class, Ms. Simon shows
and reads aloud two examples of good persuasive essays.
essay
e She shares the criteria for effective persuasive writing and states that she will
use those criteria to write her own essay.
e She talks through her decisions about selecting a topic and its supporting
points.
e As she expresses her decisions, she writes a couple of drafts on the projected
computer screen.
¢ She and the students check to see whether the essays meet the criteria for
good persuasive writing.
e She e-mails her final essay to students or posts it on the class Web site, for
students’ later reference.
Solving a challenging ¢ Miss Thompson reads the problem aloud to her ninth graders, varying her
word problem in math intonation as she reads critical components of the problem.
¢ Using the think aloud strategy, she summarizes her understanding of the
problem, discusses what she needs to know, and reacts to the problem to
show her stance as a problem solver: “This one looks tough, but | have solved
similar problems!”
* She attacks the problem on the whiteboard, sharing her decisions for trying
certain strategies. When her strategies do not bring immediate success, she
shows students how to move forward by trying new approaches.
* When she reaches a solution, she shares the joy she finds in persisting and
solving a challenging problem.
a

To model, think about what you want students to learn, show them how to do it, watch them
try it, and give them feedback on their performance. Modeling is effective for learners of all
ages, and it is appropriate in every subject area. Modeling is important for helping students learn
behaviors, such as using manners and showing consideration, as well as for helping them master
content-area outcomes. When you model, try some of the suggestions in the Teaching Tip.
Digital technology greatly expands our ability to supply good instructional models
for our students. A document camera, for example, allows the students to view in very
good detail the teacher’s modeling (see photo). Or students may view, for example, video
clips that demonstrate how to sign the alphabet or change an oil filter. Multimedia clips
of a performance are helpful because they can be magnified, played at variable speeds,
and repeated endlessly as necessary. As they learn social skills, students with autism are
benefitting from software that models emotions in the human face (Tanaka
et al., 1010;
 Advice on Instruction: COME IN 127

Paola uses the document

camera to model an art
project for her second-
graders. The screen
behind her shows, greatly
enlarged, the art materials
on top of a guided drawing
she just modeled. Placing
the camera infront of the
class allows Paola to face
her students as she uses the
camera.

Tardif, Laine, Rodriguez, & Gepner, 2007). Software that models native pronunciation of
a language (English or other target languages) is helpful because the computerized model
never tires of being asked to repeat a phrase. Electronic models, then, can help you dif-
ferentiate your instruction by allowing students who need particular kinds of help to view
models targeted to their needs.
Additionally, technology allows us to more easily capture and share appropriate student
models, or work samples. Ask for the permission of students (and families, as appropriate)
to create and keep electronic copies of their work to serve as models for future students.
Sample work created by other students tends to be very well received; such models show
students what is possible by someone in their peer group. Also, electronic student models are
especially helpful because they are easy to store, take up little space, do not fall apart over
time, and—if shared on the Web or distributed to students—can be viewed by many students
repeatedly and simultaneously. If you use electronic models, take precautions to ensure that
students submit their own work by structuring the assignment carefully and by providing a
variety of models that are different from each other and are still of high quality. Also, students
may need to be reminded that any new technological tool takes time and patience to master.
Finally, through their modeling, teachers teach more than content-area skills, behav-
iors, and knowledge. Good and Brophy (1987) make the important point that through their
modeling, teachers shape a healthy group climate, convey an interest in the students as
people, and teach ideas about good listening and communication habits. Through teacher
modeling, students learn to socialize as members of groups, to gain rational control over
their own behaviors, and to respect others. Teacher modeling, then, is an important social-
izing force that helps teachers induce students toward the good.

Enrich

Because teachers are responsible for presenting a great deal of information to large groups
of students in relatively brief periods of time, classrooms tend to ring with auditory input,
or teacher talk. Listening is an efficient learning strategy for many students much of the
time, but it does have at least six drawbacks:

1. People process information at different rates.

2. Because speech comes in a stream, listeners may not be able to separate main points
and discern the supporting points.
128 CHAPTER 6

3. It can be difficult for students to contribute to a lecture, change its pace, or connect
with its content.
4. People learn differently (Gardner, 1993).
5. Students may have insufficient experience with the language of instruction or
with the content to comprehend it solely by hearing it. Meaningful instruction for
students acquiring English is most often embedded in realistic and rich contexts,
as you will recall from Chapter 4 (Center for Research on Education, Diversity &
Excellence, 2002; Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2004; Hill & Flynn, 2006; Krashen,
1981: Swain, 1985; Thomas & Collier, 2001).
6. Recent work in human learning suggests that varied stimulation is essential for
brain development. The more varied and frequent the stimulation the brain receives,
the more complex its development (Kovalik & Olsen, 2001; National Research
Council, 2000).

For all of these reasons, teachers need to enrich the learning environment by providing
rich input. Indeed, in a study of mathematics and science instruction, Wenglinsky (2000)
found that hands-on lessons and higher-order thinking tasks resulted in higher student
achievement. Think about powerful learning experiences you have had in life. Potent learn-
ing experiences tend to be full of sensations: new sights and sounds, textures and smells.
We hear beautiful words and ideas that make us reconsider what we know. We try new
things that just the day before seemed beyond our capabilities.
Classroom learning should mirror the most powerful kinds of learning from our outside
lives. How well do our lectures, worksheets, spelling lists, and pages of math exercises
live up to that challenge? How inclusive and responsive are such frontal, paper-based ap-
proaches? How well do they help our students build bridges between their home worlds
and the school world?
As you teach, remember to fill students’ lives with authentic—rich and real—
opportunities to learn. Focus on meaning. Fill the classroom with sensations from
Lite is amazing, and a teacher students’ own cultures. Give students a chance to see and try new things, to hear the
had better prepare himself to be a music and speech of faraway places, to experience the struggles of those fighting
medium for that amazement. for independence, to touch the moist skin of the amphibians they study, to read and
hear the words of people who have shaped history. Figure 6.5 gives some ideas for
—Edward Blishen
enriching the learning environment.

Rich environment foster

deeper learning.

Annie Fuller
 Aavice on Instruction: COME IN 129

Ideas for enriching the learning environment.

Look for a variety of ways to present the content and for varied representations of it.

* Meaning: Focus on conceptual understanding, not just rote learning. Provide authentic experiences in the
content areas.
Many kinds of print: Fill your room with books of different genres. Include, too, other kinds of print such as
posters, recipes, student-generated work, letters, and signs (Schifini, 1994). Include text in students’ primary
language.
Picture files: Start clipping and saving pictures to support your instruction. Pictures can be used for concept
sorts or to encourage small-group discussion. Old magazines and calendars are a good place to start. Many
images can be downloaded and printed as well.
Realia: Find real objects to provide examples of what you read and study.
Works of art: Reproductions of great works are available in teaching materials and at libraries. They can set the
stage for the study of concepts from the content areas.
Newspapers and current periodicals: Look in the news for examples of what you are studying. Encourage your
students to do the same.
Technology: Help your students access information around the world through the Internet. See the Web sites at
the close of this chapter for resources that can bring the world into your room.
Living things: Instead of assigning only worksheets to study insects, bring in mealworms from the pet store.
Create a worm garden in an aquarium. Grow mold.
Music: Many students love to sing, and nearly all love to listen. Find recordings to support your study of history
and culture. Try compact discs. Make instruments in science to study sound. Dance.
Food: Try foods from different places or that illustrate different scientific or mathematical applications. Make
butter as an example of a physical change. When students study about George Washington, bring in George’s
favorite breakfast: hoe cakes and tea.
Real tools: Have your students seen the simple tools they read about in science? Bring in wedges, screws, and
pulleys. Encourage students to hunt for them also. Bring in a computer or toaster beyond repair, cut off the plug,
and let the students take it apart.
Models: Use physical models to provide opportunities to study hard-to-reach phenomena such as atoms,
planets, rockets, or the human heart.
Graphic organizers: Provide visual displays of your information (Bromley, Irwin-De Vitis, & Modlo, 1995). Try
Venn diagrams to compare and contrast. Make an outline that students view before they read.
Guest speakers and visitors: Bring in family members and other guests. Do you know someone who has
seen war? Volunteered? Marched in a protest? Named a star? Escaped persecution? Written a book?
Played professional sports? Learners’ lives are enriched when they meet people with great
accomplishments.
Field trips: Be certain to prepare your students for the trip by building connections between their studies and
what they will be experiencing in the field. List their questions before you go. Consider whether it would be
appropriate for your students to record information during the trip. When you return, process the field trip by
focusing on what students saw, heard, and learned. Find out if they have answered their questions. Connect
questions to past and future study. Even a 10-minute walk can provide abundant learning experiences
be (Russell, 1990).

Given their digital nature, electronic resources can easily be used to enrich whole-
class instruction or to differentiate instruction. For example, in preparation to read one
of William Shakespeare’s plays, a high school English class divides into computer-based
stations to listen to an audio file of a portion of the work in English or a home language,
examine maps of Elizabethan England, work with an interactive timeline of world events
during the period, view period art, read Shakespeare’s biography, or research world events
that influenced the work. The teacher decides whether to assign students, based on need, to
particular stations. For instance, students who may struggle in reading the play may benefit
130 CHAPTER 6

allow stu-
from listening to a performance of the play first. Alternatively, the teacher may
stations. Popular stations may be duplicate d so
dents to follow their interests in selecting
that more than one computer is dedicated to them. me
Will providing enriched experiences take more of your preparation time than would
invest-
photocopying a worksheet page? Almost certainly so. You can minimize your time
ment by saving your collections, by inviting students to bring in materials, and by utilizing
the expertise of community members and colleagues. On the other hand, do worksheets and
book activities have their place in the classroom? Almost certainly so. You will need to bal-
ance the kinds of activities and input you provide, checking to see that you select a variety
of activities that promote meaningful learning. Your efforts to provide rich input will pay
off. Remember that you are a window to the world for your students.

Interact

In his classic study of U.S. classrooms, Goodlad (1984) witnessed the predominance of “fron-
tal practices,” where teachers stood in front of the room, presenting information and briskly
quizzing students on factual content. Thirty years later, it appears that teachers are still talking.
In one study, teachers talked eight times more than their students did (National Center
for Education Statistics, 2003). Similarly, in a British study, teachers made 75 percent of
the classroom discourse moves (Smith, Hardman, Wall, & Mroz, 2004). When students do
talk, their utterances tend to be short and dependent on the teachers’ narrow requests for
information. This is discouraging for all students, but the news gets worse. Students placed
in low groups or tracks have poorer opportunities to interact with content (see Chorzempa
and Graham’s 2006 study of primary reading groups and Oakes’s 2005 study of high
schools). Additionally, the whole-class instruction that predominates in K-12 general edu-
cation classrooms cuts opportunities for students with learning disabilities (Vaughn et al.,
2001). Thus, exactly those students who need enriched opportunities to develop content
and language mastery through interaction actually are granted fewer. The Inclusive and
Responsive Teaching Tip gives one easy way to spread the participation.
Interaction is a critical component of good instruction for all students. Teaching is
more than telling. Interaction allows students to build social skills, to refine their thinking,
to consider alternative perspectives, to practice using language, and to provide ongoing as-
sessment information for their teachers. As a result, teaching must be interactional; students
must be active participants. Let’s address three particular aspects of interaction here:

* Active participation and progress monitoring

* Structured interaction for language development
* Physical movement during classroom instruction

Active Participation: Engagement and Progress Monitoring

Active participation strategies are the teachers’ explicit efforts to ensure that all students
overtly engage in the lesson’s activities. Figure 6.6 gives a list of thirty-one low-tech ideas
for encouraging active participation. Some strategies are best for checking content mastery
and others for sharing students’ perspectives. Mastery strategies are listed first in each section.

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

SHARE THE WEALTH four in a row. This strategy can increase student participation
for both convergent and divergent questions. Pair students
When you feel obliged to ask a question,
who may need support constructing a verbal response. If you
try this: Ask the question. Then say, “No
like, you can have students turn to a neighbor and discuss
matter what the first answer is, I’m going
to call on four more hands.” Wait a few seconds, then call on before asking for a show of hands.
 Advice on Instruction: COME IN 131

Active participation strategies: thirty-one ideas for encouraging interaction and active participation.

Give prompts to discover what students know, think, feel, have experienced, and wonder.

Teacher-—Student Interactions

“Tell Me” . Choral response: When questions have convergent, brief answers, all students
respond at once instead of one at a time. Teacher records and discusses items
with muddy responses.
Whip: Everyone shares a brief response (word, phrase, or sentence) to a topic or
question. Contributions move from one student to the next with no teacher
intervention. Students are allowed to “pass.”
Stand to share: All stand when they have developed a response to a question
such as, “What was an important point in the chapter?” One person shares aloud,
and all with the same or similar responses sit. Sharing continues until all are
sitting (Kagan, 1994).
. Opinionnaire: All respond privately to a set of statements related to the current
topic, such as, “Efforts to clone humans are wrong.” Responses can be formed as
agree or disagree or as numbers that indicate degrees of agreement. Teacher
leads a discussion to elicit students’ responses.
. Share a story: Teacher elicits students’ stories related to the topic. If there are
many stories, students can tell their stories to smaller groups or to partners. For
instance, “I have told you a story about crickets in my apartment. | would like to
hear a true cricket story that you may have.”
. Student questions (Dillon, 1988): Teacher provides time for students to formulate
their questions about a topic. He might record them for discussion and study. For
example, “We will be studying space. | have always wondered why stars twinkle.
What do you wonder about space?”

Flash cards: \ndividually or in groups students hold up color-coded or other flash

cards in response to teacher's or peers’ mastery questions. For example, teacher asks
questions about the federal government, and students hold up red for legislative,
yellow for executive, or blue for judicial. Students can also ask the questions.
Hand signals: Students hold up numbers of fingers to respond to mastery
questions (e.g., “How many sides on a triangle?”). Other gestures can also be
used. For instance, “I will watch while you draw a triangle in the air.”
Whiteboards: Students record responses on individual boards, then show teacher
or peers. Some examples include spelling words, cursive letter formation, French
vocabulary, and brief math exercises.
10. Letter and number tiles: Students have sets of ceramic, magnetic, or tag board
tiles displaying letters of the alphabet or digits 0 through 9. They display their tiles
in response to tasks from the teacher or peers. For instance, “Build an even
number that is greater than 50.” Or: “Round 5,723.86 to the tenths place. | will
come around and check your tiles.”
11. Comprehension check: Students complete brief quizzes, written by teacher or pulled
from existing materials, at the beginning or end of class. Students check their own
work and analyze what they need help with before passing their papers to teacher.
12. Quick write: Students respond in writing to a prompt. For example, “Before we
read this chapter, please take a minute and write about a time when you felt
powerless.” Quick writes can spur discussion and allow all students to express
feelings or experiences in writing, even if they choose not to share aloud. Quick
writes are not graded.
13. Fuzzy points: Near the end of a lesson, students anonymously record their fuzzy
points, the concepts about which they are still unsure. Teacher collects and
analyzes them for the next time.

(continued)
132 CHAPTER 6

Active participation strategies (Continued)

Student—Student Interactions

“Tell Each Other” 14. Peer coach: In pairs, students take turns serving as coach and coachee. Coach
Roles
(Be sure to process observes coachee solve a problem and provides praise and suggestions.
1994).
these activities. Come switch. Teacher circulates to check for accuracy and social skills (Kagan,
together as a class Student-led recitation: Students prepare written comprehension and challenge
and briefly share. questions over course and reading material. They sit in a circle and take turns
Discuss findings.) asking, answering, and evaluating each others’ questions and responses
(Dillon, 1988).
16. Numbered heads together: In small groups, students number off. Teacher (ora
peer) asks a question, and group members put their heads together to discuss.
Teacher calls on one number to respond for each group (Kagan, 1994).
WZ Toss the ball: Students give a response to a factual or opinion question and toss a
Koosh ball, Nerf ball, or other soft ball, to a peer, who becomes the next to answer
or question.
18. Talk to your partner: Students turn and discuss with a nearby partner. For instance,
“Tell your partner about an animal you know with protective coloration.’
8), Peer interview: Students ask their partners questions about their experiences with
a certain topic.
20. Values line up: Present a prompt that is likely to elicit a wide range of responses.
For instance, “To help the environment, families should own only one car.” Have
students numerically rate their agreement with the statement and then line up in
order of their numerical ratings, 1 to 10. Split the line in half and pair students with
extreme scores (1 goes to 10). Instruct them to give their responses and
rationales and then to paraphrase each other’s points of view. Draw conclusions
as a class once students are again seated.
Zale Scavenger hunt: Prepare a scavenger hunt form that encourages discussion of
students’ varied backgrounds and knowledge. Allow students to circulate and record
the names of peers who fit certain criteria. For instance, “Find someone who has
seen a famous monument.’ You can also make the prompts content oriented.
Students might be required to find the match for their chemical symbol, for instance.

“Show Each ee Group chart: In groups, students draw diagrams or charts to illustrate
Other” the content. Charts are displayed for class review and comparison.
(Process these 23. Group problem: Each member of a small group is given a vital piece of
activities, too.) information necessary to solve a problem. Only when students share their
information can they solve the problem together.
24. Snowballs: Invite students to record their questions or perceptions on a sheet of
paper. Then have them crumple the sheets into wads and, on your signal, toss
them across the room. After the chaos subsides, students open the wad nearest
them and respond to the question or add their own perspective in writing. Toss
and respond a few times so that students can read a variety of perspectives.
Process by asking for themes or questions that need to be addressed.
73S; Student quiz: Students develop written quizzes to check their peers’ mastery.
They check the content before handing papers to teacher. As an option, students
can complete quizzes in groups.
26. Follow the leader: One partner gives oral directions as the other partner tries to
draw, make, or build a construction that fits the leader’s description. Roles switch.
Teacher leads discussion about effective communication.
27. Sorts: In small groups, students sort objects (such as leaves or small tools) or
ideas (recorded on cards such as elements on the periodic table). In open sorts,
students choose but do not reveal their criteria for sorting. Peers discern the
criteria by observing groups. In closed sorts, students follow the grouping criteria
given by the teacher or a peer. Older students can use multistage classifications;
younger students may group by one attribute only.
 Advice on Instruction: COME IN 133

Active participation strategies (Continued)

28. Brainstorming and fact-storming: Students in groups record as many ideas as

they can generate related to a topic or solutions to a problem. Praise is given for
fluency (number of ideas) and flexibility (variety of ideas). In fact-storming,
Students record as many relevant facts as they can. Facts can be grouped and
labeled, or they can be placed on a chart for future revisions and additions.
29. Partner journals: Students can be paired anonymously or with friends. They
respond to classroom activities and content by writing to each other. Teacher
chooses whether to collect and review journals.
30. Blackboard blitz: During small-group work, representatives from each group
simultaneously record their group’s best ideas on the board. All students can view
each others’ ideas, and work continues while students write on the board
(Kagan, 1994).
31. Gallery tour: Upon completion of individual or group projects, students place their
projects on desks and tour the room to view other works. Students can respond to
each other’s works on sticky notes or on a response sheet for the author.

Some of these active participation suggestions have high-tech twins. For example, the
student response systems shared in Figure 5.1 offer a digital alternative to opinionnaires
(#4) and flashcards (#7). Students use their own wireless devices (Demski, 2010) or spe-
cial hardware to send data to their teachers’ computer, which quickly analyzes responses
and projects results. Too, some teachers are now experimenting with Twitter, running back
channels during lessons that allow students to anonymously make brief comments and ask
questions during the lesson (Kennedy, 2009; Young, 2009). Some secondary teachers are
using Web-based programs, some with free versions (such as polleverywhere.com) that
use texting for audience responses. High or low tech, as you select active participation
strategies, remember that you need to use a variety of strategies, and those you select
should be consistent with your goals, your learners’ needs, and your personal stance
toward teaching.
Active participation strategies support participation and academic success. They
break the traditional pattern of the teacher doing most of the talking while students either
listen quietly or respond, one at a time, to the teacher’s numerous questions. For instance,
when students use response cards (or flash cards, #7 in Figure 6.6) rather than hand
raising, instances of misbehavior decrease and participation and achievement increase
significantly for students both with and without disabilities (George, 2010; Horn, 2010;
Munro & Stephenson, 2009; Randolph, 2007). The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching
Tip shares an active participation strategy that can balance the power scales for students
who need more opportunities to be viewed as competent: Audience Plants (Guillaume,
Yopp, & Yopp, 2007).
Active participation strategies also provide for progress monitoring. They provide
informal assessment opportunities so that you can determine whether and what students
understand and provide instructive feedback. Feedback is one of the most important ac-
tivities teachers can employ to improve student learning (Northwest Regional Educational
Laboratory, 2005). To be effective, feedback must relate directly to students’ responses
and provide specific suggestions. See the Teaching Tip. Such feedback corrects misun-
derstandings and reinforces learning. Active participation strategies provide a perfect
opportunity to provide timely, specific feedback. Imagine how much more powerful ac-
tive participation strategies can be than are the traditional queries, “Does anyone have a
question? Anyone not get it?”
134 CHAPTER 6

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

“ Aupience PLANTS Here’s an example. Before Phil
i! Campos taught his fifth-grade
1. Before the lesson, select brief content aceial-atudies lesson. he sur
that can be shared by a student. You reptitiously took the intermedi-

fet Selec gue OE ate English learners outside and

someone to ask or short answers you want someone taught them their lines. They

fo BN rehearsed, and on cue during the

2. If your students read, give them the content on paper lesson, they shared their informa-

alone ea tion smoothly. Phil noticed that

after this lesson, his audience
3. Select one to three students and speak with them quietly
before the lesson, teaching them the cue for when dur- plants spoke spontaneously more
ing the lesson they should share information. Tell them Ofisn and demonetrated more con:
that they should use their best acting skills so that people fidence. Their English-only peers
don’t know they are plants. initiated more conversation with
4. During the lesson, give the cue (for instance, ask, “What them as well.
questions do you have?’”, scratch your nose, or ask the
cue question).
5. Allow your audience plants to share their information,
6. There is often a strong positive reaction from the audi-
ence to the content shared by their peers. Decide whether
you will share your strategy with the class.

Phil Campos

‘,
& iw PROVIDING EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK (FROM HATTIE & TIMPERLEY, 2007)

Effective feedback allows learners to close the gap between their current performance and the
goal. Provide feedback that will help students answer all three questions: “Where am I going?”
“How am I going?” and “What’s next?” (Think: feed up, feed back, and feed forward.) Praise,
along with extrinsic rewards and punishment, is the least effective form of feedback. Instead,
focus your feedback on ensuring that students have accurate information about their perfor-
mance related to the task, about the necessary processes for completing the task, and about their
self-regulation efforts to accomplish the task.

Structured Interaction for Language Development

Your students who are English learners rely on you to build opportunities for structured
interactions that support their language development. Instruction for English learners must
have an especially clear focus on the use of English to meet the dual goals of language and
content objectives, as a reminder from Chapter 4. In addition to comprehensible input, your
instruction must include opportunities to produce spoken and written English—to produce
comprehensible output. By structuring interactions carefully, you help students work toward
the triple goals of English acquisition, content mastery, and social growth. Figure 6.7 builds
on those priorities by providing checkpoints for structured interactions for English learners.
In a sense, every student is an English learner. Every K-12 student should have structured
opportunities to gain more powerful control over the English language, including the content-
specific discourse considered “the language of the discipline.” Students practice and refine
their language through multiple opportunities to use it. Also, language provides a powerful
vehicle for supporting content mastery. Meaningful opportunities to engage in elaborated,
higher-level, subject-based conversations promote learning (Brophy, 1997). For these reasons,
as you select strategies and plan and implement your lessons, ensure that you build in opportu-
nities for students to use language frequently and purposefully. Review Figure 6.6 for supports
for you in this goal by providing a variety of strategies to increase student interaction and
talk.
Be sure to vary the size of groups in which students interact and vary the partners regularly.
 Advice on Instruction: COME IN 135

Structuring interaction
for English learners: checkpoints
for sheltering instruction.

Supportive environment O Reflects and values students’ cultures and community norms
O Encourages language experimentation
Oo Fosters motivation (downplays explicit or negative corrections and reinforces
progress)
Content focused Grade-level content standards
Literacy objectives in reading, writing, listening, and speaking
Develops social, academic, and specialized English
Focuses on a limited number of key ideas
Develops key vocabulary terms systematically
Context embedded Purposeful use of language
Meaningful to students
Ties to students’ prior knowledge and experience
eh
(ah
ale)
Sle)
el
eer Plentiful use of objects and activities that provide context (realia—or real
items—props, images, recordings, and demonstrations)
Comprehensible input O Modified text (simplified, alternate forms)
Oo Modified speech (caretaker speech: enunciation, slower rate, matches students’
level, repetition)
O Use of primary language for support
O Guides instruction (clear directions, checks for understanding, reviews,
opportunities to practice)
Scaffolding (appropriate support)
Increased interaction Includes teacher—student content-driven conversations
Includes student—student content-driven conversations
Room is arranged for interaction
Various groupings (pairs, small groups)
Maximizes student talk
All participants foster language use (wait time, elongated responses)

Emphasis on higher- Challenging content expectations

level thinking Higher-level tasks such as evaluation and analysis
ep
sy
ah
ee)
ee Teach strategies for powerful learning
eeesh

Physical Movement during Classroom Instruction

Student engagement in lessons is clearly associated with student achievement (Marzano,
2007), and when energy lags, students, so does engagement. Physical movement during
content instruction is one way to increase energy and engagement. Physical movement
gives students an opportunity to interact with a variety of peers, to increase blood and
oxygen flow to the brain (Corbin, 2008; Jensen, 2005), and to refocus during subsequent
periods of sitting. Additionally, it provides students who need higher levels of physical
activity to channel their energy toward content learning.
There are many simple ways to provide productive physical activity in service of
student learning during your lessons, no matter the subject. From Figure 6.6 you can use
stand to share, values line up, scavenger hunts, and gallery tours. Here are five more, some
from Marzano (2007):

1. Stand and Stretch: After 10 or 15 minutes of lecture, ask students to stand and
stretch. Challenge them with a flexibility test if you like.
2. Physical Representations: Ask students to stand and use their bodies—
independently or in small teams—to represent concepts such as letters of the
alphabet, angles of different measures, or abstract concepts such as communalism.
3. Eye Contact Partners: To process information, ask students to make eye contact
with a peer across the room. At a signal, ask them to meet with their peer, papers
136 CHAPTER 6

questions
in hand, and discuss their notes, work a problem together, develop three
drew.
about your content, or raise two plausible objections to the conclusions you
have students travel the room with
4. Appointment Partners: Before the lesson,
an appointment sheet, signing up two or three partners for an hour lesson. Stop
ent
periodically during the lesson and have students meet with their appointm
partners to discuss the content. a
5. Vote with Your Feet: Have students express opinions by moving to specified areas
in the room at your signal. For example, “If you think climate change is the most
pressing issue we face, you’ll come stand near the bookcase. If you think disease
is the most pressing issue, . . .” Allow students to discuss responses with people in
their area before sharing with the group and listening to alternative opinions.

Consider Human Nature and Student Needs

Finally, when we start with the students, our instruction reflects students’ current physical
and emotional states, and it should reflect an understanding of human nature. What you
know about how humans learn and behave should be reflected in your teaching. For ex-
ample, we know that people are more likely to engage in activity if they are motivated to do
so. Glasser (1986) states that humans have five motivations. These include the need to be
safe, belong, acquire power, be free, and have fun. Your instruction will be more successful
if you ensure that those needs are met.
Other examples abound. For instance, we know that people have limited ability to
take in new information and that they need opportunities to process—to think about—
what they hear. As a result, you will need to vary your activities within a single lesson.
We know, too, that people tend to protect themselves from public displays of ignorance;
they tend to avoid intellectual risks in large groups. For that reason, you will create an
environment where risk taking is the norm and students feel free to express their questions
and wonderful ideas. Using strategies such as partner discussion instead of whole-class
discussion can lower students’ perceptions of personal risk. Another critical human need is
the need to be treated as an individual deserving dignity and respect. Each of your lessons

OPENERS

Because of the primacy effect, people tend to remember the first things they hear and see.
Make your first minutes count! Start your day or your lesson with an opener that catches
students’ attention and draws them into the content. Here are some samples.

* “In your small groups, make a list of four events that group members’ families celebrate or
honor. Each group’s family must be represented. Write each event on a sentence strip and
come place them on the board.” (The lesson that follows is on ritual as an aspect of culture.)
“Here’s a picture of my dog. In your group, estimate how many teeth a dog has.” (Or use
some photos of student’s pets. The lesson that follows is on digestion, which starts in the
mouth.)
“Use this string to shape an outline of Peru. We’ll compare in two minutes.” (The lesson that
follows is on South American geography.)
“Read these headlines about the Bay of Pigs and pick the one that is false.” (The lesson that
follows is on President Kennedy’s foreign policy.)
“Every generation has its protest songs. Who can name one? Now listen to this one and
discuss: What are they protesting?” (The lesson that follows is on the First Amendment.)
In addition to being memorable, openers allow you make curricular links, practice past
concepts, and address standards or topics that might not otherwise fit.

Head's up: There is a recency effect, too. People also tend to remember the last thing
they hear.
What does this tell you about how you close your lesson and day?
 Aavice on Instruction: COME IN 137

should incorporate human nature in order to propel learning. The Teaching Tip includes
a concrete example of how you can capitalize on how human memory works by starting
your lessons with a bang.
We must also recognize that at different times in their lives, humans vary predictably:
They change, or develop, over time. You will need to carefully observe your students to
note their current levels of physical, emotional, and cognitive development. Watch their
physical skills, the ways they interpret problems, the ways they play or talk together on
the school grounds, and listen to the issues they consider important. From your readings,
observations, and conversations, your understanding of your students will become richer
and more reliable explanations of human development.
Your instruction will not only need to take into account students’ current levels of
functioning, but it will also need to propel students’ growth toward sophisticated ways
of thinking, moving, and acting. To encourage development, teachers can provide varied
experiences in rich physical and social environments and encourage students to confront
their current understandings and ways of thinking and acting.
Digital technology presents resources that, when used wisely and evaluated carefully, can
help teachers capture human nature and address highly specific needs. In terms of human na-
ture, students tend to find new technologies to be motivating. Good software addresses human
needs such as the need for feedback on performance, the desire to explore and test ideas, and
the benefits of multimodal presentations. Given the popularity of computer gaming and its abil-
ity to motivate many people, for instance, experts in a number of fields are currently seeking
ways to harness the power of video games to teach critical thinking in the schools (Federation
of American Scientists, 2006). Thus, computer-based technology at its best presents content in
ways that students find motivating and that are consistent with their developmental abilities.
Computer-based technology also provides avenues to more easily address a variety of
student needs (Wahl & Duffield, 2005). Teacher-created Web pages, for instance, can dif-
ferentiate instruction by providing assignments that differ in terms of their levels, interests,
opportunities for interaction, and products (Cunningham & Billingsley, 2003). Technology
can also provide strategies to address specific needs such as behavioral disorders and has
good potential—when teachers plan carefully—to help students with moderate to severe
disabilities find success in inclusive settings (Downing & Eichinger, 2003).
Finally, considering human needs and nature entails you looking beyond students’
similarities and facing again the fact that each of your students comes to you with a unique
constellation of characteristics, with an idiosyncratic set of strengths and issues. You must
value all students and the contributions they will make to your life and work. When asked
what you teach, perhaps your first response will be, “I teach people.”

rrTTIT TLL Leelee

This chapter recognizes again the incredible power of ateacher —_content and develop as individuals and communities. The six
to affect student success. It is through our instruction, the first pieces of advice Connect, Organize, Model, Enrich, Interact,
paragraph of the chapter argued, that we help students reach and consider Needs and nature (COME IN) can take you and
for high expectations (ours and theirs) through goal-driven, —your students a great distance as bridge builders constructing
organized opportunities to help them all engage deeply inthe meaning and finding places in the world.

1. Use the form in Figure 6.8 to analyze a lesson. You have ¢ Analyze one of your own plans, perhaps one you wrote
two choices: as you studied Chapter 5.

¢ Analyze a peer’s lesson or one from your master teacher

or mentor.
138 CHAPTER 6

Lesson analysis: COME IN.

Advice
| Evidence

Connect To prior knowledge:

To important ideas or the real world:

To action:

Participants:

Organize Content:

Time and activities:

Model Draw attention to critical attributes:

Use appropriate number and pace of repetitions:

Enrich Provide rich experiences:

Interact Strategies for active participation (verbal? written?):

Sheltering instruction:

Progress monitoring:

|—

Nature and Needs Human nature:

Developmental needs:
 Advice on Instruction; COME IN 139

2. Take another look at the fossils lesson in Figure 5.13. Use is unfamiliar to your audience and, after modeling
the lesson analysis in Figure 6.8 to analyze whether, during the skill, ask for feedback on which elements of your
the lesson, I followed my own advice. Record any evidence modeling were most successful.
you find and then draw a conclusion for each of the six
Plan to use one active participation strategy (Figure 6.6)
pieces of advice.
in an upcoming lesson. If you are not currently teaching,
3. Implement and practice one or more aspects of COME IN select a strategy from Figure 6.6 that could have been used
through mini-lessons. Try the following examples to get during a lesson you recently experienced as a student.
you started:
Add one resource to your classroom materials. Consider
* Create a semantic map or some other graphic organizer adding to your picture file, or find or construct a
for a piece of text that either you or your students will model for a concept that is difficult to learn. Create a
read in the coming days. Use paper and pencil or one bookmarking site to collect your resource Web sites into
of the tools found in the 21st Century Teaching and one location. Try PortaPortal (www.portaportal.com).
Learning Tip, (p. 123). A concept map of this text, Commit to opening an upcoming lesson with an activity
found in Figure 6.9 offers an example. that accesses students’ prior knowledge. Seek to value
e Write a daily agenda and share it with your class. Invite different cultural experiences that students share. If you
students’ reactions and modifications. are not teaching now, have a conversation with a friend
e Write and give a set of directions for how you want about an aspect of your friend’s life with which you are
students to spend the first 5 minutes in your classroom unfamiliar. Remember to protect your friend’s dignity
each day. Use the advice for directions given in and to appreciate what you learn.
Teaching Tip, p. 125. Watch young students play either at recess or during
¢ Model a new behavior, either for your students or unstructured class time. What is the range of differences
for a willing friend. Select a skill or technique that you note in their physical development? Their social

Concept map of K-12 classroom teaching textbook.

Continuous growth
Distinct nature
(Ch 1) H= Is enriched by in the profession
(Ch 11)
Is guided by
Begins with Which interact

Students
(knowledge of and Informed by
commitment to)
(Ch 3)

Which drive
decisions|related to

Planning Inclusive and

responsive

Establishes
¢ Goals
e outcomes
¢ activities
General
° sequences
Assessment principles
(Ch 8) (Ch 6)
Occurs at all stages of
Modified by
Constrains and N
enhances and enhance
and strategies
(Ch 7)
Management of Decisions
Are related regarding discipline
learning environment
(Ch 9)
140 CHAPTER 6

development? Their reasoning? How could you improve 4. Write a letter or presentation for families that describes
your instruction by using this specific information? your principles of instruction. How will you teach
If you are not teaching, try observing people at a their children? Why have you chosen those principles?
playground or other public place. What conclusions can Share your letter or notes with a colleague and then, if
you reach about physical, social, and moral functioning? appropriate, with the families of your students.

Web Sites
http://jc-schools.net/ http://enlvm.usu.edu/ma/nav/index.jsp
Jefferson County Schools. Click on “Teachers” and look at National Library of Virtual Manipulatives. This site
the Quick Links. The PowerPoint collection alone is worth gives mathematics manipulatives-based activities across
the trip. See the online science resources as well. the math strands and grade levels. Excellent challenge
http://www.historychannel.com problems are provided to use in a center for early finishers
The History Channel. Listen to historic speeches such as or for differentiating instruction. Good for the interactive
Martin Luther King’s “I have a dream” speech and Amelia whiteboard, too.
Earhart’s discussion of the future of women in flying. I can http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/
”
imagine starting class each day with “This day in History. The Learning Network: Teaching and Learning with the
http://www.loc.gov New York Times. This site includes rich resources for
Library of Congress. An incredible source for American and teachers and learners based on the content of the New York
world history and culture. Times. [Interactive activities abound.

http://www.exploratorium.edu http://teach-nology.com/
Museum of Science, Art, and Human Perception. An award- TeAchnology. This site is a Web portal that offers free
winning site, this one will appeal to students and includes resources, links, and support tools to support educators in
many resources for educators. I enjoyed the mouse stem cell teaching with technology. Many resources are free,
video at the “Digital Library” and the “10 cool sites.” but access to some is limited to members.
http://www.funbrain.com http://www.si.edu
Fun Brain. Go to the Teachers Center to find games that Smithsonian Institute. Rich resources for teachers and
provide good practice across the subjects, primarily for students. Take a look at the ideas for podcasting.
elementary content. Otherwise, play online Sudoku, the only http://www.world-newspapers.com
way that wretched game should be played. World Newspapers. This site gives news from English-
http://nga.gov language newspapers around the world. See what they think
National Gallery of Art. Take a look at the online education in Benin and Bangladesh. Picture having your students
programs, NGA Kids, and the loan programs. The gallery contrast different—and international—perspectives on the
will send you loan materials through the U.S. mail. I have same event.
tried it; it works! http://epals.com
http://www.nationalgeographic.com ePals Global Community. Find e-pals for your students from
National Geographic Society. The world at the click of a among 200 countries, or sign up to participate in digital
mouse! Go to the site index for a listing of resources. projects that link them with learners from around the world.
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—— Instructional
and St

Before You Begin Reading

Your prior experience with instructional models and strategies will influence what you learn from this
chapter. Before you read, check your familiarity with some of Chapter 7’s models and strategies by com-
pleting the following chart. Use your results to focus your efforts as you read, and check your ideas against
those presented in the chapter.

Warm-Up Exercise for Instructional Models and Strategies

Rate your level List bulleted phrases that come to mind
Model or strategy of familiarity* when you think of this model or strategy.

1. Classroom questions

2. Direct instruction

3. Inquiry

4. Cooperative learning fF 1

“1 =| have no idea; 4 =! am a pro at using this strategy or model.

 Instructional Models and Strategies 143

é
(bypat for your choices, pick the best one, then go with it.”

—Pat Riley

You have so many choices as you pick instructional models and teaching strategies to
pursue student learning goals. For any lesson, how will you choose the best approach?
First, consider your students. Be sure to select models and strategies that build from their
Strengths, engage them, and keep the content accessible to them (Grant & Sleeter, 1998:
Horgan, 1995). Second, consider your goals: Overall, who are you helping students to
become, and what are the logical steps to get there? There is much current interest in
preparing students for this—their century—the 21st century. What sort of skills will they
need to succeed in this digital, highly connected world? A review of works related to
21st-century learning yields some differences, but there are many common threads
(American Association of School Librarians, 2007; Partnership for 21st Century Skills,
2009; Resnick, 2010; Sheridan-Rabideau, 2010; Tullis, 2010; Westby, 2010). In a nutshell,
21st-century success includes:

¢ Problem solving, decision making, and critical thinking (basing conclusions on evidence)
* Creative thinking (innovation and aesthetics)
* Collaboration (dispositions and skills for working openly and flexibly with diverse
groups as both a member and a leader)
¢ Multiliteracies (analyzing and utilizing several symbol systems for creating and con-
veying meaning, including for example digital, visual, and language literacies)
¢ Skills for inquiring to generate new knowledge
* Dispositions for continued growth (including personal responsibility and account-
ability, self-assessment, and the will and desire to learn in many contexts)

Notice that this list makes different sorts of demands on students. It requires them to
know things (like facts and language), do things (like inquire and use hardware and software),
and feel things (like empathy and responsibility). Choose your instructional models and
strategies so that students work toward this broad set of outcomes, moving every day closer
to the competencies that will make them successful contributors to their world.
This chapter presents seven instructional models—or cohesive systems for engaging
students in the content—that can serve as the basis for your instructional repertoire. But
first it addresses two essential tools that cross any instructional model: information and
communication technology (ICT) tools and questioning as a strategy.

Information and Communication Technology Tools

Technology, with its realistic contexts and capacity for providing engaging and reflective
activity, is a perfect fit with the nature of human learning as contextual, active, social, and
reflective (Driscoll, 2002). Technology resources provide a set of tools that can enrich
any of the instructional models we choose and simultaneously assist students in gaining
digital literacy.
Although no instructional model requires use of ICT, some include more prevalent use
of technology. Problem-based learning is one example because technology can provide a
multitude of resources quickly and can aid data management and analysis. Simulations are
a second example; think of the ubiquity of virtual worlds in students’ gaming lives today,
and consider technology’s prevalence in simulation trainings for professions such as space,
flight, health care, law enforcement, and the military. ICT in simulations allows the user
to virtually manipulate time, resources, and other variables without having to experience
real consequences.
Computer-based simulations are becoming more prevalent in classrooms, too (e.g.,
O’ Toole & Dunn, 2008; Peterson, 2010). Animal dissection is an example. For ethical, cost,
and other reasons, some teachers and students select virtual dissections over traditional
144 CHAPTER 7

SOME SUPPORTS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL ICT

.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/aas|/
* American Libraries Association’s Top 25 Web sites for Teaching and Learning http://www
euidelinesandstandards/bestlist/bestwebsitestop25.cfm
ebHome
© Curriki (Free, open-source materials for teachers) http://www. curriki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Main/W
¢ Free Technology for Teachers http://www.freetech4teachers.com/
¢ Webquest.org http://webquest.org/index.php
outcome)
* Partnership for 21st Century Skills (view the many Web-based resources associated with each learning
http://www.p21.org/index.php?option=com_content&task= view&id=254&Itemid=119
experiences,
* Google: Try some of the Google products such as Google Earth (http://www.google.com/earth/) for mapping
google.com/oce an/) to explore the depths, and Google Art Project (http://www.g oogleartproje ct
Google Ocean (http://earth.
.com/) to explore museums once you're back on dry land. Try their tools like Blogger too.

animal dissections. Visit http://froguts.com and try out the frog demo as an example of
virtual dissection. Despite their flaws (Allchin, 2005), evaluations of computer-based dis-
sections indicate that students who engage in virtual dissections can learn at rates that are
at least comparable to those who engage in traditional dissections (e.g., Maloney, 2002;
Predavec, 2001).
Although the use of ICT figures more prominently in some instructional models than
others, ICT serves as a useful tool for any instructional model you choose. For example,
during a differentiated cooperative learning lesson, you might provide text at different
levels (recall the Teaching Tip for leveling text, p. 96) or text that is read aloud by the
computer for students with different needs. Or, in leading an inquiry lesson, you might make
extensive use of the many Web 2.0 tools that present terrific options for fostering student
inquiry (Berger, 2010). In short, ICT can allow you to present information engagingly and
effectively, it can foster student research, it can facilitate interaction and communication
(Hamm & Adams, 2002; Schultz-Zander, Buchter, & Dalmer, 2002), and it can expand the
array of products students create.
Recall the Digital Divide? We have a responsibility to our students to ensure that
schools level the ICT playing field so that all students build the knowledge and skills that
will allow them to be powerful digital citizens. No matter the instructional model you
employ, be sure to study the ICT standards relevant to your students and employ avail-
able technologies to enhance instruction and learning. See the 21st Century Teaching and
Learning tip for a few useful Web sites to support you in this quest.

ix Questions in the Classroom

a)
Let’s say you close your eyes and are transported to a different place. How could you
know, with your eyes still closed, that you are now in a K-12 classroom? Listen for talk.
Hear it? And now listen for questions. Hear them? “Yes” to both means you’re probably
in a classroom.
The world over, classrooms are full of questions, and researchers devote much time
to examining classroom questions. Why this fascination with questions? Questions are
assumed to link with answers. Indeed, Aristotle postulated that knowledge itself exists in
question-answer propositions: Without a question, there is no knowledge; and by generating
and addressing a question to find its answer, we create knowledge. Because a major purpose
of schooling is the transmission or generation of knowledge, then, questions abound. Here
are six things we know from the decades of research about classroom questions:
1. Teachers ask many, many questions. In fact, in one estimate teachers spend one-third
to one-half of their day asking questions (Black, 2001). Further, the many questions
teachers ask are often not used to their best instructional advantage (e.g., Becker,
2000; Wimer, Ridenour, Thomas, & Place, 2001).
 Instructional Models and Strategies 145

2. Students ask very few questions (Dillon, 1988a). Dillon (1990) reviewed elementary
and secondary school studies and found that each pupil asks an average of only one
question per month. Students in iower-track classrooms ask even fewer questions
(Nystrand, Wu, Gamoran, Zeiser, & Long, 2003).
3. Teachers ask questions for a variety of purposes, such as to check for understanding,
prompt thinking, maintain lesson flow, hold student attention, and punish misbehavior.
4. Classroom questioning exchanges are typically rapid and follow a predictable pattern
(Cazden, 1986; Dillon, 1990; Good & Brophy, 1987). In the typical sequence, known
as the IRE pattern, the teacher initiates a question, one student responds, and then the
teacher evaluates the response. A new question from the teacher usually follows.
5. Students receive different questions based on teachers’ perceptions of them. For
instance, students who are perceived as of low academic ability get more factually
based questions and receive less time to answer them (Cotton, 2001). A sizable group
of students have zero questioning interactions in class, and a small group of “target
students” (typically white males) receive a disproportionate amount of the teacher’s
attention in questioning (Walsch & Sattes, 2005).
6. Research has not clearly linked the type or level of a question to the type or level
of the response (Cotton, 2001; Dillon, 1988b; Good & Brophy, 1987). Therefore,
teachers cannot assume that asking higher-level questions will necessarily prompt
higher-level responses-responses, or the reverse.
From this research, we can conclude that it is teachers’ questions we hear most often
in the classroom, and those questions are not always used productively. Instead, questions/
answer sessions often focus on lower-level exchanges that seek to reinforce teacher/student
power differentials and a transmission model of learning. Although we use questioning
with the best of intentions—to foster learning—then, we sometimes have the opposite
effect. Recall the 21st-century emphasis on building the skills and dispositions of inquiry.
And recall Aristotle’s notion of knowledge: question + answer = knowledge. These con-
clusions help us reconsider classroom questioning and the environment in which it takes
place. Rather than creating classrooms of gentle inquisition, we should strive to create con-
texts for grand conversations (Eeds & Wells, 1989). Teachers must create cultures where
questioning occurs with students rather than to them. In such cultures, teachers foster stu-
dent motivation and engagement, and they inspire and energize student learning (Caram &
Davis, 2005). Figure 7.1 presents promising strategies improving our classroom questions.
Perhaps the most powerful way we can improve questioning in our classrooms is to
foster students’ questioning skills. Not only is the ability to inquire a life skill, current con-
tent standards demand it. For example, in California, science investigation standard for all
grades, K-12, begins with: “Scientific progress is made by asking meaningful questions
and conducting careful investigations. . . . Students should develop their own questions and
perform investigations” (California Department of Education, 1998, p. 8). Research also
supports the power of student questions as mechanisms that help students read with a pur-
pose and comprehend (Taboada, & Guthrie, 2006), pursue meaningful investigations, and
learn in deep and connected ways (Becker, 2000; Chin & Brown, 2000; Costa, Caldeira,
Gallastegui, & Otero, 2000; Middlecamp & Nickel, 2000; Orsborn, Patrick, Dixon, &
Moore, 1995; Sternberg, 1994; vanZee, Iwasyk, Kurose, Simpson, & Wild, 2001). Teachers
can encourage students’ questions by providing time and opportunities to ask them and by
using specific strategies to support students’ question formation and pursuit. More sugges-
tions are found in the Responsive and Inclusive Teaching Tip.

Selecting Instructional Models

Look back to your work in the Before You Begin Reading section of this chapter. How
many models and strategies were familiar to you? Teachers tend to teach the way they were
taught. It is tempting to select strategies that feel comfortable and familiar, but part of good
teaching involves taking risks and trying ideas that may, at least initially, fall beyond the
146 CHAPTER 7

s teachers’ questions.
Promising practicefor

4. Create and maintain a culture that welcomes questions.

tone, nods, and smiles and by treating
* Encourage dialogue through nonverbal communication like a positive
students’ responses seriously (Caram & Davis, 2005).
school classroom.
* Create a forum for student questions. An “I wonder” graffiti board hung in my middle
Students listed questions that intrigued them, and we discussed them weekly.
* Respond with genuine enthusiasm when questions arise.
2. Plan your questions carefully.
Lenski, 2001;
* Prepare your questions in advance to enhance students’ opportunities to learn (Blosser, 1990;
Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001).
° Think about your purposes for asking questions and what you will do with the results.
e Ask authentic questions (Nystrand, et al., 2003).
3. Ask your questions equitably.
¢ Ask all students to tell a partner an answer and then ask for volunteers.
e Spread the wealth: Invite several students to answer the same question.
° Use a random responder generator (like cards with students’ names on them).
4. Slow down the pace of interaction.
° Give students at least 3-5 seconds of wait time after you ask a question and again before you respond.
This increases the length and quality of student response (Rowe, 1986; Stahl, 1984; Tobin, 1987).
e Invite students to respond to each other’s points. Teach stems such as “I have had a different experience”
and “I have a point that builds on what X just said.”
5. Consider not asking a question. Use the four S alternatives to questions instead (Dillon 1988b).
e Statements: Say what you think, or reflect on what the student thinks.
¢ Student questions: Encourage a single student to ask a question about a puzzling circumstance, or invite
the class to phrase the question.
¢ Signals: Use gestures of brief utterances (“mmm!”) to refrain from taking control of the discourse.
e Silence: Say nothing for a few seconds to allow others to join in (Orsborn et al., 1995).
6. Check the quality of your questioning practices.
e Audio record your teaching and analyze it. Olson (2008) recommends listening for both the initial questions
you ask and the subsequent interactions.
¢ Analyze the patterns in student responses as well. Are levels of interaction equitable across student
subgroups?

realm of comfort. Several factors weigh into the choice of instructional model includ-
‘Buchapeculesine ing your students and your goals (discussed earlier), the research, and the context.
unreflective herd. No Child Left Behind requires the use of research-based instructional methods.
Slavin (2003) explains “scientifically based research” studies as those that employ
—William Wordsworth
experimental or quasi-experimental designs with random assignment, if possible.
Put simply, studies implement an instructional product or method with one randomly
selected set of students then compare their progress with those of students who
received a different treatment. Researchers use statistical methods to test the likelihood that
differences in the groups’ scores might arise by chance. Those differences that are highly
unlikely are deemed “statistically significant.” The federal government has established the
What Works Clearinghouse to serve as a “trusted source of scientific evidence of what
works in education.” You can visit it at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwe/. Empirical studies,
then, can help you select your strategies by answering questions such as “How well has
this strategy worked with other groups?” and “What happened when it was employed?”
Studies can support teachers in steering clear of untested innovations and provide
evidence for schools to use as they justify their programs that receive federal funding
(Slavin, 2003). They can give information about how strategies have worked with other
 Instructional Models and Strategies 147

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

PRACTICES TO ENCOURAGE * Pause every 10 minutes or so during a lecture. Ask
» STUDENT QUESTIONS students to review and consolidate their notes. Ask small
: : : groups to think about three questions that are significant
* Use a question mailbox. Allow students about what they are learning and to think about what
_ to submit off-topic questions. Review makes the questions significant. Ask some to share
the questions after class and decide whether to answer a (Donohue-Smith, 2006)
question with the individual student or in front of class.
* Require students to compose and ask questions as part
Simms-Smith and Sterling (2006) report that this strategy
of their presentations, like book talks. Fishbaugh’s (2008)
helped them build solid relationships with their students
students asked peers questions such as “deep connections”
and families and fostered students’ inquiry.
questions and “think outside the box” questions. They
¢ ‘Teach students to ask themselves comprehension ques-
improved in their questioning skills over time, partly
tions about what they read. This raises comprehension
by using a rubric to analyze their own questions.
(Rosenshine, Meister, & Chapman, 1996). ;
Prompt student questions with a scenario. Middlecamp
* Require students to write “ignorance questions”
and Nickel (2005) provide their science students with a
(Carroll, 2001). Ignorance questions are those content-
scenario and, in groups, have students devise lists of
related questions to which students don’t have answers.
questions they should ask before taking any action. Using
Carroll assigns ignorance questions, and they are discussed an intriguing object or photo to begin a lesson can serve
in class. Later, students contribute exam questions the same purpose.
as well.

students whose characteristics and developmental levels are similar to those of your students.
For instance, there is support in the research to indicate that students with low achievement
(Baker, Gersten, & Lee, 2002) and learning disabilities (Swanson, 2001; Swanson & Sachse-
Lee, 2000) can benefit from direct instruction, a strategy presented later in the chapter.
Although the effectiveness of many strategies is documented through research that
links the teaching strategy with student outcomes such as increased academic achieve-
ment (e.g., Marzano et al., 2001), in general, research does not point to any one “best”
instructional strategy. For instance, in comparing the practices of teachers judged highly
effective in encouraging mathematics achievement and those who were not, researchers
found no discrete set of practices that was held in common by the effective teachers (Smith,
Hardman, Wall, & Mroz, 2004). Research is clearer in providing information related to
questions such as “Under what conditions is this strategy useful?” and “For whom?”

Deductive and Inductive Strategies

One useful distinction among strategies is the point at which the major concept, skill, or
understanding is stated during the lesson. Lessons that state the concept or understanding
early in the lesson are deemed deductive. Using deductive strategies, the teacher states the
concept or major learning promptly and then provides practice on that concept throughout
the remainder of the lesson. Deductive strategies reason from the general to the spe-
cific: They present general rules, then specific examples. Inductive strategies do the (Deno eee
reverse. In an inductive, or discovery, lesson the teacher provides specific data and pees canoermcles
guides students toward discerning a general rule or rules from those data. The RideOF einer Stralevies
concept, skill, or understanding in an inductive lesson is not explicitly stated until specific examples — general rule
later in the lesson, and students usually state it.
You will want to master both deductive and inductive strategies because each
can address different needs and foster different kinds of student skills and attitudes. Both
have been found to be effective in increasing student achievement (Marzano et al., 2001);
deductive and inductive reasoning skills are both important (Partnership for 21st Century
Learning, 2007). How often you use each of the contrasting strategies will depend on your
own convictions about education, your learners, and the particular setting within which
you find yourself.
148 CHAPTER 7

A Sampling of Instructional Models

The remainder of this chapter presents seven instructional approaches:
1. Direct instruction
2. Inquiry training
3. Concept attainment
Learning cycle
Concept formation
Unguided inquiry
SeWAMCooperative learning

Each is presented first through a description, then a listing of lesson stages using the
open-body-close format, next an example, and finally a discussion of strengths and criticisms.
Please note that the examples are meant to be streamlined so that you can quickly and
clearly focus on the critical attributes of the strategy. The teachers in the sample lessons
should all have conducted a good deal of work that is not evident in the brief description
of their lessons. Namely, they should have studied their content and the standards and de-
termined important ideas. They should have preassessed students to determine appropriate
objectives based on their grade-level standards. They should have grouped students based
on a selection of relevant concerns such as student interest, English language level, learning
profile, and special needs. They should have built instruction from the ground up (remember
Universal Design?) to meet these various needs. Some of the lessons include technology,
and all employ the advice for instruction presented in Chapter 6 (COME IN). Note that most
lessons have plentiful opportunities for students to interact and develop academic language,
and most of the examples include context-embedded settings for the students to work with
important ideas in realistic ways, thus sheltering instruction for English learners and attempt-
ing to enhance motivation for all students. Each of the lessons includes one or two hints on
how the teacher differentiated instruction to meet student needs; these hints are meant to
remind you that a myriad of instructional decisions come into play during any single lesson
and that instructional strategies are employed in the context of these many decisions.

Direct Instruction

The direct instruction model is one of the most widely used and helpful deductive strate-
gies. Direct instruction, sometimes called “explicit instruction,” allows teachers to impart
information or skills straightforwardly to their students and to help students master strate-
gies for learning. The direct instruction format is flexible, and because one of the teacher’s
primary responsibilities is to present information, it fills a vital need in most classrooms.
Particularly in today’s climate, when most teachers feel pressure to help students master
standards in an efficient manner, direct instruction is popular.

Description of the Direct Instruction Model In a directed lesson, the teacher

systematically presents information related to an objective and carefully guides students’
participation to ensure mastery. The emphasis is on efficient teacher presentation and even-
tual student command of a convergent set of objectives. Control over information or skills
initially resides with the teacher, who relinquishes control as students first practice under
the teacher’s supervision and then eventually demonstrate independent mastery.

Stages of the Direct Instruction Model There are a few versions of direct instruc-
tion. In the seven-step model (Hunter, 1982), the directed lesson begins with the teacher’s
statement of his expectations for student behavior throughout the lesson. For example,
the teacher may remind his students: “I need to see you sitting up straight and staying in
your seats throughout this lesson.” That statement of expectations is missing from the
five-step version of the direct instruction model, but its reduced number of steps may
make the five-step model easier to integrate into daily planning.
 Instructional Models and Strategies 149

Stages of the direct instruction model.

. Anticipatory set
a. Focus: Briefly gain the students’ attention.
b. Objective: State the lesson’s objective in student-friendly language.
c. Purpose: Tell students why this objective is important.

. Input
Provide clear information related to the objective. One or more of the following may be
appropriate:
¢ Present definitions.
¢ Share critical attributes.
* Give examples and nonexamples.
¢ Model.
* Check for understanding, usually through active participation devices.
. Guided practice
Allow students to practice the objective under your supervision.
Circulate to provide feedback to all learners. Employ praise—prompt—leave, wherein you give
specific praise related to a student's effort, provide directions about what to improve, and then
leave to check another student.

. Closure
Observe all students performing the objective without your assistance. A performance, a brief
test, or an active participation device (recall Figure 6.6) can help you check mastery.
. Independent practice
Have students practice the newly acquired objective on their own, often as homework or during
individual work time. (Note: Some versions of the direct instruction model place independent
practice before closure; however, that arrangement does not allow teachers to assess mastery
before students practice alone.)

In the direct instruction lesson, the teacher provides a set for learning, gives focused
input, helps the students practice, ensures that they mastered the objective, and then
encourages them to practice on their own. As you read through the five stages of the model,
found in Figure 7.2, remember that the model provides a mere blueprint for structuring
lessons. Some teachers think of the stages as options from which they can choose, so not
every lesson contains all five (or seven) steps. The length of a lesson can vary so that it
may take a number of sessions to complete all of the stages. Also, through a teacher’s
ongoing assessment of student performance, he may decide to employ some back-and-forth
movement between the lesson stages. For instance, students’ performance during guided
practice may indicate the need for further input rather than a move forward to closure. The
steps of the direct instruction model are generic, so many teachers use this lesson format
throughout the day.

A Sample Directed Lesson Figure 7.3 presents a brief example that presents a skill,
cursive letter formation.

Strengths and Criticisms of Direct Instruction Research generally supports the

effectiveness of direct instruction. In a meta-analysis reviewing more than 350 sources on
direct instruction, Adams and Engelman (1996) found that direct instruction was highly
effective in supporting student achievement. Slavin (1997) similarly found some forms
of direct instruction to be effective in teaching basic skills, primarily in elementary-grade
reading and mathematics. Baker, Gersten, and Lee (2002) also found explicit instruction
effective for supporting mathematics acheivement for students with low achievement.
150 CHAPTER 7

Immediate and specific

feedback is an important part
ofguided practice.

Source: Scott Cunningham/Mernll.

The strength of direct instruction lies in the fact that it is carefully sequenced to provide
key information, to lead the students in supervised practice, and then to finally release
them for independent work after they demonstrate mastery of the content. Direct instruc-
tion provides an efficient mechanism to address one central purpose of education: to pass
information and skills from one generation to the next. Direct instruction shows that even
when a teacher is primarily sharing information, she can do so much more systematically than
by just telling. She can carefully steer students toward control over new information or skills.
It is perhaps not surprising that direct, explicit teaching is now highly prevalent across
the nation, given current interests in students’ acquisition of basic literacy and mathematics
skills. Also, direct instruction is comfortable for many new teachers because most directed
lessons follow a predictable path, and the teacher retains control over most decisions during
the lesson. Further, direct instruction exemplifies some of the principles of instruction from
Chapter 6: It is highly organized, it makes use of modeling, and it is interactive.
One criticism of direct instruction offered by some (e.g., Coles, 2000) is that direct
instruction’s focus on the transmission of information or skills is too narrow. Because it is
fully deductive, with the teacher presenting important concepts and students then practic-
ing them, direct instruction is sometimes criticized as encouraging student passivity. The
teacher retains primary control over the content, over the pace of delivery, and over selec-
tion of learning activities. Students have limited choices and control in a directed lesson.
Also, direct instruction may not connect to the life of the learner or use enriched resources
as readily as other instructional strategies might. It may also decrease student motivation to
learn (as described by Flowers, Hancock, & Joyner, 2000).
Finally, despite its potential power, some of the research documenting the effects of
direct instruction offers mixed results. This is the case in the use of directed teaching in lit-
eracy instruction today. Although some studies support the effectiveness of direct instruction
(e.g., Din, 2000; Yu & Rachor, 2000), not every study does (e.g., MacIver & Kemper, 2002;
St. John, Manset, Chung, & Worthington, 2001).
 Instructional Models and Strategies 151

A sample direct instruction lesson.

ee

Objective: Third-grade students will correctly form the lowercase letter t in cursive.
Anticipatory
Ber OUen) 1. Focus: “Watch me write a few words in cursive on the board and see if you can determine what thye all
have in common.” “You are right! They all have the cursive letter t.”
2. Objective: “By the time you leave for lunch, each of you will be able to write t in cursive.”
3. Purpose: “7 is important because it will help with lots of other letters we will be learning to write in cursive,
Learning to write t will make your cursive job easier. Besides, we cannot spell Natalie or Xochit! without t!”

4. Model: “Watch me as | form the letter t on the board,” (Teacher describes his actions as he forms five is
on the board.)
5. Critical attribute: “Notice that the vertical part of t is closed, not like t. Also notice that | cross the t from left
to right.”
6. Check for understanding: Teacher draws incorrect ts and correct ones. He allows students to exclaim,
“No! No!” or “Yes!” as he models, checking whether students are aware of the critical characteristics of
the letter. “You seem ready to try your own ts! Let’s go!”
——

Guided 7. Students use wipe boards with dry erase markers to make ts. The teacher selected these materials instead of
practice pencils because he has a student with weak grip strength. Students like wipe boards better anyway.
¢ Teacher criculates and checks each student's progress. “Raymond, you are holding your pencil just
right! Remember that t doesn’t have a loop. Close it up. | will be back to check on you soon.”
¢ Teacher has a pen with an adaptive grip ready if his student needs it.

Closure 8. “| have seen many excellent ts! We will do one more for the record. Please take out a piece of scratch
(Close) paper. Write your name at the top and then form your best t for me. Make three or four ts if you like!”
(Teacher can collect and check the slips later or circulate now and mark them as correct.)

Independent 9. If the students do not demonstrate mastery during closure, teacher will provide additional instruction.
practice If the objective is mastered, teacher tells students ‘Aha! Remarkable ts! Please practice your ts on the
whiteboard or in the salt box during center time today.”

Given its strengths and weaknesses, when, if at all, will you use direct instruction? Direct
instruction may be helpful when (1) it is important that all students master the same objectives
to a similar degree, (2) you are interested in efficient use of time, (3) it may not be safe for
students to discover concepts, and (4) students start from similar background experiences.
As a practical indicator of when it may be appropriate to use direct instruction, watch
for telltale signs. When you have the urge to begin a lesson with the words “Please open to
page 42” and then march your students straight through some exercises, please think direct
instruction. Your students will almost certainly have a higher chance of success if you
teach to the text’s objective but structure your lesson using stages of the directed lesson.
The Teaching Tip will help you use direct instruction during lessons and other times too.

ae Its

Se DIRECT INSTRUCTION QUICK START

Often you need to teach a skill on the spot. For example, two students need to know how to set
the low hurdles before a track meet. Don’t just show them. Use direct instruction to make sure
they’ve got it. After a few tries, you will internalize the method and be able to use it naturally
even without a lesson plan. Use this flow:
I do it.
I check that you understand.
We do it.
You show me.
You’ ve got it! You do it.
152 CHAPTER 7

ue “y %
inductive Teaching 2 SS SS ee eee
: Ssa
meth-
Inductive teaching presents a stark contrast to direct instruction. Through inductive
ods, students create or discover important ideas by interactin g with concrete materials or
other data sources and their peers. When students analyze a poem, look for patterns
in population distributions, or discover the identity of a mystery powder, they inquire.
The art of teaching is the art
Instead of stating the learning explicitly at the beginning of the lesson, during
of assisting discovery.
inductive lessons, the teacher guides students to interact with data, materials, and
—Mark Van Doren each other so that they discover the ideas. Additionally, whereas direct instruction
focuses primarily on the product, or outcome, to be gained, inductive strategies also
focus on the processes by which knowledge is formed. Reviewing state and national
student content standards in science and social studies demonstrates that students literate
in these subject matters not only have mastery of a body of information, they also can use
the methods by which scientists and social scientists build knowledge. They can formulate
questions, address their questions through appropriate methodologies, collect information,
analyze it, and draw appropriate conclusions. Students learn these processes by using them,
and inductive instruction provides an appropriate vehicle. The Teaching Tip provides an
example of an inductive strategy, photo analysis, that can be used quickly and helps stu-
dents to inquire into what they see.
Inductive methods can be convergent or divergent in nature. In convergent, or guided,
approaches students are expected to discover or infer a single concept or generalization.
In divergent, or unguided, approaches, the number of concepts or generalizations to be
formed is greater.
Although many inductive approaches exist, unfortunately, most of us have had limited
experience with inductive instruction as students. This chapter presents a variety of induc-
tive strategies. The first three are highly convergent, and the last two are less so.

INQUIRY QUICK START

Use inquiry in your openers to start your day or lesson and hook those curious minds. One
inquiry quick start is photo analysis (Guillaume, Yopp, & Yopp, 2007). Try it:
|. Find an intriguing photo that represents a current event or your content. Use one from
home, the newspaper, your textbook, or the Internet. Try searching “photo of the day”
or “photo in the news.”
2. Display the image for the students.
. Ask students to make careful observations of it: “What do you notice? What is in
this quadrant?”
. Ask students to make inferences about the photo: “When was it taken? Who are the
people? What’s the story?”
. Tie it to your lesson. Come back to it at the end of the lesson and allow students to revise
their inferences.

Inquiry Training
Suchman’s (1962) inquiry training assists students in asking questions that help them move
from the observation of facts to the development of theories. This strategy’s power resides
both in the way that it capitalizes on students’ natural curiosity—the need to know—and
in the fact that it puts students in the questioner’s seat. Usually students in classrooms
are
expected to answer the questions, not to ask them. Asking a question can propel learning.

Description of the Inquiry Training Model Inan inquiry training lesson, the teacher
presents a phenomenon, called a discrepant event, that piques curiosity.
In a discrep-
ant event, there is a mismatch between what students expect to happen, based
on prior
experience, and what actually does happen. For instance, a teacher may
drop two full,
 Instructional Models and Strategies
153

Students analyze data

and draw conclusions
through inductive
instruction.

>

Source: Barbara Schwartz/Merrill.

An unusual artifact can

spark students’ curiosity
and provide a discrepant
event to begin a lesson.

Source: Parvin/Texas Memorial Museum/Pearson Education-Corporate Digital Archive.

unopened cans of soda into an aquarium. Students look puzzled when one floats and the
other sinks (the floater is a diet drink, lacking sugar, which adds to the other can’s density).
For a discrepant event, I once filled a half-liter clear water bottle with water and baby oil.
Although both liquids were clear, when students dropped food color into the bottle, the dye
fell through the oil and dispersed in the water that rested in the bottom half of the bottle.
A sample discrepant event in language arts might be a poem with no capitalization or
punctuation. In social studies, it might be an unusual cultural artifact.
After presenting the discrepant event or stimulus, the teacher invites students to ask
yes—no questions to develop explanations for what they observe. Through their questions,
students develop and test causal connections to explain the discrepant event.
154 CHAPTER 7

Stages of the inquiry training model.

Present a discrepant event or puzzling situation. .

they see by asking questions
Describe the procedure: Students are to form explanations for what
that you can answer with yes or no.
causal
Body Allow for questions that verify what events and conditions students observe. Forestall
questions until the next stage.
hypotheses.
Allow for questions that allow children to identify relevant variables and test their

Close Guide students to state the explanations they have formulated.

Prompt students to analyze their inquiry strategy.

Suchman developed his model for science instruction, but as long as a teacher can
locate relevant discrepant events or stimuli, inquiry training can be used across subject
areas. It is useful for students of many ages, though younger children and English learners
need extra support in formulating yes—no questions.

Stages of the Inquiry Training Model Figure 7.4 lists the stages of Suchman’s in-
quiry training, moving through the presentation of the discrepant event through two stages
of questioning: verification and hypothesis-testing questioning. As you read over the stages
of inquiry training, please bear in mind that inquiry training is more than a guessing game.
If a student states the correct explanation early on, resist the temptation to scold the student
for “giving away” the answer. Treat the student’s proposed explanation as yet another ten-
tative explanation that needs to be verified through empirical testing. The social atmosphere
is important; encourage students to listen to each other.

A Sample Inquiry Training Lesson Figure 7.5 relates an inquiry training lesson
I have used with enthusiastic students of a variety of ages.

Concept Attainment
Recall that inductive teaching methods foster students’ ability to discern patterns, impose
structure, and discover important ideas by working with concrete data. The ability to
categorize information is central to these processes of discovery. Categorization, or group-
ing items into classes, serves a number of important functions: It reduces the complexity of
our environments, it helps us identify individual objects, it makes learning more efficient,
it helps us make decisions without the need for testing every object’s properties, and it al-
lows us to relate and order classes of events (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1960). Further,
Bruner et al. note that our understanding of the world is not purely objective. Our systems
for processing new information are shaped by the ways of thinking in which we are im-
mersed: “The categories in terms of which man sorts out and responds to the world around
him reflect deeply the culture into which he is born. ... His personal history comes to reflect
the traditions and thought-ways of his culture, for the events that make it up are filtered
through the categorical systems he has learned” (p. 10). The concept attainment model
(Bruner et al., 1960) makes categorization schemes explicit and guides students to consider
information conceptually toward the aim of categorizing information meaningfully.

Description of the Concept Attainment Model One object at a time, students

observe a set of objects or examples, each deemed by their teacher as belonging—or not
belonging—to a particular set. As the teacher presents more examples, students make
hypotheses about the rule for grouping. They test their hypotheses on additional objects,
 A sample inquiry training lesson.

Objectives: Fifth-grade students will state the necessary components of an electric circuit.
Students will demonstrate the ability to test cause-effect relationships by asking relevant
yes—no questions (Guillaume, Yopp, & Yopp, 1996).
Open FrPreview for English learners
* Before the lesson, teacher calls her English learners to the side of the room and
allows them to handle two toy chicks that chirp only when a circuit is completed by
simultaneously touching both terminals on their feet to an electrical conductor, such as
skin or metal.
* She shows them a written sign, “What makes the chick chirp?” and reads it aloud as she
points and uses facial expressions to support her message.
* The three students who share a language talk among themselves excitedly in Spanish.
Her one Chinese student works with her, asking for terms and trying things out.
1. To open the lesson: Teacher presents the toy chick to the class.
¢ The terminals are two metal rings embedded in the toy’s feet.
* Students chatter and express curiosity about the toy.
2. Teacher states the task: “Your job is to ask me questions that | can answer with yes or no so
that you can determine what makes the chick chirp.”

3. Students ask questions to verify what they see and interpret as the problem.
¢ Sample questions include “Is there a battery in the chick?” and “Are you flipping a switch
to make it chirp?”
She allows students to discuss their questions in partner pairs, providing specific support
to her English learners who will benefit from talking with each other before speaking to the
class, and for her students who need more time to process ideas.
When students ask questions that test causal relationships (“Are you completing an
electric circuit?”), teacher asks them to save those questions for a few minutes.
When children ask questions that cannot be answered with yes or no, teacher asks them
to rephrase, enlisting help from peers as necessary.
For newer English learners, the teacher takes their utterances and rephrases them, into
yes/no questions. She points to the written version of question as well.
¢ A family volunteer in the class records the students’ questions on the board for all to see.
4. Teacher asks for questions that move into the phase of identifying relevant variables and
exploring hypotheses about cause-effect relationships.
¢ For instance, “Does it have anything to do with the heat in your hand?”
e When students hypothesize about the materials necessary to complete the circuit, teacher
responds with actions: She places the chick on metal, then wood, and finally glass so that
students can see the answers to their questions.

5. Teacher directs students to talk in groups about their explanations. She requires each group
member (including English learners) to make a contribution, even briefly. She entertains new
questions that arise from group discussions.
6. In their groups, students write an explanation for the chirping chick on sentence strips.
¢ They post and examine the explanations: An electrical circuit requires a power source, a
conductor, and in this case a load (the chirping mechanism).
7. The class analyzes its inquiry strategy and then applies its knowledge by exploring electrical
circuits with batteries, foil, and lightbulbs.
¢ She pushes her advanced learners (including GATE students and ones who excelled
earlier in this lesson) to build parallel circuits after demonstrating series circuits.

155
156 CHAPTER 7

Britni at interactive
; wit siaaeciibiniailoaie nes : : @ Fennos
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whiteboard, seed game ° .

Britni Hong

Stages of the concept attainment model.

Before the lesson, select a concept or rule and collect a wide variety of examples and nonexamples of
your concept.

. To build interest, briefly display some of the items. (Items can vary. Examples include words,
objects, pictures, and places on a map.)
. Introduce the students’ task: to discover your rule for grouping.

. One ata time, present the items that serve as examples or counterexamples of your grouping.
State whether each item belongs or does not belong to your group, perhaps by calling each a
yes or ano.
. Continue presenting examples and counterexamples, providing opportunities for students to
share their hypothesized rules and discuss them with their peers. Guide students’ discussion
to be certain that their proposed rules conform with all the data you have presented. Provide
examples that challenge students’ erroneous rules.

Close Is), When most students have induced the rule, furnish a final chance for consensus. Allow the rule
to be stated aloud for the class.
Invite students to explore further examples or to group the data according to a criterion they
select.
. Process the activity by making observations about the process and content as appropriate.

and, finally, the rule (or concept) for grouping is induced. In the photo, Britni is leading The
Seed Game. Using the interactive whiteboard, Britni leads her audience to sort examples
of seeds, placing the photos onto the left black rectangle or on to the right. Eventually her
students correctly conclude that Britni’s rule is how seeds travel: seeds in one group travel
by wind; seeds in the other group travel by animal. The students attained the concept of
modes of seed dispersal.

Stages of the Concept Attainment Model Figure 7.6 delineates the stages of the
concept attainment model. Notice that the teacher presents one item at a time. It may be
 Instructional Models and Strategies 157

necessary to change the order of presentation or to gather new items to challenge the
stu-
dents’ emerging hypotheses. Occasionally students discover a rule that is accurate given
the
data they observe but is not the rule or concept you meant to illustrate. Be certain to provide
many different-looking or different-sounding examples of your concept so that students can
focus on the critical attributes of the rule. If students induce a rule other than the one you
planned, you may need to provide additional examples that contradict their rules.

A Sample Concept Attainment Lesson Figure 7.7 presents a sample lesson using
the concept attainment format.

Learning Cycle
The learning cycle approach is inductive in that it moves from firsthand experiences to
well-formulated understanding of the content and real-world application. It is based on
constructivist learning theory that defines learning as both the process and the result of
questioning and interpreting, the application of thought processes and information to build
and improve our understandings, and the integration of current experiences with past ex-
periences (Marlowe & Page, 1998). The learning cycle model differs from other inductive
approaches in that the first and last stages of the lesson must be based in real-world or real-
istic experiences. The learning cycle approach can level the playing field by ensuring that
all students have firsthand experiences to build background knowledge and deepen content
knowledge. This is especially important for English learners and for students whose back-
ground experiences may be limited (Guillaume, Yopp, & Yopp, 1996). It also can foster
the development of content vocabulary (Spencer & Guillaume, 2006).

Description of the Learning Cycle Model A learning cycle begins with a real-world
problem or event that piques students’ interests and fuels one or more questions for explo-
ration. A personal story, discrepant event, current event, toy, poem, or thoughtful question
from a student or the teacher can all serve to engage the students. Next, students interact
with data sources and concrete materials to explore the problem or question(s). Exploration
builds background knowledge, from which more abstract understandings arise. After stu-
dents have firsthand experiences the teacher begins to formally help students to systematize
their knowledge, label concepts, and generate explanations. Finally, students apply their
newly formulated knowledge to a similar real-world problem or event.

Stages of the Learning Cycle Model Different versions of the learning cycle ap-
proach to planning and instruction vary only slightly in the number of stages they propose,
typically between three and five. Figure 7.8 depicts the phases of the learning cycle using
one popular version of the model. This version of the learning cycle embeds assessment in
each phase of the lesson. Another useful version of the learning cycle model is the five E
approach: engage, explore, explain, extend, and evaluate.

A Sample Learning Cycle Lesson The lesson in Figure 7.9 is a visual arts lesson for
high school students that follows the learning cycle model. Notice that a single lesson can
last more than one day and that it can make use of many kinds of resources. In following
the learning cycle model, the lesson begins with a real-world phenomenon to engage the
students (discussion of a painting), explores ideas related to that phenomenon (examination
of the use of color in many other works), develops concepts surfaced through the explora-
tion phase (color concepts), and ends with a connection back to the real world (creation of
students’ own works that make use of what they learned through the lesson, principles of
color use).

Concept Formation
Hilda Taba’s (1967) strategy allows learners to build new ideas by categorizing specific
pieces of data and forging new connections among those data.
 A sample concept attainment lesson.

Objectives: Kindergarten students will distinguish between examples and nonexamples of a triangle.
Students will group items based on relevant attributes.

Preparation: The concept attainment strategy is new to the teacher, so he conducts Internet
research to read up on it. He finds a particularly helpful set of materials at the Georgia Department
of Education Web site (http://www.gic.k12.ga.us/pandp/critthink/ conceptattainment.htm).
Open le “Come sit with me here on the rug and have a look at some of the things | brought today.”
* Teacher draws two students near him. His student with a visual impairment sits on his
left. His student who is physically very active sits on his right.
* Teacher takes turn allowing first the student on his right and then the one on his left to
pull items from a bag.
* All students are allowed to handle and comment on a few of the items.

. “Some of these items are members of my club, and some are not. Your job today is to
discover the name of my club. Then we will know which items can join and which cannot.”
. “| will place the members of my club in this hoop of yarn. Items that are not members will
go outside the hoop. Ready?” He guides the hand of his student with the visual impairment
over the yarn hoops. He speaks soothingly to refocus the student on his right who is
beginning to bounce.

Body . Teacher shows one item at a time, placing it in the hoop if it is a triangle and outside if it is
not. He provides plenty of examples and nonexamples that vary not only in the number of
sides and angles but also in color, size, and texture.
. After presenting five or six items, teacher encourages the children to guess where he will
place subsequent items and guides them to explicitly state their hypotheses: “Whisper to
your neighbor what you think is the name of my club.” Teacher helps students test their
hypotheses by examining the present examples and by adding others.
Close . When most students have demonstrated knowledge of the “triangle club” rule, teacher
invites students to state it aloud: “Okay, club experts, what is the name of my club?
Everyone, say it aloud on three. One... two... . three!” “Triangles” students shout.
. “Who can look around the room to find a member of my club? Who can find a
nonmember?” As most students look around, teacher provides three more samples for the
students at his side and for two others who especially like to work with the teacher.
. Students share examples and nonexamples they have found.
. “Let me see if | understand the rules about triangles, then. Does size matter? Does color?
Texture?” (All: “No!”) “What matters about a triangle is that it has exactly three sides and
exactly three angles.”
. “After recess, | will place these objects in a center so that you can think of your own club
using the objects.” Teacher includes different types of triangles such as right, isosceles,
and equilateral triangles, knowing that some students will be ready to informally examine
the size of their angles.
We Extension: Students are so excited by the “game” of sorting objects into clubs that the
teacher creates a few drag-and-drop concept attainment Web pages for other concepts
the
students are studying.
* They try the activities during center time in class, and they log on at night and play the
games with their families too.
* Some parents report playing the “club game” while they are waiting at the doctor's
office
or for the bus.

158
 8 Stages of the learning cycle.

Explore the
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world and on
to the next f o
4 through direct
experience
learning cycle / i
; 4 dt

; Invite students
‘i to think about
t a real-world AY ge
phenomenon & Wie »
ae
(Sy
Gs
Extend

Explore ys

Use newly Develop ideas

developed ideas by reading,
to spark exploration discussing,
of the next Develop organizing your
phenomenon findings and thoughts

Open . Engage: Provide a brief real-world phenomenon, an object, or an issue that engages
students’ interest in the topic and fuels one or more questions for investigation.
¢ Listen carefully to determine students’ prior knowledge related to the topic and to expose
their questions.
* Do not provide explanations of phenomena yet.
e Make a list of students’ questions.
. Explore: Provide materials so that students engage in firsthand experience with the issue
under study.
¢ Students begin to address their questions from the prior phase.
¢ They begin to generate new concepts and questions. Observe students carefully to
determine emerging concepts and vocabulary.
3. Develop: Systematically develop the concepts that arise during the exploration phase.
¢ Supply vocabulary terms appropriate given students’ experiences.
¢ Provide direct presentations of the information and reading experiences as necessary so
that students refine their understanding.

. Apply: Present a new problem or situation that can be addressed given students’ newly
formed understandings.
¢ Connect to the real world.
¢ Use the real-world connection as the starting point for the next learning cycle.

159
 A sample learning cycle lesson.

color use.
Objectives: Tenth-grade students will analyze works of art to determine principles of
Students will create their own work of art that uses color to convey a message.
a
Engage 1. With zydeco, Cajun, or jazz music playing in the background, the teacher shares
brightly rendered watercolor painting from New Orleans. . . Sir
(Open)
2. “Years ago | took my favorite vacation and bought this painting. Looking at this painting,
where do you think | went?”
¢ She supports the students’ guesses by asking for their evidence. “What about the picture
makes you Say, ‘Europe’?”
¢ They discuss, among other student-generated topics, the architecture portrayed in the
painting.
3. Once the students conclude that the painting depicts a courtyard in New Orleans, teacher
asks students to examine how the artist used color to capture the sense of energy, cultural
fusion, and joy that many people associate with the city.
4. To set the stage for exploration, teacher states that artists throughout time and all over the
world use color to convey or enhance the message or mood of their works.

Explore 5. Teacher sets the task: “I reserved the laptops for tomorrow. Your job will be togoona
(Body) virtual tour of museums around the world and download examples of visual art that use
color in a variety of ways. You will share your examples with the class.”
6. The next day, the students boot up the laptops and connect to the Internet for their tour. It
launches with a visit to the National Gallery of Art (http://www.nga.gov).
* The teacher supplies URLs of other museum sites, and in pairs, students find examples
of art that vary in their use of color to convey mood and message.
¢ When permitted, students print out copies of the art and create a class gallery of the
varied works. Or they leave the image displayed on their screens. Another option is to
load images into a google.does presentation for a virtual gallery.
e Teacher and students add reproductions such as posters of famous works and their own
works to the gallery as well.
e A few students have created and shown their own works at festivals. These are added to
the gallery.

Develop 7. The following day, teacher commends the students on their diligent searching: “We
(Body) have created quite the collection of works in our class gallery. Very impressive! Your next
task is to study all the works to determine themes in how color is used.”
8. Students tour the class gallery, grouping works that create similar moods or convey similar
messages. They test the hypotheses they formed in viewing works they found with their
partner on the virtual tour by studying the larger set of works found by their classmates.
9. The day ends with the students writing and submitting journal entries on their tentative
conclusions about the use of color.
* One student writes, for example, “When artists use a subdued palette, it expresses a
calmer message. Mixing black with the colors adds an air of sadness to the work.”
* Two students, including one with a developmental delay, dictate their entries into the
computer near the door that has speech recognition capacities. They print out their work
and take it home to practice reading it.
10. That night, the teacher studies the students’ entries and reproduces some of their most
telling findings using presentation software instead.
11. The next day, the teacher lectures on the use of color, drawing from the concepts and
tentative generalizations about color students recorded in their journals.
¢ She introduces terms such as “hue,” “value,” and “saturation” to formalize what the
students stated informally in their entries.
* For homework, students read from their text a chapter on the use of color.
* Two or three who experience reading difficulties read a compact disc version,
in which
the teacher has highlighted key ideas and terms.

160
 Instructional Models and Strategies 161

Apply 12. Students select a life event that evoked strong emotions from them.
(Close) * They create a work using a medium of their choice and use color to convey their intended
emotions.
* Students plan a gallery showing, including background music related to their works.
Families (and other supporters) attend the lively showing.
* Students begin to notice, now, differences in artists’ use of line in addition to color.
Teacher begins to think about line as the next element for study.

Description of the Concept Formation Model Often deemed “list-group—label,”

concept formation should increase students’ ability to process information. Students begin
by developing extensive lists of data related to a topic or question. Next, they group the
data based on criteria they select, and they develop labels for their groups. The labels of the
groups convey a concept or generalization. Oftentimes students are asked to re-sort data in
different ways. Lessons often conclude with students using the information in a new way,
such as by composing an explanatory paragraph.
Concept formation can be used to induce one particular concept or can be used in a
divergent manner so that a number of accurate concepts or generalizations result. It has a
wide range of applications. One is to consolidate concepts at the end of a lesson, as in the
Teaching Tip.

Stages of the concept formation lesson.

. Challenge the students with a question about the topic that will encourage them to generate an
extensive list.

. List: \n full view, record students’ contributions in the form of a list. Some teachers use sentence
strips, large cards, or the interactive whiteboard.
Group: \nvite the students to place similar objects together. Questions such as “What goes
together?” can elicit grouping.
. Label: Ask students to label their new groups: “What can we call this group?”

. Call students’ attention to new concepts that arise from their groupings.
. Categorize new pieces of information according to the students’ system and invite them to
regroup and label the information.
. You may require students to use the information in some way, such as through a writing or
retelling assignment.

Stages of the Concept Formation Model Figure 7.10 lists the stages employed in
the concept formation lesson. The Teaching Tip gives some ideas for a concept formation
quick start.

A Sample Concept Formation Lesson Figure 7.11 gives a concept formation lesson
I used with second-graders. In this lesson, students generated many words related to the
topic water. They sorted the words into groups that shared certain characteristics. I was
surprised that students initially grouped the words according to linguistic clues rather than
by semantic clues. With prompting, students regrouped words in a few different ways to
discover that water can be both helpful and harmful to humans. Finally, they wrote books
about how we interact with water.
 CONCEPT FORMATION QUICK START
how.
Use a mini-concept-formation activity to close your lesson or as a review. Here’s
: ?

cards from
_ Choose some content terms, perhaps between 5 and 10. Remember your vocab
Be quick.
the Teaching Tip (p. 77)? Use those. Or have the students pick the words.
Put the words on cards or large sticky notes and display them. Use magnets to hold them
_
to the board if you wrote cards. Or display them on the interactive whiteboard .
words go together? Regroup them in a different way.
. Have students group them. Which
_ Ask students to name the groups, then use the group labels in a sentence.
_ Alternatives: Students can sort cards with small groups at their seats. Or you can hand each
student a card and have the students move around the room to form groups.

A Sample Concept Formation Lesson

Bs :

Objectives: Second-grade students will form two accurate statements about the interrelationship of humans and
water.
Students will group data in rule-governed ways.

1. “Class, come sit with me and listen to my rain stick.” Students join teacher and listen intently
as she turns the column once, then twice.
¢ They chat briefly about their experiences with similar instruments.
* One student visited family in Chile, birthplace of the rain stick.
¢ “| brought my rain stick in today because we are beginning to study weather.”
2. “Let’s begin today by writing down as many water words as we know. | will write the words
here on index cards.”

3. List: The class creates an extensive list of water words. Examples include evaporation,
puddle, and mudslide. When the students’ listing slows down, the teacher prods their
thinking: How about frozen water?
4. Group: Teacher calls the class of 20 to the carpet, and in their circle they lay out all the index
cards that list their words. “That’s quite a list, my friends! Now let’s think about putting some of
the cards together in groups. Who sees some cards that go together?”
Teacher jokes with students, suggesting that they sit on their hands, because each is so eager
to group the cards. She makes a note to herself that making individual or partner cards may work
even better than class cards for grouping. Students group words into those that include
-ation within them and those that do not.
Teacher praises the ingenuity of their grouping and then asks students to regroup them
another way. Students continue grouping until each card is with others. Teacher encourages
students to collapse groups and to consider cross-groupings.
5. Label: Students dictate the names of the groups they have generated, and the teacher writes
group names on new cards, which she places near the three groups: Ways water helps us,
Ways water can be dangerous, and Other water words.

Close 6. Teacher leads students to draw conclusions about the groups they have generated. Students
conclude that humans interact with water in many ways, both helpful and harmful.
7. Teacher provides materials and instructions for students to make water pop-up books that
contain two accurate sentences of ways that humans interact with water. Later, students read
their books aloud to their sixth-grade buddies.
|

Extension: Because the students were so eager to sort the cards, teacher knows students need more
opportunities to work with the words. She transfers the words to a computer file and each day
for
the next week students begin the day by coming up to the interactive whiteboard and dragging
and
dropping terms into new groups.

162
 Instructional Models and Strategies 163

Unguided Inquiry
Through unguided inquiry, students address a problem or issue through firsthand experience
with plentiful materials and information sources. The teacher serves as a facilitator instead of
as a presenter. Many possible answers or solutions may be generated. Glasgow (1997) touts
the contemporary relevance of unguided inquiry, which he calls problem-based learning:
In most professions, knowledge is dynamic and requires current understanding for optimal
success with contemporary problem solving. Information, concepts, and skills learned by
the students are put into memory associated with the problem. This improves recall and
retention when the students face another problem . . . Problems actively integrate informa-
tion into a cognitive framework or system that can be applied to new problems. (p. 42)

Problem-based learning involves small groups of students locating and using rich
resources (often with technological ones playing a prominent role) to solve a real or real-
istic problem. For example, first-graders may need to determine the best pet for their class
(Lambros, 2002). Secondary students may need to address a moral dilemma problem, such
as suggesting a course of action for a doctor who was just called by a parent confessing
that the parent broke into the pharmacist’s shop for drugs a child needed to survive (Slavin-
Baden & Major, 2004). Problem-based learning and other forms of unguided inquiry can be
implemented at all grade levels, in both general and special education settings, and across
the curriculum (Audet & Jordan, 2005).

Description of the Unguided Inquiry Model Unguided inquiry can be used in any
subject matter through which students can personally experience a problem and then work
firsthand with data to address (and perhaps solve) that problem. In social studies, for example,
students may frame the problem of homelessness in the local community either by experienc-
ing homelessness themselves or by observing others who are homeless. They work to define
the problem by formulating a question, to investigate the issue through reading and interview-
ing, and then to generate possible solutions. Their efforts may lead them to fund-raising or
other social action opportunities. In mathematics, students may design survey studies that
allow them to collect, analyze, and present data and then act on their findings.
Although unguided inquiry leads students to gain understanding of disciplinary content,
the teacher may not be able to determine in advance which understandings will be devel-
oped. Rather than presenting information directly, the teacher provides for a rich environ-
ment and gently guides students’ efforts to discover relevant information and address the
problem productively.

Stages of the Unguided Inquiry Model Figure 7.12 gives stages of the unguided
inquiry model.

Stages of the unguided inquiry model.

Present or capitalize on a problem that has multiple solutions and that captures the interests of
students.

_ Guide students in clearly stating the problem, perhaps by formulating a question.

_ Lead a discussion of methods that may allow students to address the problem. Set the
guidelines for study. Provide access to a variety of appropriate resources, including concrete
materials and information sources.
Monitor students as they employ their methods, helping students to revise and refine their
methods as appropriate.
Encourage students to take action based on findings, when appropriate.

_ Direct students to draw conclusions regarding (a) the problem and (b) the processes of
investigation.
164 CHAPTER 7

A Sample Unguided Inquiry Lesson Figure 7.13 recounts an unguided inquiry lesson,
inspired by Project WILD’s (2001) lesson, “No Water Off a Duck’s Back. Students of all
on of oil spills.
ages participate thoughtfully in the lesson, creating and cleaning up the simulati

Strengths and Criticisms of Inductive Strategies

the best
Each of us probably has a story that illustrates the old saying “Experience is
us to form rules that can be useful in guiding our behavior and
teacher.” Experience allows
solving related problems in the future. Most of us report that when we generate the rules
by distilling experience rather than simply by reciting the rules we have heard stated for us,

A sample unguided inquiry lesson.

Objectives: Seventh-grade students will describe useful techniques for cleaning oil spills and state at least
one possible drawback of each technique.
Through a closing discussion or product of their choice, students will demonstrate the ability to
clearly define a problem, to employ an appropriate method, and to analyze their results.
Open 1. Teacher projects an internet image from a news magazine of an oil-soaked bird and leads
students to conclude that an oil spill at sea was responsible for the bird’s condition.
2. Using Inspiration (http://www. inspiration.com), the class together begins to create a
semantic map on oil spills. Students move into small heterogeneous groups and continue
adding to a small-group version of the map.
3. Teacher focuses students’ attention on the portion of the map that lists a few cleanup
methods: “Let’s think about this part of the map. You already know some ways that
specialists attempt to clean up spills at sea.”
4. Teacher shows a clear container with water and vegetable oil meant to simulate an oil spill.
“Here | have my own spill.”
a

Body 5. Teacher directs pairs of students to phrase the problem for investigation as a question.
Students share their questions aloud and revise based on peers’ ideas.
6. Students spend one period reviewing books, encyclopedias, newspapers, and Internet
materials to study cleanup methods. The teacher quietly assigns each student to a
particular source given information on students’ reading level, but she allows them to
read their choice of additional materials as well. Materials include sources in Russian and
Korean to provide primary language support for her English learners.
7. The next day, students bring in some cleanup materials and place them with those gathered
by the teacher. Materials include coffee filters, detergents, soaps, sponges, eyedroppers,
and paper towels.
8. In pairs, students devise and record a plan for cleaning up the vegetable oil spill. Partner groups
exchange plans and ask each other a few questions to troubleshoot before spill cleanup begins.
9. Before distributing materials, the teacher quietly pulls two students with marked behavior
difficulties to her. She makes each of them manager for particular materials and reinforces
the rules for handling other materials appropriately.
10. With plans in hand, each pair creates its own oil spill using one tablespoon of vegetable oil in a
pan of water. Students implement their plan to clean up the slick. Teacher monitors, prompting
students to work carefully and to record their efforts in specific detail. She attempts to enrich
their thinking through strategies such as visits to other student groups for observation.

Close 11. As testing concludes, teacher guides students in constructing a class chart of cleanup methods
and their potential usefulness. The class also discusses drawbacks of its methods and reflects
on how its future tests may be improved by the Strategies students attempted in this inquiry.
12. Students choose a format to share what they learned and to evaluate their success
as problem solvers. Teacher encourages intensely curious students to conduct future
investigations on cleanup methods for oil spills on land.
 Instructional Models and Strategies 165

learning is more potent and tends to be longer lasting. Inductive strategies capitalize on the
tremendous power of discovery learning.
Additionally, one widely professed purpose of education is to foster students’ ability
to think independently, to find order and patterns in the huge amount of information that
confronts us daily. Inductive approaches are useful for that purpose because they provide
students with opportunities to frame problems, to select appropriate methodologies, and
to analyze their reasoning. To expand students’ ability to face problems and complicated
issues, inductive strategies focus on the processes of questioning, gathering information,
and learning, in addition to content mastery. Recall that the skills and dispositions neces-
sary for the generation of new knowledge are considered essential for the 21st century.
Finally, inductive strategies make use of many principles from Chapter 6: They con-
nect easily with the lives of the learners by using student interest and frequently allowing
for some student choice in the methods of study and the pacing of the lesson. Inductive
approaches address human nature and needs by sparking and sustaining curiosity and by
encouraging students to be puzzlers and problem solvers. Further, inductive strategies often
make use of a wide range of information sources and real-world materials, which results in
an enriched learning environment. When students engage in unguided inquiry into prob-
lems they themselves experience, they have the important opportunity to question existing
conditions and to work on improving one piece of the world.
Inductive strategies can be criticized for a number of reasons. First, because student
input can so dramatically shape the direction of the lesson—not only its pacing but in many
cases its content as well—it can be difficult for the teacher to predict a lesson’s content
outcomes. Releasing partial control to students can be unsettling to teachers because they
must approach content and time decisions with greater flexibility, especially in divergent
lessons. Whereas the outcomes in a directed lesson are clear at the outset, divergent induc-
tive lessons such as unguided inquiry result in multiple generalizations. Some teachers feel
that this divergence places heavy demands on their own stores of knowledge.
The divergent, somewhat unpredictable nature of certain inductive methods also worries
some teachers because of the pressure they feel to systematically treat a large body of content
information in short periods of time. Focusing study on relevant, real-life problems may not al-
low for orderly treatment of some of the more mundane topics teachers are expected to address.
Finally, inductive lessons require resources and time. Whereas it takes very little time
for a teacher to directly state a generalization, inducing a generalization requires repeated
and varied experiences. Although they can produce lasting and memorable learning, induc-
tive strategies can be less time efficient than direct instruction.
When will you use inductive methods? Check your stance toward education to gain a
sense of what you want students to be able to do as adults. If you include outcomes such as the
ability to analyze information sources, to think critically and creatively, or to solve complex
problems, you need to master and employ inductive strategies. Because of their potential
to address both content and thought-process goals, I hope you will use inductive strategies
frequently. As a general rule, when you plan your lessons, ask yourself: “Could the students
effectively discover these points for themselves if I arranged conditions appropriately?” If
your answer is yes, use an inductive strategy. My own stance toward education reminds me
not to tell students that which they could discover on their own. The last strategy addressed
in this chapter, cooperative learning, can include both inductive and deductive approaches.

Cooperative Learning
Popularized in the 1970s and 1980s, cooperative learning was formulated as an attempt to
move classroom practices away from the highly individualistic and often competitive empha-
ses of the typical American classroom. Cooperative learning includes a family of methods
and structures designed to capitalize on every classroom’s diversity and to enrich students’
cognitive learning and social behaviors (Jacob, 1999; Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Related
terms include peer-mediated instruction and collaborative learning. Often these terms are
used interchangeably, although precise distinctions do exist. For instance, some say that
cooperative learning requires a shared product of learning; collaborative learning does not.
166 CHAPTER 7

Through cooperative
learning, students work
together to meet goals
and build social skills.

Source: Scott Cunningham/Merrill.

Research on peer-mediated instruction (including cooperative learning) 1s extensive,

with studies spanning a century and many countries, grade levels, subject areas, and popu-
lations (including general and special education) represented. Results are positive (Hall &
Stegila, 2003). Cooperative learning is effective for encouraging content learning, social
interaction, and students’ attitudes toward learning and the subject matter. Examples of its
effectiveness include a meta-analysis of the research by Marzano et al. (2001) and studies
by Maheady, Michielli-Pendl, Mallette, and Harper (2002) and Baker, Gersten, and Lee
(2002). Even very young children can use cooperative learning in its simple forms.

Description of the Cooperative Learning Model In cooperative learning lessons,

students are expected to help each other learn as they work together in small groups. Groups
can be temporary or yearlong. Frequently, cooperative groups include four members, but
other configurations also exist. Cooperative learning is more than simply assigning students
to work together and then issuing group grades. According to proponents (Kagan, 1994;
Slavin, 1995) cooperative learning needs to accomplish three basic principles:
1. Positive interdependence. Conditions must be arranged so that students are dependent
on each other for success. This interdependence can be facilitated by providing group
awards or by structuring tasks so that individual students cannot complete them alone.
2. Individual accountability. Each student must remain accountable for exhibiting mastery
of the content.
3. Simultaneous interaction. Lessons should keep a maximum number of students
overtly active at once. This is in contrast to traditional lessons in which only one
student in the entire class speaks at a time.
A fourth principle is equal participation (Kagan 1994). Students need to make bal-
anced contributions to the group’s work. Kagan argues that to accomplish these principles,
teachers must:
Structure teams so that they are heterogeneous. Ability, language, gender, and eth-
nicity may be criteria teachers use to sort students into teams where members differ.
Use team-building and class-building activities to create the will to cooperate.
Use management techniques specifically suited for group work. Examples include a
quiet signal to regain students’ attention and the use of assigned roles within teams.
Explicitly teach social skills such as listening and conflict resolution techniques.
 Instructional Models and Strategies 167

In sum, cooperative learning lessons structure resources and activities so that students
remain responsible for their own learning and become responsible for assisting their team-
mates in learning.

Stages of the Cooperative Learning Model Although for many teachers coopera-
tive learning has come to mean simply allowing students to help each other, there are scores
of formal cooperative learning structures that breathe life into the principles of cooperative
learning. The stages listed in Figure 7.14 do not represent a single lesson. Instead, they
suggest a sequence of events that take place over an extended period of time as a teacher
works to establish a cooperative learning classroom.
Individual cooperative learning lessons that make use of a variety of structures can
be embedded within this sequence. There are plentiful structures and resources on the
Web. For example, try the links at CAST’s site: http://aim.cast.org/learn/historyarchive/
backgroundpapers/peer-mediated_instruction. In the meantime, here are four to get
you started.

1. Jigsaw I (Slavin, 1995): Students in heterogeneous teams read the same chapter of
material, with each member focusing on particular “expert” topics in the chapter.

Stages of the cooperative learning model.

Form teams and ily Select the dimensions along which students will be heterogeneously grouped.
set the stage 2. Use assessment results and demographic information to place students into
groups of four that include members who differ according to the selected
dimensions. For example, each group may have two high achievers, two
lower achievers, and be balanced in terms of girls and boys and English and
Spanish speakers. Random teams, interest teams, or skill teams may also be
used.
Teach a defined and explicit set of social behaviors. Examples include active
listening and responding in positive ways to peers’ contributions.

Implement cooperative 4. Select and teach a quiet signal. Examples include a raised hand, a flick of the
management system lights, a noise maker, and patterned hand claps.
wi Teach students to distribute and collect materials within their teams.

Build teams 6. Encourage students to rely on each other by using team-building activities.
Examples include team interviews and developing team names or hats.
|

Teach social skills 7. Directly teach students to interact in positive ways.

¢ Post a list of the behaviors you expect to see and model those behaviors for
the students.
¢ Consider assigning roles such as encourager and task master to help
students learn skills.
8. Monitor social skills. Reinforce appropriate social behaviors. Allow students to
evaluate their own use of social skills regularly.

Use cooperative 9. Select from a variety of structures to embed cooperative learning within your
learning strategies regular instruction.
throughout instruction

Analyze and revise 10. Monitor students’ growth in social skills and encourage them to self-monitor
through self-assessments.
e Reorganize teams as appropriate.
¢ Set new goals for yourself and your students based on their current work.
168 CHAPTER 7

how to
Students meet in groups with other experts to discuss the material and decide
Back in their home teams, members teach each other
present it to group members.
each member has mastered all topics. Students are
their expert topics, ensuring that
and team
assessed on the material, and the teacher records both individual scores
scores that are based on the improvement gains of each individual student. (Focus on
Content mastery)
2. Inside-outside circle (Kagan, 1994): Two concentric circles form, and students face
each other. Partnered with the outside circle person directly across from him or her,
each inside circle student shares and then listens as the outside circle person shares. The
outside circle rotates so new partners can converse. (Focus on Information sharing)
3. Student-teams achievement divisions (STAD; Slavin, 1995): Based on the lesson
objective, the teacher presents new information in a manner that closely relates to
quizzes students will take later. Then team members practice the information together,
using worksheets or other materials. Team members’ responsibility 1s to ensure that all
members have mastered the content. Next, every student takes a quiz on the material.
Individuals receive scores based on their improvement over time. Team scores are
determined by combining individual improvement scores. Recognition is given to
teams based on their team scores. (Focus on Content mastery)
4. Team statements (Kagan, 1994): Each person writes an individual statement about a
topic. Students share their statements and then develop a team statement that synthesizes
each of the individual statements. (Focus on Thinking skills)

A Sample Cooperative Learning Lesson Figure 7.15 shares a sample lesson for
second graders that uses three of Kagan’s cooperative learning structures.

A sample cooperative learning lesson.

Objectives: Second-grade students will synthesize information from their aquarium field trip as evidenced
by their descriptions of the murals they create.
Students will exhibit two social skills: listening to each other and asking the teacher a question
only when no group member can answer it.

Open 1. The class gets ready to learn.

¢ Class is seated on the floor in a misshapen circle.
¢ A fully included student using a wheelchair is sitting next to several friends who like to
help out.
* The teacher directs students to choose a partner by making eye contact with a person
nearby and linking up.
* She watches to ensure that all students are matched in a respectful way, and then she
has them number off (1 and 2).
2. Teacher states, “Here are some plastic animals like the animals we saw on our aquarium
field trip. | have plenty. Partner 2, come here, choose one, talk to your partner about what
you remember about the animal on the trip, and then return it to the center so that Partner 1
can choose another animal.”
3. Teacher watches the partner group with her fully included student to ensure that the
student’s partner doesn’t do too much for him. She monitors others as well.
4. Teacher compliments the students: “Do you know what | noticed as you were talking? When
your partner spoke, you really listened. | could tell because you were looking at your partner,
nodding and sometimes smiling. You didn’t interrupt either. Careful listening is the social
skill we'll practice today and tomorrow. What does it /ook like to listen carefully? What
does it
sound like?” A brief discussion ensues and the teacher charts their responses.
5. “I can tell from your conversations that you learned many things from our field trip. Today
you will have a chance to share what you learned by creating a team mural. Tomorrow
we
will describe our murals to each other.”
 Instructional Models and Strategies 169

Body 6. Each partner group joins up with another to form teams of four and they renumber, 1—4.
7. At their team tables, students fact-storm on their trip.
¢ Using a strategy called roundtable, one student writes a memory from the aquarium trip
on a large sheet of paper, then passes the paper to the next member. The partner of the
fully included student takes his dictation.
* Students continue writing for about 10 minutes, until the paper is full.
¢ “Now that you have so many animals and plants recorded, see if your team can group
them in some logical way. Write on the chart.”
8. “Use your groupings to create a mural. Look toward the back of our room and you will see
many materials you may use.”
¢ Students: “Dude! Glitter!”
* Teacher continues: “Here’s the rule for making your mural. | have made a sign that
describes your job. See? Member 1, you are in control of the scissors. Only you may cut.
Member 2, you are the magazine monitor. Any pictures selected from the magazine are
your responsibility. You see that you may need 1 to cut for you, right? Member 3, your job
is Fancy Material Captain. Glitter and crepe paper belong only to you. Member 4, markers
are your job.”
¢ She checks for understanding on directions. Satisfied, teacher states, “Use your charts
and get to work.”
9. Children work until lunch on their murals.
¢ Teacher monitors to be certain that members are making their unique contributions based
on their roles.
¢ When individuals ask her questions, she asks, “Have you asked each person in your
group that question yet?”
e She applies some time pressures to keep groups productive, and she reinforces the
listening skills students demonstrate.

Close 10. The next day: To share their murals and allow the teacher to assess the first objective,
students use the “one stay, three stray” structure.
e All Number 1’s stand by their group mural and describe it to three visitors.
e Next, Number 2’s stay and describe while the others stray to see the murals of other groups.
e Teacher takes anecdotal notes on students’ presentations.
¢ Back in their home groups, groups write one statement about what they saw and heard
about other groups’ murals.
¢ Statements are posted near the murals.
11. Students talk briefly in their groups to evaluate their social skills.
¢ They focus on the chosen skill, careful listening.
e They discuss the questions “What did we do well as a group today?” and “What will we
work on for next time?”

Strengths and Criticisms of the Cooperative Learning Model Cooperative

learning offers refreshing changes to traditional classroom practice. First, it breaks the
typical discourse pattern where teachers do most of the talking. It can enliven a classroom
because it allows a far greater number of people to talk—to develop oral communication
skills—at once. Second, cooperative learning changes the typical expectation that students
need to succeed only as individuals and instead builds as norms social interaction and
interdependence. Third, whereas student differences are sometimes seen as problematic,
cooperative learning suggests that the more diverse the group, the richer the potential out-
comes. Fourth, cooperative learning meets many of the principles addressed in Chapter 6.
It is highly interactive, it capitalizes on human nature by allowing students to be actively
involved throughout the lesson, and it allows students to form connections to the subject
matter and with other students.
170 CHAPTER 7

COOPERATIVE LEARNING QUICK STARTS

Here are three
Use quick collaborative activities to increase interaction, language, and learning.
to get you going.
to the
_ Peer teach: Pause a few times during a lesson. Have one partner reteach the content
other. They switch roles next time.
. Traveling partners: Before the lesson begins, have students sign up for traveling partners.
Each records the other’s name. Or you designate the partners. They should not sit near each
other. When it is time during the lesson, signal students to travel to their partners. Partners
to
might work a problem, discuss an issue, or check over their notes. Signal when it’s time
head back to their seats.
_ Four-two-one: At the end of a lesson, have students individually write down what they
think are the four most important words from the lesson. In partners or small groups, have
students share their words and then devise a list of just two important words. Everyone
must agree. Finally, in partners or small groups, they pick the one word that captures the
lesson best (Rogers, Ludington, & Graham, 1999).

Still, cooperative learning brings some difficulties. Cooperative learning lessons can
take more time than traditional presentations because students are simultaneously learning
social skills. Cooperative classrooms require diligence from the teacher in terms of class-
room management. It takes skill to harness students’ energy and ensure that students are
working productively. It can also be a challenge to guide students in solving their social dif-
ficulties when a teacher’s temptation is to quickly solve the problem and move on. Finally,
it is the teacher’s responsibility to structure lessons that require every student to contribute
to the group’s work. One of the greatest challenges of cooperative learning is to bar the
possibility that students can freeload.
When will you use cooperative learning? Informal techniques such as partner sharing
are easily integrated into traditional instruction. Try the three cooperative techniques given
in the Teaching Tip. Individual lessons that employ cooperative structures are also possible.
Structuring your entire classroom around the principles of cooperative learning will prob-
ably require you to receive additional training or to study some of the excellent resources
that describe cooperative learning methods. As you consider cooperative learning, remem-
ber the power of your role as instructional leader. You must arrange events so that you can
manage students’ behavior, monitor their social skills, and ensure that they truly are helping
each other succeed. Think through your activities, anticipate trouble spots, and plan some
alternative responses to keep your cooperative lessons productive. Also consider whether
and how technology might enhance your selection of instructional strategies.

ttitUtitutMtMMttLtLtLLELELER RELL

Parting Words
Classroom teaching is so demanding that it is easy to re- a number of instructional strategies a priority, perhaps
treat to instructional methods that do not require us to con- selecting one or two based on your work from the Before
sider best practices, to enact our stances toward education, You Begin Reading exercise in this chapter. When you try
to stretch as professionals, or to stray from the ways we any new strategy, think very carefully about what you will
were taught as children. However, teaching is more than say at each point, what you will expect from the students
telling. Skilled teachers can use a number of instructional and what you will do if things do not go as planned. ee
Strategies to suit their purposes and encourage different that you will need repeated opportunities to practice new
kinds of growth for their learners. Make learning and using strategies; in fact, research on staff development suggests
 Instructional Models and Strategies 171

that a strategy may not feel natural until you try it about pushes all of your students to their learning potential. The
a dozen times. A dozen times! Further, be Vigilant in harder you work to build your instructional repertoire,
thinking about how using a variety of instructional strate- the better able you will be to help your students grow
gies can help you differentiate your instruction so that it and develop.

1. Record yourself teaching or ask for permission to observe direct instruction and one other strategy. Study the stages
another teacher. Tally the number of questions the teacher of the models as if you are studying for an exam. Commit
asks and how many the students ask. Analyze your data of them to memory and then bring them to life through intense
question—answer patterns according to some of the topics effort to model them each a couple times. Work with a
given early (pp. 144-145) in this chapter. What is your colleague and discuss your experience.
evaluation of the questioning you observed?
4. Write two contrasting lessons using strategies from this
2. Observe another teacher lead a lesson. Afterward, discuss chapter. Use an objective from your classroom or the
with the teacher the choices he made about instructional following one: “Students will retell three major events from
strategies. Ask him how many of the strategies from this a story [name one] in the correct sequence.” Blank lesson
chapter he knows and which he prefers. If an observation plan forms are included in Figure 7.16.
is not possible, try analyzing the teacher’s editions from a 5. Figure 7.16 includes lesson plan formats for each of
published curriculum series. How many of the strategies the instructional models and strategies in this chapter.
are suggested? What is your evaluation of the use of Use them as you plan lessons that incorporate different
instructional strategies? What changes might you suggest? strategies. Remember to include cognitive, affective, and
3. Make a prioritized list for yourself of the strategies you will psychomotor objectives as appropriate. Also, include
work to master. Busy? I suggest you choose, for a start, assessment to match each of your objectives.

Use the names of strategies given in this chapter to conduct your of techniques. One example from this chapter is
Internet search for teaching techniques. Examples include the concept attainment.
following: The instructional strategies presented in this chapter are just
http://www.imsa.edu/team/cpbl/cpbl.html a subset of the myriad strategies you can try. Others, such as
Center for Problem-Based Learning by Illinois Mathematics virtual field trips and simulations, are also readily available.
and Science Academy. Start with the tutorial, then move To get started, try these sites:
to Sample Problems.
http://www.awesomelibrary.org/
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/ Awesome Library. Look around, or search for the word
Concept to Classroom. This site offers free online “simulation” within the site and locate many activities that
workshops in topics such as cooperative learning, inquiry- allow students to experience content through memorable,
based learning, and Webquests. Solid information is role-play-type activities.
supplemented with video. http://www.uen.org/utahlink/tours/
http://www.inquiry.uiuc.edu/ Virtual Field Trips by Utah Education Network. This site
The Inquiry Page. Includes a helpful inquiry cycle provides great links and prepares students for their
and examples of inquiry in practice. Browse the inquiry virtual travels.
units, but be sure to evaluate the submissions using your http://webquest.org/
knowledge of the critical attributes of inquiry. WebQuest News. This site presents WebQuests by their
http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/PD/instr/index.html founder, Bernie Dodge at San Diego State University.
Instructional Strategies Online. This site groups dozens Membership in the QuestGarden community has a fee, but
of methods within a handful of strategies. A valuable teachers can search WebQuests by grade level and content
resource, it provides background, step-by-step directions, area for free.
and plentiful resources to help you master a variety
 Lesson plan formats.

Direct Instruction Lesson

Objective(s): Materials:

Expectations for behavior:

Open 1. Anticipatory set:

e Focus:

¢ Objective:

e Purpose:

Body 2. Input:

¢ Provide input:

* Check for understanding:

Guided practice:

Close 4. Closure:

Independent practice:

172
 Inquiry Training Lesson

Objective(s): Materials:

Open . Discrepant event:

. State students’ task:

Body . Elicit questions that verify conditions and events of the discrepant event:

¢ Sample acceptable questions:

¢ Sample prompts to encourage appropriate questions:

. Elicit questions that test hypotheses:

¢ Sample acceptable questions:

¢ Sample prompts to encourage appropriate questions:

Close _ Guide students to formaily state their explanations:

(continued )

173
 Lesson plan formats (Continued)

Concept Attainment Lesson

Concept or rule to be discovered:

Objective(s):

Materials (list examples and counterexamples of your concept):

Open 1. Briefly display objects:

2. State students’ task:

3. Present examples and counterexamples of the concept or rule (list the order in which
examples will be presented):

4. Allow students to test their hypothesized rules by (a) citing their own examples and
nonexamples and/or (b) talking with peers. Prompts:

5. Allow the rule to be stated for the class:

6. Allow for observations of the content and process of the lesson:

7. Invite further exploration (e.g., allow students to create their own groups):

174
Learning Cycle Lesson

Concept or rule to be discovered:

Objective(s):

Materials:

Open 1. Engage (use a real-world phenomenon to hook the students; elicit questions; determine
background knowledge):

2. Explore (work with concrete materials; determine emerging concepts and terms):

3. Develop (formally develop concepts and terms from the explore phase; use readings, direct
presentations, and other methods to ensure mastery of the objective):

Close 4. Apply (provide a novel problem to which new knowledge can be applied or make some other
real-world connection):

(continued )

175
 Lesson plan formats (Continued )

Concept Formation Lesson

lf specified, concepts or generalizations to be discovered:

Objective(s):

Materials:

Open . Introduce the topic and ask a question that will generate a list of terms:

Body . List (prompt students to generate an extensive list related to the topic):

. Group (prompt students to group items from the list):

. Label (prompt students to name the groups):

. Optional: Regroup (prompt students to find other ways items can be grouped):

Close . Call students’ attention to the concepts or generalizations that arise from their groupings.
Prompt:

. Extend learning through an additional assignment, such as a drawing, writing, or

speaking
opportunity:

176
 Unguided Inquiry Lesson

If specified, concepts or generalizations to be discovered:

Objective(s) (consider both content and research skill or process objectives)

Materials (list concrete materials and information sources):

eeOpen 1. Present stimulus material that suggests a problem or issue for study:

2. Guide students to state the problem in clear terms. Prompts:

3. Decide on appropriate methods to address the problem. Prompts:

4. Set the guidelines for study. Prompts:

Body 5. Monitor students as they employ their methods. Prompts to encourage careful study:

"Close 6. Encourage students to draw conclusions regarding (a) the problem and (b) the processes of
investigation. Prompts:

(continued )

177
 Lesson plan formats (Continued )

-——-—

Cooperative Learning Lesson

Content objective(s):

Social skill objective(s):

Materials:

Prelesson a. How are teams formed?

questions

b. What quiet signal will you use?

c. What team-building and class-building efforts have you taken or will you take?

Open 1. Focus students’ attention and allude to the lesson’s content and activities:

2. State expectations for cooperative work and teach social skills:

Body 3. Use a cooperative learning structure to present information or encourage discovery learning.
Samples from Chapters 5 and 6 include the following:

blackboard blitz inside—outside circle round table

brainstorming jigsaw roving review

four corners numbered heads together stand to share

gallery walk one stay, three stray values lineups

group problems peer interviews

4. Monitor students’ use of social skills. Sample prompts:

Close 5. Summarize the learning. Prompts or cooperative strategy:

6. Process students’ use of social skills:

178
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Student Assessment

Before You Begin Reading

Warm-Up Exercise for Assessment
Think back to your years as a student. How did your teachers know whether and what you learned?
What kinds of feedback did you receive? Take three minutes to jot down as many different
assessment strategies as you can recall experiencing.

Now mark each of these statements with agree or disagree:

1. Teachers knew me as a multifaceted person with varied strengths and skills.
2. Teachers were interested in my own assessments of my work.
3. Teachers encouraged me to set my own learning goals.
4. The feedback | received from tests and other assessments helped me learn.
5. Teachers changed what they did in the classroom based on student assessment data.

Finally, evaluate your answers for statements 1 through 5. Were your experiences with assessment
as a student positive? Would it have been better if teachers had assessed your learning differently?

Here is a chance for you to use effective practices from both the past and present to make a
difference for today's students. Use your conclusions to help make sense of the following chapter and
to build your own system for assessing student progress.
ee

66
ie greatest magnifying glasses in the world are a man’s own eyes when they look upon his own
person.”

—Alexander Pope
 Student Assessment 181

Assessment is the magnifying glass we use to look upon our efforts in

education. Through
assessment, we gather, analyze, and use information about schools’ work and students’
progress. We use the assessment magnifying glass for many purposes such as
checking the
health of our schools, communicating our efforts to the public, and comparin
g ourselves to
other nations. Our primary purpose of assessment, though, is student growth. This
chapter
addresses student assessment in the following sections:

* Principles of Assessment
* Assessment Basics
* The Assessment Landscape
* Classroom Assessment Step by Step
¢ A Note on Grading
* A Sampler of Assessments

Principles of Assessment
Assessment of student learning is multifaceted and complex, and to do a good job at it, we
must use a number of principles to guide our actions, no matter the level or type of assess-
ment. In our assessments, we need to:

1. Measure what we value.

2. Include students.
3. Be fair.
4. Use what we learn.
5. Add to the bigger picture.

These five principles are introduced briefly here and reoccur as themes throughout the
chapter.

1. Measuring what we value. At every level (globally, nationally, professionally, and

individually) we give serious deliberation to what we should accomplish through educa- Goals

tion, and we embody those wishes as goals in a variety of forms such as philosophies and
mission statements. Assessment 1s the vehicle we use to ascertain our progress toward our
goals and to adjust our course of action. Assessing what we value entails ensuring that our Assess «—— Teach
assessments address all of our goals—not just a narrow range of them—and both short-
(Assessment principle:
and long-term targets. Measure what we value.)
2. Including students. Although assessment often appears to be done to students
rather than with students, the ultimate goal in assessment is self-assessment (Costa &
Kallick, 2000). Only when they are effective self-evaluators will students be autonomous
individuals who can motivate their own learning and action. Thus, our efforts must include
assessment of learning (to check progress), for learning (to guide next steps), and as learn-
ing (to help students grow as self-evaluators).
3. Being fair. To provide a true picture of what students know and can do assessments
must be systematic. They must provide valid and reliable information for all of our stu-
dents. A valid assessment measures what it was intended to measure
and allows us to draw accurate inferences. Confounds to validity Sample science assessment item.
include, often, English language proficiency and reading skill.
Either of these variables might affect a student’s score on the
fourth-grade science item found in Figure 8.1. A reliable measure 4, One advantage of solar energy is that it
gives consistent results under different conditions and with dif- (@) does not pollute
ferent raters. To be fair, assessments also need to be unbiased and Cie not renewable
equitable. Using multiple measures increases the odds that we Cis efficient at any ckmate
build fair, accurate, and rich portraits of student progress.
4. Using what we learn. Assessment results must be useful.
By providing information about students’ progress toward goals, Source: National Center for Education Statistics’ Kid Zone
assessment data should inform our instruction and other next steps _(http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/eyk/) Permission pending.
182 CHAPTER 8

the selection of future

such as schoolwide program revision. Assessment should also guide
learning goals. .
Informat ion about student progress 1s collected
5. Adding to the bigger picture.
the bigger picture
over time and from many sources. Assessment efforts need to add to
l students. Each assessor fits into a variety
of what we know about each of our individua
know
of assessment systems and must contribute to the bigger picture(s) of what we
and implemen t effective assessme nt
about our students. Each assessor must also develop
systems at her own level of influence.

Assessment Basics

As you consider your important role as an assessor and pursue effective assessment, several
basic concepts may be of service.

Different Assessments for Different Purposes

Although schools focus on the cognitive domain, our student learning goals do fall
into several domains (cognitive, psychomotor, and affective). For example, the National
Science Education Standards require students to master the abilities necessary to do
scientific inquiry, which include, for instance, employing equipment and tools to gather
data (National Research Council, 1996). Those abilities include psychomotor skills like
handling equipment precisely and safely. The standards also emphasize appreciation for
science as a way of knowing the world and the dispositions and attitudes associated with
science. Because domains vary, so must our assessments to measure students’ progress.
Students’ use of tools of science might be assessed through a performance task, and their
attitudes might be assessed through observation. Stiggins (2001) suggests that teachers use
assessments to measure a variety of targets, including:

¢ Knowledge and understanding

* Reasoning
¢ Performance skills
¢ Proficiency in creating products
¢ Dispositions

In addition to classroom assessments, students face a variety of other assessments.

Achievement tests are common, as are aptitude tests (which measure aspects of ability),
interest inventories, and diagnostic measures that might screen for health or learning condi-
tions. Each of our many assessments needs to match our purposes.

Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Assessments

Measures can compare individuals’ results to a group or to an external standard. Norm-
referenced measures compare an individual’s performance with that of a norming group.
How well an individual does depends on the achievement of others. Think of grading on a
curve: A score of 75 percent might bring you any grade from A to F depending on how your
classmates do. A common norm-referenced score is a percentile, the score below which that
percentage of the scores falls. A score at the 90th percentile means that 90 percent of the
people who took the test scored below that score. Another example is a grade equivalent
score (GE), which tells the grade and month (1-9) of the average person who achieved a
given score.
Criterion-referenced assessments instead compare each individual’s score to a
standard. One’s progress on a criterion-referenced measure is not influenced by others’
scores. Your score of 75 percent would earn a C (by common convention), regardless
of your peers’ scores. A common criterion-referenced practice is pass/fail
grading
using a predetermined cut score. A driver’s license test is an example. Another
is the
determination of students’ grade level proficiency, where scores fall into performan
ce
 Student Assessment 183

levels such as “advanced,” “proficient,” and “basic” depending on predetermined

criteria.
Both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced scores provide useful information;
using both gives us a more precise picture of student progress. For instance, at the doctor’s
office, it’s helpful to know both a child’s weight measurement and its percentile. The
former (say, 72 pounds) gives an exact, criterion-referenced measure, and the latter (say,
68th percentile) allows us to compare the child’s weight to that of his age mates. Knowing
both pieces of information is helpful to the child, the parents, and the doctor for making
future decisions about things like nutrition.

Standardized and Local Assessments

Standardized tests are developed, administered, and scored under systematic conditions.
They are meant to provide results that can be compared across large numbers of students.
Examples include the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) and the Comprehensive Test of
Basic Skills (CTBS). Local assessments, on the other hand, are developed, implemented,
and analyzed with the local context in mind. District writing exams are an example of a
local assessment. Both types of assessment—large-scale and local—can contribute unique
information to our understanding of students’ progress. The trick is to be smart in consider-
ing the kind of information that each can provide.

Formative and Summative Assessments

Assessments whose primary purpose is to inform us of students’ postinstructional perfor-
mance are summative. Statewide achievement tests are an example. Even though we do
use the results to shape future planning, the achievement tests’ immediate and primary
focus is to report students’ performance for the year. Summative assessment is assessment
of learning.
Formative assessment is assessment for learning. The primary purpose of
formative assessments is to give current information about students’ progress that
helps us shape (or “form”) our actions to better meet students’ needs. Research
indicates that formative assessment has a strong positive effect on student learning
(Black & Wiliam, 1998; Herman, Osmundson, Ayala, Schneider, & Timms, 2006;
Popham, 2008). Indeed, much interest in today is centered on the power of formative
assessment to improve teaching and learning. Formative assessment can occur before
instruction, providing diagnostic information, and during instruction, providing
progress monitoring and opportunities to modify the pace, content, and approach
of our lessons in response to students’ unfolding needs. Students should be active in
formative assessment: “Formative assessment is a planned process in which teachers
or students use assessment-based evidence to adjust what they’re currently doing”
(Popham, 2008, p. 6; emphasis added).
Assessment for learning involves students in determining their current performance,
setting goals, and ascertaining progress toward those goals. “When students and teach-
ers become partners in the classroom assessment process, both working in the service of
student success, research from around the world reveals that the result is profound achieve-
ment gains for all students” (Stiggins, 2009, p. 420).
Balanced assessment systems include both formative and summative assessments.
Formative assessment provides guidance along the road, and summative assessment tells
us when, whether, and where we’ ve arrived. Both are necessary for guiding student growth
(Kennedy, Chan, Fok, & Yu, 2008).

The Assessment Landscape

Your work as an assessor puts you and your students on the map. Let’s examine the land-
scape of assessment from afar and up close.
184 CHAPTER 8

International Assessment Landscape

At the global level, student assessment allows us to compare our students’ attainments to
those of students around the world. Analyzing international results can provide insights into
our practices and policies and suggest avenues for improvement. Dozens of countries par-
ticipate in each of two major international assessment programs: the Trends in International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Programme for International Assessment
(PISA).
PISA is a triennial assessment of 15-year-olds’ capacity to analyze, reason, and com-
municate effectively in the areas of mathematics, science, and reading. PISA’s literacy em-
phasis is on applying knowledge as students pose, solve, and interpret problems in a variety
of settings (OECD, 2010). The test also asks students to assess their attitudes, motivation
to learn, and learning strategies. Future versions will measure ICT competencies and con-
sider use of computer-based assessment tools such as adaptive testing. Adaptive testing
matches the level of the test to students’ performance so that they need not complete all
items including ones that are too easy or too difficult for them. U.S. students’ performance
on PISA was significantly below the international averages in science and mathematics
(OECD, 2007). As aside note, the gender differences explored in Chapter 4 are alive across
the globe in PISA results; females dramatically outscored males in reading. Males in many
countries marginally outperformed females in mathematics, and no gender differences in
science arose.
Administered every four years, the Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study examines the mathematics and science knowledge that fourth- and eighth-graders
are likely to have learned in school (NCES, 2010h). U.S. students recently scored above
international averages in science and mathematics at both grade levels (IEA, 2007a,
2007b). Figure 8.2 gives international comparisons related to the fourth-grade science
question—A TIMSS question—given in Figure 8.1. Go to the NCES Kids Zone site and
try some questions yourself. Comparisons of these TIMSS and PISA results suggest that
U.S. students did better at displaying factual knowledge than they did at reasoning in
complex tasks.

International comparisons on science assessment item.

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Source: National Center for Education Statistics’ Kid Zone (http://n

ces.ed.gov/nceskids/eyk/) Permission pending.
 Student Assessment 185

National- and State-Level Assessment Landscape

The National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), deemed the nation’s
report
card, is the longest running, largest standardized assessment employed across the United
States. Participation is now mandated by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(No Child Left Behind). Every four years, a sample of fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-grade
students in every state completes the NAEP in several subject areas. Questions include
both constructed response and selection-type items. Visit http://nces.ed.gov/nationsre-
portcard/ to view a wealth of information such as long-term trend data, your state’s profile
(including expenditures per pupil, percent of students with individual education programs,
and percentage participation in English proficiency programs), and released test items
(click on “sample questions”).
Although mandated, the NAEP is not considered by most as a high-stakes test because its
results have no tangible consequences. Instead, NCLB’s accountability requirements are tied
to mandated statewide achievement tests. Beginning in grade three, students are assessed an-
nually using standardized tests that measure progress toward state content standards. Students’
achievement falls into performance levels such as “advanced,” “proficient,” “basic,” and
“below basic.” Each school—and each subgroup of the school’s population—must make
adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward NCLB’s goal of 100 percent of students attaining
grade level proficiency by 2014. Schools that do not make AYP are subject to sanctions and
possible takeover. Revisions under consideration for the reauthorization of NCLB focus more
on growth-based models and less on punishments or sanctions.
We can draw a number of conclusions about the standardized testing landscape in the
United States. First, tests are developed, administered, and analyzed by people external to the
local schooling context; this is not the case everywhere (Darling-Hammond & McCloskey,
2008). Second, our tests focus more on recall of factual information through selection-type
items than do the tests of countries that score well on PISA. In such countries, tests focus
more on open-ended items that require extensive writing and analysis and application of
knowledge (Darling-Hammond & McCloskey, 2008). Third, our tests affect the curriculum
by changing its scope (typically narrowing it), the forms of knowledge it embodies (typically
isolating information into discrete bits), and our instructional approaches (typically moving
them to teacher-centered techniques) (Au, 2007; Laitsch, 2006).
Perhaps for these reasons many oppose standardized testing in the United States. Vocal
critics (e.g., Kohn, 2001; Valli, Corninger, Cambliss, Graeber, & Buese, 2008) condemn
standardized tests as incapable of measuring important outcomes, of limiting our vision
of what is important, of weakening student-teacher relationships, and of being biased
against groups such as English learners (Menken, 2008), students from ethnic and racial
minority groups, and students from low-income homes (Johnson, Johnson, Farenga, &
Ness, 2008). Some seriously doubt the ability of standardized tests to measure the types
of learning and intelligence that relate to success in the real world. Sternberg (1997a,
1997b), for instance, argues that successful intelligence—the ability to adapt to one’s
environment to accomplish goals—is not measured by standardized tests. Sternberg also
asserts that standardized tests emphasize conformity in thought instead of valuing diverse
approaches to learning.
Those who offer support of standardized testing (e.g., Phelps, 2005) advance a number
of arguments in favor of testing. They state that public support for high-stakes testing is con-
sistently positive; as education is a public endeavor, our profession must remain account-
able to its constituents. Proponents also point to benefits such as the power of standardized
tests as diagnostic and motivational tools. Some proponents recognize the limitations of
standardized tests and suggest that we focus efforts on improving our testing practices.
Darling-Hammond and McCloskey agree:

While U.S. accountability efforts have focused on achieving higher test scores, they have
not yet developed the kind of teaching and learning systems that could develop widespread
capacity for significantly greater learning . . . for today’s knowledge based economy: the
abilities to find, analyze, and use information to solve real problems; to write and speak
clearly and persuasively; to defend ideas; and to design and manage projects (2008, p. 271).
186 CHAPTER 8

The School-Level Assessment Landscape

Stories of schools across the nation that are in fact working diligently to increase success
for all students—and succeeding admirably—abound. Examples include case studies from
individual schools and consortia that include the entire range of student population variables
(e.g., Allen, Ort, & Schmidt; 2009; Baker, Gersten, & Lee, 2002; Brookhart, Moss, & Long;
2008: Frey & Fisher, 2009; Mokhtari, Thoma, & Edwards, 2009; Reeves, 2003). A number
of common threads run across these success stories. Promising assessment practices include:

* Teachers and other participants (students, families, and administrators) work together
at the local level, as school teams, for student progress.
e Team members maintain a very sharp focus on student learning goals and on continu-
ous improvement.
* Teacher teams together develop and administer frequent formative assessments. One
benefit is that this deepens teachers’ knowledge of their content and of assessment.
* Teams regularly discuss student assessment data and then modify instruction to
improve learning.
* Teachers include students in assessment for and as learning. Students set their own
goals and monitor their growth toward those goals.
* Teachers move toward writing intensive, performance-based assessments.

When asked during your job interview, “Do you have any questions for us?” ask about
the school’s approach to student assessment. If you have a choice, join a staff that is deeply
engaged in the shared pursuit of student growth through a schoolwide effort to learn and to
improve decision making through assessment.

Classroom Assessment Step by Step

We've zoomed in from the international perspective on assessment to the school level,
locating you precisely on the assessment map. Now let’s delve into the student assess-
ment role over which you have the most control:
Classroom assessment cycle. classroom assessment. This step-by-step pro-
cess describes the classroom assessment pro-
cess whether you are part of an effective staff
Determine
team or working independently. You'll see that
assessment the process embodies our principles of assess-
targets ment. As a refresher, the principles state that
(learning we need to:
goals).
Postassess; Preassess; 1. Measure what we value.
analyze analyze 2. Include students.
results. results.
on be tale
4. Use what we learn.
5. Add to the bigger picture.
Adjust The five steps described here take you from
learning goal setting through assessment and _ instruc-
targets.
tion—and back again. The graphic in Figure 8.3
expands the goals + teach — assess cycle pre-
sented earlier.
Monitor, Plan for
reflect, inclusive,
adjust. responsive 1. Choose Your Assessment Targets
instruction.
As Figure 8.3 shows, classroom assessment
Starts in the planning phase (Gronlund, 2004).
Begin the assessment process by selecting
Source: Inspired by Ainsworth and Viegut (2006).
learning targets. Because we need to measure
 Student Assessment 187

ASSESSMENT VERSUS EVALUATION

Assessment is the act of gathering information about student progress. Evaluation assigns
a judgment, or value, to that information. Grading is thus an evaluative activity. Assigning
accurate and meaningful grades is a difficult endeavor, fraught with many logistical and ethical
issues (Deddeh, Main, & Fulkerson, 2010: Pope, Green, Johnson, & Mitchell, 2009).
Grades
should be well supported by assessment results, so think about whether and how you'll assign
grades as you consider any assessment issue.

what we value, start with the broad view for yearlong targets. Check sources like your
stance toward education, the school’s mission statement, and 21st-century skills. If you
want your students to “Demonstrate originality and inventiveness” (Partnership for 21st
Century Skills, 2009, p. 3), this goal becomes an assessment target. View the school’s
report card for potential targets, as you will be responsible for assessing students in its
required domains. Also review mandated assessments such as your statewide assessment.
Both the blueprints that lay out content and format for these exams and released items are
widely available online.
In surveying, a benchmark is a point of reference for measurement. Schools set bench-
marks too. Benchmarks are intermediate goals that are measured throughout the year using
the district’s choice of measurement tools. They serve as a reference point for students’ rate
of progress as they prepare for year-end testing. Herman, Osmundson, and Dietel (2010)
argue that benchmark assessment stands between the classroom’s formative and the state’s
year-end summative assessment because benchmark assessments give both summative
information on students’ progress to date and formative information for planning instruc-
tion. Check your district’s benchmarks in order to help you set your goals and begin plan-
ning for assessment. This broad view of learning targets can help you ensure a coherent
approach to teaching, learning, and assessment.
Then get more specific by setting targets based on content standards. Ainsworth and
Viegut (2006), like others, suggest that we first examine our standards to prioritize them.
Many states or schools offer or devise lists of “power standards” that receive the instruc-
tional emphasis. Next, study your standards in detail to analyze their demands. Ainsworth
and Viegut offer a helpful, four-step process for analyzing the demands of content standards.

1. “Unwrap” a standard by underlining important concepts and ideas (what students

need to know—the nouns) and circling the verbs (what students need to be able to do
with the information).
2. Create a graphic organizer such as a diagram or bulleted list to represent the
unwrapped standards. Include a little information about the instructional context in
which ideas will be presented.
3. Determine the big ideas from the unwrapped standards. Big ideas are generalizations
that transfer across time and culture (recall the Big Idea unit planning strategy from
Chapter 5).
4. Write essential questions that will be answered through instruction. Look at your big
ideas and infer the questions that they answer.
Figure 8.4’s four panels give a highly abbreviated example of these four processes for
a single fourth-grade draft geometry standard from the Common Core Standards (Common
Core State Standards Initiative, 2010).
Instructional time is short and integrated learning can be powerful learning, so also
consider standards from other areas that can be addressed in tandem. Examples include
English language development standards, Information and Communication Technology
standards (like ISTE’s student standards), social skills, and writing standards.
The unwrapping approach is useful for determining targets for many timeframes—for
an entire year, a unit, or a single lesson. Whether you use the unwrapping method or a
188 CHAPTER 8

Unwrapping a fourth-grade mathematics standard.

1. Unwrap the standards. 2. Create a graphic organizer.

Concepts: Attributes of 2D figures
R
CLASSIFY ) two-dimensional (2D) figures e Lines: Parallel, perpendicular
based on the presence or absence of * Angles: Right, other sizes
parallel or perpendicular lines, or the Concept: Classes of 2D figures

presence or absence of angles ° Triangles

of a specified size. <CRECOGNIZE > —Right triangles

right triangles as a category, and Skills: Be able to oo

CADENTIFY right triangles. * Recognize

——— * Identify
Classify
Context: Geometry unit with architecture focus

3. Determine the big ideas. 4. Write essential questions.

1. Two-dimensional figures are comprised 1. How do the lines and angles in 2D figures vary?
of lines and angles arranged in 2. How is it useful to identify the lines and angles in
characteristic ways. 2D figures?
2. Two-dimensional figures can be
identified and classified by their
attributes such as lines and angles.

different one to analyze the standards, the point is to dig deeply into exactly what students
need to know and be able to do when they master the standards. Without careful study, it
may be tempting to give the standards a cursory glance and treat them as items on a check
sheet to quickly check off and move on rather than teaching and assessing them deeply.

2. Choose Your Assessment Strategies

Whether you are assessing learning for an entire unit or a single lesson, you next determine
how you will assess students’ mastery of each target. As you select your assessment strate-
gies, remember that there are many options available to you; the sampler in the next section
of this chapter lists a dozen or so.
Select strategies that match the intent of the standard for what students should be able
to do with information. Be sure to select assessments that match your objectives. As a
general rule, go deep and go varied. Work toward requiring students to apply information
in real-world contexts and represent their knowledge and abilities in a number of ways.
In developing or selecting your assessments, consider the role that ICT can and
should play. Computer-based technologies expand our options for assessment dramati-
cally. They allow for richer products such as digital videos, presentations, and wikis
(Salend, 2009). Inventive computer-based assessments contextualize context within
realistic problems in virtual worlds and mirror conditions of life and learning in the 21st
century (Svihla, Vye, Brown, Phillips, Gawel, & Bransford, 2009). Digital technology
also can help us provide universal access for students during our assessments by allowing
for differentiated input (e.g., larger text, speech readers, languages other than English)
and output (e.g., speech-to-text programs and modified keyboards). Computer-based
approaches to assessment can also simplify your assessment life through item banks
that allow the creation of multiple forms of a test, and computer-based tests can provide
immediate feedback for students.
 Student Assessment 189

CREATE FREE ONLINE QUIZZES

You and your students can create quick quizzes online for free and embed them into your Web sites or blogs. Search
the
term “create free online quizzes” and you’ll find sites such as Google Docs, MyQuizCreator, Quizilla, MyStudiyo, ProProfs,
Classmaker, QuizCenter, QuizBox, and EasyTestMaker.

Three questions to consider as you develop or select your assessments are:

* What is my range of options, from traditional to alternative?
* How can I be fair with my choice of assessments?
* How can I assess before, during, and after assessment?
Both traditional and alternative assessments can provide useful information. Traditional
measures include paper/pencils tests with their selection-type or constructed-response
items. Alternative (or authentic) assessment measures offer a rich complement to traditional
assessments by providing context-embedded, multifaceted portrayals of what students
know and can do. Examples include performance assessments and portfolios. Because they
provide rich contexts and require multifaceted responses, alternative assessments are inclu-
sive of a range of student needs, including those of English learners (Medina-Jerez, Clark, &
Medina, 2007) and of students with special needs (Layton & Lock, 2007; Vacca, 2007).
To be fair, consider assessment strategies that allow all of your students to demonstrate
what they know and can do. Consider the validity of your measures given your purposes and
each of your students. Also select assessments that you can score reliably. A top concern of
teachers in one study was “score pollution,” where teachers’ perceptions of students’ behav-
iors or characters influence the grades teachers give (Pope, Green, Johnson, & Mitchell, 2009).
Being fair may require you to use more than one measure and differentiate your assessments.
Chapter 4 introduced approaches to provide responsive and inclusive instruction; those
approaches also provide guidance for us as inclusive assessors. For instance, you may need
to include additional visual supports or examples, read directions aloud, or provide extra
work time. Here are other examples of inclusive assessment practices:
¢ English learners may need to express their learning in the primary language, may
require the use of a dictionary, or may respond to closed-ended prompts rather than
constructed-response ones.
* Struggling readers may listen to the computer read the test to them as they wear
headphones.
* Gifted students may be expected to respond to an assessment prompt with greater
complexity or in greater depth.

We should consider adjustable classroom assessments that allow all students to reveal
what they know (Gregory & Kuzmich, 2004). The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

TieERED ASSESSMENTS demonstrate proficiency by graphing linear equations
where variables are whole numbers and they are given
1. Determine what full proficiency of the the graph. Students at higher levels might graph variables
content standard would look like. What that are fractions or absolute values, and they might
evidence would you accept as mastery? generate the graph themselves.
2. Use that level as the minimum acceptable level: all students 4. Learning menus and learning contracts, where students
must demonstrate mastery at that level. choose their assessments on occasion, are also adjustable
3. Adjust the complexity or challenge of the assessment for as cecsrents CWormeli. 2006).
students who are working at higher levels of readiness.
For example, students at lower levels of readiness might
190 CHAPTER 8

(Tomlinson, 2001;
provides one example of adjustable assessments: tiered assessments
Wormeli, 2006).
phase of
Finally, choose assessments that allow you to check student progress at each
bench-
instruction. Check to determine whether there are mandated assessments such as
mandated assessme nts
mark tests or publisher tests for the content standards at hand. Many
and summativ e
serve summative purposes. That won’t be enough. You need both formative
assessments, ones that give you information about students’ thinking before, during, and
after instruction.

Formative Assessment—Preassessments On the day before her lesson on the

Eighth Amendment , a social studies teacher hands each small group an envelope of ten
statements she selected from the supplementa l workbook and cut into strips, five with
true statements about the Eighth Amendment, and five with false. Strip number 3 reads,
for instance, “The Eighth Amendment prohibits the federal government from punishing
citizens for their crimes.” The students work in their groups to sort the statements into two
stacks: true or false. Statement 3 goes in the false stack. The teacher circulates and notes
that most students already know about the protection against cruel and unusual punishment,
but few know about the protection the Eighth Amendment provides against excessive fines.
She focuses tomorrow’s lesson more clearly on that provision. This teacher’s engaging
10-minute activity (a true/false sort from Guillaume, Yopp, & Yopp, 2007) is an example
of formative assessment that can be used prior to instruction. Other ideas for rapid preas-
sessments are homework, group problems, and brainstormed lists. Student interviews (see
Teacher Talk), traditional pretests, and journal entries are other examples of preassess-
ments. Consider whether it is appropriate to use the same assessment as a preinstructional
and postinstructional measure. Be careful, though, that your preassessments do not discour-
age students by presenting pages of items of content they don’t know.
By assessing students’ prior knowledge, teachers’ lessons have a greater chance of
connecting to what students know. Results on preinstructional assessments may tell you,
for instance, that students do not have the background knowledge necessary for success in
the unit you were planning or that they have already mastered the standards you intended
to teach. In either case, had you not preassessed students, you would have wasted valuable
instructional time and effort. Preassessments are also important in helping you to determine
special interests and needs students may have so that you can differentiate your instruction
to provide all students with powerful learning. Adjust your learning targets based on the
results of your preassessments.

| TEACHER TALK
Three practicing teachers reflect on the power of prior-knowledge interviews, where they
talked with individual students to discover what the students knew about specific science
content:
1. “My [middle school] student felt privileged to share her knowledge with me one-on-one.
I don’t often take the time to sit with one student and listen carefully to her view of the
world.”
2. “I taught my same students last year, so I know what they were exposed to in science.
I couldn't believe that my prior knowledge interview student didn’t have the concepts
I thought I taught so well last year. He could repeat definitions that we memorized, but
he hadn’t glued those definitions to real ideas or explanations of the world. It was
a
humbling experience.”
3. “I interviewed a small group of kindergartners to discover what they knew about
sinking
and floating. I know people learn things at home, but I was amazed at all the connection
s
these five-year-olds made with their outside lives. They talked about going fishing,
about
throwing pennies into a fountain, and about playing with bathtub toys. I learned
vividly
that even my very young students are working hard to make sense of things.”
 Student Assessment 191

WIPE BOARDS

Recall, from Chapter 6, that there is research support for the use of response cards as an active
participation strategy. For an inexpensive class set of wipe boards, place card stock
into a plastic
page protector and hand it, and a dry erase marker, and a tissue to each student. I have found,
to
date, 84 uses for these boards. Here are a few:

* Every student can now “do the problem on the board” and hold up work for you to quickly
assess.
Everyone can spell out the words at a spelling bee now; this way the students who need the
most opportunities to practice spelling get to keep spelling long after they’d typically be “out.”
Place colored card stock and white paper in the page protector. Students can flash the colored
side for “true” and the white side for “false” when asked a question.
Slip a hundreds chart, worksheet, map, or periodic chart into the page protector. Students can
follow your directions, practice naming countries or tracing routes, circle nonmetals . . . in
short, all students can stay actively involved while leaving a record of learning that you can
quickly check before they erase.

Formative Assessment as Progress Monitoring—Assessing During

Instruction Select a variety of strategies to find out what students are learning as you
teach. Any assignment or activity that you provide for practice can serve as a formative
assessment. Class discussions (with you taking notes), homework pages, worksheets, daily
quizzes—on paper or using student responses systems, in-class writings, and blog entries
are few ways that you can gather data to monitor students’ progress.
To provide informal progress-monitoring information and make mid-lesson adjust-
ments, you should also employ active participation strategies where every student re-
sponds. One quick and engaging tool is the use of wipe boards, which are a form of
response cards, as described in the Teaching Tip. Response cards, including wipe boards,
support engagement, behavior, and achievement. They provide a greater range of students
with immediate access to teacher feedback. Students can flash colored cards or complete
drawings instead.
Partner talk is another active participation strategy that provides informal assess-
ment information. You might pause during a lesson and ask students to talk with a partner:
“Tell your partner one thing you know from the lesson and one thing that makes ab-
solutely no sense. You have two minutes, and then be ready to report.” This progress-
monitoring strategy can allow each person to safely express his fragile, newly forming
knowledge and provide you with new directions for attacking difficult concepts. It also
provides a context for language use and development. Active participation strategies
can be used during every instructional phase to prove assessment information, as shown
in Figure 8.5.

Formative and Summative Assessment—Assessing After Instruction Ensure

that you select postlesson assessments that will allow you to determine the level at which
students master your objective. Some checks on objectives will be brief and informal, and
some will be much more complex and formal. One “quick check” strategy is to collect
and analyze short student work samples. For example, to close a lesson, you have your
chemistry students write brief responses to the prompt, “What is the difference between
endothermic and exothermic reactions?” You collect their responses and sort them into
two stacks: Those who recorded a correct difference, and those who did not. You count
how many are in each stack and determine whether to reteach or move on. This use of a
postinstructidn assessment is formative because the results are used to shape instruction
for the following day.
Postinstruction assessment that is used in a summative way instead provides a (relatively)
final picture of what students know and can do related to the learning targets standards at
192 CHAPTER 8

12 thre ULhNOUT
studen 1 le“ arnt ng ugl ¢ a ll Lhase s of instruction. Refer to
io
U ivng ¢ 1ctive pal Tl pation
| tral eglLE 2§ [0 ASSESS
STTC
: &

figure 6.6, p. 131 (currectly).

Preinstruction Share a story

Assessments . Quick writes
20. Values lineup
28. Brainstorming and fact-storming
their
Drawings: Students draw a picture of the content and use drawings to describe
knowledge.
then
Four corners: Students respond to prompts that have four possible answers and
in a corner of the room that matches their response. They discuss with corner
go stand
mates or others. .
Peer interviews: Students interview each other on prior experience s with the topic.

Prior knowledge interviews: Teacher observes students completing a task and asks a few
gentle questions.

During- . Choral response

Instruction . Whip
Assessments . Flash cards
. Finger signals
. Wipe boards
. Letter and number tiles
. Peer coach
. Student-led recitation
. Numbered heads together
. Toss the ball
. Talkto your partner
. Sorts
. Partner journals “|

Post-Instruction . Comprehension check

Assessments . Fuzzy points
. Charts and diagrams (individual, group, or whole class)
. Student quiz
. Blackboard blitz
. Gallery tour
Graphic organizers: Alone or with assistance, students create visual displays of content
information to illustrate their understanding of key concepts and relationships.
ma

hand. In choosing your summative assessments, consider traditional tests created by publish-
ers or by you and your team, and consider performance-based alternatives such as multimedia
projects or in-class demonstrations. Most teachers grade students on a mix of formative and
summative assessments. Others (e.g., Deddeh, Main, & Fulkerson, 2010) argue that in truly
standards-based systems, formative activities—though very important—are for practice only
and that term grades should be based entirely on summative assessments. Many such teach-
ers allow students more than one attempt on a summative assessment. For example, algebra
teachers I know allow students to retake an exam (actually an alternate form of an exam), no
matter the initial grade, as long as students complete a self-analysis of their performance and
prepare for the retake. Teachers who employ this practice argue that students master content
at different rates and that it increases students’ motivation to learn and achieve.
 Student Assessment 193

3. Include Your Students

Figure 8.6 is a self-portrait my son Alex drew near the beginning of his kindergarten year.
“Good detail,” said his mother. “Lots of realistic subtleties! Smart kid!” In the right-hand
portion is the self-portrait Alex completed near that year’s close. “Yikes!” said his mother.
“Less detail. No pupils, no digits, no feet, no hair! No growth in fine motor abilities!”
I struggled with my interpretation of those portraits until a wise teacher suggested that I ask
Alex to analyze the portraits.
Alex easily explained to me the significance of the second portrait. There was less
detail, yes, but, he held up both arms, made fists, and flexed his biceps, “Mom, look how
strong | am!” Alex’s most treasured change of his kindergarten year was that he had
become physically more capable, much stronger: Superman strong! Had I not asked Alex
to attach meaning to his work, to self-evaluate, I would have been left with an unnecessarily
limited conclusion about his progress.

Students as Assessment Partners Alex’s self-portrait experience reminded me of a

critical principle of assessment: We need to involve students as full partners in the assess-
ment process. Our responsibility is to help students gain the dispositions and skills that will
allow them to set goals and monitor their progress in working toward those goals. In doing
so, we need to help even the youngest students move from making decisions on assessments
without conscious thought to the strategic and reflective levels of metacognitive practice
where they thoughtfully employ a set of strategies to monitor their own thinking and plan
for self-improvement (Bingham, Holbrook, & Meyers, 2010).

Alexander’s self-portraits.

Alex's Early Kindergarten Self-Portrait Alex's Late Kindergarten Self-Portrait

194 CHAPTER 8

ent partners.
The classroom assessment cycle with students as assessm

Students _
Determine give input.
assessment
targets
(learning
Students self-
goals). Students self-
assess. assess. _
Postassess; Preassess;
analyze analyze
results. results.

Students set
Adjust goals.
learning }?
targets.

Plan for
Monitor,
inclusive,
Students self- | reflect, Students make >
adjust.
responsive
assess. some choices to
instruction.
lead toward goals.

Students
actively
participate.

Figure 8.7 gives the assessment cycle again, this time with student input at each step
of the way. As you plan to include your students as assessment partners ask about each
phase of the cycle:

¢ How might they have some choices in what they learn and how it will be assessed?
¢ How can students set their own goals related to the specific content?
¢ How can they track their progress throughout the learning?
* How can I help them reflect on their learning and set new goals?

Figure 8.8 provides numerous examples of how you can include your students’ voices
and choices in your assessment by helping students set goals, make assessment choices,
self-reflect, and evaluate instruction.

Peers as Assessment Partners In our efforts to enhance students’ skills as evalua-

tors, we can help them to evaluate products from their peers as well. Through peer assess-
ment, students learn to assess the quality of a product or performance without reliance on
the teacher. Peer assessment can be informal, such as when students edit each other’s work
or review homework problems together. It can also be more formal, as when students rate
the social skills of group members at the close of a cooperative learning experience.

Families as Assessment Partners Assessment must include not only students and
their peers but families as well. Professional guidelines for teachers (such as the National
Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 2002) make it clear that teachers and schools
need to take the lead in including families in the process of schooling, including the
assessment phase. Families’ role is far greater than simply ensuring that students get to
bed on time and eat a hearty breakfast before the big tests. Your communication with fam-
ily members about assessment should be goal-driven, multifaceted, and inclusive of their
 Involving students in assessment.

i Goal Setting ] Students discuss previous years and create a chart at the beginning of the year
of topics they would like to study.
Students provide input into the course content, choosing units and lessons based on
assessment results and their interests.
Students examine their records (portfolios, work samples, and report cards) to set
class and personal goals.
Students keep individual records of their progress. They discuss progress and revise
goals with their teacher.
Students end an examination by answering the question, “What would you like to
learn next?”
Students write a note to their teacher explaining what she should focus on as she
assesses a piece of writing or a performance.
The teacher invites students to write long-term goals and seal them in envelopes.
The teacher may mail these letters back to students when they reach a certain age.

Student Choice Students select some forms of assessment. Teachers who implement multiple
intelligence theory often allow students to choose from among seven or eight
assessment formats.
Students work in groups to list what they consider the key content to be assessed.
Students develop some questions or prompts for the assessment.
Students select writing prompts or test items from a larger bank.
Students respond to prompts that allow for a broad range of appropriate responses
(for example, “Devise a method of sharing equally”).
Students have some say over the assessment conditions (for instance, students are
allowed to move to the library if they need isolated conditions or are allowed to have
a prompt read aloud to them).

Self-Reflection and In small groups or in their journals, students discuss their thinking or analyze a problem.
Self-Evaluation e Before submitting work, students analyze their growth, in writing or in a conference.
Before submitting work, students turn the paper over and write to their teacher:
“What would you like me to know as | read this paper?”
Students study good and poor examples of the product to be created and assessed.
They develop rubrics for use in scoring their products.
Students use rubrics or a checklist from the teacher to assess their own work before
submitting it.
Students grade their own papers and hold onto the grade. They compare their
analysis with the teacher’s analysis and discuss.
Students reflect on their progress over time by comparing work samples from
different time periods.

r Evaluation of Students rate problems and exercises for appropriate level of difficulty (too easy,
Teaching and just right, or too difficult) and for appropriateness of content.
Assessment In their journals or on anonymous slips of paper, students tell the teacher what
worked well in facilitating their learning and what may have worked even better
during particular lessons or units.
Students periodically rate the teacher's instruction, giving specific praise and
criticism. Using a specific format can help structure feedback into a format most
useful for the teacher, but open-ended questions are important as well.
The teacher regularly provides students with choices for future activities based on
the class’s assessment of current activities.
The teacher shares his instructional goals with students and revises the goals based
on ongoing assessment.

195
196 CHAPTER 8

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

° Include family members in regular assignments. One idea is
INCLUDING FAMILIES
to weekly have students describe to a family member three
As ASSESSMENT PARTNERS
things they learned. The family member records three things
* Solicit family input on learning goals. they learned. The family member records those things (in
+ Frequently provide newsletters about English, the home language, or in another format), perhaps
student learning. Include samples of students’ learn- adds a comment, and signs a form.
ing products on your web page. Maintain e-mail contact + Invite family members, baby-sitters, or friends into your
regarding assessment information. class to listen to oral reading, translate, or work with
* Try a dialogue journal where you, a family member, students who need extra support during assessments.
and the student communicate about student progress.

perspectives. The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip gives a few ideas for including
families as members of the assessment community.
Another example is student-led conferences (Bailey & Guskey, 2001; Benson &
Barnett, 2005), where students facilitate a discussion of their progress among family mem-
bers, teachers, and themselves. This approach to conferencing seems especially popular
at the middle school level, but all students can succeed with these conferences. Search
“student-led conferences” on the Web for a host of resources, including guidebooks and
videos, regarding student-led conferences.
Technological tools also keep us in touch with families regarding assessment. Many
teachers use blogs, Web sites, and school-based email to keep in touch with families
regarding student progress. Some schools have autodialing systems that notify families
about upcoming events—including tests and major assignments. Also, in virtually every
state, schools have Student Information Systems, or centralized data tracking systems
that allow personnel to monitor students’ progress over time and to provide more efficient
communication and decision making based on student data. Students and families typically
have access to these systems through password-protected sites.
Upon log in, families can see everything from daily attendance, to immunization
records, to missing assignments and current grades, to transcripts. Students and family
members can also communicate directly with teachers and schools via email through such
systems. Providing real-time access to students’ activities and performance gives parents
the information they need to be well-informed partners in schooling.

4. Employ Your Assessments and Analyze the Data

Once you've developed or selected your assessment tools and strategies, employ them
throughout the cycle: before, during, and after instruction. Adjust the assessments you use
based on your progress monitoring, and adjust your instruction based on your assessments.
Keep students actively engaged in instruction and monitoring their own progress.
As you plan to analyze your data, keep your eye on the learning targets that the assess-
ments are to measure, and remember the purpose of each assessment.

Informal Data Analysis: Quick Scans When the stakes are low, as for many preas-
sessments and for progress monitoring through active participation strategies, a quick
analysis of whether students are on track is probably sufficient; you and the students simply
need to know whether the class is making adequate progress and gain a rough idea of the
concepts or skills that might be impairing progress. Students can complete a quick scan to
self-monitor. For instance, at the end of a period where your students were tackling a tough
problem in small groups, you might ask students to rate their own use of learning skills
on a couple questions (“I helped make decisions and solve problems” and “T took risks
by
exploring something new to me”) and then set goals for tomorrow based on their
answers.
 Student Assessment 197

As another quick scan, a brief glance at the

panortecneetedbiiom: a clicke: saoaliet Ge Quick scan analysis through audience response data.

ing a student response system) for a sixth-grade

geology unit is enough to reveal that two-thirds rsh ate how ai
of the class needs more information about pro- Session Name: Current Session
cesses that shape the earth’s surface (Figure 8.9; i a Se a ea
The answer is false. Water is the dominant pro-
cess that shapes the earth’s surface.). paler pemens ine ay ren ere ae
otherprocesses,
For yet another quick scan, you can sort
student papers into two stacks: “Getting It!”
and “Not Yet!” (as in our earlier chemistry
example). If you needed more detailed infor-
mation from the chemistry students’ quick
writes, you could further sort the “Not Yet!”
examples into stacks based on students’ appar-
ent misconceptions. For example, one group
may have understood something about energy
entering and leaving reactions, whereas one
group did not even mention energy. Then you
could plan to follow through based on those
types of errors.

Formal Data Analysis Quick data scans

are appropriate when you need a rough idea of
students’ current progress and needs. At many
times more formal analytical approaches are appropriate. Formal approaches allow you to
be systematic (fair) and to pinpoint more finely students’ needs and growth.
One of the most prevalent and useful scoring tools is a rubric. A rubric is a scoring
guide that specifies the criteria against which an item will be assessed. Rubrics can be
used for scoring many kinds of complex works. Writings, performances, portfolio entries,
constructions, and digital projects can all be assessed through rubrics. A holistic rubric
(one that addresses the overall characteristics of the entry and yields a single score) is found
in Figure 8.10.
An analytical trait rubric assesses individual traits, or components, of the perfor-
mance separately (Arter & McTighe, 2001). An analytical trait rubric contains two kinds

A sample holistic rubric for scoring portfolio entries.

Se Es

Score 3 Score 2 Score 1

sue
Entry briefly describes the item Entry describes the item that Entry is solely a simple
that follows but devotes more follows and reflects on it in description of the item that
attention to careful analysis. brief ways. follows. Description may be
quite long.

Entry reflects on the author's Entry includes superficial or Entry does not include
thinking in meaningful ways. limited information about the information about the author's
author’s thinking. thinking.

Entry addresses content-area Entry addresses content-area Entry does not reveal content-
concepts accurately and in ways concepts in limited, accurate area knowledge or content
ways. information is inaccurate.
that enrich the reader’s
understanding of the item that
follows the analysis.
198 CHAPTER 8

‘ae No GuEssiInGc ALLOWED: PosT SAMPLE WORKS

Also,
The more time students spend guessing what you want, the less time they spend learning.
makes people feel dependent rather than powerful. Obtain samples oSstudent WOE
guessing
“Got It!
at each of your specified performance levels (e.g., “Not Yet,” “Getting There,” and
”). Post these works on the wall—or
or maybe “Developing,” “Competent,” and “Exemplary
online—with a copy of the rubric.

of information: the scale and the dimensions. The scale—usually posted along the top of
the rubric—represents the range of performance levels, such as 1, 2, and 3, or “standard
not met,” “standard met,” and “standard exceeded.” The dimensions are the individual
categories upon which the work will be assessed. They are usually placed along the side.
One example is: content, organization, and convention. Another example is creativity,
accuracy, and presentation. Visit the Discovery School Web and the Rubistar sites at the
close of the chapter to view many examples of analytical rubrics. You may find one to
borrow, and you will find many sites that allow you to create your own rubrics.
If you use an existing rubric to score students’ work, be sure to share it with them in
advance, teaching them its properties and studying examples so that they understand the
characteristics of quality work (see Teaching Tip). Students are far more likely to under-
stand and value a rubric deeply if they have helped create it, so at least occasionally it can
be productive to help students create the rubrics by which their work will be assessed.
Another formal approach to data analysis is error pattern analysis. For skill areas
where accuracy is important—such as spelling, beginning reading, writing, mathematics
computation, and speech production—error pattern analysis helps you and the student
examine the student’s work for patterns of inaccurate or missing concepts and skills. It is
based on the notion that most of the errors students make are not random; they reflect
some incorrect hypothesis or mental rule (McMahon-Klosterman & Ganschow, 1979).
By analyzing patterns in incorrect responses, you and the student can find the source of
the misunderstanding and build accurate concepts and skills to improve performance. For
instance, in mathematics, you might analyze a second-grader’s work in subtraction with
regrouping to discover that he doesn’t regroup tens into ones; he just subtracts the smaller
number from the greater number. Here are some general steps for error pattern analysis no
matter the subject or grade level.

1. Gather student work samples and, if possible, copy them for markup purposes.
In the case of reading, speech, and language, you may use recordings (audio or
notes) of the students’ production.
Sd Mark items as correct or incorrect. (Mark the errors.)
3. Glance at the correct items to be sure they are correct for the right reasons (not just
lucky guesses or application of an incorrect rule that happens to work).
4. For incorrect items, cluster the errors students make. In writing, you may note
subject/verb disagreement, for instance. In spelling, you may note that the student is
not doubling the final consonant before adding a suffix when necessary.
5. Prioritize the error patterns. Determine which should be addressed first.

Error pattern analysis is a very powerful strategy for diagnosing and correcting the
kinds of mistakes students make because it is efficient; through it we correct not individual
errors but the misunderstandings that lie beneath them. This is a useful process to teach
students as well.
Electronic gradebooks and spreadsheets are also helpful tools for understanding class-
room assessment data. If students’ names are entered in rows and data (such as
individual
quiz items) are entered as columns, you can sort the data to identify different patterns.
For
instance, you can see which students are scoring near the top and bottom of the class
to be
sure to plan appropriate follow-up for those groups, and you can analyze patterns
within
the data, such as the item people tended to miss most often. In Figure 8.11,
it’s clear that
 Student Assessment 199

Sample spreadsheet with sorted data.

(Cn a 9- e ¥ sample data - Microsoft Excel aan

a m= x
“ Home Insert Page Layout Formulas Data Review View
o-7 x
a dh Cation 11a > eating me General - Fi Conditional Formatting 3s inset- E~- A
-) =4 areas |ereote BEB al $-% + 3 Format as Table ~ 7 Delete + 3) - i i
i a = we a ¥ = = || D- |

7
br ar = Cell Stytes ~ Bel Format ~

——"
‘2 oat ss sated
Se elt oe Bee

z
Estit 1 Alignment * Number * Styles Cells Editing :

A B c D ‘ : G H #&
1 Item1 Item2 Item3 ltem4 tem5 ‘TOTALS |
2 Student C 1 0 0 0 0 1 H
3 Student B 1 1 1 0 0 3 |
4 Student A 1 1 1 ) 1 4
5 Student D 1 0 i 1 1 4
6 StudenteE 1 1 1 u 0 4
7 TOTALS 5 2 4 Z 2
8
Mo Sheett «by student |!
pits
7

Student C needs particular support and that the concepts from Item 5 need more attention
for the entire class. These applications also calculate statistics that can be useful in analyz-
ing students’ performance.
Error pattern analysis of another sort also occurs as teams of teachers examine perfor-
mance patterns in their standardized test data. Reports give performance by grade level in
each assessed area, both in terms of criterion-referenced information (such as raw scores
and performance levels) and norm-referenced information (such as percentiles). Results are
provided in clusters of state standards so that teams can determine patterns of strength and
new areas of instructional emphasis for the coming year. By contributing to these discus-
sions and by working with grade-level or department teams to analyze student work, and by
using Student Information Systems, you contribute to the larger picture of student progress
as measured through assessment.

5. Use What You Learn

Use your assessment results to guide what happens next in your classroom. For example,
despite the fact that teachers in two studies could accurately discern error patterns in stu-
dents’ work, they did not base their plans for instructional intervention upon those error

TEST AND THEN RETEACH

Analyze the results of a paper-and-pencil test and look for the four to seven major error
patterns or gaps in students’ thinking.
Form flexible groups that are composed of students with similar gaps.
Spend a bit of time working with each group, providing instruction tailored directly for the
need they displayed on the test.

For instance, on day 1, your students take the district’s multiple-choice benchmark test in mathe-
matics. The test is computer scored and returned to you on day 3. On day 4, you spend 20 minutes
in small-group time, discussing only item 1 of the test. Your groups are a, b, c, d, or e, depending
on their selected answer to item 1. On the next day, you meet again for item 2, and so on for the
four problems students missed most.
200 CHAPTER 8

learn. The Teaching Tip

patterns (Cooper, 2009; Riccomini, 2005). Be sure to use what you
gives one idea for reteaching after a multiple-choice test.
may need to increase your
If students demonstrate deep mastery of the content, you
Should you stick
pace or skip ahead. If many do not, you have some choices to make:
dilemma . ean pe belgie to
with the pacing guide or stop and reteach? This is a common
or revisit
understand the structure of your curriculum. For instance, some curricula spiral”
ities
content at deeper levels in subsequent units, so students will be given further opportun
to master information. You can also pull small groups of students during a few minutes of
reteaching time, use family volunteers to work with individuals throughout the day, work
with them outside the class period, or provide other opportunities for independent content
learning outside the school day, such as Web-based instruction. You can differentiate
homework, too, to ensure mastery. Finally, use what you learn to help you start the cycle
anew: to plan the next set of learning targets.

A Note on Grading

To manage the dilemmas associated with assigning grades to students’ performance, you
need to reason your way through each issue with a good deal of thought. The grades you
record need to follow the same guidelines as your assessments. In general, you need to
assign and then grade the things that matter; you need to capture a rich portrait of what
students know and can do; you need to be fair and systematic, including the students; and
you need to be efficient. Here is some advice for grading.

1. Find a copy of the grade report used for your level before you begin teaching and
entering grades. Check the alignment of the report card with your content standards.
Determine whether each item is assessed every term. Use that information to guide
your long-term planning. Use the report form to structure your grading, but also collect
other information that is important to you and may not show up on the grade report.
2. Inform students of criteria for grades in advance. Students who receive challenging
assignments and have clear grading criteria perform better than those who don’t
(Matsumura & Pascal, 2003). In every case possible, allow student input into
grading criteria, perhaps using strategies such as backwards planning.
3. Think about the role of daily homework in students’ overall grades. If a student aces
every test but refuses to do homework, should the final grade be an F? If so, you will be
awarding a grade for something other than content mastery, which was demonstrated
through exam performance. Is that other criterion reasonable and clearly specified?
4. Similarly, check grading policies for students with significant academic disabilities.
How will you denote that a student may be performing consistent with capability,
but still be earning a failing grade? Many teachers worry about the demoralizing
effects on students who consistently earn failing grades despite their best efforts, yet
these teachers appreciate the importance of consistent standards.
5. Be careful of how much weight you place on assignments that are completed
outside of class. Unless you specify that family members should be involved in
completing a major project, you probably need to be guarded in the importance you
award it. For instance, some middle school teachers are tempted to weight a science
fair project heavily despite the fact that it is completed almost entirely at home.
Under these conditions, the teachers cannot be sure whose work they are grading.
Additionally, not all homes have the resources to support students in projects such
as these. Be sure to provide in-class instructional support for any major project and
have checkpoints along the way.
6. Be careful of how you award extra credit; use it to reward appropriate performanc
e.
As a counterexample, I have witnessed teachers award extra credit points when their
students donate the novels they purchased to the class library. In a sense,
students
buy a portion of their grade if they can afford the price of a novel. Similarly,
some
teachers award extra credit points at the end of a term if students did not use
their
 Student Assessment 201

allotment of bathroom passes. In both of these cases, nonacademic performance

(financial donations and bladder control) is rewarded with academic grades.
Additionally, if you award extra credit, ensure that its weight as a portion of the
grade reflects your priorities.
7. Don’t write a grade on every piece of paper. Some assignments are just for practice.
In fact, many teachers judge homework assignments as complete or not and reteach
to address errors. Or they collect and grade a sample of homework. Also, feedback
needs to be timely for it to be useful to the learner. Don’t collect stacks of papers if
you cannot return them for weeks.
8. When you grade papers, be specific in your feedback. “Great job” feels good, but
it doesn’t give advice on how to repeat the performance for next time. If you write
praise, make sure it is based on the quality of the performance and not on your
opinion as an authority. “Your use of color creates a sense of excitement” is more
relevant and helpful than “I love your use of color.”
9. Instead of entering percentages in your grade book (paper or electronic), translate
grades into smaller numbers. Some teachers use a I- to 12-point system, others use
a |- to 5-point system. If you keep a paper gradebook, consider adding the points
as you record them so that your work is done at the end of the term. Using smaller
numbers not only makes figuring totals easier, it avoids penalizing students for
low scores the way entering tiny percentages can. (Mathematically, it is difficult to
overcome even a single 23%.)
10. After you figure grades, check again that marks accurately reflect your global
assessment of each student’s growth. Be prepared to defend every grade you report
to families. Be open to the possibility that you may have misgraded. Be ready to say
what students will need to do differently for different marks.
11. Be careful in the words you write in the comment section of a grade report.
Remember that those words will be the ones that follow students for years after
they leave you. Include only relevant comments. Be constructive. Point out every
student’s growth.
12. Work with grade-level and department teams to develop common, consistent, and
fair approaches to grading student work.

A Sampler of Assessments

You may choose from hundreds of available assessment techniques and tools. This sampler
describes in a nutshell 10 classroom assessment techniques.

Traditional Tests
Traditional paper-and-pencil measures can be furnished through adopted textbook series or
written by teachers (most typically alone or in teams with other teachers, but students can
also contribute items). Some common types of questions on traditional tests include selec-
tion-type and constructed response items. Objective items tend to be time-consuming to
write but quick to grade and are subject to little interpretation from the grader. Open-ended
questions include short-answer items, essay questions, and less traditional variations such
as graphic organizers and pictorial representations of students’ knowledge. Teachers’ time
investment with open-ended items tends to be not in the writing phase but in the assessment
phase. Open-ended items require more judgment from the grader than do objective items.
If you write your own tests, consider the following:
¢ Include a mix of selection-type and constructed-response items so you have a richer
picture of student knowledge. 7
* Make the response format efficient for students so that it is less tiring and so that
there is no question about what they wrote. (For example, have them circle T or F
rather than writing the word.)
202 CHAPTER 8

the parameters.
* Make the prompts clear and specific so that students understand
* Keep your tests short. Any test is just a snapshot. . :
¢ Include common errors among the choices. This can increase the validity of your
measure. (Wormeli, 2006)

Attitude Surveys
Usually developed by teachers, attitude surveys are paper-and-pencil scales that assess
students’ preferences and feelings toward a topic or skill. Some prompts are closed-ended.
For instance, students can rank order lists of subjects in terms of their preferences or abies
disagree with a set of items. In Kagan’s (2001) Spend a Buck, students “spend” their
hypothetical dollar as they wish to vote for certain items ona scale. For young students, a sur-
vey item can be read aloud while the students circle one of a continuum of faces, very happy
to very sad. Open-ended items allow for a broad range of student responses. An example is
“What I would like you to know about me as an artist is 4 Many teachers
use attitude surveys near the beginning of the year to become acquainted with their students.

Products

Students submit items to demonstrate their understanding or skill. Examples include

student-composed newspapers, digital stories, brochures, dioramas, posters, works of art,
multimedia presentations, and scientific or practical inventions. Many performance-based
assessments result in products.

Portfolios
Portfolios are collections of work samples over time and from a variety of contexts,
together with students reflections on those work samples (Hebert, 2001; Stefanakis, 2002).
Some items are typically chosen by the teacher, and some are student selected. Students
write reflections about the entries in order to discuss their learning. Portfolios can be hard
copy or they can be electronic. Two benefits of the electronic portfolio are its portability
and multimedia format. Conduct a Web search using the terms “student portfolios” and
“electronic portfolios” for plentiful examples.

Journals
Used primarily for informal assessment, journals can be completed by children as young as
kindergartners. Students can respond to prompts from the teacher in pictures, symbols, or
written words. They may also write with no prompt from the teacher. One of the primary
benefits of journals is that they have a broad range of applications. Students can use them
to describe their thinking, to document their experiences, to ask questions, to converse with
a peer or the teacher, and to analyze their growth. Sample journal prompts include “What is
mathematics?” and “How do you use mathematics in your daily life?” (Newmann, 1994).

Performance-Based Assessments
Students demonstrate competence by applying knowledge in a real-world setting, through
a performance. Discrete skills such as cutting, counting, shooting a basket, or focusing a
microscope can be assessed through student performances, as can more complex behaviors
such as reading and social problem solving. Performance-based assessment is a major trend
in assessment for the 21st century (Darling-Hammond & McCloskey, 2008).

Teacher Observations
Teachers observe students working and interacting under typical classroom conditions
.
Examples include students’ use of science process skills, their play behavior,
and their abil-
ity to work as part of a team. To be systematic in their observations, teachers
keep anecdotal
 Student Assessment 203

records that describe their students’ behaviors. Some teachers take notes on individual
students, date the observations, and then collect them in file folders. This system allows
teachers to analyze individual students’ performances over time.

Interviews

In clinical interviews, teachers work with one student, or just a few students, at a time.
Students typically complete a task that allows the teacher to probe their reasoning. For
instance, in an interview to assess a student’s prior concepts in science, a teacher might sit
with the student and display a house plant. The teacher may ask her pupil to describe the
plant and to hypothesize about the functions of the plant’s parts. In a reading interview, a
teacher might ask her student to point out and discuss features of the text that help convey
the text’s message.

Drawings and Diagrams

Drawings and diagrams allow you to tap into students’ knowledge through visual means.
Drawings used over time are often highly effective at demonstrating change in students’
thinking and abilities. Students can draw their understandings of specific terms, emotions,
experiences, and objects throughout history. One example is provided in Figure 8.12. The
left side shows Zachary’s portrayal of a squid when he was 4 years old. The right column
was completed 5 years later. Both pictures demonstrate that he had some understanding
of the external structure of a squid, and we see significant growth over time. Further, we
see that he has some ideas still developing, even in his later drawing. For instance, the
chromatophores (spots) are actually grouped, not randomly spread over the squid’s body.

Compare the two drawings and view Zachary’s knowledge as emergent: What does he know about squid
structure? How has it changed over time? What does he need to understand next?
 204 CHAPTER 8

Graphic Organizers
graphic organizers
In addition to drawings, students can also complete a variety of
r is the concept
(introduced as an instructional tool in Chapter 6). One widely used organize
that it support
map (Novak, 1990, 1991, 1998). Research on concept mapping indicates
ge (Edwards &
students’ achievement and helps them organize and represent their knowled
6.9 shows, a
Fraser, 1983; Novak & Gowin, 1984). As the sample concept map in Figure
at the top of the map. Beneath it,subconce pts are presented
major concept or term is given
hierarchically. Each concept is related to one above it with a line or an arrow and a verb
the relations hip between the two concepts . Often con-
phrase that specifies the nature of
cepts are connected to more than one other concept. In general, the more concepts listed
on a map, and the more accurately and richly connected they are, the better developed the
author’s thinking about that topic.

Parting Words
Assessment of student progress is a messy business. of an evaluator’s role should be great. However, there
Something as simple as writing a letter grade on a student is also incredible power that comes through assessment.
paper requires us to ask ourselves difficult questions such When you conduct valid assessments, you peer through a
as, “What does this letter represent? Is it growth over time, window into students’ thinking and gain entrée to avenues
or does it show that this is one of the best papers in the that can propel your students’ growth and development.
stack? Does it deserve this letter when the writing is so When you help them improve as self-assessors, you teach
flawed, despite that it shows understanding of the content?” them dispositions and skills that will useful to them daily
Teaching is a complex moral endeavor, and the weight as autonomous beings.

Om Opportunities to Practice
1. Pull out your stance on education from Chapter 2 and the 3. If you are currently teaching, try one of the assessment
two or three overarching goals you developed in Chapter 5 strategies from earlier in this chapter. Reflect on the
as a result of your stance. Reread your stance and goals with experience. If it provided useful information, what would
an eye toward assessment. you need to do to arrange your classroom to include this
a. As you develop your assessment system, think about strategy in your assessment system?
what kinds of information you will need to gather as a 4. Survey your students on their opinions about assessment.
result of your view of what is important. How can you Use the survey to determine how they prefer to demonstrate
gather that information in ways that remain true to your their learning. Ask about how teachers help them learn to
convictions? assess their own work. Share your results.
b. In evaluating your assessment system, consider the 5. Try one of the Teacher Tips from this chapter. Examples
following: How does this system reflect your view include using an audience response system or wipe boards
of the good society? Of the purpose of education? for formative assessment and writing an online quiz.
Of teaching? Of learning? If you find little concrete 6. You saw Alex’s kindergarten self-portraits in Figure 8.6.
evidence to link your stance toward education with Now look at Figure 8.14 for the final version, completed
your system for assessing student learning, you at the end of his K-12 years. Make a list of all the ways
probably need to spend a bit more time revising the his portraits have changed from kindergarten to grade 12.
system—or the stance—to more accurately reflect your Have they retained any commonalties? (By the way,
professional views. when I showed Alex the kindergarten portraits, he said,
2. Use the Assessment Analysis in Figure 8.13 to evaluate the “Now I don’t feel so bad about how this one looks.” He
potential of one of the instruments in use in a classroom, appreciated his growth over time!) Where would you guide
and try it with any newly discovered assessment strategy. him next as an artist?
 Student Assessment 205

Assessment analysis.

Instrument:

Intended Purpose:

a)
Check Use(s): Before Instruction During Instruction After Instruction

Usefulness for Intended

Criterion Evidence or Notes Purpose

1. Instrument measures valued Valued outcomes: 1. low medium high |

outcome(s). Domain(s):
a. Cognitive a.low medium high
b. Affective b.low medium high
c. Psychomotor c.low medium high

2. Instument’s use can

include students as
assessment partners
a. Goal setting a.low medium high
b. Student choice b.low medium high
c. Progress tracking c.low medium high
d. Reflection on learning d.low medium high
e. Families as partners e.low medium high
ee
3. Instrument contributes
to fair assessment
a. Every student a.low medium high
b. Valid b.low medium high
c. Reliable c.low medium high

. Results from the instrument have a 4.low medium high

high potential of being useful. oe

. Instrument is likely to provide 5.low medium high

information that contributes to the
bigger picture of student
progress.

Overall evaluation of the instrument for intended use:

206 CHAPTER 8

Alex's drawing.

‘Web Sites
http://act.org and educationally beneficial evaluations” and “works to
ACT. The ACT is a widely accepted college admissions test. end the misuses and flaws oftesting practices.” Check the
Read about the test your students may take. Check resources “What's New” page for the Center’s work directed toward
for educators and parents (including a student blog). NCLB, and see the K—12 testing page.
http://www.cse.ucla.edu/ http://www.inspiration.com
CRESST: National Center for Research on Evaluation, Inspiration is a commercial software product that allows
Standards, and Student Testing. Contains resources that you and your students to develop concept maps and other
are both scholarly (see the Reports and Policy Briefs) and graphic organizers. You can download a free trial version of
practical (see the pages for Teachers and Parents). the software at this site.
http://school.discovery.com/schrockguide/assess.html http://www.lasw.org/
Discovery School’s Kathy Schrock’s Guide for Educators: Looking at Student Work. Gives strategies for teachers to
Teacher Helpers Assessment and Rubric Information. This work together and with families to examine student work
guide contains many Web-based resources for classroom for a number of purposes. The site includes protocols and
assessment and grading, including alternative assessments strategies for analyzing student work.
and report card comments. http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/
http://www.ets.org/ The Nation’s Report Card: The National Assessment of
Educational Testing Service. Go to “Tests” to read about Education Progress program. Read the findings by state or
many of the tests you and your students may take. subject matter. Click on “Sample Questions” to try released
http://www. fairtest.org/ items in a variety of subject areas and grade levels.
FairTest. The Web site of the National Center for Fair and http://www.nclb.gov/
Open Testing, which promotes “fair, open, valid The No Child Left Behind Web site.
 Student Assessment 207

http://www.pisa.oecd.org Also try searching with search terms for specific issues and
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development: strategies in assessment. Examples include:
Programme for International Student Assessment. Read
about what this international assessment measures, which Authentic assessment
65 countries participated in 2009, and how students fared. Classroom assessment (sites give assessment techniques)
Formative assessment
http://rubistar.4teachers.org/index.php
Gradebook programs (many sites have free downloads)
Rubistar. Create your own rubrics at this site. Continue to
Performance assessment
explore rubrics at http://www. internet4teacher.com.
Portfolio assessment
http://www.internet4classrooms.com/links_grades_ Standardized testing
kindergarten_12/assessment_tools_teacher_tools.htm Statewide achievement testing
Internet4Classroom’s Assessment Tool’s page. Many links
to rubric builders, test makers, and alternative assessment
formats.
 Managing the Learning
-@® ~ Environment

Before You Begin Reading

Exercise for Managing the Learning Environment
es Warm-Up
Think of a store or other business that you hold in high regard: a place of business where you
actually do not mind spending your time. Got it? Jot down some brief notes in response to each
of the prompts.

1. Describe the physical space. What aspects of it appeal to you? Do any make your life more
difficult? Which?

2. Describe how time is used within this store or business. What aspects please you? Which irritate you?

3. Describe typical interactions in this business. What do you expect? What happens when
interactions are not up to your expectations?

4. You wrote the responses from the perspective of a customer. How (if at all) would your responses
have changed if you wrote from the boss's perspective? From an employee’s? Analyze whether
your responses can teach you anything about the way you would like to manage your classroom.
 Managing the Learning Environment 209

(79
N ever before have we had so little time in which to do so much.”

—Franklin Delano Roosevelt

You have so much to accomplish with your students! As you teach them content, you must
manage them as groups within a tight space, with limited materials, and with never enough
time. The work you’ve begun as an inclusive and responsive teacher continues right through
your classroom management. That is, you continue to focus on improving your understand-
ing of yourself and your students; build relationships of acceptance, trust, support, and com-
municate high expectations; and use inclusive and responsive management approaches that
value students as individuals while pushing them toward success. The research on classroom
management provides three very clear directions for effective classroom management.

1. Effective managers conduct all classroom management within the context of trust-
ing, caring relationships and toward the goal of helping students manage them-
selves, individually and as a community (Bondy, Ross, Gallingane, & Hambacher,
2007; Brophy, 2010; Freiberg, 1996; Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004).
2. Effective managers maintain a structured, predictable, and task-oriented learning
environment (Brown, 2004; Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008).
3. Effective managers maximize learning time by engaging students and minimizing
disruptions (Jones, 1987; Palumbo & Sanacore, 2007).

Effective classroom management not only makes life more pleasant for everyone, it teaches
important social skills and translates into student achievement (Bohn, Roehrig, & Pressley,
2004; Emmer, Evertson, & Anderson, 1980; Evertson & Emmer, 1982; Freiberg, Connell, &
Lorentz, 2001; Freiberg, Huzinec, & Templeton, 2009).
This chapter encourages you to develop a classroom management plan that shapes a
productive and humane learning environment. Research indicates that classroom management
systems must be coherent, consistent, positive, and proactive (Miller & Hall, 2009). In order to
help you build such a system, the chapter addresses four components of classroom management:

¢ Creating community: Managing classroom

ambience REMEMBER THE LAW
e Managing physical space
Protect physical safety.
¢ Managing resources: The stuff of teaching
Provide adequate supervision.
¢« Managing time Refresher from Figure 1.2.

Creating Community: Managing Classroom Ambience

An inclusive and responsive teacher provides an environment where students behave
appropriately from a sense of responsibility for themselves and for each other rather than
from fear of punishment or desire for a reward (Metropolitan Center for Urban Education,
2008). Your central task is to meld a group of individuals without common ground or goals
into a classroom community. Kohn (1996, p. 101) defines the classroom community as

a place in which students feel cared about and are encouraged to care about each other.
They experience a sense of being valued and respected; the children matter to one another
and to the teacher. They have come to think in the plural: they feel connected to each other;
they are part of an “us.”

Such a community recognizes each person’s experiences and perspectives.

Know Thyself
The task of understanding others begins with us recognizing the limits of our own under-
standings. In a testament to the importance of self-awareness, an ancient Greek inscribed
210 CHAPTER 9

BUILDING CULTURAL PROFICIENCY

by responding open-mindedly to others’
Skilled citizens of the 21st century communicate and work effectively with diverse teams
using social and cultural differences to increase innovation (anmerhy for 21st Century .
values, respecting differences, and
and “cultural competence.
Skills, 2009). To increase your cultural proficency, visit the Web and search “cultural proficiency
and activities, and check out the ae -
Try some of the assessments (such as the Cultural Proficiency Receptivity Scale)
as well. Great resources to get you started are at Cecil County Public
podcasts that provide information on cultural profiency
Schools site (http://staffdevelop ment.ccps. org/ETMA/C ulturalPro ficiency.h tml).

the advice “Know thyself” (yv W61 ceavtov) on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Just as is
the case with our instructional decisions, facets of our identity such as our own upbringings
and personality quirks influence our classroom preferences. Factors such as our generation,
gender, ethnicity, and social class affect our management decisions, often in subtle or un-
conscious ways (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). As an example, teachers
commonly use nondirective strategies like hints (“Everyone should be working right now’’)
despite the mismatch this may create for the many students whose families (such as many
African-American families) use more directive approaches to discipline (Brown, 2004;
Ware, 2006). Building cultural proficiency, including self-awarenss is an important goal
(see the 21st Century Teaching and Learning Tip). Exploring our own identities can help
us to make informed management decisions. To create community, ensure that the class-
room reflects your students as individuals and, over time, the group you become together
(e pluribus unum: Out of many, one).

E Pluribus...
Use a variety of strategies to ensure that your room recognizes every member. You can help
members get to know each other through strategies such as oral history interviews, artifact
interviews, and ice breakers such as “Find someone who. . .” mixers. You can use bulle-
tin boards where each student has a place to pin treasures like sports awards, community
service recognitions, pictures of pets, and personal mementoes. You can invite students to
share their school-appropriate music choices for playing during transitions or work periods.
You might hang a world map under the title Everyone Is from Somewhere and ask students
to add push pins for their families’ roots. When teacher Jennifer Cunningham learned that
her class would include a student just arrived from Russia, she researched words for com-
mon classroom objects and hung the Russian (and English) terms around her room.

...Unum
It’s also important to use activities to forge a sense of the group. Many strategies are worth
a try. Make a list of a dozen or more quick jobs that students can accomplish as managers;
contributing from day 1 to the functioning of the classroom increases students’ sense of
ownership and can save you hours of instructional time. You might together brainstorm a
list of community characteristics that members appreciate. Students might create a class
Magna Carta (Freiberg, 1996). You can hold regular community circles, or classroom
meetings, where students recognize each other’s efforts and address an agenda of issues
they select. Meetings are productive for all and have been shown effective for increas-
ing the social inclusion of students with special needs (Frederickson, Warren, & Turner,
2005). You can invite students to plan and create a whole-class bulletin board, maybe to
accompany the current unit or season. Students might enjoy making a class scrapbook, time
line, or Web site to capture its unfolding history. One classroom job can be photographer;
have this manager collect photos of students that can be shared in celebratory slide shows.
Eating together nearly always builds community and provides an opportunity to talk about
food rituals from students’ worlds. You can also capitalize on those moments in history
that
 Managing the Learning Environment 211

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

Rosin’s Tips For Buitpinc Community 14. Luse Participation Cards to ensure equal participation.
Robin Mackie thoroughly enjoys her job 15. We discuss sports and other topics in class.
16. We watched YouTube videos in Gujarati of a hip-hop
teaching middle school students’ English
song my student Adya liked, and she taught us how
: Language Development (ELD).
aE Robin
: to sing it.
focuses on rigor and student engagement within a context of
community. Here are 18 of Robin’s strategies for creating 17. We use real adolescent issues to discuss grammar and
: writing.
community.
18. I read aloud great books, especially ones with fun
1. I tell them I care for them like a mother hen cares for “voice.” The room is always silent and they beg me to
her chicks. read longer.
2. I teach and enforce manners. I do not banter with
students.
3. Ihave a sense of humor and tell stories to the students about
my childhood and random silly things to be human to them.
4. I share my feelings and let them know they have power
to hurt or heal with their words—other students and me.
5. Task forgiveness for my mistakes individually or to the
whole class.
6. I use positive touch—hand on shoulder, knuckles, hand-
shake; I give hugs to girls and side squeezes to boys.
7. Thave a teacher Facebook account.
8. I attend community events when possible.
9. I call home during class sometimes to say hello to sick
students.
10. I decorate the classroom with their help.
11. I make a banner with all my advisement students’ pictures
on it.
12. I bring treats on special days.
13. I give birthday goodie bags and certificates. I post
birthdays in my window. Robin Mackie

bring you together. For example, when it snowed one day (very unusual!), my sixth-graders
and I spent a cold 20 minutes outside enjoying it rather than attending to the lesson in my
plan book. The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip shares other strategies for forging
a sense of community.

Creating Community Using a Range of Strategies

As Robin’s tip indicates, you'll need to actively employ a broad range of strategies to build
classroom community. The range includes your modeling of genuine respect and regard,
the choices you make for the physical environment, your procedures and routines for con-
ducting business, and the ways you communicate with the students and require them to
communicate with each other.
Classroom community begins to develop through the tone, or ambience, you create
from the first day of school. Ambience refers to the mood or atmosphere of your classroom
environment. Some classrooms are subdued and businesslike, some are homey, and others
are full of noise and excitement. Classroom ambience can vary widely and still encourage
student success. Although what works best for each of us varies, you probably want to
establish an ambience that

¢ Encourages students to take risks by providing for emotional safety and a sense of
belonging. .
* Provides for intellectual stimulation by including appealing displays, plenty of re-
sources, and interesting objects.
212 CHAPTER 9

j
* Fosters social interactio idi
j n by providing ties for students to work
rtuniti
space and opportuni
together.
* Conveys a sense that school is a pleasant experience. ;
ates your stance toward education without you saying a word.
* Communic
about
Metaphors and other analogies can provide a starting point for helping us think
the metaphors for teaching suggested in Chapter L%s
ambience. You may recall, for instance,
back to your stance on education as a guide for
Opportunities to Practice, Exercise 2. Refer
the kind of atmosphere you would like to establish. Skim your stance and compose a single-
sentence simile: “I want my classroom to feel like a .’ Sample responses
that may fill in the blank include the following:

¢ Board room (where powerful people meet to accomplish important things)

* Garden (where beautiful, dissimilar plants are given everything they need to flourish
and bloom) .
* United Nations (where people from around the world work toward international
cooperation) . .
* Home (where people who care about each other live together in comfortable surroundings)
* Hospital (a clean, safe environment where people leave healthier than when they entered)
* Sports camp (where individuals hone their skills in preparation for the big game)
Analogies provide very different directions for the kinds of physical arrangements,
displays, furnishings, routines, and activities that teachers select in managing their class-
rooms. Imagine, for example, how differently a home and a hospital classroom would
appear at first glance.
Home Hospital
¢ Overall atmosphere is cozy and warm ¢ Overall atmosphere is neat and calm
¢ Displays are personalized and ¢ Wall displays have coordinated
cluttered backgrounds
¢ Desks are arranged in groups ¢ Desks are arranged in rows for efficiency
for interaction
* Each group has materials at the center + Materials are placed out of sight
¢ Several ongoing projects are out ¢ All surfaces are clean and shiny
in view
¢ Lots of personal touches: fabric ¢ Colors are limited but carefully used
curtains, lamps, colorful rug, radio,
potted plants, and rocking chair

Select a physical arrangement, time schedule, routines, and instructional activities that
build community and convey your convictions about what education should accomplish.
Students can contribute. You might ask students as homework to create a map of the perfect
classroom, given the furniture and resources available to you (Thorson, 2003). Students
could present maps and then decide on a single map or a combination of maps to try out in

THINK TWICE ABOUT WINNERS AND LOSERS

Inclusive and responsive teachers base decisions on solid knowledge of their specific students.
Mild competition can enhance engagement (Marzano, 2007), but not everyone enjoys it.
Survey
your students to determine how many of them enjoy friendly classroom competition. In
my
experience, about one-half the students in a class enjoy competition. Work their preferences
into the classroom in ways that help them feel welcome and yet do not detract from the
sense
of community. You might undo the sense of community you try so hard to maintain
by using a
game if students focus more on winning and losing than on the learning. Try some
alternatives:
“Let’s see if we can beat our best class time (or scores).” “To win this
game, each team needs
five examples.” “Each presentation will receive an award. Be listening to see
what each one
does best.”
 Managing the Learning Environment 213

your room. It is ultimately the people—the way they treat each other and the way they care
for their space—who define the ambience. Additionally, you can help students feel like
they belong by making careful choices about the games you play; see the Teaching Tip.
Turn to Figures 9.7 and 9.8 now to begin planning for your own management system,
including ambience. Community develops, in part, through your decisions about managing
the classroom’s physical space.

Managing the Physical Space

Consider the range of learning goals for your student and use your physical space to match
those goals. Visualizing the classroom as “learning space” (Faltis, 2001) and breaking away
from the traditional “teacher up front, students facing forward” pattern may allow you to
identify many areas in the classroom where teaching and learning can occur. Think about
the different kinds of space you and your students will need. At the elementary level, these
Spaces typically include an area for desks or tables for seatwork, at least one area from
which you can teach the whole class, small-group work spaces, and an area for messy tasks.
Secondary classrooms typically make fewer provisions for student movement or a variety
of activities in part because classrooms tend to serve more specialized purposes, such as
cooking rooms and science laboratories.
Although your physical space should be carefully structured, it should also allow
for flexibility (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008). Teachers at all
levels should remember to use student seats flexibly, rearranging the room as dictated
by instructional activities. Because a variety of grouping patterns can be effective for
supporting student engagement (Bohn, Roehrig, & Pressley, 2004; Vaughn, Hughes,
Moody, & Elbaum, 2001), you will no doubt want to be able to rearrange student seats
so that they can work total group, alone, in partners, and in small groups (that’s TAPS
from Chapter 4).
Also consider using your wall space, windows, and ceiling (if allowed) to their fullest
advantage. Enrich the environment with special-interest areas such as a puzzle center (you
too, high school teachers), a class library, or a music center. Ensure that you minimize
distractions and overcrowding and that activities and traffic can flow easily (Simonsen,
Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008).

Rich resources are more

fully utilized when they are
organized efficiently.

Source: Anthony Magnacca/Merril

214 CHAPTER 9

be certain that you can

As you arrange for the different areas in your classroom,
danger. For
monitor students at all times and that they are free from the threat of physical
that they can reach a
instance, do not allow them to stand on a chair stacked on a desk so
top shelf. In addition to safety, your choices for arrangin g the physical space can be used
ment
to enhance the spirit of cooperation. Glance around the room and see what the arrange
and about
says about the balance of power, about student choice, about meaningful study,
for the layout of space and
a sense of the group. Finally, when considering each option
resources, ask yourself two questions:
¢ Is it productive?
e Is it efficient?

Is It Productive?
Productivity requires that:

1. The space allows for a balanced variety of activities. You address students’ physi-
cal, social, and emotional needs when you provide for shifts in movement. For young stu-
dents especially, plan to balance seat time with floor time, whole-group instruction with
individual or small-group work, and quiet activities with more boisterous ones. School
tends to be a highly public place. Design an area that allows for privacy within safety con-
straints and crowded conditions.
2. People can see and hear each other. Charney (2002) contends that for students to feel
safe they must feel seen. She arranges her classroom with few visual barriers so that when
positioned at her work space, she can see the entire class. You need to be able to see students,
and they need to be able to see you—and each other. Research indicates that face-to-face
seating arrangements facilitate student interaction, and that students ask more questions in
such arrangements (Marx, Fuhrer, & Hartig, 1999). You'll recall from Chapter 7 that student-
generated questions facilitate learning.
When it’s time for students to look at you for whole-class instruction, some may need
to turn their desks toward you. Teach them to quickly rearrange their seats so that they can
participate in the lesson. So that students can hear other members of their group during
cooperative lessons, you can teach them to use “six-inch voices,” which are voices that can
only be heard from a distance of six inches.
3. The students are able to focus their attention on the task at hand. Sit in the students’
desks and look up to check visibility of the screens and other instructor stations. Try an-
ticipating potential problem areas from these new vantage points. Is your directed lesson
competing with a colorful bulletin board or the aquarium behind you? Are some students
looking into the light because they face windows? Is the noisy science center positioned
far enough away from your math group to allow students to focus on their work? Will the
students working on the computers distract the others?

Is It Efficient?
Efficiency in the physical layout allows you and the students to complete tasks without
delays. Efficiency requires that
1. You can get to each of the students quickly. Physical proximity is important for
encouraging appropriate behavior, providing assistance, and ensuring safety. Fred Jones
(2000) emphasizes that the greater the physical distance between students and teacher, the
less likely students are to remain on task. Arrange your room so that you can quickly get to
each of the students by positioning furniture to create wide walkways. Jones suggests that
tables and desks be arranged so that the traffic pattern forms a loop, or circuit. Figure 9.1
gives a sample floor plan with the loop marked.
2. The students can get to each other. Student access to peers is helpful in efficient
distribution of materials and in small-group and partner work.
3. You and the students can get to the materials. Much time can be wasted as students
wait for paper or other supplies. Position materials for easy access. For instance,
store
 Managing the Learning Environment
215

Sample floor plan with teacher's loop marked.

Computer stations
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materials as close as possible to the area where they will be used. Then train students how
and when to distribute and use the materials. Some teachers assign two or three students
to be paper passers, so that the teacher gives a word and three assistants snap to work.
In cooperative learning classrooms, each group typically has a supply sergeant who is
responsible for gathering and collecting materials. If students fill the supply role in your
classroom—and you have trained them well—let them know that if they cannot perform,
they lose the job. Doing so prevents students from dawdling and allows them to take pride
in a job that must be done well.
4. You and the students can get other places easily. Arrange furniture and work
areas to avoid traffic jams. Think about areas that tend to draw crowds (the pencil
sharpener and the drinking fountain, for instance) and provide wide margins for each.
Position student seats so that these high-draw areas do not interfere with their work. Be
certain that all students can reach the exits quickly in times of emergency. Figure 9.2
reviews sections of the classroom’s physical space and provides guidelines to consider
for each area. After you’ve arranged your room, sit in some of the students’ desks around
the room.
216 CHAPTER 9

Checkpoints for a classroom’s physical space.

Checkpoints |
Work Areas

Desks or tables Match seating arrangements with your stance and the instruction you hope
for seatwork to provide. ee
Rows can be effective—esp ecially for new teachers—f the instruction Is good and
desks are used flexibly. Rows may be useful, at least for the first days of school,
until students have learned your expectations about talking and work times. But
don’t let rows interfere with the development of a sense of community.
in row configurations, short and shallow (many columns with few desks) is typically
better than narrow and deep (few columns with many desks).
Row clusters, in which two or three desks are pushed together and yet still point
forward, save space and encourage interaction. Two large, nested horseshoes
serve a similar purpose and create a sense of group belonging.
Small clusters of desks (usually four) that face each other promote social
interaction. Slant the groups for better views of the front board.
Try a single large circle for classroom meetings.
lf possible, avoid using all the floor space for desks.
Be certain that students fit their desks. Make a switch or call the janitor if they do not.

Whole-class Position your media equipment so that all students can see when seated
instruction station at their desks.
Use a small table or cart to keep instructional supplies available.
At the elementary level, save enough floor space so that you can pull the entire
class “up to the rug” or “over to the rocking chair’ to work with all students in a more
intimate setting. Reading aloud and class discussions are often more effective
when students are seated in close proximity. A change of pace can be good for
behavior and materials management, too. Consider alternatives if students object
to sitting on the floor.

Areas for small- If space allows, use a round or horseshoe table for small-group instruction.
group instruction If space is tight, consider using space outside the classroom door or borrow from
another area such as your library. Make the area off-limits if you are instructing there.
Position yourself so that you can see all students. Keep your back to the wall.

Special-interest Include learning centers such as a class library, an author's corner, a science
areas center, a technology area, a pet area, or an art area. Even a small counter space
works. Try a claw-footed bathtub filled with pillows for reading or a tropical rain
forest for independent work.
Students and their families sometimes like to contribute materials for these areas,
but you will need to teach students to handle materials carefully.
Include a private area for quiet reading. This space or another may be used for
students who need to be temporarily removed from the group.
Z Special-interest areas can be permanentor can evolve with the interests and needs
of your class.

Work spaces for * Place the painting or art center near the sink for easy cleanup. Teach your students
messy tasks to place newspaper under their work and to properly care for materials.
* Space outside the classroom door can be used if you can monitor all students.
Position materials for active lessons away from your whole-group instruction
station
so that you can monitor from afar as individuals go up to gather materials.
Place the materials distribution center away from students’ work desks, to the
extent possible.
[* Obtain a large sheet of heavy plastic or an easy-clean rug if you need to
protect carpet.
 Managing the Learning Environment i Ws

While the ideas are rolling, you may want to turn ahead to Figure 9.9 and
design the
physical layout of your classroom.

Managing Resources: The Stuff of Teaching

Managing a classroom means managing many resources. Three considerations for resource
management include paper flow, digital equipment, and communications.

Paper Flow
One prominent management issue is managing the paper flow. Many new teachers—even
those who felt otherwise well prepared—struggle to stay afloat of their paperwork. An
important early lesson is to devise systems for managing the paper flow. They develop,
for example, homework folders that go home and get reviewed periodically by families,
they work with volunteers to organize upcoming materials and check in papers that come
from home, they devise planners in which students record their assignments, and they
identify spaces where students submit their work. In classrooms where students share
the leadership, students can apply for some fifty manager tasks—which they complete
in 60 to 90 seconds—that would otherwise need to be handled by the teacher (Freiberg,
Huzinec, & Templeton, 2009). Implementing systems for managing resources allows
teachers to streamline their efforts and spend more time on instruction than on checking
homework.
Morris (2000) provides an example of a system that can be useful for many such
necessary management tasks: student numbers. He assigns each student a number, and
this number is used for several purposes. For instance, students collect and mark home-
work as completed using their numbers rather than names. Their papers can be quickly
collected and placed in numerical order for easy entry into the paper or electronic grade
book. Materials, even individual crayons or pencils, can be marked with students’ numbers
for quick identification. Students can “sound off’ by number at a fire drill to ensure that all
are present. Numbers can be recorded on cards, craft sticks, or in smart phone applications
ensure that students are called on equitably.

Digital Equipment
ICT equipment plays an increasingly large role in U.S. classrooms. Many rooms are
equipped with projection systems, document cameras, and interactive whiteboards. If these
are permanent, consider their location as you choose your instructional stations. Remember
a basic rule of classroom management and discipline: Face your students. Keep your back
to the wall. Arrange the equipment so that you can see the students’ faces as you use it. For
instance, place the document camera near the front of the room, with the screen behind you
and the students in front of you (recall Paola using the document camera on page 127). If the
equipment is movable, ensure that it is secured safely on carts and that you have a routine
for where to store it when it is not in use. One classroom manager job can be projection
specialist. At a signal, the specialist can quickly move the equipment into place and return
it afterward.
Another resource management question is how to integrate the classroom’s single
classroom computer meaningfully into instruction. Three-quarters of all American class-
rooms have between one and five computers in them. Teachers often struggle to use these
single or few computers to their full instructional advantage.
The single computer can be used both as a teacher tool and as a student tool. The
teacher uses it as a tool for preparing instructional materials, communicating with
families, and keeping track of student progress. If the computer can be connected to a
projection system so that all can see the screen, it becomes the teacher’s whole-class
instructional tool. He can use the computer to model the writing process or to do shared
writing, to draw concept maps, to present still photos or short video clips that enrich the
218 CHAPTER 9

instruction
lesson. If no projection system is available, students can view images before
in small groups. me
can
A single computer can also be used as a student learning tool. Individual students
lists. They can work in small groups
provide input to larger products such as brainstorming
to rein-
to create documents, drawings, or maps. Individual students can use the computer
force their lessons, for instance through drill programs that practice previously presented
used
objectives, or by hearing content presented in their home language. Computers can be
as assessment tools, and they can be used by individuals or small groups during work time.
To ensure that all students work on the computer, their teacher creates a schedule and posts
it so that small groups or partners can check and monitor their own visit. The teacher also
may hang a check sheet near the computer so students check off their names as they com-
plete their computer activities.
If your classroom has several computers, think about where to place them. Some teach-
ers place them all in a row along a wall of the classroom in order to create a work zone.
Other teachers spread the computers throughout the class. Some teachers find it important
to arrange the computers so that they can see the screens as students work. Watch the cords
are safely concealed or secured. Number the computers so that you can direct students to
them easily. Keep log in and other directions posted near the computers, and consider plac-
ing a kitchen timer near each so that students can monitor their usage. Train ICT student
experts as one of your rotating classroom jobs so you don’t spend your time unjamming a
printer when you should be supporting student learning.
Think security when you consider storing other expensive equipment such as cal-
culators, cameras, wireless devices, handheld microscopes, and response systems. Such
equipment is best kept locked. At minimum, store it behind closed cupboard doors near the
teacher’s station where students are unlikely to wander, particularly if a substitute teacher 1s
in charge. Each piece should have a protective case and be labeled so that it can be matched
with its peripheral equipment and stored efficiently.
For equipment that you share with other teachers, such as laptops on a cart, be sure to
learn about the checkout procedure. Request the equipment far in advance so that it will be
ready when you need it. Check all equipment upon receipt so that you are not held respon-
sible for equipment that you received damaged or incomplete. Test it all the day before you
use it. Charge all batteries, ensure that the appropriate software is loaded and that Web sites
are bookmarked. Match cables and cords to their respective machines. Enlist equipment
managers to help with this process and to check the equipment all back in, piece by piece,
when it’s time to return it.

Communications
Families are one of your greatest resources. Plan carefully to implement your plans for
family partnerships (from Chapter 3). Develop a plan for family and friends who can vol-
unteer. Keep an instructional activity (such as flashcards) ready for volunteers to work with
individual students. Have materials in need of preparation ready, too, in case your volunteer
prefers that sort of contribution.
Also make a plan to maintain records of your communications with family members
to ensure that you are regularly and equitably engaging families as educational partners.
Student Information Systems (Chapter 8) make efficient use of time, aid in analysis, and
foster timely communications with students and families. Also keep a contact log for family
phone calls and other communications. Word-processed tables and spreadsheets can both
be used for this purpose, although spreadsheets make it easier to manipulate your data
for
different purposes. List the date, time, student, family member, description of the issue,
and plans for resolution if approprate. Post assignments and major events for students
and
families via e-mail or through your own Web site.
Experienced classroom managers sometimes use their resource management systems
so effortlessly that it can be hard to appreciate them. Watch your mentors carefully
and jot
down some notes about how the teacher manages the scarce resources and plentiful
paper
we find in most classrooms.
 Managing the Learning Environment 219

y Managing Time
we

Alarming studies (e.g., Jones, 1987) indicate that teachers lose up to half of their instruc-
tional time through inefficient management. Imagine wasting halfof the precious time you
have with your students. Use your classroom time as gold; wasting a single minute costs
everyone in the class, and those costs can never be recouped.

Maximizing Academic Learning Time

Using your time as gold means that you need to maximize the time your students spend
engaged in learning and minimize the time they spend in other ways in your classroom.
The total amount of classroom time can be divided into three nested subsets: allocated
time, engaged time, and academic learning time. These aspects of time are presented
in Figure 9.3, which makes it clear that your job as a time manager is more sophisti-
cated than just ensuring that students are busy at something. You want the bull’s-eye
in Figure 9.3—academic learning time—to expand so that it crowds the other two circles.
Your job as a time manager is to ensure that students are experiencing success in work
related to lesson objectives. Students are not using their time well if they are staring at the
right page in the text but have no idea what it means.

The target for classroom instruction.

The amount of time assigned

to study a particular subject
area or objective. Use local
guidelines to appropriate amounts
Allocated Time of time to each area of study.

The amount of time spent on

. instruction for a particular
Engaged Time objective. Within the allocated
time, maximize the amount
of time spent addressing the
objective.

Academic
eit ae The amount of time students
ne spend engaged in study of a
particular objective and
experience success in mastering
that objective. Within the time
they are engaged in work
toward a lesson's objective,
check concrete evidence that
students are actually learning.

lL |
220 CHAPTER 9

An effectively managed
classroom results in greater
academic learning time.

Maximize learning time by using everything you know about providing engaging,
responsive instruction. Think carefully, for example, of your use of video in the classroom,
as it is sometimes poorly used (Hobbs, 2006). Hobbs recommends that, in order to use
media well, teachers should:

¢ Set clear instructional purposes.

¢ Make use of functions such as pause and review to enhance learning.
* Stay mentally engaged throughout the showing (do not do other things).
e Avoid noninstructional uses such as video as a reward, time filler, or a way to control
student behavior.
Maximizing learning time also includes helping students learn to manage their work time.
The Teaching Tip gives one suggestion for doing so.
You also maximize learning by minimizing the amount of time spent on business items.
One guaranteed way to minimize wasted time is by using routines for recurring events
(Marzano, 2007). Routines offer the added benefit of providing predictability, confidence,
and security, especially for students who are accustomed to strict family structure, are
lacking in structure at home, or have physiological needs for clear and calm behavioral
support (Gootman, 2001). You will need both noninstructional and instructional routines.

KEEPING TRACK OF TIME

It’s easy for teachers and students to lose track of time during small-group or independent
work time. Help students learn to gauge time by calling their attention to time requirements.
Displaying a timer seems to be far more potent then telling them to watch the clock, and it
removes you from the burden of timekeeper, where your announcement “time’s up!” is likely
to be met with a chorus of “No!” Some teachers use a kitchen timer or their smart phone
timers. Interactive whiteboards have a timer function, too. If you have a projection system for
your computer, try this free timer and stopwatch: http:/Avww.timeme.com/. Time manager can
be another classroom job.
 Managing the Learning Environment 221

Noninstructional Routines
An initial investment in teaching your students to run the business of your classroom will
save vast amounts of time over the course of the year. It will save you from 2,043 questions
about where homework belongs or whether it is okay to sharpen a pencil. Research indi-
cates that effective managers devote considerable time in the first days of the year teaching
their procedures and routines (Bohn et al., 2004; Emmer et al., 1980; Evertson, & Emmer,
1982; Marzano, 2007). The Teaching Tip gives advice based on this research to get you
off to the right start.
Figure 9.4 lists some of the recurring “business” events that occur in classrooms for
which you may wish to establish and teach set procedures. Teach the most immediate

During the early days of the term, be sure to:

Set high expectations for what all students can learn.

Offer engaging learning activities.
Establish your routines and procedures.
Praise specific student success and behavior.
Ne
NSNEncourage student self-regulation.

Recurring events that might benefit from a routine.

: S

¢ What to do when class begins

¢ What to do when class ends
e How to enter and exit the classroom
Taking attendance
* Opening exercises
Getting lunch count
The rules for having water at desks or getting a drink of water
¢ When to use the restroom
¢ How to behave in each area of the classroom
e When and how loud to talk
e When to sharpen a pencil
¢ Where and when to get paper and other supplies
¢ How to head a paper
¢ What to do if a computer stops working
e Where and when to submit completed work
¢ How to gather work for absent students
° How to complete homework when returning from an absence
e What to do if the teacher steps out of the classroom
e What to do when a visitor comes
¢ Who will and how to help a substitute teacher
* Who will and how to run errands for the teacher
¢ What to do in case of emergency
eg
222 CHAPTER 9

how you
routines (what students should do when they enter the classroom in the morning,
at the end
will take roll, what is expected in each area of the classroom, what happens
that will help
of the period) early on. Over time students can master each of the routines
is that they
them run the classroom, even in your absence. The beauty of good routines
show, they
set the expectation that students are responsible and capable of running the
help students feel secure in the predictability of their environment, they reinforce your
expectation that student learning is your highest priority, and they save you from countless
mundane decisions.
When you teach a routine, do it purposefully with a carefully chosen instructional strat-
egy. I have seen some teachers gracefully coax their students into routines solely through
subtle modeling. More often, direct instruction (recall Figure 7.2) is employed to efficiently
ensure that each student understands and can use the routine. The younger the student, the
more direct instruction may be necessary. Through direct instruction, you
¢ Present critical information on the routine.
¢ Check for student understanding.
¢ Practice the routine with the students.
* Observe students as they practice the routine independently.

Reteaching repairs misunderstanding at any point (Wong, 1998). For example,

Ms. Garcia wants to teach her third-graders to get to work immediately when they enter
the classroom each morning. She clarifies her own expectations and writes them on a chart.
Then she teaches her students: “There are three things to be done each morning when you
step into the classroom.” Pointing to her chart and using appropriate hand gestures to sup-
port her message, Ms. Garcia states: “First, put your things away. Second, move your photo
to the ‘buying’ or ‘bringing’ lunch string. Third, take out your journal and begin writing.”
After checking for understanding, Ms. Garcia provides guided practice: “Let’s pretend it is
morning now. Pick up your backpack and meet me in line. My bet is that all of you will be
able to do each of our three morning tasks without a single reminder!” Students giggle as
they indulge Ms. Garcia in her charade. She laughs along and provides plenty of praise for
students as they get started on their own. If students fail to carry out one or more of the steps,
she stops them, reteaches the step(s) they missed, and they try again. She leaves her chart
posted for two weeks, until students have internalized the routine.
You will select noninstructional routines based on your own preferences and the ages
of your students. Let’s explore alternatives for one of the most common noninstructional
routines: taking attendance.
Some teachers choose to call out students’ names for daily roll so they have the
opportunity to greet students as individuals: “Good morning, Tran. Good morning,
Chelsea.” Calling students’ names in this way establishes daily positive contact with all
students. However, calling each student’s name aloud daily only to listen for a rote re-
sponse (“Here!”’) is a waste of instructional time, especially for secondary teachers who
have limited time with each set of students and must take attendance five or more times
per day. If name-calling during roll is not used as an instructional or interactional tool,
consider an alternative that takes far less time:

* As students work in their journals or complete some other task right after the bell,
you can glance over your seating chart and the classroom to silently check and
record absences.
* If students are in groups, one member can report absences for each group.
An attendance manager can take roll and enter it in the computer or run it to the office.
Students enter the room and move personal markers—such as clothespins, cards,
or magnets with their names on them—to a new area to indicate that they are pres-
ent. One first-grade teacher I know photographs her students during the first week,
cuts out the figures, and glues magnets to the back. Students move their photos
each
morning. She simply glances at the few remaining names or photos to determine
ab-
sences. These photos can also be used for graphing experiences in mathemati
cs. See
Figure 9.5 for an example of how this strategy can be used to instructional advantage
.
 Managing the Learning Environment 223

Instructional Management and Routines

In his influential research, Kounin (1983) studied how teachers organize and manage their
lessons and found that three aspects of lesson movement correlated well with management
success:
* Smoothness. Does the lesson flow from start to finish, adhering to a set focus? Is it
free from abrupt changes in what students are asked to do?
* Momentum. Does the lesson move along without lags created by the teacher over-
explaining (the yack factor) or overdwelling (the nag factor)?
* Group focus. Is the teacher able to concentrate on the entire group of students as
a unit?

In the same way that routines can help with noninstructional issues, routines can also
help smooth instructional movement wrinkles. Typical creases that can be ironed out
through careful attention to instruction include the following:

¢ Pacing
e Transitions
¢ Providing assistance
¢ Making every minute count

Take roll and teach... at the same time.

As students enter the room, they move their marker in response to a question. Their answers build a class graph,
which is discussed during opening exercises or a relevant lesson.

First Grade: Pizza Preferences Sixth Grade: Sports Choices

Trang

Ryan

HIE
Khari Julia

ale
Hanna Hakim Jean

Amy Emilia Joan

Bu AEE
Bruno Luis Roy

HG
Zach Azim Kate ° c U i) Ss °

es » Mircea Seev i= 3} =

lis
Phil m<© Sue Fe =wn

Horseback
Football Feding Baseball Swimming

(Markers are clothespins with (Markers are tiles attached to magnets.

students' names. Graph is two Graph is cookie sheet or magnetic white board.)
pieces of string taped to board.)
224 CHAPTER 9

often
Pacing Pacing refers to the speed at which instruction is delivered. Pacing
nding of student
presents difficulties for new teachers because it demands an understa
development, and in-depth knowled ge of students grows primaril y through experience.
r,
A well-paced lesson devotes just enough time to developing concepts and ideas (Sangste
enough to ensure student understa nding but quickly
2007). Lessons must progress slowly
enough to

1. Maintain student interest and attention.

2. Minimize opportunities for misbehavior.
3. Make efficient use of a time within a crowded classroom schedule.

To gauge the pace of your lessons, start by watching for cues from the students. You
may select a couple focus students with disparate needs—for example, a student with
an identified learning disability and one who learns quickly. Do they appear anxious?
You may be moving too quickly. Are they snoozy? You may need to pep things up. Is
one antsy? You may need to switch activities. Overwhelmed? You may need to let them
process information for a bit before moving on. Do not rely solely on students’ body lan-
guage, though, because it can be limited and misleading. Use progress monitoring strate-
gies such as unison response. Figure 8.5 provides information about student learning to
adjust your pacing.
As you observe a variety of experienced teachers, you will note that they pace
their lessons differently, depending on both their students and their own preferences.
I prefer an air of productive hurrying. I like students to glance at the clock, surprised
that our time is up, when I close the lesson and say good-bye. To ensure that lessons do
not drag, tell students how much time they have for each task and stick fairly closely
to your stated limits. Especially during group work, students of all ages seem to take
as much time as they are given to complete their work. You may bend your rule a bit if
they groan at your one-minute warning (“Okay, but in two minutes you will be ready to
report. Hurry!”’), but if you double your initial time allotment, you will teach students
that they need not focus and work productively or that you can be swayed easily to relax
your requirements. Send the message that time is golden. In doing so, be certain to use
each spare moment to instructional advantage. Have a plan if your lesson runs short, as
in the Teaching Tip.

Transitions Transitions are the periods between one activity and the next. Teachers at
all levels need to switch activities efficiently within lessons. Teachers with multiple sub-
jects also must manage transitions between lessons. Murphy must have a law to account for
the fact that students—no matter the age—can remain attentive during an entire lesson and
then hang from the ceiling in the two minutes between one activity and the next. In fact,
transitions are one of the top three management trouble spots (transitions are are joined by
the first and last 5 minutes of the period or day; Freiberg, Huzinec, & Templeton, 2009).
To encourage smooth transitions:

1. Anticipate transitions as trouble spots. Have your own materials ready. Be watchful
and businesslike.
2. Plan for transitions as a mini-lesson: What exactly do you need students to do in
switching activities? Tell them. Monitor their behavior and redirect as necessary
(“Stop. You forgot the part about silence. Let’s try again.”).
3. Practice completing transitions in limited time. Challenge students to prepare for
the next lesson in less than 60 seconds. Invite them to beat their previous times.
Make it a wager if you are the betting type. Some teachers time their students
during transitions and other routine events. Seconds not wasted can be spent during
preferred activities later (F. Jones, 2000).
4. Use a change in space to ease transitions: “Finish up your comprehension questions
and meet me on the rug by the time I count down from 20.”
5. Make transitions serve double duty. For example, some teachers have primary-
grade
students sing as they move from one activity to the next. This keeps the
students
 Managing the Learning Environment 225

fe
ae WHat TO Do WHEN—YIKES!— THE LESSON RUNS SHORT
As new teachers learn to gauge pacing, lessons occasionally take less time than expected.
For every lesson you plan, have a brief, stand-alone activity ready in case the lesson runs short.
Practice pages and extension activities are examples. Be certain that the extra activity
is
meaningful.
If you really get stuck, try some of the sponges in Figure 9.6 on page 227 or the independent
activities listed in the upcoming subsection “Making Every Minute Count.”

instructionally focused and limits the transition period to the length of the song.
A secondary teacher may play one song on the computer to signal the start and
finish of the transition. Other options include reciting math facts and picking up
trash as students move from one activity to the next.

Providing Assistance Students often lose learning time during independent work
periods because they sit and wait for the teacher’s help. Make a plan so that you can
provide assistance to all students who ask—before their hands fall asleep in the air.
The first way to ensure that you provide timely individual assistance is to monitor the
kinds of assistance that students request. Imagine that you just gave instructions for a
social studies assignment and eight students surround you, papers rustling, questions
poised. Their presence is a sign that you need to reteach: You discover that they do not
understand how to read the scale on the map. Stop answering individual questions and
reteach the entire group. (See the Teaching Tip.) Or poll the class and pull aside a small
group for further explanation of the map’s scale. If you have developed a safe environ-
ment, students generally will not mind taking you up on your offer to join them in the
back for an encore.
After ensuring that students as a group understand concepts and your directions, think
about how you can make sure that students get the help they need with as little time away
from learning as possible. Following are four strategies teachers find useful:
1. Use praise—-prompt-—leave (from Figure 7.2). When you address a student’s ques-
tion, give a specific compliment for what he has done right, prompt him quickly on what
he needs to do next, and leave. Providing efficient help allows you to interact with more
students. Fred Jones (2000) admonishes us to spend no more than 20 seconds as we provide
assistance to individuals.
2. If students are seated in groups, teach the students that there can be no individual
question for the teacher, only a group question. That way, students are expected to ask two
or three peers before they ask you. You not only save time but also display the expectation
that students can and should help each other.
3. Check the work of one person in each row (or group) who is likely to succeed
quickly. Put her in charge of answering the questions in her row.
4. Use a signal other than the raised hand. Students can stand a red card or plastic cup
on their desks, for example, if they need your assistance. Teach them to work on another
section of the task until you arrive.

Making Every Minute Count You want students engaged in learning even when you
are not providing formal instruction. Make every minute count by

¢ Having a plan for what students should do if they finish early.

* Using “sponges” to soak up spare minutes.
Students work at different rates, and, at least at the elementary level, at some point
each will approach you and say, “Teacher, I finished. What should I do now?” Develop
some instructionally sound responses and teach students—even kindergartners—
to select and complete learning activities without your assistance. Write (or draw)
226 CHAPTER 9

RULE OF THUMB FOR RETEACHING

Choose a number, five or fewer, as your limit. Let’s say four. If four of your students ask you
for the same kind of help, do not answer individual questions; reteach the group: “I did not
as I had hoped. Many people are asking about . Let me
make this as clear
explain in another way.” Stick with your limit.

acceptable choices on a chart, post the chart, and teach students to follow the chart.
Then if they ask, “What should I do now?” you just point to the chart. Add new choices
occasionally. Depending on students’ age, some widely applicable choices include the
following:

¢ Complete product option contracts (one strategy for differentiating instruction, p. 64).
¢ Add to the class’s Great Quotes Graffiti Board.
¢ Play a thinking skills game (e.g., chess, checkers, or a board game). Have an interac-
tive whiteboard? Try Set (www.setgame.com) or the New York Times daily news quiz
(http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/).
¢ Read a good book.
¢ Write a letter to a friend in the class. “Send” it through the class post office.
e Study the globe.
¢ Practice skills (e.g., printing, spelling words, math facts, and vocabulary cards).
¢ Work at a station (e.g., for science, art, building, puzzles, or technology).
Just as you can count on students finishing at different rates, you can bet there will be
downtime, or brief periods when your class is waiting for an assembly, class pictures, or a
guest speaker. Soak up those spare minutes with sponges, which are activities that encour-
age learning but do not require much preparation. For example, when the first assembly
runs late and your class is waiting to join the second one, you might ask students of any age,
“Have you lived a million seconds?” Students can also estimate their age in minutes, days,
weeks, or months. Then you can quickly check their predications by visiting http://www
-mathcats.com/explore/agecalculator.html. Calculations are completed so quickly that the
site is sure to spark some interesting questions for exploration. The first assembly is still
not out? Discover what happened on this day in history by checking the headlines: http://
dmarie.com/timecap/. Secondary students will be enthralled by http://peteranswers.com
But first search “How does Peter answers work?” Some additional sample sponges are
given in Figure 9.6. Write sponges in a computer file, on index cards, or in a small notebook
in advance so that you can choose one and get right to work. Students can even be taught to
select and lead sponge activities. While you are thinking about time management, you may
choose to use Figure 9.10 to make a tentative plan for using classroom time well.

Your Own Management Plan

You have an empty room, a class list, and sets of texts. Where do you go from here? How
will you establish a cohesive community? Figures 9.7 through 9.10 can help you establish
an initial classroom management plan that is consistent with the major points of this book
and that can set you on your way to establishing a productive and humane learning environ-
ment. Because some teachers, particularly secondary teachers, “float” from room to room
rather than being assigned a single room, Figure 9.11 may be helpful in helping you think
about some key management issues within a single period (inspired by Emmer, Evertson, &
Worsham, 2002). You will revise your plan in response to your students and your growing
expertise, so use this draft to brainstorm. You may wish to first try the exercise employing
Figure 9.12 at the end of this chapter if you have not yet had many opportunities
to observe
classrooms.
 Managing the Learning Environment 227

Sponges
for spare moments.

Read student requests from a book of poetry (anything by Shel Silverstein is a sure bet).
Practice logical questioning with a game of 20 Questions.
For young students, play Simon Says to hone listening skills. Or, play it in a different language.
eS
Count as high as you can as a class by ones, twos, fives, tens, threes, or sevens. A variation is to count
by ones and say buzz to replace multiples of a given number: “8, 9, buzz, 11,” for example, for multiples of
five.
Individually, in pairs, or as a class, list as many compound words, state capitals, homonyms, mammals,
cabinet members, African countries, prime numbers, chemical symbols, or anything else as you can.
Sharpen estimation skills by estimating and checking an unknown quantity, amount, or duration of an event.
For example, “How many seconds can you stand on one foot? With your eyes closed?” “How many beans
fit into my hand?” “What is the total value of the seven coins in my pocket?” “How many insects are on
earth?” Use the World Almanac or a book of world records for information.
Write brief group stories. One person writes the opening, folds back all but the last line, and passes it to the
next author.
. Practice classification skills with “Who's in My Group?” Call students who meet an unstated criterion of your
choosing (such as black hair or earrings or laced shoes) to the front of the room to be members of your
group. The rest of the class guesses the rule. Be tricky and use more than one criterion. Or, allow students
to make the rule and call up the groups. For older students, draw the dichotomous key to demonstrate your
grouping.
Pull out a set of simple objects and list scientific observations about them. See how long of a list you can
create. Then see if students locate a particular object in the pile purely by reading or listening to peers’
observations. Work on improving the quality of their observations over time.
10. Pull down a map and play “I’m Thinking of a State (or Region or Island)” by allowing students to ask questions
to discover your state. Allow a student to lead the next round. Or, in a less structured activity, find out how
many countries are represented in the travels (or ancestries) of your students. Where is the farthest north
anyone has traveled? East?
Wile Tell students a story. Invite one of them to tell a story or do a trick.
We Do some genetics research: See how many can curl their tongues, for instance. Who has a hitchhiker’s
thumb? Attached earlobes?
13. Try some at-your-seat gymnastics. Can students clasp their hands behind their backs if one arm reaches
from next to the head and the other comes from below? Can they rub their stomachs and pat their heads at
the same time? Drum their fingers starting with the pinkie, then starting with the thumb?
14. Talk about the world. What have students read on the Web today? In the paper? Seen on the news?
228 CHAPTER 9

The big view: Guiding forces in my management plan.

1. The law:
[] Reread Figure 1.2 on teachers’ legal responsibilities. Notes:

[1 Check with administrator or mentor for expectations and sources for local laws.

Things to keep in mind:

2. The setting:
Check your work in Figure 1.1 to refresh your thinking about the specific locale and the expectations
it provides.

Things to keep in mind:

3. My stance toward education:

L] Glance at your work in Chapter 2 to refresh your memory of your big view of teaching.

Complete the following stems:

A good society

A community

The purpose of education

People learn by

Good teachers
 Managing the Learning Environment 229

My plan for creating positive classroom ambience.

—_
(] | want my classroom to feel like a
[] | will foster a sense of community by:

O Physical arrangements to create that tone

Work space (tables and desks):

My instruction station:

Small-group instruction area:

Special-interest areas:

Wall and ceiling space:

My work space and storage areas:

O Other furnishings and strategies | will use to create that ambience:

Checkpoints
Does the room provide for

Emotional safety and a sense of belonging?

O Intellectual stimulation?
-] Social interaction?
jee Pleasant experience?
O Student responsibility?
230 CHAPTER 9

My plan for arranging classroom space.

The Perfect Classroom: A Map

Checkpoints
Is it safe? Can | monitor?
Does it encourage community?
Is it productive?
Is it efficient?
Does it make full use of available resources?
 Managing the Learning Environment 231

My plan for using classroom time well.

Check with administrator or mentor for requirements or guidelines on allocated time.

Sample Classroom Schedule

Routines
LC] Some of my noninstructional routines:

Taking attendance:

Opening exercises:

Expected behaviors for each area:

Two more routines to use (review Figure 8.4):

C1 Instructional routines:

Providing assistance:

Sponges:

Independent work activities:

Involving Families

1 Routines for involving family and other volunteers:

O Routines for communicating regularly with families:

232 CHAPTER 9

Management plan for a single period of the day.

1. Opening Procedures 2. Rules and Procedures 3. Dismissal Routines

Attendance procedure: Leaving the room: Signal for clean-up time:

Location of attendance Using classroom resources Expectations for the room’s

materials such as tardy and (e.g., computers): condition upon students’ leaving:
absence slips: Getting assistance:
Procedure for getting work Working with peers:
to students returning from
absences: Submitting work:

Instructional activity for Expectations on format of

students during attendance: assignment, allowable resources,
late work, extra credit:
Recording assignments:
What to do if teacher is occupied
by a visitor:

Observing classroom management.

Management Area Observation Notes

Ambience
—* . This classroom feels like a :
2. What things does the teacher actually do and say to create
the tone?
3. What are the big ideas about teaching and learning that
seem to be conveyed by the classroom ambience?
4. Community: How does the environment establish the
norms of shared governance and concern?
5. How does the tone establish
a. Emotional safety?
b. Intellectual stimulation?
c. Social interaction and responsibility?
d. School as a meaningful and pleasant experience?

Physical Space
6. Observe how the teacher has structured the physical
layout of the room.
e Floor space
e Wall space
e Instruction station
¢ Special-interest areas
e Other spaces
7. Observe how the teacher has arranged instructional
materials and resources, including computers.
8. How does the environment promote physical safety?
9. Productivity: How does the environment allow for
a. A balance and variety of activities?
b. All students to see and hear the teacher?
c. All students to focus on instruction?
 Managing the Learning Environment 233

10. Efficiency: How does the environment allow for ease in

a. The teacher reaching each student?
b. Students reaching each other?
c. The teacher and students reaching materials and other
areas of the room?

Time
11. Find the classroom schedule. How does allocated time
encourage learning?
We. What evidence is there that students are experiencing
success during engaged time?
13. How does the teacher use noninstructional routines
effectively? List some routines you observed to be
particularly effective.
14, If you observe instruction, check
a. Pacing
b. Transitions
c. Provision of assistance
d. Provisions for students who finish early

Overall
. List two or more things you learned about classroom
management by observing this teacher and classroom.

Parting Words:
Your painstaking efforts to maintain a pleasant and produc- Choose some high-interest activities and perhaps
tive learning environment will not always result in a happy some positive consequences that reward students
citizenry living in educational paradise. Sometimes a nega- for working as a group. Allow students to make the
tive tone can arise if the teacher struggles with discipline, space their own.
if the students begin to treat each other with disrespect, Reestablish your expectations for student behavior.
or if the class fails to establish a sense of group purpose. Open your eyes wide and remind your students that
Chapter 10 provides additional suggestions for keeping the you care so much about them that you cannot allow
atmosphere positive, for talking through issues to encour- them to treat each other or their classroom in harm-
age respect, for building community, and for managing ful ways. Clearly outline the kinds of behaviors you
students as a group. If you notice that your classroom is need to see and, if necessary, employ logical conse-
beginning to feel unproductive or unpleasant, try running quences to help students with their behavior.
through some of these steps: 4. Change something. Add quiet music. Rearrange
the desks. Record yourself and listen to your tone.
1. Get a sense of perspective. What are you trying to Rework your routines. Flip the schedule. Laugh at
accomplish with your students? What is interfering the nuisances that would otherwise drive you to dis-
with your class’s attempts to build a productive envi- traction. Have lunch with your students.
ronment? A trusted outside observer may be able to 5
. Never give up.
offer a fresh view.
Rebuild a sense of community. Try a classroom
meeting during which you set new goals as a class.
 234 CHAPTER 9

0A Opportunities to Practice
1. Analyze a teacher’s management plan using the observation 3. Alfie Kohn (1996) is critical of schools’ overreliance
sheet given in Figure 9.12. You have three choices: on punishment and rewards and the illusion of choice it
¢ Analyze a lesson clip in the My Lab School collection. presents for students. To what extent do you agree with
him? What would it take to change the practices that he
e Observe an experienced teacher’s room environment sees as inhumane?
and classroom management. At the end of the
observation jot down a few great ideas that are Start a file for promising classroom management ideas.
Encourage a share session with peers. Observe more
consistent with your own thinking about management.
classrooms for ideas on management. Remember that
Incorporate them into your own plan.
every strategy you consider needs to measure up to the
e If you are already teaching, ask a colleague or mentor to tough standard of your stance toward education and must
observe your own management, or video record a lesson encourage student learning in humane ways. Plenty of
and analyze the recording. management strategies around today fall short of those
Read a professional journal article on classroom criteria.
management. What is the author’s implied stance toward
education? Are the strategies consistent with what you
know about good teaching?

th Web Sites
http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/archives/ that emphasize meeting the basic needs of power, love, fun,
classmanagement.shtml freedom, and safety. This site gives articles and tips, but it
Educator’s World: Classroom management. The site also sells Morris’s products.
includes a large variety of tips from different sources. Check http://www.proteacher.com
out the New Teacher Advisor for tips on job interviews Pro Teacher. Click on Classroom management. Lots of
and dealing with difficult people. Try the Tech Integration
resources and ideas from practicing teachers are included.
section.
Primarily elementary level.
http://www.middleweb.com
http://www.4teachers.org/
Middleweb: Exploring Middle School Reform. This site
4teachers.org supports teaching with technology. Try the
addresses management and other issues for teachers of the
classroom architect tool to arrange your classroom (http://
middle years. For classrom management topics, go to “The
classroom.4teachers.org/). Ad heavy. Another classroom
First Days of Middle School.” The free weekly e-newsletter
mapping tool—this one 3d—is at the American Federation
is very good, and the teacher blogs give a realistic picture
of Teachers Web site (http://www.aft.org/yourwork/
of living and learning with middle school students.
tools4teachers/classmgt/interactives/arrangetool/activity
http://www.nea.org cfm)
National Education Association. Under “Tools and Ideas,”
http://www?2.scholastic.com/
try “Classroom Management” and “It Works for Me.”
Scholastic’s site. Go to Tools under Teaching resources
http://newmanagement.com for a classroom set up tool and a to-do list maker for your
New Management. Rick Morris’s Web site. Morris is students.
known for his positive, practical management strategies
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Oe] Classroom Discipline:

Before You Begin Reading

—
a teacher who was
Think back through your elementary and secondary schooling experiences. Recall
known as being a successful classroom disciplinarian.
1. What was the teacher's reputation?

2. What was your relationship with the teacher like? What about other students’ relationship with the
teacher?

3. What motivated students’ behavior in the teacher's room?

4. How did the teacher prevent misbehavior?

5. How did the teacher respond to misbehavior?

6. What “key(s)” to successful classroom discipline did that teacher seem to hold?

(Note: If you prefer, analyze a teacher who was not successful with classroom discipline. You can
learn from that experience, too.)

66
Ihre discipline does not exist in the muteness of those who have been silenced but in the stirrings
of those who have been challenged, in the doubt of those who have been prodded, and in the hopes of
those who have been awakened”

—Paulo Freire (1998, p. 86)

True discipline is self-discipline. Competent, resilient individuals are socially adept with positive relation-
ships and optimistic views about their lives. They strive for self-improvement and possess life skills such as
the ability to take initiative and solve problems (Henderson & Milstein, 2003). Running a close second to the
family as the most powerful influence on the development of competent children and adolescents is the school
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior
237

(Henderson & Milstein, 2003; Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2009). This chapter supports
you in
helping students develop into positive, self-controlled, contributors to their world.
Each of
its eight sections includes theory, research, and practical tools for student discipline.
1. Classroom Discipline as One Piece of the Puzzle
Physician, Heal Thyself: Discipline Starts with You
The Goal Is Self-Discipline
The Key: A Structured, Consistent, Supportive Environment
Relationships as Central
Prevention, Not Reaction
A Systems Approach
Nd
a
aI
ge Your Own Classroom Discipline Plan

Ciassroom Discipline as One Piece of the Puzzle

Your efforts to help students develop discipline occur within a much larger puzzle of teach-
ing and learning. First, classroom discipline is connected to all of your other classroom
efforts: planning, instruction, and management. When students are deeply engaged in a
rich curriculum and meaningful learning, for instance, it is far easier for them to make
productive choices about their own behavior. Second, classroom discipline occurs in the
larger schoolwide context. Effective schoolwide discipline programs provide caring rela-
tionships among adults and students, promote prosocial behavior, and work toward shared
values (Frieberg & Lamb, 2009; Osher, Bear, Sprague, & Doyle, 2010). Your classroom
practices should support—and be supported by—the school plan. Third, inclusive and
responsive teachers are aware of the larger sociocultural context, including its inequities.
For example, Black students—and secondarily Latinos and American Indian students—are
overselected and oversanctioned in the discipline system, excluding them from instruction
at far greater rates than are white and Asian students (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010;
Yang, 2009). Disproportionate disciplinary actions may contribute to achievement gaps by
reducing students’ opportunity to learn. Inclusive and responsive teachers examine their
own discipline efforts to address such deleterious practices. Finally, classroom discipline is
a powerful mechanism for effecting our vision of who our students need to be as we hand
them the world. Each of our efforts to support student discipline should be guided by our
vision of who the students will become as competent, resilient adults.

Physician, Heal Thyself: Discipline Starts with You

In all they do, inclusive and responsive teachers treat self-understanding as necessary. In
the realm of discipline, self-understanding helps teachers understand their own motiva-
tions, limitations, and biases. For instance, teachers in one study overestimated students’
intelligence when they perceived the students as interesting, independent, competent, and
assertive and underestimated intelligence when the students seemed anxious, immature,
and insecure (Alvidrez & Weinstein, 1999). Disability status can affect teacher perceptions
too. In Cook’s (2004) study and in several similar ones, general education teachers reported
feeling less attached to their students with disabilities and rejected them at higher rates than
they did their other students. Students who are less attached or are rejected get less positive
attention and feedback from their teachers.
And so it is crucial that we examine our own biases and perspectives. When we make
our implicit understandings of ourselves explicit, we increase the odds that our efforts to
encourage self-discipline will be principled and proactive: Knowing yourself will help you
know—and guide—your students. This section addresses the following points:

¢ How understanding yourself helps you as a disciplinarian

¢ Finding emotional control in an emotional endeavor
¢ Choosing your authority base
238 CHAPTER 10

How Understanding Yourself Helps You as a Disciplinarian

The end goal of this chapter is for you to form your own classroom discipline plan;
be
without a well-reasoned plan, teachers are likely to be “theoretically blind” and thus
thwarted as proactive disciplinarians (Riley, Lewis, & Brew, 2010, p. 95:1): Before you
are a teacher, you are a person, and for your discipline plan to be workable, it needs to
not only reflect your vision as a teacher but your personal perceptions of what’s possible
and desirable. We all have things that please us or that push our buttons based on our
own temperaments and upbringings. Each of us seeks out people who behave in certain
ways and avoids others. These personal biases and preferences color the way we see our
students and how we interact with them. Try the Inclusive and Responsive Teacher
Tip to explore a few things about yourself that might influence you as a classroom
disciplinarian.

Finding Emotional Control in an Emotional Endeavor

Teaching can bring a rainbow of emotions. Helping students learn and grow often
results in great joy; failing to do so can result in despair. When teachers are socially and
emotionally competent, they set a productive tone, encourage supportive relationships,
guide students toward self-control, and serve as role models for pro-social behavior
(Jennings & Greenberg, 2010). And when teachers act aggressively by angrily yelling
or using sarcasm or humiliation they negatively affect students’ engagement, behavior,
and self-regulation (Riley, Lewis, & Brew, 2010; Sutton, Mudrey-Camino, & Knight,
2009). Not surprisingly, the aspect of teaching that is most likely to evoke negative
emotions such as anger is preventing and responding to student misbehavior (Sutton,
Mudrey-Camino, & Knight, 2009). Thus, finding and maintaining emotional control 1s
vital for every classroom teacher.
Fortunately, all emotions contain a cognitive component; we need not be ruled by our
feelings. Instead, we can choose our emotional reactions to classroom events. Maintaining
healthy emotions involves two kinds of regulation: up regulating (increasing) positive
emotions and down regulating (decreasing) negative emotions in the classroom. Teachers
use a variety of strategies to up regulate their positive emotions. Last year my student teach-
ers were all about dancing . . . anytime, anyplace. (Don’t make me get out the video.) A few
common strategies for increasing positive emotions include:

* Focusing on a student’s positive qualities

¢ Listening to upbeat music
¢ Talking with colleagues
¢ Using humor
* Using mental exercises such as positive guided imagery

Inclusive and Responsive Teacher Tip

It’s ALL aBouT You 3. What did the people who reared you do well? What do
you treasure from the lessons they taught you? What are
Try these questions to think about some
your “I'll do it differently” memories?
personal factors that may influence your
4. What sorts of behaviors or attitudes annoy you? How do
interactions with students.
you respond? :
1. Name the top three traits you value in a friend. How do 5. No one is perfect. What trait or behavior are you striving
you interact with people who don’t display those traits? to improve in yourself?
2. What sort of K-12 student were you? What did you think
about the people who were not your sort of student? What
do you value in student behaviors and attitudes now?
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior
239

GETTING CALM
If a conversation with a student begins to get tense, imagine the student’s parent standing beside
the student. This can help you get calm and choose your words carefully.

Teachers report that down regulating negative emotions in favor of emotional control
is perhaps more difficult—though equally important. Our job as adults and as professionals
is to model emotional control. Anger is a natural human emotion, but we need to have our
emotions in check when addressing students’ behavior. And dealing with students who are
particularly defiant takes the utmost in emotional maturity (Hall & Hall, 2003).
When angry, I suggest that you step back physically, temporally, and emotionally.
You may, for instance, discover that your class showed no mercy in antagonizing the music
teacher. You are furious that they could act that way, and you are embarrassed that their
behavior may reflect on you. Instead of yelling, though, you lower your voice and say, “I
am shocked and angry to hear about this. In fact, I am so angry that I cannot discuss this
with you right now. When my head is clearer, we can discuss this situation.”
Stepping back leaves you as the boss of you. When we are angry, other people are in
control of us (F. Jones, 2000). Strength, according to Jones, comes from calm. By quieting
your body through strategies like relaxed breathing, you calm yourself and those around
you. Rick Morris offers us the Teaching Tip to help us get and stay calm.

Choosing Your Authority Base

One final way that discipline begins with you is that you choose the kind of authority base
you will establish in your classroom. Teachers establish themselves as authorities using
different combinations of power (French & Raven, 1959):

¢ Expert power: The group perceives the teacher as having superior knowledge about
the content, about teaching, and about individual needs.
¢ Referent power: The group likes and respects the teacher because she is perceived as
ethical and concerned about her students.
° Legitimate power: The teacher has the right to make certain decisions by the sheer
power of her official role as teacher.
¢ Reward power: The teacher has power because she can distribute rewards, including
tangible items such as candy and privileges and social awards such as praise and
attention.
* Coercive power: The teacher has power because she can punish.

Reward power and coercive power predominate in many classrooms, probably because
they are often effective for immediate control of student behavior. Examples include
“pull your card” systems, table points, candy as a reward, and detention as a punishment.
Unfortunately, teachers who establish no firmer authority base than the use of rewards and
punishments run a strong risk of having their power collapse. Additionally, rewards and
punishments are only temporarily effective and can interfere with the development of self-
control (Kohn, 1996; Marshall, 2005).
Instead, teachers should establish more lasting and mutually respectful authority
based on their expert and referent power (Savage, 1999). Because both of these kinds
of power depend on students’ perceptions of you—as an expert and as a concerned,
trustworthy adult—you can begin to earn students’ respect by demonstrating your
knowledge and care. Other kinds of power can be used judiciously as supplements,
especially in your early years as a teacher. Secondary teachers work with students
who may be more likely to challenge authority the Teaching Tip, Working with
big kids.
240 CHAPTER 10

Na: Si WORKING WITH BiG Kips

Be genuine. Emphasize, within your own style and as appropriate for the teacher role,
caring and supportive relationships. Many secondary students (particularly boys, itseems)
2008; Reichert &
are relational learners; who you are matters to them (Raider-Roth et al.,
Hawley, 2010).
Decide right now it isn’t about control. It isn’t about physical intimidation either. When you
let go of the mistaken goal of control, you have one fewer obstacle to overcome in helping
students choose self-control.
Work on your teacher presence. You need to exude self-confidence and communicate that
there is no place you’d rather be than with your students.
Don’t take it personally. Some of your students may come to you already mistrusting authority
(Payne, 2008). Show them that the system can be fair and that you will be respectful.
Plan ahead. Know your limits. Some students will push until you deliver some consequence.
Find out your school’s plan for different levels of infraction—but don’t overuse it.
Watch for counter-control. Secondary students are savvy enough to turn around behaviorist
systems to control the teacher. Emphasize instead authentic relationships and rational
decision making.
Take it from a pro. Spend time in the presence of a teacher who has a great classroom
environment without relying on rewards and punishments. Watch and learn.

The Goal Is Self-Discipline

Pythagoras warned, “No man is free who cannot command himself.” Self-control, though,
is not innate. We encourage its development through socialization (Good & Brophy, 2000).
Indeed, 2500 years after Pythagoras’s warning, we teachers are guided by the goal of
helping students move from impulsive, self-centered beings to self-directed, autonomous
individuals (Gootman, 2001). Teachers agree that self-control and cooperation are impor-
tant skills (Lane, Pierson, & Givner, 2003), and research suggests that person-centered
approaches to discipline—that is, ones that emphasize shared respect and responsibility—
are most effective for developing self-control and a number of other positive outcomes
(Freiberg & Lamb, 2009).
Despite its importance, teachers find it difficult to provide as many opportunities
Gi ee for self-direction as they’d like (Lewis & Burman, 2008). Also, in some students’
y are tyrants. They ; : : ;
Doatniie deimpmentevecbile tor perceptions, teachers become more coercive not less—in their responses to student
ere meee ae misbehavior (Lewis, 2001). I encourage you to view discipline as an opportunity to
gain independence and responsibility. Luckily, many avenues are available to us as
Socrates (circa 450 BCE) we help our students grow toward self-control. Our options fall into two categories:
* Establishing a climate that promotes independence
* Addressing behavior in ways that encourage self-control.

Establishing a Climate that Promotes Independence

Your instruction and physical environment should provide safe opportunities for students
to think for themselves and to make meaningful choices. Try these three tools for establish-
ing such a climate:

1. Choices
2. Respect decisions
3. Natural and logical consequences

1. Choices Choice is empowering; it engenders ownership and reduces resistance

(Marshall, 2005). Within safe and acceptable limits, you and I can provide
repeated and
varied opportunities for students to make meaningful decisions. You can
arrange options so
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 241

that a range of choices is acceptable. For instance, students can choose classroom rules, their
literature groups, the topics they pursue, their workspaces, and classroom jobs. The more
mature the student, the broader the range and number of choices he may be able to handle.
When students have the opportunity to make meaningful choices, they see that they are
capable of making good decisions and that you respect their ability to do so (Coloroso, 1994).

2. Respect decisions Once students make choices, we should respect their decisions.
We should make it a point to override their choices only if they show themselves unable to
follow through or if the consequence of their decisions would be harmful. Students’ deci-
sions may not match our own, but unless the consequences are dangerous, students should
be allowed to experience them.

3. Natural and logical consequences People with self-control understand the link
between their behaviors and the consequences of their actions. Unfortunately, schools often
emphasize rewards and punishments that are not only unrelated to students’ behavior but
are also delivered by the hands of another, the teacher. Examples include discipline pro-
grams that have students copying class rules when they talk out of turn or receiving food
for following directions. In programs like these, teachers retain responsibility for delivering
the consequences of students’ actions, and students may have a harder time establishing
authentic motivation for appropriate behavior.
To help students build internal controls and take responsibility for their actions, you
can arrange classroom conditions so that they face the natural consequences of their behav-
ior. Natural consequences (Dreikurs, 1968) flow from the behavior and are not arranged
by another. For instance, when a student talks while directions are given, he misses the
opportunity to gather appropriate materials for his photography project.
When it would be unsafe or unfeasible for students to experience natural consequences,
we should provide a consequence that is at least logical. A logical consequence for Sheila’s
breaking Jaime’s pencil out of anger, for instance, is that she supply Jaime with another
pencil. Charney (2002) suggests three kinds of logical consequences:
¢ Reparations: When a student or group breaks or loses something, it must be replaced
or repaired. The situation must be fixed.
¢ Breach of contract and loss of trust: When a student or group acts in a manner that
contradicts the rules of the group, rights are temporarily lost.
¢ Time-outs for inappropriate participation: When a student or group does not par-
ticipate in a manner consistent with expectations for the situation, the student(s) or
group is removed from the situation until better choices are made.

When students live with the consequences of their choices, they come to see that the
best discipline is not enforced by an authority but comes from within: They build self-
control. You can also nurture self-control in the ways you respond to misbehavior.

Addressing Behavior in Ways that Encourage Self-Control

The following five tools can help you respond to behavior in ways that support self-control:
1. Talk it through and reflect
2. Self-correction
3. Avoid power struggles
4. Anger shields
5. Conflict resolution

1. Talk it through and reflect Wise teachers do more than put an end to misbehavior:
They use misbehavior as an opportunity to teach about better choices. For example, when
Tyler accidently swings a baseball bat dangerously close to a friend’s face, his teacher
responds by moving forward to stop the bat and then asks: “Tyler, look how close that bat
came to Dan’s face. What could happen if you do not look where you swing?” The teacher
harm
uses reflective questions (Marshall, 2005) to guide Tyler to consider the potential
242 CHAPTER 10

Here is your chance to

support this student in
developing self-control.
What will you do?

Source: Scott Cunningham/Merrill.

of his impulsive bat swinging, listening openly to his honest answer, and then discussing
appropriate alternatives. By guiding Tyler to consider hurtful outcomes, his teacher helps
him to forge the links between behavior and its consequences. Dan’s face is safe not just
for today but for tomorrow as well.
Talking it through can be difficult when you feel rushed. It takes time to teach students
about good behavior. Although you may not have included behavior as a daily objective,
no doubt it has a place in your long-range goals, and your time investment will most likely
be a good one. Talking it through can also be difficult when you feel irritated because you
just want those monsters to stop it. There are indeed times when belaboring an incident of
misbehavior serves only to prolong it. Talk it through when there is a reasonable chance
that students have not considered the potential effects of their actions. Otherwise, address
the misbehavior as briefly as possible and move on.
Talking it through is useful because it (1) models the expectation that rational people
use words to sort things out, (2) tightens the link between behavior and consequence
without actually allowing for dangerous consequences, and (3) works to prevent similar
misbehavior in the future. Talking it through can help students see their mistakes not as
crimes but as opportunities to do better.

2. Self-correction Your goal is that students control themselves, so whenever possible,

allow students themselves to find solutions to their problems and to select appropriate
behaviors. When faced with the typical barrage of tattling during rug time (“Teacher! She
is bothering me!”’), a primary-grade teacher I know tells the offended child, “I am sure you
can find a quieter place to sit.” The student almost invariably moves quietly to another, less
provocative spot on the rug, and his talking friends receive a hint about their own behavior.
As another example, ninth-grade Doug holds a lively conversation during independent
work time. His teacher approaches him for a quiet talk: “Doug, the time to chat has passed.
Can you find something more productive to do, or would you like me to help you find an
alternative?” Doug shrugs, “I guess I will read my novel.” As Doug pulls out his book, the
teacher responds with an emphasis on the positive: “Good choice! I was pretty sure you
would have a good idea!” The teacher joins another group but follows through by glancing
at Doug to ensure that his nose is buried in his book. Allowing students to correct their own
behavior provides practice—with a safety net—in controlling their own destiny.
You need not correct every incidence of misbehavior you notice. First, sometimes draw-
ing unnecessary attention to a fleeting or relatively minor transgression can interrupt instruc-
tion and increase the likelihood that the misbehavior will reoccur. Ignoring some misbehaviors
can extinguish them. One caution, though: If you elect to ignore a misbehavior, prepare to
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 243

ignore it repeatedly. If you eventually respond to misbehavior that you initially ignored,
you
may unwittingly reinforce it (Obenchain & Taylor, 2005). Second, students can serve
as a
powerful influence on each other’s behavior. A cold rebuff from a peer can do more to direct a
poking student’s behavior than can your admonitions to remember the rules against poking. If
students solve problems on their own, pat yourself on the back and resist the urge to intervene.

3. Avoid power struggles Independent people have power over their fate in important
ways. K-12 students have less power than adults—especially in the classroom setting—and
growing toward self-determination can mean questing for more power. When a student
outwardly defies you and provokes your anger, you are probably engaged in a power
struggle. Power struggles rarely end with satisfactory results, mainly because the student is
right: You cannot make her do anything. Avoid power struggles in three ways:

° Diffuse the situation. Use humor, greater physical distance, or a caring voice to allow
the anger to dissipate: “I can see that you are angry. It may be better if we talked
about this in 5 minutes. I will be back in a few moments to talk.” Usually increasing
your physical and emotional distance from the student helps to diffuse the student’s
anger and allows you to approach the situation more calmly. If a student seems angry
or belligerent, you can also use a quiet, concerned question that takes him off guard
(Khalsa, 2007): “Are you okay?” “Did I do something that upset you?”
° Let the student save face. Offer an out so that the student can comply with your
request without submitting entirely to your authority. If a student’s sole choice is to
do as you say, she can only lose face in front of her peers. As Linda attempts to draw
her teacher into a power struggle, for instance, her teacher calmly says, “You may get
out your book, or, if you have a better idea, I am listening.” Still angry, Linda replies,
“Yeah! I want to do nothing!” Her teacher’s wise response is to accept the student’s
alternative, even if it is only vaguely appropriate. “All right. Sometimes I want to do
nothing, too. That is a fine choice for the next few minutes. I will be happy when you
are finished with that and can join us in math. I miss you when you are gone.” The
teacher has allowed Linda some control, has provided her with an out so that she can
join the math group with at least the appearance of her own free will, and she has
reinforced the notion that Linda is a likable person with a contribution to make.
* Give the student the power. A student in a power struggle may need to make one
more comment after your request for quiet, or feed the hamster one more pellet
after you ask him to stop. By allowing those “one mores,” you convey that students
do indeed have some power over what they do when. Usually a student’s behavior
will stop with a “one more” (Schneider, 1997). Only if it continues will you need to
address the behavior again.
You may also elect to abdicate your desire to control the student’s behav-
ior entirely: “I certainly cannot force you to use appropriate language, but I must
insist on it in my room. You will need to use street language elsewhere.” When the
student realizes that you are comfortable with your own power—and its limits—he
will almost certainly have a lesser need to grab for available power.

4. Anger shields Expect that, at times, your students will be angry or hurt. Irate parents,
similarly, may at times use hostile language with you. Although negative feelings are un-
avoidable, you and your class deserve to be protected from angry outbursts. You can shield
using comments such as “I know you are hurt, but I care too much about our class to let you
say unkind things. You need to find another way to handle these feelings. I can make some
suggestions if you get stuck.” I know a junior high teacher who teaches her students to say
“Cancel!” to reject a hurtful message. We’ ve extended the verbal message at my house to
include a hand signal (letter C) so that we can shield ourselves with a simple gesture.
Anger shields teach students that everyone deserves dignity and respect; show students
that although we cannot entirely control our environments, we can control how we will
respond. It’s one way to encourage students to draw on their inner resources to handle their
negative emotions.
244 CHAPTER 10

5. Conflict resolution U.S. schools are basically safe places (Mayer & Furlong, 2010),
and horribly violent events such as suicides and homicides are far more common for K-12
students away from school than in school (Borum, Cornell, Modzeleski, & Jimerson, 2010).
Still, less violent conflict, such as bullying, is a concern the world over (Swearer, Espelage,
Vaillancourt, & Hymel, 2010). In the common conception of bullying, there is an imbal-
ance of power, and the perpetrator purposefully and repeatedly uses physical aggression
(e.g., hitting, pushing, or spitting) or social aggression (e.g., making fun, malicious gossip,
exclusion from social groups) against the victim. Cyber bullying—where the aggressor uses
the Internet to victimize a peer—can be especially terrifying to students given their percep-
tions of the aggressor’s anonymity (Mishna, Saini, & Solomon, 2009). Indeed, digital citi-
zenship is now a priority for schools (Ribble, Bailey, & Ross, 2004). See the 21st Century
Teaching and Learning Tip.
Student researchers have recently uncovered a different student perspective on bully-
ing (Thomson & Gunter, 2008). This student perspective includes behaviors such as name
calling, isolation, and physical hassling perpetrated not by a single individual upon another
but by one cultural subgroup upon others. Bullying tends to peak during the middle school/
junior high years. Therefore, teachers in those grades may have a particular responsibility,
but students in all grades clearly need adult support in solving conflicts in appropriate ways.
Many students perceive that their teachers do not recognize or act upon bullying
incidents. Your job is always to help students build lifelong skills that will assist them in
positive interactions throughout their lives. Begin by not tolerating hateful acts. Stop your
students from using hate speech, and intervene in acts of bullying. Check with your school
for policies regarding bullying; schools rightly treat it very seriously. See the 21st Century
Teaching and Learning Tip for some online support to address bullying.

DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP

The International Society for Technology Education’s (2007) National Education Technology Standards emphasize digital
citizenship. Digital citizens practice safe, legal, and responsible use of ICT. They display positive attitudes and personal
responsibility for using technology to collaborate and learn, and they exhibit leadership with ICT. Each district has an accept-
able use policy that students and parents are required to sign. Locate the policy and discover what it tells you about questions
such as:

When and how are students allowed to use cell phones?

When and how are students allowed to use digital recording devices (such as cell phone, still and video cameras)?
What policies govern Internet use at school?
How can we counteract the negative and violent messages that students sometimes encounter in cyberspace? What
role
should the school system play in teachers’ and students’ social networking practices?
What are your responsibilities for preventing students from sending or posting potentially troublesome electronic
communications? From violating copyright law?

No BULLYING

Try these Web sites on bullying. Many have resources written for students,
families, and educators to prevent and intervene
when students are involved in bullying.

* Bullying.org (http://www.bullying.org/)
* Stop Bullying Now (http://www.stopbullyingnow.hrsa.gov/kids/)
* Bully Prevention in Positive Behavior Support (http://w ww.pbis.org/common/pbisresources/tools/pbsbully
prevention. pdf)
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 245

CONFLICT RESOLUTION
. Set the rules for a cooperative context (example: no name calling).
. Listen. Let each person finish without interrupting. Each person states his wants
and feelings.
. Find common ground. Agree on the facts and the issues important to each.
. Brainstorm solutions.
. Negotiate proposed solutions.
. Agree. Listen as each person states the plan aloud.

Many programs assist schools and teachers in preventing violence. However, efforts
that focus only on punishment—such as zero tolerance policies—seem to be falling short
of their prevention intention (Casella, 2003; Dupper, 2010; Rice, 2009). Instead, teaching
students the skills to resolve conflicts peacefully serves a number of long-range purposes
(Johnson & Johnson, 2004): It provides them a set of skills they can use to resolve a lifetime
of inevitable conflicts, it enhances their moral and social development, and it provides them
with a mechanism to change the world. The Teaching Tip presents a general set of skills
you can teach your students to resolve conflict.

The Key: A Structured, Consistent,

Supportive Environment
Years of parenting research translated into the schooling arena provides very clear
directions for classroom teachers: The environments that support development best are
authoritative ones (Gregory & Cornell, 2009; Walker, 2008; 2009). Figure 10.1 shows
the intersections of two dimensions of caring for young people: control (low and high)
and nurturance (low and high). In authoritative classrooms, both control and nurturance
are high; the classrooms are well structured and provide plentiful acceptance and support.
Students understand that there are limits to their behavior and that expectations for suc-
cess are high—but so is teachers’ support of their efforts (Henderson & Milstein, 2003;
van Tartwijk, den Brok, Veldman, & Wubbels, 2009). Nurturing teachers believe in their
students’ capacity for success, engage in trusting and caring relationships, and provide a
positive climate for exploration and learning. Authoritative teachers encourage students to
take academic risks and provide safety nets for when students fail. Students in authoritative
classrooms are more likely to internalize achievement goals and open up to adult influence
(Walker, 2009).
The authoritative environment you create includes a structured, predictable, and
focused setting (Chapter 9), and it includes the supportive social emotional climate you set
with your relationships and interactions with students. These six tools can help.

Authoritative teachers provide controlled and nurturing environments.

CONTROL
Low _ High

Neglectful Authoritarian

Permissive Authoritative (Optimal)

246 CHAPTER 10

1. Structure
is struc-
In authoritative classrooms and schools, each aspect of the learning environment
tured. Ensure that your physical layout is orderly and fits the academic tasks. Structure
classroom time schedules to show that every minute is precious; maximize academic
predict-
learning time. Keep your behavioral and academic expectations high, clear, and
that students perceive that you monitor them carefully, intervene to
able. Further, ensure
protect their safety and best interests, and provide feedback that helps them meet high
expectations.

2. High Expectations
Authoritative teachers convey their belief in every student’ s capacity for success. Remember
the warm demanders from Chapter 4? I have many positive memories of teachers who
“warmly demanded” my sons’ best. For example, when Zach was “sagging” (wearing his
pants far lower than his boxers), I appreciated his history teacher telling him to pull his
pants up, and keep them up. He did. When Alex admitted to too many hours of X-box,
his English teacher told him to turn off the video games and get back in the habit of
reading for pleasure. Alex read voraciously that year and ended up as an English major
in college. I appreciated it when teachers continued to demand the best from my children,
even when we got tired at home.
It seems obvious that we believe that all of our students can learn, right? Of course!
However, in the recent Met Life Survey, teachers who worked in schools with higher
percentages of low-income families were less likely to believe that their students could
succeed or that they were motivated to succeed (MetLife, 2010). Here are some strategies
for conveying high expectations for all your students:
* Convey a sense of urgency and excitement about what students need to learn.
Knowledge is power. “Education is the tool that gives a child life choices. A teacher
who cares enough to make sure a student knows how to survive school and gives that
student the necessary skills is providing a gift that will keep affecting lives from one
generation to the next” (Payne, 2008, p. 52).
¢ Use grade-level content standards as a minimum (not maximum) expectation.
¢ Share grading criteria in advance. Describe how assignments and projects contribute
to the final grade.
¢ Share (or develop with students) grading rubrics and teach students to self-assess.
¢ Share outstanding samples created by other, similar students.
* Focus on students’ individual strengths and build from them. Be a mentor.
* Focus on personal improvement, helping students track their progress over time.
* Use the same praise or “success messages” for all students to protect against uncon-
sciously different expectations. Students can choose these success messages.
* Encourage students to do their best. When their work falls short, help them analyze it
and warmly insist on improvement.
* Include family members to build, convey, and enforce shared high expectations.
Remember that parenting is difficult; it helps to work as a team.

3. Support
Authoritative teachers help their students meet high expectations. If your students are miss-
ing tools, figure out a way to see that they get them. If students lack prerequisite skills, work
out a plan for students to pick up those skills, perhaps through tutoring or through a software
program. If your students need services beyond the typical program, advocate for them
to
receive those services. In short, as an inclusive, responsive, and authoritativ
e teacher, you
set high expectations and then do whatever it takes to help students achieve. Authoritati
ve
teachers don’t, however, hover; they choose the minimal level of interventio
n necessary to
ensure student success without interfering with student independence.
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 247

4. Caring Communication
Effective schools foster a caring climate, personalization, and supportive relationships
(Henderson & Milstein, 2003; Osher et al., 2010), Caring communication is necessary in
these respectful environments (Gootman, 2008). Teachers’ responsibility is to both model
caring communication and to teach students the skills necessary to communicate in caring
ways. Three such skills include (1) recognizing and labeling feelings—students’ own and
others; (2) communicating feelings without hurting others; and (3) listening to each other,
showing interest, and hearing the speaker’s complete message.

5. Clear Limits
Clear classroom limits set the boundaries of permissible behavior. Setting limits is some-
times difficult for new teachers, who tend to be concerned that their students like them.
However, one of the kindest things you can do for your students is to provide a stable
environment with reasonable limits and to forbid travel beyond those limits. Everyone
needs limits; students will push until they find your boundaries. When they find those
boundaries, they can turn their attention to other matters. Do them—and yourself—a favor
and make your limits clear at the outset.
Students make better choices about their behavior when they know what is expected of
them. School and classroom rules are an important way to teach students what we expect.
One school, for instance, adopted an elegant set of five rules that provide direction for
behaviors in a variety of settings at school: be kind, be safe, be cooperative, be respectful,
and be peaceful (Lewis, Sugai, & Colvin, 1998). Note that these are all positively stated.
Develop a similar set of classroom rules, either with the students’ help or on your own. See
the Teaching Tip for suggestions on developing classroom rules.
You also need to establish clear expectations for special circumstances. Before a field
trip, for instance, teach your students approximately three specific behaviors you expect to
see. A primary teacher might hold up three fingers, one for each expectation, and state in
positive and clear terms his expectations for student behavior during the trip: “First, you
need to stay with your buddy. Second, you need to keep your hands to yourself. Third,
you need to stay where you can see an adult at all times.” Then the teacher checks for
understanding of his rules: “Let’s see how many know the first special rule for today. I see
10 hands up. I will wait for another 10... . Good. Say it aloud.” He reteaches until he is
certain that all students know what he expects. Days with substitute teachers, assemblies,
and sports activities are other situations when clearly stated expectations are critical.

RULES ON RULES

Keep your list of rules down to about four or five in number.

State each rule in positive terms. For instance, “Raise your hand before speaking” is more
helpful than “Do not shout out.”
Be certain that students accept the rules as useful and reasonable. Even adolescents, who are
prone to challenge authority and assert autonomy, are willing to follow rules if they seem
reasonable and fair (Gregory & Cornell, 2009).
If you choose to have the class develop the rules through group discussion, check that their
rules are reasonable and address major areas of concern for classroom behavior (when to talk,
when to move around, and how to treat each other and belongings).
Think about how to operationalize rules. For instance, some teachers operationalize their rules
for classroom talk with a color system: “red” for silence, no one out of her seat; “yellow” for
whispers in small groups; and “green” for regular conversational level.
If you elect to include explicit consequences for following and breaking the rules, be sure that
they are logical and humane.
248 CHAPTER 10

6. Consistency
Perhaps even more difficult than setting limits is following through to reinforce those
limits. Reinforce limits by responding consistently to students’ requests and behavior. Your
consistent responses will help students see that their environment is predictable and that
they can rely on stable expectations. They can trust you to say what you mean... and mean
what you say. When you show them that you mean what you say, you convey to students
that you care enough about them to keep your promises. If you are inconsistent, students
will learn that they can do as they please and that they cannot trust you. Given the principle
of intermittent reinforcement, a rule that is enforced inconsistently is worse than no rule at
all; it makes negative behaviors very difficult to extinguish (Obenchain & Taylor, 2005).
“No” must mean “No” every single time. This is a tough one, but your efforts will pay off.

Relationships as Central
One of the clearest conclusions from the research on classroom discipline and student suc-
cess is the centrality of positive relationships. “Teaching is about building relationships—
knowing your students, sharing ideas and life events” (Frieberg & Lamb, 2009, p. 102).
In fact, the best predictor for healthy outcomes for youth is supportive relationships with
adults like teachers (Henderson & Milstein, 2003; Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2009). Respectful,
caring relationships provide support, bolster resiliency, prevent misbehavior, reinforce
students’ self-worth, encourage students to take necessary academic risks, enhance the
academic experience, and build lifelong commitments to learning and citizenship (Davis,
2003; Doyle, 2009; Gregory & Cornell, 2009; Henderson & Milstein, 2003; Payne, 2008;
Zuckerman, 2007).
Therefore, relationships are vital, and vigilance in accepting all of our students as valu-
able humans is essential; students must feel that we respect them as people, are concerned
about their needs, and understand their perspectives. Earlier chapters (3, 4, and 9) focused
on the basics of forging relationships; this chapter focuses on strategies for maintaining
those relationships by treating students with dignity and respect. I suggest that you make it
a rule for yourself: Treat all students with dignity and respect.

Caring relationships are

based on mutual respect.

Thinkstock
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 249

By fostering respect and dignity, we offer hope. Make your classroom a refuge
where students receive the same consideration as would respected adults, through
The secret in education lies in
both the environment you create and the ways you elect to respond to students’
respecting the student.
behavior. Here are eleven tips to help you do so by establishing a respectful climate
'
and by responding respectfully to behavior.
als ee

Establishing a Climate of Dignity and Respect

You want students to know that every person in your classroom is important. Show students
that you know and value their perspectives (Wormeli, 2001). Learn about the things they
care about and remember to see the world from the eyes of someone their age. Use a warm
and respectful voice (Kohn, 1999). In all you do, maintain an environment that exemplifies
respect for self and others.

1. Celebrate and suffer Demonstrate respect for your students’ thoughts and experi-
ences by sharing their successes and their slips. When students express emotions, especially
sadness or despair, it is tempting for teachers to rush in, quickly analyze the situation,
tell students how they should be feeling, fix things, and move on. You need not provide
explanations or analyses for every event that causes emotion for your students (Schneider,
1997). A quiet, sad smile, a thumbs-up, or a round of applause may be a terrific way to show
students that you understand their positions. The use of such empathic resonance can help
your students feel less alone and that you respect their experiences (Kottler & Kottler, 2007).

2. Active listening You can show that you value students’ words and ideas by practic-
ing active listening (Gordon, 1974). In active listening, the teacher summarizes or reflects
the speaker’s message. For instance, a teacher may begin his reply to a frustrated student,
“You seem to be saying that this homework was hard for you.” A question stem such as
“Are you saying that... ?” can also help to ensure clear communication. Active listening
shows students that you value their ideas enough to be certain that you understand them
correctly. It allows you to demonstrate that you believe communication involves two
parties, each deserving to be heard. Gootman (2001) gives six tips for caring listening:
1. Show interest. Show interest and pay attention when students speak. Hold your body
still and give your full attention.
2. Hear them out. Wait until students are finished speaking before saying anything.
3. Separate your feelings from their feelings. Respond to the issue, not the emotion.
4. Look for nonverbal cues. Body language can help you find the true meaning of the
message.
5. Put student feelings into words. Try to interpret the message and emotions by
rephrasing what you think you have heard.
6. Don’t argue with students’ feelings. Accept students’ rights to feel as they do rather
than suggesting that they should feel different emotions.

Gootman’s tips can be equally effective for helping students listen to their peers.

3. Peer listening Silent but accepted norms teach students that they need to listen raptly
to the teacher but not so carefully to each other. Students need to be encouraged to listen
to each other. In a typical scenario, the class chatters over Ray as he shares his ideas. The
teacher implores, “Stop, Ray, I can’t hear you.” When the class quiets down, the teacher
repeats Ray’s words: “Ray was saying . . .” In this scenario, the teacher is the traffic
cop who controls the conversation. Let’s rewrite the scenario so that it encourages more
respectful and caring interactions: The class chatters, but this time the teacher suggests,
“Ray, let’s wait just a second. Some of your peers can’t hear you yet and I know they’re
interested.” The class quiets down, and the teacher urges: “Ray, why don’t you repeat the
last thing you said now that you have all ears on you.” Now the teacher sends the message
that she expects students to listen to each other. She doesn’t repeat Ray’s words but directly
encourages students to listen to each other.
250 CHAPTER 10

4. Model and teach Ray’s scenario also highlights the importance of directly teaching
g to show
students to treat others with dignity. Take advantage of the power of modelin
feel like. When modeling is insuffici ent, draw
learners what fairness and dignity look and
quietly
students’ attention to respectful treatment. If they treat someone disrespectfully,
they have done and help them find
and calmly point out the natural consequences of what
more dignified alternatives. For example, when students use harsh words to tease, tell them
firmly that harsh words can hurt and are not allowed in your classroom. Then give them
some acceptable alternatives to teasing.

Responding to Behavior
How you choose to respond to inappropriate behavior can teach lessons that last a lifetime.
As you shape students’ behavior, Curwin and Mendler (2001) advise you to protect stu-
dents’ dignity by thinking about your own: How would you respond if a teacher used this
strategy with you? Your words carry tremendous power . . . to humiliate or help. Be certain
that you redirect inappropriate behavior without embarrassing learners.

5. Address the behavior When you praise or provide correction, address students’
actions and not their character. Focus on what they do, not who they are. For instance, when
your Class has listened attentively to a guest speaker, it is more effective to praise specific
behaviors (“You all watched and listened with such respect!) than to address students’
value as people (“You are so good!”). When you need to correct misbehavior, do not apply
words such as lazy, thoughtless, or bad to the students. Instead, provide feedback on what
students did that was wrong: “You talked while the guest speaker was talking” instead of
“You are so rude!” Say “You left the room a mess” instead of “You are so messy!” Then
give the natural consequences attached to their behavior. When you address behavior and
not character, you send the message that students are worthy people, even when they err.
Teach them to do the same for each other.

6. Private correction In the instances when most of the class is fine but one student
needs redirection, make it a point to speak with her in private. While the others work,
approach the student’s desk for a calm conversation about her behavior. If you can continue
providing adequate supervision, you may elect to hold your conversation in the hall or out-
side the door. This approach allows the rest of the class to continue without interruption and
saves the student from public humiliation. Private communications also lessen the chance
that students will respond defensively to your correction to save face.

7. Hints When some or all of the class needs redirection, it’s typical in middle-class
culture to start with the lowest level of intervention possible: the hint. You calmly remind
students what they should be doing (“Calculators should be put away now. Everyone is
finding page 83.”). Often no greater intervention is required, and you have shown students
that you trust them to follow directions with only a gentle reminder (Zuckerman, 2007).
Recall that some cultures are more accustomed to explicit redirections than to hints. You
may need to teach “hints” as a strategy.

8.l-messages Gordon (1974) suggests that students are often unaware of the effects of
their actions on others. Teachers can use /-statements to state their emotions without anger
or blame and without belittling the student. An /-statement has three parts:
1. Statement of the problem (“When people sharpen their pencils while I talk . . .”)
2. Specific effect of the problem (‘. . . other students cannot hear me, . . ie)
3. Statement of the teacher’s feelings (“. . . and I am frustfated to have to stop and wait.’’)

Once a teacher uses an /-statement, the teacher and students can work on the problem
together. /-statements express respect by encouraging students to pay attention
to their
effects on others, allow the teacher to state emotions without humiliating, and
convey the
teacher’s trust that students can address a problem.
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 251

9. Strength refreshers When students are corrected by their teachers, they may lose
perspective that a single mistake is just that: a single mistake. You can reaffirm your faith
in students’ basic goodness by starting your correction with a strength refresher (Schneider,
1997). Remind the student of how he typically behaves and point out that this mistake was
atypical for him. For instance, when you discover that Roger spit water during a passing
period, you pull him aside for a conversation: “Roger, I was surprised to hear that you
spit. You usually do a super job of helping us make sure that our school is a safe and clean
place.” Because you demonstrate your faith in Roger’s usual behavior, he will probably feel
less guarded about explaining the incident to you and more eager to correct his behavior.

10. Laughter Despite your supportive atmosphere and respectful interactions, there are
times when students will manage to push your buttons. Some students seem to live to geta
reaction. If you are able to retain your sense of humor, you can use laughter to diffuse tense
situations and maintain dignity—the students’ and your own (Kottler, 2002).
When using humor to address behavior, be certain not to direct your humor at students
(Frymier, Wanzer, & Wojtaszczyk, 2008). Humor is highly individual, and it is cultural.
At least until you have a thorough understanding of your students and a cohesive group
spirit, use jokes that are directed at yourself or at situations outside the students. The point
is to respond playfully to situations that might otherwise erupt into power struggles or other
unproductive interactions.

11. Apologies Finally, when despite your best attempts you offend a student’s dignity,
apologize. You may occasionally speak before you think and hurt feelings. Consider using
acalm, apologetic message: “That did not sound at all as I had intended. I apologize if I hurt
your feelings. Next time I will choose my words more carefully.” You will not lessen your
authority by admitting a mistake. You will probably, in fact, gain authority by displaying
your willingness to disclose and correct an error: You are fair. You model the humility
that you hope students will also display. You demonstrate how humans (teachers!) make a
mistake, learn from it, and go on.

Prevention, Not Reaction

Some misbehavior occurs because it is human nature to press the limits, to test the predict-
ability of our environments. However, much classroom misbehavior can be prevented.
When teachers emphasize proactive, preventive discipline, students’ engagement rates are
higher and teacher stress levels are lower (Clunies-Ross, Little, & Kienhuis, 2008; Osher
et al., 2010; Sutton et al., 2009). Five strategies can help you prevent much misbehavior:

1. Meaningful curriculum and high engagement

2. Motivation and development
3. Anticipation
4. Positive approach
5. Strong presence and nonverbal communication

1. Meaningful Curriculum and High Engagement

When students are engaged in relevant and interesting learning experiences, they are often too
busy to misbehave (Miller & Hall, 2009; Stichter et al. 2009). Good news! Student engage-
ment is in your hands. To engage students, you need to maximize learning time, vary your
instructional strategies, demand active participation, and help students find meaning in their
work. Ask yourself: Do students see the purpose in the content? How well does school capture
issues seen as vital to the students? Is the lesson structured to require every student to engage?
Check your curriculum to ensure that the content is appropriate and that you are using
rich instruction that accommodates students’ diverse needs. Although some topics may
not spark immediate student enthusiasm, if you remember to COME IN (Chapter 6), you
252 CHAPTER 10

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

BRIDGING THE STUDENTS’ WoRLDS grades, but sometimes they don’t find out what they would
AND THE SCHOOL’s WoRLD really like to know. What do you still not know about that
war?” An in-class discussion can serve the same purpose:
Actively pursue strategies that help you “Let’s make a list of the things we wish we knew . . .”
incorporate students’ worlds into your Incorporate students’ interests in sports, music, and
classroom and help them see the importance of what school other aspects of culture into the topics you select and the
has to offer. methods you use to study them. For example, students may
« Listen to the issues students discuss and incorporate
analyze lyrics of rap music for examples of poetic devices.
them into your instruction. Some educators suggest that * Begin every lesson with an opener. Openers pique students’
students’ issues should be placed firmly at the center curiosity and connect their interests and knowledge with the
of the curriculum through thematic planning. Or, more content of the lesson. A mathematics lesson on exponents
immediately, a teacher might overhear his students might start with a great video clip (http://micro.magnet.fsu
.edu/primer/java/scienceopticsu/powersof10/), for instance.
discussing an impending threat of a pandemic flu. He plans
* State the purpose of your lessons. Tell students how this
science lessons that address the history, procedures, and
information or skill will be useful, Or, have them tell you.
sociopolitical and ethical issues pertaining to vaccination.
“You'll need this for the test” or “. . . for next year” tend
° Use a student survey before you plan a unit to find out what
not to be convincing reasons for many students.
students would like to know about the topic. A survey may
begin, “Students study the American Revolution in many

increase the chances of engaging students and thus forestall misbehavior. Remember to
employ every-student-responds techniques (Figure 6.6). Also try watching a recording of
yourself teaching. Is your instruction as engaging as you had hoped? If not, think about
when you as a student misbehaved. The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip shows you
how to prevent misbehavior by bridging worlds.

2. Motivation and Development

Study your specific learners and then align your expectations to their physical and emo-
tional development. For instance, kindergartners should be expected to sit for only about
10 minutes before the activity changes. Despite the fact that high school students can sit for
hour-long periods, as a general rule, it is useful to allow students of all ages to spend about
2 minutes actively processing information for every 10 minutes they spend listening. That
means after you provide 10 minutes of information, they need a chance to discuss it. Try
some of the “tell each other” strategies (Figure 6.6) to help students process information.
Also match your activities and expectations to factors such as the time of day and year.
It is human to be sleepy after lunch and antsy before the last bell rings. Primary teachers
are especially good at using games such as Simon Says or Copy My Clap Pattern to refocus
students’ attention. Secondary teachers can provide high-interest activities when students’
energy or attention may be likely to wane. Changing physical location or position gives
students a break and allows them to refocus (recall the strategies for including physical
movement, page 135—Chapter 6).
You can also prevent misbehavior and encourage learning by attending to motivation
theory. Research suggests that many elements that affect student motivation, shown in
Figure 10.2, can be directly influenced by the teacher (Turner, Meyer, Midgley, & Patrick,
2003). If a student gives up upon viewing a whole sheet of tedious grammar exercises,
the
teacher may rip the sheet in half to affect the student’s perception of effort and probability
of success. Another teacher works hard to return students’ essays shortly after they submit
them. He knows immediate feedback can increase motivation.
When students lack the enthusiasm to stay focused, try tweaking one of the factors of
motivation from this figure. For example, try supporting student motivation by using
vivid
lessons and creating suspense (Wormeli, 2001). Although motivation to learn is ultimately
in the hands of the students, there are many ways you can tweak your own behavior
to affect
students’ motivation.
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior
253

Factors of motivation.

Needs and interests. Motivation increases when physical, psychological, and social needs are
met. Examples
ess feelings of safety from physical and psychological harm and students’ perceptions that
they are treated
airly.
Level of concern. Motivation is optimized when there is some tension about completing a task but
not enough
to provoke acute anxiety.
Perception of required effort. Motivation increases when individuals perceive that the amount of effort required
to complete a task is reasonable.
Probability of success. Motivation increases when individuals perceive that there is a good chance they will
succeed.
Knowledge of results. Motivation increases when individuals have specific, immediate information about the
result of their efforts.

3. Anticipation
You can prevent misbehavior, too, by anticipating and thus avoiding trouble spots. You
know that your students are a curious bunch, so if you leave a bowl of mealworms for your
science lesson on the front table while you attempt to teach a social studies lesson, you
invite misbehavior. By placing the mealworms out of sight, you help students focus their
attention on the lesson at hand. Similarly, if you have passed out pointy compasses for your
third-period geometry lesson, collect the compasses as students move into the next phase of
the lesson. Removing distractions is a sure bet for preventing misbehavior.
Anticipation is key for preventing individual students from escalating in their misbe-
haviors as well. If you’ ve spent time in classrooms, you can probably conjure an image of a
student who displayed a minor misbehavior that quickly became something larger and more
troublesome. Often deescalating explosive behaviors involves stopping behaviors before
they start. For instance, teachers should know the triggers for particular misbehaviors, pay
attention to students’ apparent anxiety levels, and teach academic survival skills (Shukla-
Mehta & Albin, 2003). Teachers can anticipate difficulties by refusing to engage and by
intervening early. It’s a matter of planning. See Figure 10.3 for some other trouble spots
that can be avoided with careful planning.

_ Anticipating and avoiding trouble.

Students are more likely to misbehave when...

1, ... they think you can’t see them. So...

¢ When you stand and talk with an individual, keep your back to the wall and position yourself where you can
see the class.
¢ Write on an overhead projector or use a document camera rather than the board, especially if you are left-handed.
° Make occasional eye contact with the students farthest from you as you work with individuals.
_.. they are allowed to disengage without clear expectations. So...
* Teach your directions through direct instruction.
¢ Plan your transitions between lessons. Think through each aspect of the transition. Make your directions very
clear, and minimize the time spent switching activities.
¢ Have all your materials ready to go. Lay them out at different stations for quick distribution and collection, as
appropriate.
* Prepare a student to take over if you need to speak with an adult or have another interruption during class.
Practice the routine.
254 CHAPTER 10

e. You
Your ability to anticipate common trouble spots will improve with experienc
toward setting
can begin by planning instruction and your room environment with an eye
in the beginning
students up for success. Teachers with low rates of misbehavior spend time
of the year explicitly teaching appropriate procedures and behavior. Charney (2002) spends
and
the first six weeks of the school year teaching students to monitor their own behavior
use the items in the room safely through her own version of the three Rs:
* Reinforcing: Commenting on the positive behaviors students demonstrate (“I notice
that you are solving that problem together.”).
* Reminding: Asking students to state the expectations for behavior (“Remind me,
where do we put the calculators when we are finished?”).
* Redirecting: Pointing students toward more appropriate behavior (“Rulers are for
measuring.’).

You will also use your knowledge of your particular students to anticipate possible
misbehaviors. Once you learn that your students go off task quickly during transition times,
for instance, plan an appropriate response. When you have a few quiet minutes at home,
rehearse your calm, productive responses to those behaviors: What will you do and say the
next time students chat during a transition time? Having a response ready often helps to
forestall problems. If you have a student who particularly struggles with substitute teachers,
work with him to create a plan for your anticipated absence to attend a conference tomorrow.

4. Positive Approach
We all prefer to be in happy places; people do better when they feel better (Marshall, 2005).
Figure 10.4 shares some strategies that can help to establish a positive learning environment—
and thus prevent misbehavior—from the first day you meet your students.
Because classrooms are crowded and hurried, it is very easy to focus on those students
determined to derail our lessons. However, when we emphasize misbehavior, we contribute
to a negative tone and provide attention for the wrong bunch of behaviors. Instead of criti-
cizing the students who are facing the wrong way during your read-aloud, glance around
the group. You will probably notice that more than half are listening raptly. Concentrate
on those students. Smile warmly and say, “More than half of you are eagerly listening! I
really appreciate that!” Then wait and praise as the other class members give their attention.
Remember, though, that false praise is probably worse than no praise at all; keep your praise
genuine. Keep in mind, too, that students’ reactions to public praise can vary by age level and
by individual. Use the Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip to employ praise students prefer.

Establishing a positive environment

from day one.

. Learn students’ names immediately (yes, during the first day). \t is an immediate way to show your respect
for them as people. Take 10 quick minutes to go up and down the rows or through the tables, repeating
students’ names as you memorize them. All who learn at least three new names are winners.
. Convey your high expectations and enthusiasm for teaching and learning right away. Examples include
enthusiastic messages about being glad for your time together, stories about you as a person to help show
that you expect to connect with students as people, and previews of the exciting things students will learn
and do in your class. Help students begin to get to know each other.
Teach your classroom rules or have students develop them in a community. Keep the number brief
and
state the rules in positive terms.
. Provide for learning and for student choice on the first day. Ask students what they want to learn
about
certain subjects, either through private journal entries or via a class chart. Teach at least
one real lesson on
your first day and prime your students to share what they learned when they go home that night.
. Immediately establish routines and effective management to prevent misbehavior. Teach
students your
procedures and rules regarding pencil sharpening, leaving their seats, using the restroom,
submitting
finished work, and other routines right away.
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior
255

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

Pick Your Praise PLatrorm students. Students’ reactions to teacher praise can vary from
highly negative to highly positive (Brophy, 1981). Ask
Blanket, generic praise is rarely helpful
students to record on a card or survey how they like to receive
and can manipulate or mislead. When
their praise: Privately or publicly. Keep those preferences at
given, performance praise needs to be
specific and name the performance’s admirable attributes. It hand as you comment on student performance.
also needs to be delivered in a manner that is appreciated by

In public and private, praise good behavior specifically and in a way that stresses
logical consequences: “Thanks for cleaning up, Friends! Now we have lots more time left
for other things!” That way you reinforce the notion that students’ motivation to behave
is not simply to please you, it is to keep the environment productive and enjoyable for all.

5. Strong Presence and Nonverbal Communication

Many efforts to discipline are communicated not through teachers’ words but through their
strong presence, or bearing. Teachers with strong presence carry themselves with confidence
and appear capable and relaxed. Importantly for high school teachers, big teacher presence
has nothing to do with physical size; it’s not to be confused with the intimidation potential that
comes with mass or height. Instead, teacher presence is a set of messages you send to students
that you care about them, feel confident in your own abilities, are aware of their actions, and
can be trusted to help them make good choices. To communicate a strong teacher presence,
dress in a manner that conveys respect for your students and yourself. Stand up straight.
Relax. Uncross your arms and keep your hands loosely at your sides. Use eye contact and
facial expressions to support your verbal messages. (Remember, though, that your direct gaze
may not be returned by students who do not share your cultural norms for conveying respect.)
You'll use nonverbal communication on the move, too, to prevent misbehavior.
Without saying a word, Fred Jones (2000) suggests, you can travel purposefully throughout
the room, sending the message that you mean business through your direct gaze and relaxed
bearing, and by moving your body (turning it, moving it closer to students, and staying long
enough to convey your message and ensure compliance, and then moving away).
Indeed, effective classroom managers consistently prevent misbehavior by placing
themselves where the action is, monitoring carefully, and using eye contact to direct student
behavior (Miller & Hall, 2009). Be careful, too, your nonverbal communication sends
respectful messages. Payne (2008) notes that high school students who felt disrespected by
teachers referred not to verbal aggression but to nonverbal messages that they perceived as
discourteous. The following three strategies might expand your communications repertoire:

* Gestures. Like a symphony conductor, use your gestures to make requests for behavior.
Pointing is rude, but you can lower both hands, palms down, to indicate a need for lower
volume. A hand in front of you, palm forward, can support your message to Angela that
she stop talking, as can a quiet shake of your head. Nod when she quiets down. Practice
in the mirror to develop “the look” that redirects behavior without a word.
* Physical proximity. Some teachers are stuck like glue to the front of the room—but
not you. Move throughout the room so that your physical presence is felt by all.
Teach in different parts of the room. When you see two students begin to wander
off task, move physically closer to them but continue teaching. Often your presence
alone will bring them back to attention. If not, try tapping a single finger on their
desks. Only when these efforts fail do you need to send a verbal message.
© Withitness. An effective teacher knows what is happening in every area of the
classroom. Kounin’s (1977) term withitness describes the childhood conclusion that
teachers have eyes on the backs of their heads: Teachers need to be aware of all their
students’ actions all of the time. Position yourself so that you can see all students and
256 CHAPTER 10

monitor carefully. For instance, position your equipment such as a document camera
or projection panel so that you can face the group rather than turning your back on them.
In sum, you have tremendous power to set students up for success by thinking proac-
tively about discipline. Through careful planning, you can stop many unproductive behav-
iors before they start.

A Systems Approach

Maintaining a productive learning environment and helping students develop self-control

requires you to think about your classroom as a system. In a system, elements exist not in
isolation but in interaction with each other and serve a purpose together; systems develop
patterns of behavior and respond in characteristic ways to outside forces (Guillaume, 1991;
Meadows, 2008). Using systems thinking allows us to look for causal connections and
changes over time in the face of complexity. Figure 10.5 gives habits of a systems thinker.

Habits of a systems thinker.

Seeks lo understand fhe Otserves how elements Recsenizes that a system's

Dig pike
with n syetams Grange suche gore ales ibs

&.
Over lime ganeraling behawor
patterns and trends
a

ihentilies the cicatar Changes perapectives to

nature of complox caveo Habits ofa increase uncerstanding
and affect sAlicashps.
%
Systems

Surfaces and tests

ateumpions and resists the urge lo
ns
COME 10 2 QUICR
conclusion

Considers how menial Uses understancing of 5 ‘Considers both shor and

models atact cactant | system stricture te idantiny long-leem consaquerces
reall possilée leverage: alias of echoes.
(é

i
Finds where unineadec
A“ ¥ Recoguzes theimpact of ‘y* Checks results and
SGSEQUSNCES Emerge time delays when explcring Changes actons if
Cause and effact needed “sy crassiva
relatives! ips approxima jon”

SOTA, 6 aks -cmmiitead, Hy wheties ? Baking & Actus

Source: Reprinted with permission-Waters Foundation, Waters

Foundation (2007) . Habits of a systems thinker. Systems
Schools. Retrieved from http://www. watersfoundation.org/ind Thinking in
ex.cfm?fuseaction=search. habits
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 257

HELPING YOUR STUDENTS BECOME SYSTEMS THINKERS

Yours 21*-century students will need systems thinking skills to face many of the societal and environmental issues
ahead.
Systems thinkers work to see the big picture, look for change over time, change perspectives to understand, think about
consequences—including unintended ones, and use habits of inquiry to understand the world (Waters Foundation, 2007).
Get some background on systems thinking at Facing the Future (http://w ww.facingthefuture.org/GloballssuesResources/
GloballssueResources/SystemsThinking/tabid/25 1/Detault.aspx#Elementary_School_Resources) and Systems Thinking in
Schools (http://www. watersfoundation.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=materials.main).
* Many graphic organizers help students learn to analyze systems, look for interconnections, and think about change over
time. Search for terms such as “Behavior Over Time Graphs,” “Stock/Flow Maps,” and “Causal Loop Diagrams.”

In approaching classroom discipline using systems thinking, we consider issues in

context. We think about students in relation to other classroom elements and larger systems.
To positively affect student behavior, we identify relevant variables, think about causal
links, assess feedback in the system, and use an inquiry frame of mind to ask “What might
bappenity e?
A prevalent systems approach for responding to misbehavior is functional behavior
analysis or functional behavior assessment. Widely used for persistent or disruptive mis-
behavior, this approach allows teachers to take a nonpunitive approach to helping students
improve their behavior. In behavior analysis, we view a negative behavior as serving some
useful function or purpose for the student. By analyzing the behavior, we can develop a
more specific and thus appropriate plan for changing it.
The Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip includes an overall approach employed
in behavior analysis (based on Danforth & Smith, 2005; Jackson & Panyan, 2002; Ryan,
Halsey, & Matthews, 2003). Comprehensive resources can be found on the Internet by
searching “functional behavior analysis” and “functional behavior assessment.” Behavioral
analysis is effective with many students, but not necessarily all. Hall and Hall (2003) point
out that oppositional students may not be receptive to behaviorist approaches to change their
actions. Always consider your specific students when you consider a discipline strategy.
Systems thinking also requires you to respond quickly and on different levels to dif-
ferent numbers of issues. Your ability to integrate these different demands for maintaining
classroom discipline will increase with experience, especially if you remain vigilant about
growth. For now, you can begin to address behavior in multifaceted ways by thinking about
(1) group size, (2) overlapping, (3) intensity of response, (4) motivation for misbehavior,
and (5) redirecting behavior.

Group Size
Although you will work with individuals daily, much of your time will be spent in work-
ing with large groups. Students behave differently in groups than they do as individuals,

Inclusive and Responsive Teaching Tip

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 5. What have others tried that has worked to change
the behavior?
1. What is the problem behavior? 6. What will you try?

2. When does it occur? 7. (Later) Did your plan work?

3. What happens right before and after
- the behavior?
4. How does the student benefit from this behavior?
(Does it help the student avoid something? Gain
something else?)
258 CHAPTER 10

fears of
and each group tends to develop its own personality. Also, despite the public’s
out of turn
sensational classroom misbehavior the most common misbehaviors are talking
and general off-task behavior such as bugging other students (Clunies -Ross et al., 2008;
meye
Jones, 2000).
focus.
For these reasons, you need to develop strategies that will maintain the group's
technique s for managing group behaviors . Note that
Figure 10.6 suggests some common
the tips are not punitive. Instead, they focus on positive, clear communic ation of expecta-
your
tions, careful monitoring, and specific feedback. Pick the tips that are consistent with
own convictions and with what you know about your students.

Overlapping
In a systems approach, you will also need to handle more than one issue at a time. To maxi-
mize the time your class spends on learning, you need to overlap your tasks. In overlapping,
you address discipline issues while you continue to teach. For instance, as you respond to
a student’s content question, you can also move closer to two others who are embroiled
in a pencil fight. While listening to a student read, you can also glance around the rest of
the room to ensure that all are on task. You may need to give a “teacher look” and a shake

Tips for maintaining group focus.

1. Use a signal to gain students’ attention. Don’t talk while they talk.
Make a clear request: “Attention up here, please. Let’s come back together.”
Follow through: “I'll Know you’re ready when your eyes are on me and your pencils are down.” Or: “Thanks
Miguel, | see you’re ready. ... Thanks Pat.”
“Clap once if you can hear me. Clap twice. Clap once... .”
Just wait.
Raise a hand and teach students that when they see your raised hand, they need to stop talking and raise
their own hand. Follow through.
Flash the classroom lights off then on.
Use a noise signal, such as a squeaker toy.
Lead a clapping pattern; students who are listening join in until all are with you.
Hold up a stopwatch and click to measure how many seconds it takes.
Try “Give me five” (Wong, 1998). When you say, “Give me five,” students go through five steps: eyes on
you, be quiet, be still, empty their hands, and listen.
2. Monitor carefully—especially the back and side edges of the room—and provide feedback on students’ behavior.
Use hints to maintain on-task behavior: “Your group should be on the second job by now.”
Allow for self-monitoring: “Check your noise level. Are you using quiet voices?”
Play soothing music quietly: “If you can’t hear the music, your group needs to quiet down.”
Use a sound monitoring device that beeps when the noise reaches a certain level.
. Provide feedback on students’ behavior as a group.
e Use verbal statements: “Groups Two and Three, you’re working especially well right now. Thanks.”
Or:
“We are able to accomplish so much when you work this well together. Way to go!”
¢ Use table points or class points that add up to time on a desired activity or other reward
such as a frozen
juice bar or a popcorn party. (Check school policy on food.)
e Use your stopwatch to award extra seconds for a desired activity when students minimize
wasted time.
. Be fair to individuals when you deal with the larger group. Use strategies that don’t penalize
all students
for the behavior of a few. Conversely, if everyone is talking, do not single out one or
two students for
consequences. If students perceive you as unfair, your expert and referent power
erode.
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 259

of the head to a student who begins to fold paper airplanes while you work with another
group. Through overlapping, you can prevent misbehavior by providing meaningful learn-
Ing activities, nonverbal communication, and proximity control all at once.

Intensity of Response
Your responses to student behavior will vary by level of intensity. Canter (1976) recom-
mends that teachers use assertive requests and that teachers match the response’s level of
intensity to the seriousness of students’ behavior. You may start with a hint: “Everyone
should be working now.” If students need more support than is provided by your hint, you
can use one of these increasingly intense responses:
1. Question about behavior: “What should you be doing right now?” Follow up: “Do
you need help in getting started?”
2. Statement of direction using student’s name: “Ivy, put away the magazine.”
3. Use of eye contact and serious facial expression to match the tone and message:
“Ivy, put away the magazine” while you look at her, your eyebrows raised.
4. Use of a gesture in addition to eye contact, serious facial expression, and assertive
message: “Ivy, put away the magazine” as you look intently at her and gesture
closing the magazine.

When student misbehavior is severely disruptive, more intense responses are appro-
priate. Many teachers arrange for a “time-out buddy,” a fellow respected teacher who can
provide a place for students to cool down if they need to be removed from the classroom. If
you use time-outs, be certain to send the message that the time-out is a chance to cool down,
not to suffer humiliation. Also be certain that you have a system to ensure that students
arrive swiftly at the time-out room and that they return promptly. Remember that you have
a legal responsibility to provide adequate supervision for every student, so be certain that
students are supervised even when removed from the group. Also remember that time away
from the group decreases a student’s opportunity to learn.
There may be a time when students’ misbehavior may take the form of physical fight-
ing. Immediate and considered actions will be necessary. A plan for addressing student
fights is suggested in the Teacher Tip (Fields, 2004; Moriarty, 2009).

ADDRESSING STUDENT FIGHTS

. Right now—Check policies: What are your legal responsibilities?

. Next—Create a plan: What will you do? What are your resources?
. If a confrontation breaks out:

¢ Try diffusing it with humor or by redirecting the students’ emotions. Use verbal
interactions to minimize the problem if possible (e.g., suggest that together you solve
the problem another way. Increase students’ personal space to help them regain
emotional control. Ask “dumb” questions (those to which you might know the answer)
to get students talking; but don’t ask “why.”
Identify yourself as a teacher and, at some point, in a low-key fashion, get the names
of the students.
Give a loud, clear verbal command. Make it specific: “Sit here!”
Make a decision: Is it safe to intervene?
If it isn’t safe: Get help while still protecting students.
If it is safe: Intervene without becoming an aggressor. Try wrapping around from
behind. Never, though, restrain a student who wants to run. Some sources say teachers
should never physically intervene, in part to protect their own physical safety. This is
especially the case if you are not trained. Again, check local policies.
Afterward, carefully document the confrontation.
260 CHAPTER 10

the classroom
Another approach that varies level of intervention, this time beyond
e and respon-
level, is response to intervention. Introduced in Chapter 4 as an inclusiv
onal purposes , response to interven tion is also ged
sive teaching strategy for instructi
, as shown in Figure 4.4. The principle is the same:
for supporting appropriate behavior
tion based on assessed level of need, and their
Students receive support and interven
adjust intervent ions. For behavior , the lowest level of
progress is carefully monitored to
1—is sufficien t for most students to make appro-
intervention—the classroom level, Tier
environm ent, expectat ions, and consequ ences are
priate behavior choices. The classroom
sufficient to support their behavior. For a smaller percenta ge of students, regular ae
and schoolwide expectations and supports are insufficient; these targeted Tier 2 students
interventions include a higher level of intervention that might include social skill groups,
counseling, or mentoring. If Tier 2 interventions are insufficient, very small numbers of
students may require even more individualized support through Tier 3 interventions such
as a behavior improvement plan. In terms of discipline, response to intervention is often
used in conjunction with positive behavior support strategies (Sandomierski, Kincaid, &
Algozzine, 2007).

Motivation for Misbehavior

A student’s persistent misbehavior usually has a cause; when you and the student can
identify the cause, you can work together on more acceptable alternatives, thus preventing
recurrence and fostering self-control.
Dreikurs, Grunwald, and Pepper (1982) identify four mistaken goals that students
pursue. Figure 10.7 describes each of these four goals and suggests reactions that can
help you signal the identity of those goals. Dreikurs and colleagues suggest that after you
identify the student’s goal, you disclose it to the student through questions such as “Could
it be that you would like more attention?” Your first impulse to respond to each of these
mistaken goals (as suggested in the third column in Figure 10.7) is probably the wrong one.
More productive alternatives are given in the fourth column. The key is to respond in a calm
and thoughtful manner that helps the student identify his mistaken goal and choose more
acceptable avenues for recognition.
An appealing alternative to the Golden Rule, the Platinum Rule, can be of use as you
help students move beyond their mistaken goals. The Platinum Rule admonishes us to treat
others the way they would like to be treated. If, for instance, students need attention, then
we can see to it that they receive attention, albeit for positive decisions they make. If stu-
dents crave power, we can shape our classrooms to ensure that they have some meaningful
control over what they do at school.

Short-Term and Long-Term Redirection

To work toward your overarching goal of student self-control, you will need to enlist strate-
gies that address discipline issues in short- and long-term time spans. Short-term solutions
focus on preventing misbehavior or stopping undesirable behavior and replacing it with
less harmful alternatives. Short-term solutions are the tools you use immediately and from
which you expect quick results. Long-term solutions keep in mind the larger system and
broader view of your hopes for students. Long-term tools take longer to implement, and
results may build incrementally over time. You will no doubt need to use more than one
kind of each strategy to fully address discipline issues, and you will no doubt need to alter
your approach as you examine its consequences and effectiveness.
Your fifth-grade student Melanie provides an example. She rarely completes her
work during class and has not yet submitted a homework assignment. She shrugs when
you lecture her on responsibility and the importance of practice. Frustrated by her appar-
ent indifference, you are determined to help. You begin with a problem-solving confer-
ence (e.g., Charney, 2002) to assess Melanie’s perspective and interests and to
invite her
cooperation on working together. You devise a plan, taking the notes shown in Figure
10.8.
Notice that your plan includes a multifaceted approach to help Melanie succeed:
You will
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior

Identifying and responding to mistaken goals.

Goal Description What It Looks Like How You Might Respond

Aitention seeking In attempting to The teacher's first ¢ Persistently ignore
gain recognition and reaction is to yell. misbehavior.
acceptance, students The student stops the e Hold a personal
behave in socially misbehavior when conference to
inappropriate ways. corrected but starts determine how many
again soon. times the student will
be allowed to exhibit
the misbehavior.
Monitor and provide
feedback based on
the conference.
Provide attention for
positive actions.
Power seeking a Students revert to The teacher's first e Refuse to engage in
unacceptable means— reaction is to feel a struggle, perhaps
outwardly refusing their challenged. The by instead offering a
teachers’ requests—to student’s reaction is sympathetic response.
gain a sense of power. defiance. e Remove the student
or the audience from
the situation.
e Find authentic ways
to allow the student to
exercise power.

Revenge seeking 1 Students who feel The teacher's first e Change the student’s
that they have been reaction Is to feel relationship with the
wronged seek to get hurt or defeated. The teacher and peers.
even. student is abusive or ¢ Foster respect.
complains of unfair ¢ Help student gain
treatment. social skills.
Refuse to retaliate;
use matter-of-fact
messages about the
behavior.

Display of Students who feel The teacher's first Never give up on the
inadequacy incompetent resist help reaction is frustration student.
so that they can avoid to the point of giving Keep risks low and
even trying. up. The student does celebrate small
nothing. SUCCESSES.
ele

modify your curriculum, check with other specialists, include Melanie’s family as part of
the education team, and restructure your classroom interactions to encourage Melanie’s
success. In addition to these long-range approaches, also notice that the plan uses short-
term strategies: an extrinsic reinforcer (art time as a reward for Melanie’s time on task).
Although you may be opposed in general to using extrinsic reinforcers, you decide that
Melanie needs some immediate success and that the rewards can be dropped later as her
successes begin to snowball.
By working on the apathy issue in many ways—with tools you can use tomorrow and
tools that will be implemented over the year—you increase the probability of success. You
may find that certain aspects of your plan are more effective than others as you work with
Melanie, and thus you will drop the least effective tools.
262 CHAPTER 10

Devising a plan with short- and long-term strategies for redirecting student behavior.

Short-Term Suggestions Long-Term Ideas

V Conference with Melanie te determine the cause for her vot

completing work (ala Dreiurs). individual projects that tap inte herinteres. Use rnead-
| Call her father and get his perspective. clouds that inspired her last year (e.g., Baudelaire books).
V Develop a contract with rewards that she finds appealing
(at or science time).

| Start homework sheet where the writes her assignments each

Use her parents put about Melanie's out-of-school

| Check cumulative record folder tadetermine i Melanie has expense (2.g., ugly) te build connections in the classroom.

\ Gind a software program that uses. reading through science

(her interest).

The point is to address discipline issues along several dimensions: prevention and
response, curriculum and management, group and individual focus, and cause and immedi-
ate redirection. It may sound overwhelming, but you will likely find that a few tools can
serve many purposes for different learners.
Novice teachers tend to have similar struggles in establishing discipline. Therefore,
Figure 10.9 restates a number of the chapter’s tools that may be helpful in boosting you over
some of the hurdles new teachers typically face as they establish and maintain a positive

Discipline boosts for new teachers.

Direct—>Check—Feedback
e Use clear, positive language to direct students’ behavior.
¢ Check to see whether students comply. Wait and watch.
* Give specific feedback on students’ efforts to comply.
e Redirect as necessary.

Keep It Positive
¢ Focus on what students do well. |

* Focus on students when they deserve attention for making good choices. |
* Be genuine and specific in your praise.
° Be fair. Smile. Laugh.

Make Your Presence Felt

¢ Move around the room to teach and monitor.
* Move closer to students who are beginning to stray.
* Monitor students carefully and subtly let them know that you are aware of their actions.
¢ Carry yourself with confidence.

Avoid Overreliance on Rewards and Punishments

° Point systems, card systems, token economies, and marble jars can all support a positive
classroom |
environment, but be certain that you—not the marble jar, not the principal—are
the authority in your classroom.
* Focus on logical consequences and self-control.
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 263

learning environment. You may wish to review Figure 10.9 during tough days, especially
those when your principal or supervisor sits in.

Your Own Classroom Discipline Plan

Your classroom management and discipline program needs to be coherent, consistent, posi-
tive, and proactive (Miller & Hall, 2009). This chapter offers a number of tools that may
be useful for you in fostering student self-control. Other books, Web sites, and experienced
teachers will also propose a number of appealing tips. However, you’re the boss of you.
Your own discipline plan is based on your philosophy, personality, and preferences in addi-
tion to the research. That plan needs to consider your particular students and their families
and reflect your genuine appreciation for your students as individuals.
Figure 10.10 provides a planning sheet for your discipline plan. You can begin by once
again perusing your stance toward education regarding questions such as, who do I hope my
students will be as adults? What should their character be? Then jot down characteristics of
your students—the range of their background experiences and their age and developmental
levels are examples of characteristics that may be relevant.
Next, consider your own needs, likes, and dislikes (Charles, 1992). Draw from each
of these responses to develop your own rules for establishing and maintaining classroom
discipline (see Figure 10.11). Remember that “rules” are not the rules that govern the stu-
dents; rather they are the rules that govern you: What are the principles by which you will
select your actions when it comes to encouraging discipline? For example, two rules this
chapter suggested are: Treat students with dignity and respect and prevent misbehavior.
Then, flesh out your plan by listing tools—specific strategies—that can help you bring each
of your rules to life.
Expect your list of tools to grow with your experience. You will receive many disci-
pline suggestions and tools. Before incorporating any tool into your discipline plan, how-
ever, be certain that the tool is consistent with the rules that guide your efforts to discipline.
If you cannot apply the tool to a rule, the tip is probably not consistent with your stance
on discipline. Stick with the tools that are in concert with what you believe to be good for
students. Expect, too, that you will pursue feedback and reflect regularly on your plan. Does
it overemphasize compliance? Rewards and punishments? Does it preserve human dignity?
Also consider your other team members. Your plan needs to respond to the cultural,
developmental, linguistic, and personal qualities of your students. Families are experts on
their children; no one knows them better. How can you appropriately tap into families’
knowledge in order to learn about students and to support their growth? How will you work
effectively with parents as team members to support student development? Which special-
ists can provide assistance? What support can you expect from your site administrators and
fellow teachers? Capitalize early on the contributions each of these parties can make to the
well-being of your class; do not wait until students misbehave to devise a support system.
Finally, try out your discipline program. Revise the aspects that are inhumane, ineffective,
or unwieldy. The Teaching Tip shares the management and discipline lessons learned by
Brittany Even as she completed her first year of classroom teaching.

REMEMBER THE LAW

1. Teachers are prohibited from
¢ humiliating students.
* physically punishing students, except under strict guidelines for corporal punishment
(where allowed).
* using academic penalties for behavioral offenses.
2. Students have rights to due process.
ats
Refresher from Figure 1.2.
 My personal discipline program.

This | believe . . . (List major points from your stance toward education. )

My students . . . (List characteristics of your specific students or of students in general.)

| need*...

TINGE so 3

IcIsikes en:

*Avoid statements about static student characteristics here.

My Rules and Some Tools

(Not classroom rules, but principles that guide my approach to discipline.)

My Rule:

Some Tools:

Establishing an environment

Preventing misbehavior

Responding to benavior

My Rule:

Some Tools:

Establishing an environment

Preventing misbehavior

Responding to behavior

My Rule:

Some Tools:

Establishing an environment

Preventing misbehavior

Responding to behavior

My plan for involving families and other team members to help students develop self-control
[
264
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior
265

Formalize your own set of rules . . .

1. Prevent misbehavior
‘ ee 2. Build student responsibility
ye 3. Be fair and consistent 1. Be prepared
2. Make expectations
clear
3. Follow through
4. Follow through
5. Follow through
1. Establish and use classroom
community
2. Emphasize meaning & classroom
community
3. Involve parents as active
participants

| wonder
what #6 is?

Se
es
Se
Se
Aaa

esa

Teaching Tip
Nw TEACHER TO TEACHER: BRITTANY’S ADVICE
FOR MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

Building a good relationship with the students really

motivated them... and me.
Set up your classroom community on Day 1. If you do that,
and every student has some responsibility, your job becomes
a lot easier.
Be organized and let the students in on the organization process.
Always follow through with what you say or have written.
I found that students were more successful when I let them
experience first and then offer my guidance.
Write down everything! I found myself creating a new list
of everything I need to change for next year.

Brittany Even
 266 CHAPTER 10

Parting Words
Many, many teachers succeed at establishing fair and pro- Teachers who are
ductive classrooms, and you can, too. Think about one of self-confident about Ei your horse dies, dismount.

these pieces of advice if you feel disheartened about the student discipline —U.S. Cavalry Manual
challenge of helping your students develop self-discipline: tend to respond to from World War I
problematic behavior
¢ A bad day is often followed by a good one. in ways that are more
* Classroom discipline is said to be a series of little
positive and more consistent with the teachers’ overall
victories. You and your students build good disci-
approach, their stance. Teachers who believe they can make
pline over time, one interaction at a time. One mis-
a difference in students’ behavior and handle discipline
take does not mean you have lost them forever. ... do (Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer, 2004).
situations
¢ Remember that much of what happens in your class-
room is under your control. When students misbehave
as a group, ask yourself, “What can / do to provide
a better environment, help them build skills for self-
control, or prevent misbehavior?” Do something.
¢ If your system does not work, change it.

ba
1. Start with the students. Try one or both of these strategies e. What evidence do you see that the teacher understands
a to build a discipline plan that is responsive to your learners: and is responsive to students’ perspectives?
a. Determine students’ preferences for how teachers f. What else do you notice about the teacher’s discipline
should discipline, perhaps through a questionnaire or system?
an informal interview with questions such as, “What do
4. Pick any tool from this chapter. Try it out, either in your
good teachers do?” “What advice do you have for new classroom or elsewhere when the occasion arises. How did it
teachers?”
feel to you as a teacher? To the other party? Remember that
b. Culture makes a difference too. Spend some time there are always effects—usually both intended and unintended.
learning about your actual students’ experiences and What effects did this tool have in this circumstance?
about general patterns for their cultural or ethnic groups. Arrange for a friend to mock interview you for a teaching
Two sources to get you started are Banks (1997) and position, focusing on your approach to discipline. Use your
Grant (1995). The Internet can also provide information. discipline plan (Figure 10.10) as support for the points
Use the cultural group’s name as a search term.
you make. Your friend could devise difficult scenarios for
2. Because authentic authority affects classroom discipline, you to respond to as part of the interview. (Caution: This
make a plan to build bridges to your students. Make a exercise is harder than it sounds.)
list of some ideas that can help you connect with your Develop a one-page handout of your discipline program
students. Share the list with an experienced colleague to that you can share with students, families your master
double-check that your strategies are appropriate and, while teacher, and other interested parties. You may wish to
friendly, maintain your professional standing. Get your begin with a credo, or statement of beliefs. (Note: This
students’ opinions, too.
one-page handout and artifacts such as notes home and
3. Observe an experienced teacher in action. photographs of students productively engaged are highly
appropriate entries for your professional portfolio.) Invite
a. How does the room environment encourage
input, especially from students’ families. Try an e-version
positive behavior?
like a Wordle (www.wordle.net) or a Glogster (http://edu
b. How does the curriculum prevent misbehavior? -glogster.com/) if you like.
c. List some strategies the teacher uses to provide Choose and respond to one of these critical incidents. Use
feedback to students on their behavior, noting which the rules and tools in this chapter or your own to describe
messages are positive, neutral, or negative. the problem and suggest a plan.
d. List some strategies the teacher uses to allow students a. Josh, a ninth-grader, walks into fifth period 2 minutes
to monitor and correct their own behavior. late. His arms are full of books, papers, and notebooks
 Classroom Discipline: Encouraging Appropriate Behavior 267

all awaiting a chance to spill to the ground. He gives she says I copied her.’ “Teacher, she took Dylan’s
the teacher a sheepish smile and announces, “Sorry I’m eraser and then put it back when she saw me.’ I need
late. My backpack broke at lunch.” On the way to his this tattling to stop!”
seat, he trips on Brittney’s desk. The class bursts out in
c. Joseph is a new fifth-grade teacher. He is feeling
laughter. Josh’s face turns red, and he alone stoops to
successful about how his students are treating each
gather his spilled belongings.
other, but their constant talking is wearing him down.
b. Susana, a first-grade teacher, drags into the lounge When he tells them to quiet down, they do, but within
at lunch. “What is it, Susana?” asks Brent, a fellow three minutes the noise level is back to being too
teacher. Susana replies: “I am fed up with my students’ high. He feels like he is nagging with his constant
constant tattling: ‘Teacher, he looked at me.’ ‘Teacher, reminders.

vy ‘Web Sites
http://www.behavioradvisor.com Check the online library for links to resources
Dr. Mac’s Amazing Behavior Management Advice Site. This and implementation examples.
site has many positive, useful ideas for a range of issues. http://www.teachervision.com/lesson-plans/lesson-2943.html
http://www.gentleteaching.corm/ Teacher Vision. “How to Manage Disruptive Behavior in
Gentle Teaching International. Gentle teaching is an Inclusive Classrooms” provides ten questions and answers
approach to human interactions that focuses on the values for analyzing behavior in inclusive classrooms. Click on
of helping individuals feel safe, valued, and engaged. “Classroom Management” for behavior management tips.
http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/resources.html http://www.disciplinehelp.com/teacher/
Behavior: IRIS Center (Ideas and Research for Inclusive The “You Can Handle Them All” site gives discipline tips,
Settings). Includes activities, information, and modules for including suggestions for addressing 117 misbehaviors
fostering positive behavior for students in inclusive settings. related to the categories of attention, power, revenge, and
See materials related to other topics (such as Diversity self-confidence. Recommend the site to families as well.
and Management) as well. Also search terms such as “classroom discipline blog,
2 6
positive
http://www.pbis.org classroom discipline,” and “discipline plans.”
Positive Behavior Interventions and Support. Rich resources
for families and teachers of students at all ages.
Growing in Your
Profession

Before You Begin Reading

DIGITAL TIMELINES
= %2ftl%2fcreate
Create your timeline on the Web using Timeline (http://www.xtimeline.com/login.aspx ?returnurl
(http://www .teach-nolo gy.com/
aspx). It’s free but sign in is required. Or use the timeline generator at teAchnology
web_tools/materials/timeline/).

Adeunt etiam optima: The best is yet to be.

Obtaining a teaching credential is a very early—and happy!—stage in your professional development. Good
teachers never finish growing. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards’ core propositions
on teaching (2002) state that accomplished teachers reflect on their practice to continuously improve. They
work effectively with families, communities, and other professionals to shape student success and the world
of education. You have already begun your professional journey; it is your job, starting today and for the rest
of your career, to continue that journey by reflecting critically on your work, growing in your competence,
and engaging deeply as a member of the educational community. Through its three sections, this chapter
encourages you to stretch professionally by
¢ Engaging in the professional community
¢ Using professional ethics as your guide
¢ Providing some advice from the heart
 Growing in Your Profession 269

-. Engaging in the Professional Community

Your students’ success depends in part on your willingness and ability to engage with
others in sharing, implementing, and refining professional knowledge. In addition to
interacting with students, you will be deeply involved in the life of your school through
activities such as student data review, committee work, and curriculum development.
Three aspects of engagement you may think about right now include becoming an effec-
tive staff member, growing from feedback on your teaching, and pursuing professional
development.

Becoming an Effective Staff Member

Success in your job as a teacher extends far beyond your classroom door. From the first
day you step on campus, you will want to demonstrate your willingness and ability to
listen, learn, and function well as a staff member. Get to know each of the many staff
members and volunteers who spend their days at school. Talk with the janitor and office
personnel. Find the specialists. Smile and say hello to the family members on site. Learn
about your administrators’ priorities. Each of these people contributes to school life and
learning.
Your colleagues will probably welcome you with plenty of informal support.
Many experienced peers at your site will likely offer assistance to the new teacher The brighter you are, the more you
on the block. They may advise you as you stand near the photocopy machine or tear have to learn.
off butcher paper for your bulletin boards. Some may even offer more intense help —Don Herold
in topics such as arranging your room, working with discipline chalienges, getting to eS
know the site, or planning your curriculum.
Some of your less experienced colleagues will also serve as a source of support
because of the benefits that can be derived from being new together. The Teaching Tip
gives some suggestions from Brittany Even as she completed her first year in the classroom
(you met Brittany in Chapter 10). Her words are encouraging because, despite the fact that
they allude to the challenges of teaching (teaching looks easy . . . from the outside!), they
also communicate that there are many actions you can take to build your own success.
I particularly appreciate Tip Number 9: Take risks. Take a chance. Figure 11.1 depicts the
impressive ocean mural that Brittany’s students created. She reports that she wasn’t sure
if she was up to the challenge but that it turned out to be the most memorable learning
experience of the year.
When on-site experienced colleagues give advice or offer to help, your response can be
essential to your growth as a professional and for your easy adjustment to the school culture.
Experienced teachers emphatically state that the fastest way for a novice to be shunned by
a school staff is to act as if she knows it all and has nothing to learn. As you respond to

TEACHER TO TEACHER: BRITTANY’S ADVICE FOR THE EARLY DAys

. Be prepared for anything.

. Be open to the criticism from your fellow colleagues.
. Be ready to communicate with parents and do not take things personally.
_ Find a teacher at the new school to help you get accustomed to the expectations and routines.
. If you don’t know .. . ask.
. Vent to a safe person when you have a bad day.
. Do not dwell on mistakes, just move forward and learn from them.
_ Don’t let your bad day affect your teaching. That only takes away from students’ learning
experience.
. Take risks. Take a chance.
. Finally, have a goal and a plan for the future.
270 CHAPTER 11

Take a risk! Brittany’s class’s ocean mural.

risk... and reaped

The students integrated research skills, science, writing, and art to create with 30-foot-long mural. They took a
the rewards. (approximately 9 ft X 30 ft).
Britany Even

well-meaning attempts to help, remember that you bring the enthusiasm of a “new kid,”
no matter your age. You may be finishing an intense teacher preparation program, so you
may not feel that you need every piece of advice that comes your way. Nevertheless, be
gracious. You have the gift of enthusiasm; others bring the gift of experience. Find the gem
of usefulness—even if it is merely the willingness to help—that each person brings to you.
Offer your own advice sparingly. Establish from your first day on site that you are eager to
learn and that you respect the wisdom of experienced teachers and staff. Listen.
Conversely, you may find yourself in a lonely situation with no offers of help. In this
case, be the first to shake a hand, smile, and say hello. Introduce yourself and make it clear
that you are thrilled about being part of the team. Find another inexperienced friend or a
teacher at the same grade level or in the same subject area who is willing to talk shop. Join
networks for support that are not site-based.
It can be tempting to join in lounge conversations as a way to establish yourself as
a member of the group. Sometimes lounge talk, unfortunately, degenerates into negative
conversations about students, family members, or school personnel. It will be impor-
tant for you to avoid such conversations for a number of reasons. Poisonous people can
sap your energy and deflect your focus from where it should be. Also, it is unkind and
of questionable ethics to speak ill of others. It reflects poorly on you as a professional.
Additionally, complaining can serve to make you feel like a victim rather than like the
competent professional you are (Kottler, 2002).
When negative conversations come up, you may try changing the subject, or as,
Kottler recommends, focusing on one or two positive qualities of your students or others.
Six out of ten teachers recently surveyed reported being “very satisfied” with teaching
as a career (MetLife, 2010). These highly satisfied teachers have stronger beliefs in their
students and are more confident in their ability to help students succeed. Go sit by them
in the lounge. Keep company with teachers who maintain a positive outlook; they will
feed your soul.
In addition to informal opportunities to integrate into the school staff, you will also
engage in a shared journey with your colleagues in support of student learning. Whereas in
days past, teachers often experienced their profession as an isolating one, teachers today are
 Growing in Your Profession 271

less likely to report a sense of isolation because they work as members of many overlappi
ng
teams. Chances are you will be working in teams such as:
* Grade-level teams or department teams for curricular planning
* Professional learning communities to review student assessment data and adjust
instruction
* Student study teams or student intervention teams to assist students in succeeding in
behavior and academic work
* Committees to plan school events or adopt curricula, resources, or materials
* School site council for program and budget review
* School intervention team for response to intervention implementation
* Individualized education program teams that plan and review annual progress for
each student with an IEP or other plan
These teams will be comprised of a variety of personnel such as family members, peers,
administrators, subject matter coaches (e.g., literacy and mathematics), psychologists,
therapists, aides, specialists, and community members. With each member holding varied
expertise and perspectives, maximizing teams’ effectiveness will require you to stretch your
people skills and strive to be an effective team member. What does it mean to be an effec-
tive team member? I reviewed guiding documents in education (such as the NBPTS core
convictions, state teaching standards, and 21st Century Teaching and Learning Skills) and
ideas in fields such as industry and sports to develop a list of the characteristics that appear
to be widely accepted as qualities of effective team members. Effective team members are
goal directed, open, flexible, competent, and committed to learning. Figure 11.2 presents
these qualities more fully.

Growing from Feedback on Your Teaching

In many states, new teachers receive assistance and feedback on their teaching through
formally assigned mentors, or support providers, often through induction programs that
provide comprehensive support systems. In 2007, thirty-three states had induction programs

Qualities of effective team members.

To Be an Effective Team Member:

1. Commit to the team. Get to know the other team members as people and as professionals, and work on
improving relationships within the team. Build trust among members over time.
2. Commit to shared goals. Ensure that the team’s goals are clear and shared by all members. Keep goals
the focus of the team’s work, and be sure to welcome change toward those goals. Check progress toward
the goals frequently.
3. Respect other team members. Begin with an appreciation that perspectives will necessarily be diverse;
hold the mindset that diversity brings strength. Realize the limits of your own knowledge and experience.
See members for their strengths and value their contributions openly.
4. Be open and flexible. Be receptive to new ideas in general and to the ideas of other team members. Be
ready to compromise and to shift your thinking for the good of the group’s goal. Be flexible in assuming
different roles; lead or follow as the context and task at hand demand.
5. Contribute. Be action oriented. Be ready to take on a task to work toward the goal. Encourage others to do
4.
so too. Be dependable.
6. Communicate. Listen. Communicate openly but respectfully. Use a variety of modes of communication
and communicate for different purposes and in different contexts. Conflict is normal; help your team build
strategies to address it productively.
solving,
7. Be competent and be a learner. Use a variety of thinking skills to accomplish the goals: problem
systems thinking, and decision making. Know your stuff. Do your homework. Reflect on your
reasoning,
knowledge and performance and work on continual improvement.
8. Be positive. Share a sense of optimism and enthusiasm. Support other teammates.
are CHAPTER 11

(perhaps formal
(Kaufman, 2007). Mentors or support providers often conduct observations
assistanc e, and help
or informal, but separate from the personnel evaluation process), offer
"
shape professional development activities based on the needs of new teachers.
e who is
New teachers report very clearly that the support of a trusted colleagu
success.
officially assigned to help out is a key factor in the new teachers’ satisfaction and
Further, states such as California are finding that teachers stay in the profession at higher
rates when induction programs are in place (Reed, Rueben, & Barbour, 2006) and students
g and
can experience higher achievement (Sawchuk, 2010). Find out what types of mentorin
induction support are offered in your state and district and determine the extent to which
you can provide input into the selection of your mentor.
In addition to informal assistance and observations, you will receive structured
feedback on your teaching. Some feedback on your teaching will be formal, based on an
administrator’s or other official’s evaluation of your teaching. In formal instances, struc-
tured observation sessions often begin with a brief preobservation conference at which you
may be given the opportunity to direct the observation. The observer may ask what you
would like her to focus on. Have an answer ready. If no immediate need comes to mind,
consider using one of the principles of instruction: COME IN (you could even provide
Figure 6.8 with elements of your choice circled). After the lesson, you will probably have
a postobservation conference. The observer may begin by asking for your analysis of the
lesson. Be frank and specific in assessing the strengths and weaknesses of your teaching.
Then brace yourself for the evidence or advice from the observer.
It can be difficult to accept criticism about something so close to your heart as your
teaching. The worst thing to do when you receive suggestions is to take a defensive pos-
ture and state immediately why those suggestions do not apply to you or will not work.
The observer knows something about teaching or he could not be in the position to offer
advice in this format. One of the best things to do when you receive advice (even if you
hate it) is to smile, establish eye contact, and say thank you. Then you can add something
sincere to show that you understand the point of the suggestions. Honest examples, in
order of decreasing enthusiasm, include the following:

¢ “Thanks. Those are great ideas! No wonder they pay you the big bucks!”
¢ “Thanks. That just might work! I will try it tomorrow.”
¢ “Thanks. You have given me lots of things to think about!”
¢ “Thanks. I appreciate your ideas. I will need to think about some ways to make them
work for my situation.”
¢ “Thanks. Tell me more about how I could make that suggestion work in my room.”
Your postobservation conference will probably be helpful and positive. However, if
you have limped through a painful postobservation session, you can go home and nurse
your wounded pride. Probably in just a few hours (or days) you will find some kernel of
wisdom or helpfulness in the words that stung initially. The point is not to be false in your
reaction to criticism but to realize that every teacher has room to grow and that once you can
get over a possible negative initial reaction, you can appreciate a fresh insight into teaching.
Sometimes advice on your teaching may not be offered, even though you eagerly ask
for it. For instance, you may have a formal lesson observation for which the evaluator
gives nonspecific feedback: “Wonderful lesson! Great job!” Be ready with some pointed
questions that require the sharing of evidence collected by the observer. For instance, you
could ask the observer whether your instruction engaged all of the students, or whether
the observer noted any evidence that students were mastering the content. (Again, provide
Figure 6.8 or your credo of education. Ask the evaluator to gather relevant evidence.)
You may at times need assistance of a more dire nature. For example, you may have
a student who is particularly troubled or you may be struggling to meet the
needs of a
specific group of students. Being a classroom teacher means being part of a team,
so be
certain that you ask for help. Talk with your principal, mentor, or supervisor about
your
needs, stating them in a professional, clear way at the appropriate place and
time. Do not
place blame or suggest that you are not responsible for difficult situations (“I
was given the
roughest class!”). Your aim is to help your students learn, and you are exactly
the person
 Growing in Your Profession 273

who is responsible for them. Have alternatives ready if you are faced with unfair or dif-
ficult practices or procedures. Be assertive and positive, with an effort to serve as part of
the solution, not part of the problem. Get your needs met without sacrificing others’ rights
or dignity. Use /-statements (presented in Chapter 10). Convey your sense of self-trust that
you have the ability to make a difference and your sense of eagerness to learn. Finally,
remember that learning to teach is a developmental affair. The kinds of concerns you have,
the sophistication of your thinking and your strategies, and the realm of your influence will
almost certainly shift as you grow with experience.

Pursuing Professional Development

According to Wiggins and McTighe (2006), we teachers grow when we find personal
meaning in our work, when we reflect, and when we question ourselves within a support-
ive environment. Many teachers find that informal and formal opportunities to talk about
teaching in its daily context contribute invaluably to their growth. Formal opportunities
to pursue professional learning also propel teacher learning. Your school and district will
require professional development; you should also be proactive about pursuing profes-
sional development that meets your own personal and professional goals (Shanklin, 2009).
The Responsive and Inclusive Teaching Tip gives some advice for setting future inclusive
teaching goals.
As you select professional development experiences, a number of criteria are important.
First, select experiences that are likely to have the greatest effect on both you and your students.
This sort of development tends to:
* Focus on student learning
¢ Focus on building your knowledge of the content and how to teach it
¢ Include hands-on, active learning that can transform your teaching
¢ Occur in a collaborative context that links standards, curriculum and assessment
¢ Be sustained over time (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009).
Second, focus on the experiences that best meet your long-term goals (check your
work at the beginning of the chapter). Here are some professional development options
that might fit those goals.

Attending Workshops Workshops have the benefit of requiring a relatively low time
and financial investment, and you can target workshops that meet your specific interests.
Unless there is follow through, though, they may make little long-term difference in your
practice. To maximize a workshop’s benefits, try attending with a team, join a network on
the topic, or try peer observations as you implement some of the ideas.

Membership in Professional Organizations This text has shared many profes-

sional organizations, included subject-based organizations (such as National Council
of Teachers of English) and ones with other foci (such as the National Association for

Responsive and Inclusive Teaching Tip

ConrTINUING THE Pursuit oF RESPONSIVE 2. Learn about our students. Pursuit of students’ worlds
AND INCLUSIVE TEACHING through activities like home visits helps us understand
their perspectives and realities.
Nieto (2009) urges us to continue to 3. Develop allies. Making friends who share our hopes and
strive—and thrive—as inclusive and concerns allows us to face the uncertainties of teaching
responsive teachers by taking three action steps for profes- and provides a collaborative setting that fuels growth.
sional development:

1. Learn about ourselves. Professional learning is fueled by

continuous reassessment of who we are.
274 CHAPTER 11

Multicultural Education). Joining professional organizations gives you a voice 1n the

it
profession beyond the local level, it provides you with opportunities to network, and
provides rich professional resources. To make the most of your membershi p, you may
want to get actively involved with the organization’s conferences and local efforts.
Joining the organization’s state or regional chapter is a strong mechanism for sustained
involvement.

Observations and Travel We teachers learn so much by watching each other in action.
Try joining a Lesson Study or action research group or complete informal observations of
peers at your site. Traveling a bit farther down the road (e.g., to another site or district) or
engaging in more distant educational trips (such as study trips to other countries) can offer
the benefits of increasing your cultural competence. To maximize learning from observa-
tions and travel, be sure to have a clear focus in mind (What are you looking for? What do
you hope to learn?) and schedule time to talk with the “natives” about the meaning behind
what you observe.

Advanced Certification and Study Pursuing advanced credentials, certificates,

or degrees opens your options in the profession and often leads to advancement on the
pay scale. Examples include adding National Boards Certification, a master’s degree,
or a specialized credential. To choose an appropriate program, look first at your goals:
Where are your passions? Are you excited about technology? Staff development? Also
check labor force predictions. For instance, with a looming shortage of up to a million
teachers—with math and science positions being the hardest to fill (Gonzales, 2010)—
many elementary level teachers are pursuing additional secondary level certification in
mathematics and science.
Online education is an increasingly popular choice. About one-quarter of students
enrolled in higher education were taking at least one online course in 2008 (Kern,
2010), and that population is predicted to continue to increase sharply. If you haven’t
taken an online course yet and are considering doing so, ask yourself how motivated
you are. Students who are most successful in online environments tend to be highly
self-motivated and organized. Many quizzes are available to help you determine the
likelihood that online learning is a good fit for you (See the 21st Century Teaching
and Learning Tip.) If you select an online option for a certificate or degree, ask these
questions:
1. Is the university accredited by a respected accrediting body?
2. What is the reputation not just of the university but of the program in your specific
field of interest? Is the program accredited?
3. If it’s important to you, is there an on-site location? (Some students prefer hybrid
instruction of face-to-face and online.)
4. What is the quality of the faculty, and are they trained in online instruction? (Kern,
1010).

E-Development The 21st century provides new opportunities for teacher learning.
Whereas in previous centuries teaching was largely a private affair, new media
push
us to make it public through online professional communities and social networkin
g
(Lieberman & Marce, 2010). Online communities for teachers reduce isolation
(Hramiak,
2010) and provide opportunities for professional support, guidance, and inspiration

' Teaching and Learning Tip

ASSESS THE FIT

Use an online survey to determine whether online learning is for you. Search
“is online learning for me?”
 Growing in Your Profession 275

(Duncan-Howell, 2010). Teacher blogs can hold the benefits of allowing for group dialog
(Killeavy & Moloney, 2010), reflection on practice and knowledge transforma
tion (Sun,
2010). Teachers are also connecting online through microblogging (Twitter). One or
more of these e-networking tools may fit your interests and style. You might pick one you
haven’t tried yet and get started by:
* Following a blog for teachers. There are hundreds. Find one by searching “top
teacher blogs” or using a more specific search term (“art teacher blogs”).
* Writing your own blog. Use a free tool like Word Press (wordpress.com) or Blogger
(blogger.com).
* Subscribing to a Twitter community for education. Search “twitter for teachers.”
* Tweeting. Plenty of quick start tutorials are available online.
* Joining a social network for teachers. Classroom 2.0 is an example.

Using Professional Ethics as Your Guide

Ethics and morals are the often tacit rules that govern how people should treat each other.
According to Goodlad (1990), the entire enterprise of education is a moral one; the primary
purposes of schools, providing access to knowledge and enculturating the young, are moral
callings. Further, teachers are part of a system. When you enter this profession, you accept
its code of ethics (Soltis, 1986). You take on the obligation to act in the best interest of
your students, including commitments such as protecting them and taking responsibility to
help them learn. These are weighty responsibilities. Further, teaching is fraught with
tensions and dilemmas that require you to act as a moral agent (Buzzelli & Johnston,
2001; Kidder & Born, 1998-1999). Finally, you have entered a career in which The test of the morality ofa society
is what it does for its children.
professionals are typically held to a higher moral standard than the general public. In
each of your dealings, be certain that professional ethics inform your choices about —Dietrich Bonhoeffer
how to act and what to say.
Using professional ethics as your guide means that you must advocate for the
students and advocate for yourself. Advocating for the students means that you

1. Ensure students’ physical and emotional safety. Be certain that you carefully monitor
the students and make reasonable efforts to protect them from bodily and psychologi-
cal harm. Learn to recognize symptoms of stress and distress in students (Kottler &
Kottler, 2007).
2. Know students’ legal rights and your responsibilities. Protect students’ right to
privacy. Do not discuss them casually in the lounge.
3. Report suspected abuse. Your role is not to gather evidence to erase doubt. You are
legally bound to report suspected abuse. Do not rationalize to save yourself—or the
family—the pain and trouble.
4. Work to secure appropriate services if you suspect that students’ needs are going
unmet. Be certain that you watch both male and female students and students of
color to assess their potential for gifted programs and check for your own biases
when you recommend counseling or other services.
5. Build meaningful partnerships with families and others who are experts. Commit to
working as part of a team in the best interests of the students.
6. Begin with the attitude that you can serve as a positive influence on students’ lives.
If you do not know an answer, you can—and will—find one. Teachers with high
degrees of self-efficacy tend to be more effective than ones who do not believe they
can effect change.
7. Think about the long-term consequences of your actions, and consider your choices
from a variety of perspectives.
8. Being a professional is more than being an employee. Do everything you need to do
to help students learn.
9. Even if it feels like everyone else has, never give up.
276 CHAPTER 11

Advocating for yourself means that you

d
1. Know your responsibilities, rights, and benefits. Read your contract. Understan
how to obtain legal representation if you need it. .
2. Plan for your future. See the Teaching Tip for ensuring your own financial well-being.
3. Are careful about being alone with students and using physical contact. Check local
policies for the conditions under which it is acceptable to touch a student. Find out
what to do if a student touches you in a way that makes you uncomfortable.
4. Area model digital citizen. Make very cautious decisions about e-mail communications
and your participation in social media such as social networking sites. Assume that
nothing you post to the Web is private. Explore further aspects of digital citizenship at
digitalcitizenship.net.
5. Are a team player. Find the good in each staff member. Steer clear of those who
whine or complain; instead associate with these who view the profession with a
positive outlook.
6. Volunteer for a committee or two that benefits the school. Do not sign up for every
committee in your eagerness, though, because your students (and your personal life)
will be shortchanged. Say “yes” to the commitments that you can accomplish well.
7. Strike a balance in your life. Your family—and your students—will benefit from
_ your being well-rounded. See the Teaching Tip for some ideas for coping with stress.
8. Choose your battles. Not every insult to your sensibilities is worth a fight to the death.
9. Are on time. Stay as late as necessary to do a good job.
10. Eat something healthy once in awhile and get some sleep.
11. Have confidence in your ability to teach and to improve. Teachers who believe that
they can learn, grow, and make a difference . . . do.

FINANCIAL LITERACY FOR TEACHERS: TEACHER RETIREMENT PLANS

Dan Otter, who has taught students in elementary school (including my son), middle school, and college around the nation,
has been helping teachers and students become financially literate since the inception of his 403Bwise Web site a decade ago.
Here’s afinancial literacy primer from Dan.
Financial literacy is the ability to “use knowledge and skills to
manage one’s financial resources effectively for lifetime financial secu-
rity” (Jump$tart Coalition for Personal Financial Literacy, 2007). It is
a critical 21st-century skill not only for students, but also for teachers.
Understanding the workings of teacher retirement plans at the beginning
of one’s career can pay enormous benefits in the future.
Teachers typically have two types of retirement plans available to
them: a state-run pension plan, and a self-directed 403(b) supplemen-
tal retirement plan. Pension plans are also known as defined benefit
(DB) plans because the benefit paid out to the teacher in retirement is
“defined” by a formula that includes years of service and salary. For
information on the workings of your pension plan, including how to
make retirement payout projections, visit your pension’s Web site. If
an Internet search does not turn up the appropriate Web address, con-
sult your employer.
The 403(b) plan is also known as a defined contribution (DC) plan
because the benefit in retirement is “defined” by how much the indi-
vidual contributes to the plan. Although participation in a pension plan
is typically automatic upon employment with all investment decisions
made by the operators of the plan, a teacher must both choose to par-
ticipate in a 403(b) plan, and make all investment decisions. Wisely
choosing and allocating investments is no small task. For complete
information on the workings of the 403(b), including how to choose
and allocate investments, see the Web site www.403bwise.com. Dan Otter
 Growing in Your Profession 277

COPING WITH STRESS

When you feel stressed . . .
- Remind yourself aloud that you have the skills to handle this. You’ ve handled plenty
of stressful situations.
. Decide whether this issue is inside your circle of influence. If it isn’t, let it go. Confine
your worries to the things you can do something about.
. Choose your reaction. You can’t change what people do; you can only choose your own
response.
. Close your eyes and breathe. Three times. Deeply. In through your nose, out through your
mouth. Then roll your head forward, left then right.
. Listen to music that makes you happy.
- Go for a walk. Or do something else that totally changes your physical and mental location.
- Think long-term. How much will this matter in a year? In 10 years?
. Tell yourself what you have learned for next time.
. Laugh.

Some Advice from the Heart

You are entrusted with one of the greatest privileges I know: shaping young lives in the
classroom. My deepest hope for you is that you will approach each day in the classroom
with passion and with the burning desire to do one thing better than you did yesterday.
My final words of advice for you come from me as a world citizen who trusts you to Respect for the fragility of an
bring up the next generation as an informed, compassionate group, as a teacher who __ jndividual life is still the first mark
expects you to lead students to discover the power and beauty of knowledge, and as of the educated man.
a parent who speaks for others in believing that every day, when we release to your
—Norman Cousins
care our cherished children, you will provide a safe and loving atmosphere where
their minds and spirits will be uplifted. My final suggestions are these:

1. Listen to your students. Teaching is more than telling. When one of my sons was
very young, I needled his teacher at back-to-school night to hear some wonderful words
about my precious son (remember, parents are ego involved). Her comment? “I am sur-
prised he cannot cut.” That teacher, it turns out, said many helpful, positive things about
my child over the course of the school year. But at this early moment, I felt like I had been
punched in the stomach. My son’s teacher did not know that he sat on the couch at age 3
and sang “Nobody knows the troubles I’ve seen.” She did not know that he asked about
volcanoes on Mars. She knew he could not cut. She knew him in terms of what he could
not yet do, in terms of his deficits. Please think about your students as people. Believe in
them as knowers and learners. Listen to their stories. Entertain their questions. Even five-
year-olds have lived a lifetime before meeting you.
2. Be careful with the praise you give. When you compliment a student, be genuine
and specific. Your ultimate goal is not to shore students up with a steady stream of shallow
and false praise. You are not the ultimate authority. You probably do not want your students
to grow dependent on you—or anyone else—for judgments of their self-worth. Self-esteem
should be based instead on students’ own assessments of their work and abilities, on their
own ability to judge a job done well. Help them recognize good work. Teach them to value
themselves for who they are and what they can accomplish.
3. Do not waste people’s time. You may be new. You may be learning. No doubt you
will be better next year. But remember that this year is likely the only chance at tenth (or
second or any) grade that your students will ever have. I can promise that some days in the
classroom will feel like survival. If you begin to experience entire weeks during which you
are searching for activities to keep students occupied, you are wasting people’s time. Do
278 CHAPTER 11

need to do
not try to justify the educational benefits of a steady diet of word searches. You
better. Get some rest and start planning meaningfu l learning experience s.
4. Stay only as long as you are effective. Classroom teaching is not for everyone, and in
many cases it is not forever. It is difficult to teach. Even expert teachers have bad days... and
bad years. If you ever hate your job each morning, you need to change your life. You can change
what you do in your classroom. You can change grade levels or school assignments. You can
remain in education but leave the classroom. Or you can take your own set of skills and use
them in a different field. It is not a disgrace to leave teaching. You will do everyone a service if
you leave when it is time to go. There are many ways for each of us to contribute to the world.
5. Pull from inner resources. My personal experience with classroom teaching is that
it can bring tremendous emotional highs—watching a student learn can inspire awe—and

Quotes that have helped me learn about teaching.

(My apologies to those whose words I’ve misremembered over time.)

“Now that you have a child, you know how much | love you.”
—LuAnn Munns Berthel, my mother, who taught me in one sentence how deeply
one can love.

“They're only children.”

—attributed to Gordon Guillaume, my father-in-law, by Beverly Guillaume, his
wife. These words remind me that the job of a child, apparently, is sometimes
purely to annoy.

“If you are committed to improving, you probably will.”

—Cheryl Bloom, my master teacher, who taught me to keep working at
classroom discipline.

“Stop worrying so much about teachers’ questions, and start worrying about
students’ questions.”
—a rough paraphrase of five years with James T. Dillon, who taught me to listen.

“Interesting people do more than teach.”

—Carol Barnes, who taught me that well-educated people have a variety of
interests in their lives.

“Assume that people are doing the best they can.”

—Jodi Elmore, my student teacher, who reminds me that | should approach
people with the understanding that most of us just keep trying to do the best
we can using what we have.

“What you focus on will grow.”

—Ernie Mendes, who reminds me to see people in terms of their strengths rather
than in terms of their shortcomings.

Here’s a lighter set I've composed to capture my own foibles.

Murphy’s Laws for Teachers
1. Things take about two to three times longer than the time you have (or than
you expected).
2. The lesson right before (or right after) the one your supervisor (or principal)
observes is great.
3. Typos in memos to families are much easier to spot right after you send
the
papers home.
4. Someone will throw up before winter break.
 Growing in Your Profession 279

lows. There may be times when even those who love you the most cannot pick you up after
a tough day in the classroom. Instead, you will need to draw on your inner resources to
reconsider your motivations and refresh your resolve to have a better day tomorrow. One
of the devices I use when I need to encourage myself is a collection of quotes from people
in my life who have helped me learn about teaching. Some of the deposits in my quote
bank are shown in Figure 11.3. Try creating your own collection of quotes to provide some
advice when you are in need.
6. Look for the best. Each person you encounter has something to add to your
professional life. The students each offer their own funny idiosyncrasies and their
No bubble is so iridescent or
fresh, rough-and-tumble view of the world. Your staff members have been in your floats longer than that blown by the
place and have learned from it. Finally, you have something to contribute to the successful teacher.
world through your teaching. Look for the best you have to offer and nurture it. Good
—Sir William Osler
wishes to you.

1. Interview a trusted, respected colleague for some advice g. Explore a Web site that your students are excited
on professional development. Share your work from the about. Find out why they find it engaging. Discovering
chapter-opening exercise and ask for insights. what makes students happy (instant feedback?
Commit to one formal professional growth opportunity E-tokens?) can help you understand their needs and
right now: think about how to incorporate some of those things
into your teaching.
a. Subscribe to one professional journal.
3. Develop your own quotation collection.
b. Conduct research on an issue faced by one or more
4. How will you know whether you are improving in your
of your students.
teaching? Make a list of things you will accept as evidence
c. Attend a workshop. that you are sharpening your professional skills. Consider
d. Join a professional organization or network. using the self-analysis tool found in Figure 1.6 to reanalyze
your practice.
e. Take a field trip to another classroom on your site
(or beyond).
f. Write a reflection on your practice. Share it with your
students.

why Web Sites

http://www.ascd.org like these can help you locate quotations to enhance your
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. lessons and provide a professional boost.
Go to “Publications” for blogs and try “Research a Topic” http://www.nationjob.com/education
for current information on a number of important issues. A Nation Job Network. This is the Education Jobs page.
number of professional development courses are available http://www.pta.org
online. Some resources are for members only. The National Teacher Parent Association. Includes
http://www.bartleby.com/100/ information on issues, news, and resources.
Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations, 10th ed. Also try Creative
Quotations (http://www.creativequotations.com). Sites
Accommodations Changes to classroom resources, Behavior (portion of objective) That portion of the objective
instruction, or conditions that allow students to learn or to that specifies, in observable terms, what the student will be
show what they know despite specific areas of need such as able to do as a result of instruction. The expected student
physical or learning disabilities. Accommodations do not performance.
change the learning expectations to which students are held. Behavioral intervention plan (BIP) As mandated by IDEA,
Accountability The idea that educators and schools should students with behaviors that impede their learning or the
be held responsible for student mastery of the curriculum. learning of others—as a manifestation of their disability—
Achievement gaps Marked and sustained discrepancies in
must receive a functional behavioral analysis and plan to
address their behaviors in positive ways.
the academic progress (typically measured by standardized
tests) among the scores of certain subgroups of the student “Big idea” approach An approach to unit planning in
population. which the teacher begins with a focus on the major ideas
or generalizations related to the content and then selects
Action research Research conducted by practitioners to
activities designed to help students develop those big ideas.
explore problems or issues in their own contexts. Data
collection and analysis are less formal than in published Bilingual education programs Programs that teach the
research, and the focus is not on generalizability but on native language and target language as subject areas and
impact in the local setting. use both languages as modes of communication. They are
Active participation Strategies employed by the teacher
based on the conviction that students will learn content
during a lesson to ensure that every student overtly engages
more quickly and have additional linguistic skills if they are
in and responds to the lesson.
taught in their native language alongside the target language.
Use of the native language typically drops off as use of the
Adaptive testing Computer-based testing where the level
target language increases.
of difficulty adjusts to the examinees’ answers.
Blueprints Documents that specify the content represented
Adequate Yearly Progress A requirement of the
in a test and give information related to the format such as
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) that
the number of each type of selection-type and constructed-
stipulates that every school and every subgroup of the
response items.
school’s population must raise performance toward
proficiency by a certain percentage each year. Caretaker speech Talk that has the purpose of clear
communication. It focuses on immediate concerns rather
Analytical trait rubric An assessment tool that allows the
than abstract or distant ideas and is adjusted syntactically
reader to rate components of a performance separately,
to the current linguistic abilities of the listener. Caretaker
using criteria that are specific to each component.
speech is one way to provide comprehensible input for
Asperger’s syndrome A developmental disorder typified English learners.
by repetitive behaviors and impaired social interactions.
Classroom meeting A gathering in which all classroom
Assistive technology A wide range of built items participants have the opportunity to provide input to the
(noncomputer-based) and computer-based hardware agenda and the meeting itself. Classroom meetings can
and software that aid people with physical disabilities serve a number of purposes such as event planning, open
in functioning, learning, and communicating. discussion, and problem solving. The teacher facilitates,
Audience response systems A digital technology wherein but students play an active leadership role.
each audience member (student) has a remote control or
Concept map A graphic organizer that is hierarchically
other input device and uses it to vote on topics or answer organized, presenting a major concept or idea and revealing
questions from the teacher. Each response is tabulated, and
the connections among the concept and its subconcepts.
results are depicted as a projected image, often through a
Conditions (portion of objective) The portion of the
graph. Results can be stored and printed. Virtual systems
objective that specifies relevant aspects of the environment
allow students to provide input through their own handheld
devices such as smart phones or netbooks. such as the materials, time, or resorces that will be
available (or not) to students as they demonstrate mastery
Backward planning An approach to curricular planning of the objective.
that begins with the end product: the envisioned student
Constructed response An assessment item that requires
performance. With this clear vision of what students
students to compose an answer rather than selecting one.
should be able to do as a result of instruction, teachers
plan instructional events. Specifying performance through Content standards Statements of the subject matter
rubrics created with students is often a component of teachers are to teach and students are to master. Developed
backward planning. at different levels (national, state, and local), standards

280
 Glossary 281

describe outcomes that students should demonstrate in Document camera An image capture device that allows
given curricular areas throughout the grades. the operator to enlarge and project the image of a two-
Criteria (portion of objective) The portion of the objective dimensional object (such as a photograph or sheet of text)
that specifies how well a student is to perform. Criteria or a three-dimensional object for an audience.
provide the standard against which the student performance Dominant culture In a region, the group of people whose
will be assessed. Criteria are often stated in terms of speed, ways of thinking and behaving are predominant. Factors
accuracy, or quality. such as historical precedence, population size, and social
Criterion-referenced Assessments that compare students’ status influence which culture is dominant in an area at any
performance to an external standard rather than to the point in time.
performance of their peers. Emotional intelligence A person’s ability to understand his
Critical attributes Those characteristics that define an own emotions and the emotions of others and to use this
object, organism, or phenomenon. understanding in deciding how to act appropriately.
Curricular integration The combination of two or more English learners Students who are in the process of
traditional content areas in a manner that reveals the mastering English in addition to one or more other
connectedness of the subject matter. There are many languages, including the home language. Also deemed
approaches to curricular integration. English language learners.
Curriculum That which students are expected to learn at Error pattern analysis An approach to data analysis that
school and that which they actually learn there. examines students’ work to determine whether students are
making consistent mistakes and what misunderstandings
Curriculum compacting An instructional approach
those mistakes represent.
undertaken with the aim of teaching only the content
students have not previously mastered. The typical sequence Essential question A conceptual or overarching question
is as follows: identification of learning goals, assessment that fans curiosity and frames study throughout an
of student progress related to those goals, provision of instructional unit. It should be phrased to capture major,
instruction to meet nonmastered learning goals. enduring ideas related to the content.

Deductive strategies Instructional approaches that move Ethics Values related to human conduct in terms of what is
from general rules or principles to specific examples of right and wrong.
those principles. Teachers present content directly, and Explicit curriculum The content (knowledge, skills, and
students engage in a carefully sequenced set of activities attitudes) that schools set out to teach. It is often contained
to ensure mastery. in the adopted texts and other materials as well as in the
Democratic classrooms Classrooms where teacher and daily activities selected by teachers and schools.
students share power and responsibility more equally Fair use An aspect of U.S. copyright law that allows for
than is the case in traditional classrooms. Shared decision limited use of copyrighted materials without requiring
making through democratic processes is an emphasis. permission for use.
Differentiated instruction An approach to instruction Flexible groupings Patterns of organizing students into
that provides a range of resources and activities designed different groups for instruction. The size of the groupings
to meet students’ varying assessed needs and interests. can range from individuals to the entire class. Groupings
Differentiated tasks should be engaging and challenging are adjusted to address students’ current needs and the
and should allow students to work in a variety of goals and activities. Thus, rather than remaining in static
instructional formats. Instruction can be differentiated for groups, students in flexible groups are often regrouped
content so that students learn different things, process so based on ongoing assessment.
that they go about learning differently, or product so that Formative assessment Assessment of student learning that
they select among different ways to show their learning. yields results used to shape future instruction.
Digital divide Persistent gaps in access to digital Free appropriate public education A federal right of all
technologies among certain subgroups of the population. U.S. students including those with disabilities. This right
Digital natives Prensky’s (2001) term, used to refer to guarantees that each student’s education is paid for by the
individuals who have grown up with ubiquitous access public (not the student or family) and that the education is
to digital technologies. Their counterparts are digital suited to the needs of the student.
immigrants, who learn technologies later in life. Functional behavior analysis An approach to changing
Direct instruction A deductive approach to instruction students’ misbehavior by assessing its causes, planning
an intervention that addresses that cause, trying the
where the teacher states the major idea or skill early in the
lesson and then systematically and explicitly leads students intervention, and assessing its effect.
to mastery of the objective. Funds of knowledge The bodies of knowledge, social
Directed lesson A lesson in which the teacher maintains networks, and cultural resources found in students’ homes
careful control of the content, presents it explicitly to the and surrounding communities.
students, and allows them to practice during the lesson as General education General education classrooms are
they work toward and demonstrate mastery of the lesson’s those in which students with no identified special needs
objective. are placed. Smaller numbers of students receiving special
282 Glossary

services are also typically found within general education Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
classrooms, but general education teachers are not required Formerly P.L. 94-142, this law requires all states that
to hold special certification. Instead, they work as part receive federal education funds to provide individuals with
of a team with special educators to provide appropriate disabilities between the ages of 3 and 21 with a free and
instruction for students with identified needs. appropriate public education designed to meet the student’s
specific needs and prepare them for independence and
Gifted A student classified as gifted has been identified as
employment.
possessing demonstrated or potential high ability in specific
academic and other performance areas. Induction programs Programs designed to assist new
teachers through the induction, or early, years of teaching.
Gifted and Talented Education Programs designed to meet
the needs of students identified as academically gifted Inductive strategies Instructional approaches that begin
or otherwise talented. Such programs vary widely across with specific data and help students find a rule or pattern.
districts and states and offer services through a wide variety Discovery learning is an inductive strategy.
of structures such as self-contained classrooms, gifted Information and Communication Technology — Digital
clusters, and resource programs. technologies related to processes of how people
Grade Equivalent (GE) score A norm referenced score that communicate, generate, store, find, and use information.
gives the grade level and month (e.g. 7.1) of the typical Inquiry lesson An inductive lesson wherein students pursue
person who earned a given raw score. a question or problem by using scientific processes such as
Graphic organizers Visual presentations of information. observation, inference, and hypothesis testing to arrive at
The displays are organized to reveal important aspects of one or more answers.
or patterns in the information. Graphic organizers can be Instructional strategies Ways of arranging parts of a lesson
developed by teachers and students at any phase during the according to particular patterns of student and teacher
instructional cycle. behaviors to accomplish certain goals. Some examples
Handheld device A mobile, pocket-size computing device include inquiry, cooperative learning, and direct instruction.
such as a personal digital assistant or a smart phone. Interactional Phenomena wherein parties affect each other
High-stakes test A student or teacher assessment where the through reciprocal action.
consequences are perceived to be very important to one or Interactive whiteboard An electronic writing surface typically
more groups of stakeholders. For students, grade retention driven by a computer. It can capture and store the information
and graduation are examples of high-stakes decisions that recorded upon it, and it can be used to control (through touch)
can result from their test scores. computer-generated images displayed on the screen.
Highly qualified teachers As stipulated by the No Child Learning centers Stations designed for small groups of
Left Behind act, highly qualified teachers (a) have students to focus on particular content or activities. Students
demonstrated competence in each core subject area they may all rotate through a series of centers, or students may
teach, (b) hold at least a bachelor’s degree, and (c) are fully work at centers that meet their interests or targeted needs.
licensed by the state.
Learning styles A combination of factors that together
Holistic rubric An assessment tool that allows the reader to
indicate how a person perceives information, interacts
give an overall rating to a performance. Performances are
with it, and responds to the learning environment. Several
rated as being consistent with particular levels of overall
schemes can be used to describe students’ preferred
quality.
learning styles.
Home schooling The practice of educating students outside
Least restrictive environment Holds that students with
the school context, most notably within the home. Home
disabilities should be educated with their nondisabled peers
schooling became legal in all U.S. states in 1993 and is a
to the maximum extent possible and should have access to
growing trend.
the curriculum, activities, and programs available to non-
Implicit curriculum The lessons students learn without disabled students. The severity of a student’s disability
their teachers having consciously selected or taught determines the appropriate degree of restrictiveness in the
them. Students learn the implicit curriculum by drawing educational environment. Restrictive environments are
inferences about correct ways to think and behave based on those that contain only students with disabilities.
their experiences in schools.
Lesson study A professional development model where
Inclusion A practice of educating students with teachers work in small groups to plan a lesson. They
disabilities—to the maximum extent possible—with their observe each other teach the lesson and then, later, reflect
nondisabled peers. on the lesson and revise it. Lesson study originated in J apan
Individualized education program (IEP) A legally binding and is used increasingly in the United States.
document that details the educational plan for a student Linguistic Of or pertaining to language.
who is identified as having one or more disabilities. The
Literature circles Essentially book clubs for students.
plan states the student’s disability and provides present
Typically, students select from a variety of works (often
levels of performance, instructional objectives, assessment
fiction but increasingly nonfiction as well) and meet in
plans, and a statement of the least restrictive environment
small groups with assigned roles to study and appreciate
for the student. It is reviewed annually.
their selected texts.
 Glossary 283

Local assessments Measures used with the intent of for the application process and some sort of incentive for
gathering information about student performance at the certified teachers.
classroom, school, or district level. The purpose is not to
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards
compare student performance with that of students in other
(NBPTS) An independent, nonprofit, and nonpartisan
places, but to gather specific information related to local
organization comprised of teachers and other educational
curricular and instructional efforts and student learning
leaders. The NBPTS’s core conviction is that the key
within the immediate context.
to improving student learning is to strengthen teaching.
Metacognition Thinking about thinking. Understanding of The NBPTS developed performance-based assessments
one’s own thinking. of teacher performance in relation to sets of professional
Mentors Individuals who support the growth and teaching standards. See also National Board certification.
development of less experienced peers, often in a partner No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 Federal legislation that
relationship. Mentors can be formally assigned and revises the Elementary and Secondary Education Act,
complete a prescribed set of tasks, or they can work first enacted in 1965 and modified at several other points
informally with their protegees and offer less structured in history. The act is designed to fuel gains in student
support. achievement and hold states and schools more accountable
Modifications Changes to classroom resources, instruction, for student progress. Students in low-performing schools
or conditions to allow students to learn or show what they are a special focus. The legislation increases the role of
know despite areas of need such as physical or learning the federal government in education and is currently being
disabilities. Modifications substantially alter the learning modified for reauthorization.
expectations to which students are held. Norm-referenced Assessments or scores that compare one
Monitor To actively observe students for specified purposes, student’s performance with that of others.
often to ensure that they are safe and engaged in learning Null curriculum The content that is not explicitly taught
activities. in schools. One example from many places in the United
Morals Principles of right and wrong in relation to human States, some may argue, is physical fitness in terms of
conduct. whole-body wellness and skills. General patterns for the
null curriculum exist based on factors such as geographical
Multimedia projects Computer-based projects that combine
region, local values, and historical context. The null
different media such as sound, text, animation, and images
curriculum is also a product of an individual’s idiosyncratic
to create an integrated product.
experiences in school.
Multiple embodiments Varied examples of a single
Off task A description of the behaviors students exhibit
concept. Embodiments should be selected to portray the
when they are engaged in activities other than those
critical attributes of the concept.
specified by the lesson objective or the task at hand.
Multiple measures A variety of assessment strategies used
On task A description of the behaviors students exhibit
as part of a system to obtain a valid portrait of student
when they are actively engaged in activities related to the
performance and growth.
task at hand or the lesson objective.
Mutual accommodation The notion that both the teacher
Opportunity gap Persistent discrepancies in the educational
and the students must actively work to learn about the experiences afforded certain subgroups in the U.S. student
members of the classroom community and the content.
population.
Through mutual accommodation, learning is not the
Pacing guide A document that specifies the content to be
sole responsibility of the student; the teacher must take
addressed in a certain sequence for a given period of time,
an active role in learning about students and increasing
such as for the day, week, month, or term.
her professional knowledge and skills to foster learning
effectively. Percentile The score below which a given percentage of the
scores in a distribution fall. For example, 75 percent of the
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
scores in a sample fall below the 75th percentile.
Conducted for more than 40 years, the NAEP is a test that
provides information about how U.S. students achieve in Positive behavior support An approach, often school- or
various subject areas. Representative samples of students districtwide to supporting student behavior based on
in private and public schools from all fifty U.S. states prevention, data analysis, positive interventions, and
are assessed in grades 4, 8, and 12. Long-term trend data progress monitoring.
and data by state, subject area, and student subgroups are Praxis A series of Educational Testing Service tests for
available. Data are not reported for individual students or beginning teachers designed to measure academic skills
schools. (Praxis I, taken to enter a teacher education program),
subject-matter knowledge (Praxis II, taken to demonstrate
National Board certification An advanced level of
competence in the subject matter related to the prospective
certification available to teachers across the nation.
credential area), and classroom performance (Praxis III,
This optional certification process compares a teacher’s
practices to a set of standards through performance-based completed for licensure).
assessments such as portfolios, video-recorded lessons, Pre-assessments Measures used before instruction begins
and student work samples. It also includes a written to determine students’ current knowledge, attitudes, or
examination. Many states offer financial compensation
284 Glossary

skills. Pre-assessment results help teachers plan learning must be made publicly available each year. It must specify,
experiences that most closely address students’ needs. in understandable language, student performance at three
levels (basic, proficient, and advanced), and must show
Primacy effect The tendency for humans to remember the
achievement data by student subgroup. The report card
first stimuli or information to which they are exposed in a
must also must disclose if the school has been identified as
given situation.
needing improvement or other action.
Problem-based learning An instructional model where
students work collaboratively to address ill-defined, complex, Scope and sequence A section in teacher’s editions of
realistic problems of interest to them. Teachers serve as classroom texts that specifies the content that is addressed
facilitators, and technology usually figures prominently. in the text (scope) and suggests plans for laying out the
content over time (sequence). It is typically presented in
Progress monitoring Assessment efforts that allow teachers
the form of a chart that displays not only the grade level
and students to analyze students’ growth toward the addressed in the text, but also its connection to the content
learning goals. Formally, progress monitoring plots in a of the text of other grade levels as well.
line graph students’ rate of progress with the rate required
in order to meet learning goals. Instruction is adjusted to Selection-type item A test item where the respondent
chooses the answer from among those given. True/false,
ensure that students’ rate is sufficient to meet goals.
matching, and multiple-choice items are examples. The
Proximity control Based on the fact that students who are contrast is constructed-response items.
physically farthest from the teacher tend to misbehave,
Self-efficacy One’s own judgments of one’s abilities to
proximity control has teachers moving closer to students
produce desired results, to succeed, or to control one’s
to prevent and redirect misbehavior.
circumstances.
Read-aloud The portion of the day in which teachers read
text to the class, often for the primary purposes of fostering Semantic Of or pertaining to meaning.
appreciation for the work and enjoyment in the act of Service learning Projects through which students continue
reading. Can also refer to the selected text itself. their own learning of some content or topic by providing
Realia Real-life materials that can support students’ assistance related to the topic to individuals, groups, or
understanding of the content. Examples include actual organizations.
objects such as coins, tools, and articles of clothing. Sheltered instruction Instruction that “shelters” the
Recency effect The tendency for humans to remember the linguistic demands of a lesson while simultaneously
last stimuli or information to which they are exposed in a seeking to ensure that English learners master the content
given situation. of the lesson. Sheltered instruction includes both discrete
strategies such as teaching key vocabulary terms as
Reliable An instrument is reliable if it delivers consistent
well as general approaches such as building classroom
results. Reliable instruments yield similar results with
environments where students feel safe to communicate.
different scorers and when given under varied conditions.
Simulation An instructional strategy wherein students
Response to intervention (RTI) An educational approach
undergo a series of activities designed to replicate a real-
that focuses on collecting data on student progress,
life situation, the conditions faced within that situation,
providing a systematic instructional intervention, and then
and the decision-making processes required to succeed
frequently assessing changes in student progress. Currently
in that situation.
RTI can be used in place of or in addition to traditional
means for determining specific learning disabilities. Social action Planned efforts by individuals or groups to
address social issues they hold as important.
Reteach Efforts taken by a teacher to present content to
students who did not master it as a result of an earlier Social media Use of easily accessible web and mobile
presentation. device applications that employ user-generated content
Routine A repeatable set of behavioral steps to accomplish in order to increase interaction and allow users to
share information quickly and easily. Examples include
recurring events, such as taking roll.
wikis, blogs, microblogs, podcasts, and photo or
Rubrics Sets of guidelines that specify the relevant criteria videosharing.
for a student product and indicate levels of performance.
Social network service A Web-based service that connects
Scaffold Social interactions whereby experts use supportive users with similar interests and allows them to interact
environments and behaviors to support novices’ efforts to
over the Internet through tools such as instant messaging
increase their skill or knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978).
and e-mail.
School accountability The notion that schools should Social Reconstructionism A branch of educational thought
be held responsible for student achievement, usually that views schools as active agents to improve society.
determined by student test scores. Accountability typically
Schools, in this view, serve as transformers rather than as
is defined through rewards or punishments at varying transmitters of the status quo. Notable proponents include
levels, including, for example, financial incentives for high
George S. Counts and Harold Rugg.
student performance or the takeover of schools that fail to
demonstrate growth in student achievement. Sociocultural An adjective that describes factors pertaining
to both the social and cultural aspects of a phenomenon.
School Accountability Report Card (SARC) Mandated by Sociocultural elements describe those ways of behaving
No Child Left Behind, the report card is a document that
 Glossary 285

and living that are developed by people in groups and Teachable moment An often unexpected opportunity for the
transmitted to future generations. teacher and students to explore an event or idea that arises
Socioeconomic status Some measure of a person’s or from daily life or classroom events.
group’s income level and social class. Teacher’s editions The teachers’ versions of classroom
Specific learning disabilities Disabilities possessed by texts. Teacher’s editions typically include many kinds of
individuals who have adequate cognitive functioning assistance for teachers, including the answers to exercises,
in general and the ability to learn some things easily. suggested lesson sequences, prompts for using the materials
Specific learning disabilities can relate to basic with students, and suggestions for reteaching or extending
psychological processes involved in learning and using the material presented in the text.
mathematics or in understanding and using spoken or Textbook adoptions The processes by which schools
written language. commit to using particular text series. Typically, state
Speech or language disorders Disorders related to the boards of education approve works from among competing
transfer of knowledge or information such as ideas and publishers, and districts select from among the approved
feelings. Speech disorders are specifically related to the texts those they feel are most appropriate for their local
verbal components of the communication process. setting. The adoption cycle allows schools to obtain
current materials for a variety of subject areas after a set
Standards-based instruction Teaching to a set of outcomes
number of years.
prescribed through local, state, or national content
standards. Standards-based instruction may offer benefits Thematic instruction An approach that organizes
such as uniformly high expectations for all students curriculum around themes that cut across traditional
and close alignment among materials, instruction, and subject areas rather than using the subjects themselves as
assessment. Potential drawbacks include a narrowing of the organizing principle.
the curriculum to what is prescribed in the standards and Think aloud A strategy in which one describes one’s
curriculum and lessons that are less responsive to local thought processes while carrying out a target activity. The
students and community needs. point is to help students sense the critical attributes of the
Student achievement Student knowledge and skills, often target activity and the important decisions requried by it.
as measured by test scores. Some people are concerned that Tracking A practice of arranging students into stable,
achievement is currently construed too narrowly and should relatively homogeneous groups based on perceived ability
be more broadly conceived of through a variety of goals or demonstrated achievement. Research on tracking
pertaining to student growth and how it is measured. suggest that it frequently does not improve achievement for
Student-led conferences In contrast to traditional teacher- students in the lower tracks, as these students often receive
led conferences with families, student-led conferences lower-quality instruction. Conversely, many teachers feel
ask students to take the leadership role in sharing and that tracking helps them meet students’ needs better by
evaluating their work and articulating their growth. reducing the range of performance in their classes.
Student-led conferences seek to engage students, parents, Trade books Commercial books, often sold in bookstores.
and teachers in dialogue about student learning by shifting Unit A collection of lessons that address a common goal or
the power away from the teacher, who acts as a facilitator topic.
at the conference, and more equally into the hands of the
Unschooling An approach to education wherein learning
student and family members.
is based on students’ interests and goals rather than upon
Student Information System A software application for a set curriculum. Unschooling is often considered one
managing student data such as special education plans, form of home schooling, with adults providing resources
attendance, and grades. and guiding students to access them as their needs and
Student performance standards Explicit statements of interests dictate.
the educational outcomes students are to attain. Typically Valid A measure is valid to the extent to which it measures
student performance standards specify the content, what it is intended to measure.
behavior, and level at which students are expected to Web 2.0 Uses of the Web that encourage interaction,
perform. collaboration, and creativity. This is in contrast with the
Summative Measures that serve the primary purpose original, read-only nature of the Web.
of reporting students’ postinstructional performance. Word cloud A visual display of the words or tags on an
Support provider An experienced colleague who is Internet site or in some set of text. It is used to describe the
formally assigned to assist a new teacher throughout the content of the site. The importance or prevalence of terms
induction (or early) years in the teaching profession. can be shown using color or font size.
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 Apologies, 251 Baker, S., 147, 149, 166
Aarons, D. L., 7
Appointment partners, 136 Baker, S. K., 76
Abedi, J., 75
Abernathy, T. V., 243, 248 Ardell, A., 53 Balf, R., 44, 45
Aristotle, 27 Banks, J., 11, 104, 122, 266
Abrami, P., 67
Armstrong, D., 102 Banks, J. A., 28, 31
Abuse, 6
Academic learning time, 219, 220 Arter, J. A., 197 Barbour, E., 272
Acceleration, 79 Asperger’s syndrome, 26 Barnes, C., 278
Accessibility features, computer Assessment, 180—207 Barnett, S., 196
programs, 72 attitude surveys, 202 Barron, A. E., 10
Accommodations, 71 classroom assessment step-by-step, Bartolome, L. I., 78
Achievement gaps, 7 186-200 Bear, G., 237, 247, 251
Action research group, 274 different, for different purposes, 182 Becker, R. R., 144, 145
Active listening, 14, 249 drawings/diagrams, 203 Behavior, 107
Active participation strategies, 130 formative/summative, 183 Behavior analysis, 257
Adams, D., 144 grading, 200-201 Behavior intervention plan
Adams, G. L., 149 graphic organizers, 204 (BIP), 71
Adams, M., 31 international landscape, 184 Behavioral objective, 107—108
Adaptive testing, 184 interviews, 203 Behaviorist approaches, 13
Adequate yearly progress (AYP), 185 journals, 202 Bell, L. A., 31
Adler, S. A., 31 national-/state-level landscape, 185 Bellamy, T., 23, 28
Advanced certification/study, 274 norm-/criterion-referenced, 182—183 Benchmarks, 187
Advanced learners, 78-80 performance-based assessments, 202 Benson, B., 196
Afolayan, M. O., 7 portfolios, 202 Benzel, K. N., 104
Ainsworth, L., 186, 187 principles, 181-182 Berends, M., 42
Airasian, P. W., 93 products, 202 Berliner, D., 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 16, 42
Akiba, M., 10 school-level landscape, 186 Berthel, L. M., 278
Albert, N., 240 standardized/local, 183 Beveridge, T., 7
Albin, R. W., 253 teacher observations, 202—203 Bichelmeyer, B. A., 23, 35
Alexander, K., 6 traditional tests, 201-202 Big idea approach, 102
Alexander, M. D., 6 Assistive technology, 72—73 Billingsley, M., 137
Algozzine, B., 260 Assumptions, 4546 Billingual education
Allchin, D., 144 Attention seeking, 261 programs, 75
Allen, J. B., 11 Attention span, 252 Bingham, G., 193
Pa ete Ree 1 Attitude surveys, 202 BIP, 71
Allocated time, 219 Au, W., 185 Bircann-Barkey, I., 240
Alonso, A., 81 Audet, R. H., 185 Bisexual students, 82
Alternative keyboards, 72 Audacity, 77 Bjork, R., 51
Alvidrez, J., 237 Audience plants, 134 Black, P., 183
Amanti, C., 9 Audience response systems, formative Black, S., 52, 53, 144
Ambience, 209-213. See also assessment, 89 Blackboard blitz, 133
Learning environment Authoritative learning environment, Blanchett, W., 42
American core values, 31 245, 246 Block, M. S., 52
Amrein, A. L., 3 Ayala, C., 183 Blogs, 65
Analogies, 212 JNA SG: Bloom, B., 92
Analytical trait rubric, 197-198 Azevedo, R., 125 Bloom, C., 278
Anderson, K., 65 Bloom’s taxonomy, 92
Anderson, L., 209, 221 Back-to-school night, 54 Blosser, P. E., 146
Anderson, L. W., 93 Back-to-school night to-do list, 54 Blueprints, 187
Andrade, R., 9 Backward planning, 101 Bohn, C. M., 7, 209, 213, 221
Andrews, J., 52 Baeder, A., 46 Bomer, K., 11, 122
Anger shields, 243 Baglieri, S., 71 Bomer, R., 11, 122
Anticipation, misbehavior, 253 Bailey, G. D., 244 Bondy, E., 12, 209
Anzaldua, G. E., 116 Bailey, J. M., 196 Bonhoeffer, D., 275

306
 Index 307

Booher-Jennings, J., 7 Chapman, C., 10 COME IN principle of instruction,

Borman, G., 44 Charles, C. M., 263 116-141
Bomyeele 275 Charney, R. S., 214, 241, 254, 260 connect, 117-122
Borum, R., 244 Child abuse, 6 enrich, 127-130
Bowen, C. W., 118 Chains (C,, 1's) human nature/student needs,
Bowman, R., 117 Choice, 240-241 136—137
Braille embossers, 72 Choice boards, 65 interact, 130-136
Brain-based research, 13 Choral response, 131 model, 125-127
Brainstorming, 133 Chorzempa, B. F., 67 organize your instruction, 122-125
Brand:S-52 Chine GxGais0) Comenius, John, 27
Bransford, J., 12, 188 Cicero, 17 Communication
Breach of contract, 241 Cirino, P., 74 caring, 247
Brenner, D., 95 Civil, M., 9 with families, 57-58, 218
Brew, C., 238 Clark, D. B., 189 nonverbal, 255—256
Briesch, A., 209, 213 Clark, J., 60 web tools, 53, 55
Bright, R. M., 55 Class wiki, 119 Community building, 211
Broderick, A., 71 Classroom assessment cycle, Complexity of content, 80
Bromley, K., 129 186, 194 Comprehension check, 131
Brookhart, S., 186 Classroom assessment step by step, Comprehensive input, 76
Brophy, J., 134, 209 186-200 Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills
Brophy, J. E., 127, 145, 240 assessment strategies, 188-193 (CTBS), 183
Brown, A., 102 assessment targets, 186-188 Compton, D., 74
Brown, D., 209, 210 data analysis, 196-199 Computers. See Technology
Brown, D. E., 145 student involvement, 193-196 Conant, J. B., 63
Brown, M., 188 use what you learn, 199-200 Concept attainment, 154, 156, 157,
Brown, M. R., 46 Classroom competition, 212 158, 174
Brozo, W. G., 74 Classroom discipline, 236-267 Concept formation, 157, 161-162, 176
Briere ie 13 as one piece of the puzzle, 237 Concept map, 123
Brinerw seals preventive vs. reactive discipline, Conceptions of education, 27—30
Bruner, J. B., 154 251-256 Conditions, 107
Buchter, A., 144 relationships, 248-25] Conflict resolution, 244, 245
Buese, D., 185 self-discipline, 240-245. See also Connecting, 117—122
Bullying, 244 Self-discipline to action, 121-122
Bumgardner, S., 12 structured, consistent, supportive ideas, 119-121
Burman, E., 240 environment, 245-248 outside world, 121
Burns, M., 73 systems approach, 256-263. See also people, 117-119
Burris, C., 74 Systems approach, classroom tips, 118
Busch, A., 95 discipline Connell, M., 209
Buzzelli, C., 275 teachers, self-understanding, 237—240 Consistent learning environment,
Byrd-Blake, M., 7 your own plan, 263-265 245-248
Classroom diversity, 41—42 Constructed response, 185
Game; Ga 13 Classroom meetings, 210 Constructivist approaches, 13
Caine, R. N., 13 Classroom questions, 144—145 Content knowledge, 90
Caldeira, H., 145, 181 Clausen-Grace, N., 65 Content standards, 9
Caldwell, J. S., 67 Clear directions, 125 Controversial topics/
Calm, 239 Clunies-Ross, P., 251, 258 methods, 6
Cambron-McCabe, N. H., 6 Cochran-Smith, M., 3 CookaBsGe 223i)
Campbell, P. B., 81 Cockburn, J., 126 Cooper, S., 200
Canter, E259 Coercive power, 239 Copyright laws, 6
ante WAS) 1103 Cofiteldt wo la2 Corbme C35
Caram, C., 145, 146 Cogan, L. S., 44, 87 Cornell, D., 244, 245, 247, 248
Career development. See Professional Cole, R. W., 63, 121, 125 Corporal punishment, 6
growth ColeshG7 150 Corporate support, 97
Caretaker speech, 76 Collaborative learning, 166 Correa-Koytun, A., 77
Caring communication, 247 Collay, M., 12 Cortes, C. E., 34

Carroll, L., 86 Collier, V. P., 75, 76, 78, 128 Costa, J., 145, 181
Collins, P., 76 Cost-consciousness, instructional
Case study, 47
Colombo, M., 65 materials, 97
Casella, R., 245
Colombo, P., 65 Cotton, K., 145
Cazden, C., 145
Coloroso, B., 241 Cousins, N., 277
Certifications, 274
Colvin, G., 247 Criteria, 107
Chambliss, M. J., 185
308 Index

Digital presentations, 48 Elmore, J., 119, 278

Criterion-referenced assessments,
Digital stories, 121 Elmore, R. F., 24
182-183
Dignity, treating students with, 248, 249 Elsaleh, I., 95
Critical attributes, 125
Dillon, J. T., 27, 131, 145, 146, 278 Embedded content, 76
Croninger, R. G., 43, 185
Din, F. S., 150 Emerson, R. W., 41, 249
Cruikshank, K. A., 93
Direct instruction, 147, 148-151, 172 Emmer, E., 209, 221
Csikszentmihalyi, I. S., 91
Disabled students. See Special needs Emmer, E. T., 226
Csikszentmihalyi, M., 91
students Emotional control, 238-239
GEBS S185
Discipline. See Classroom discipline Emotional intelligence, 91
Cuban} L.4, 9:27
Cultural proficiency, 210 Discrepant event, 152—153 Engaged time, 219
Cultural values, 31 Disparities, 10 Engelmann, S., 149
Culturally responsive classrooms, 41 Diversity, classroom, 41-42 Englehart, M., 92
Culturally sensitive assessments, 66 Dixon, R. S., 145, 146 English as a second language (ESL), 76
Culture, 31 Document camera, 98, 127 English language learner, 24, 45, 74-78
Cummins, J., 42, 76 Domains of teacher expertise, 15 Enrichment of learning environment,
Cunningham, C. A., 137 Donato, J., 80 127-130
Cunningham, J., 210 Donors Choose, 97 Environment. See Learning environment
Curran, M., 25—26, 44, 45, 209, 210 doodle.com, 59 Epistemology, 33
Curriculum, 24-26 Dorrell, L. D., 95 Epitaph, 30
student engagement, and, 25] Douglas, K., 4 Epstein, J., 53, 54
Curriculum compacting, 79 Dowling, M., 44 Epstein, J. L., 9, 52
Curwen, M., 53 Downing, J. E., 137 Equal participation, 166
Cyber bullying, 244 Doyle, W., 4, 237, 247, 248, 251 Erden, F., 80
Drawings, 203 Erdos, P., 30
Daily schedules, 104, 105 Dreikurs, R., 241, 260 Error pattern analysis, 198—199
Dalmer, R., 144 Driscoll, M. P., 143 ESEaG
Danforth, S., 257 Driver, R., 13, 120 Espelage, D., 244
Danielson, C., 4, 15 Duckworth, E. R., 121 Essential question, 102
Daoud, A. M., 52 Due process, 6 Esworthy, C., 63
Darling-Hammond, L., 11, 12, 27, 44, Duffield, J., 137 Ethics, 275
185, 202 Duffy, D. G., 23 Ethnicity, 45
Data analysis, assessments, 196-199 Duncan-Howell, J., 275 Ethnographers, 46-47
Davidman, L., 53 Dunn, M. A., 96 Evaluation, 187
Davidman, P. T., 53 Dunn, R., 52 Even, B., 265, 270
Davies, D., 52, 54 Dupper, D., 245 Evertson, C., 209, 221, 226
Davis, H., 248 Dutro, E., 44, 45, 95 Excellent teaching, 33-34
Davis, P., 145, 146 Dyson, L., 56 Exit cards, 4
De Welde, K., 80 Expert power, 239
DeBell, M., 10 Ecclestone, K., 51, 52 Explicit curriculum, 24
Deddeh, H., 187, 192 Echevarria, J., 76, 128 Eye contact partners, 135—136
Deductive teaching strategies, 147 E-development, 274
Deep connections questions, 147 edmodo.com, 53 Fabunmi, M., 7
Delpit, L., 59, 117, 120 Education Fact-storming, 133
Democratic classrooms, 11 conceptions of, 27-30 Fair use rules, 23
Demski, J., 133 purpose, 31—32 Fairbanks, S., 209, 213
den Brok, P., 245 questions of, 26-27 Fairlie, R. W., 10
Depth of content, 79 stance towards. See Stance towards Faltis, C., 46, 54, 118, 213
Dewey, John, 27 education Family. See also Students’ lives/
Diagrams, 203 Edwards, J., 204 families, getting to know
Diaz, E. M., 82 Edwards, P., 186 as assessment partner, 194-196
Differentiated instruction, 64-67 Eeds, M., 145 communicating with, 218
content, 65 Effective feedback, 134 working with, 52-58
planning for, sample questions, 66 Effective modeling, 125 Farenga, S. J., 185
process, 65 Efficiency, 214 Farris, P. J., 81
product, 65-67 Effrat, A., 11 Feedback, 134
Digital citizenship, 244 Eichinger, J., 137 Fenstermacher, G., 3, 23
Digital Dialects, 77 Eisner, E., 4, 24 Field tips, 129
Digital divide, 10 Elbaum, B., 130, 213 Fields, L., 259
Digital equipment, 217-218 Electronic pointing devices, 72 Fillmore, L. W., 76
Digital files, 97 Ellis, A. K., 102 Financial literacy, 276
Digital natives, 8 Ellis, E., 65 Binkels Dai 14
 Index 309

Fischer, L., 6 Gardner, H., 13, 78, 128 Group chart, 132
Fisher, D., 96, 186 Gardner, J. E., 103 Group problem, 132
Flash cards, 131 Garrett, J. L., 35 Group size, 257—258
Fletcher, J., 74 GATE, 78-80 Grouping decisions, 67-68
Fletcher, J. M., 78 Gatto, John, 25 Grunwald, B., 260
Flexible groupings, 66 Gaudin, S., 26 Guest speakers, 129
Fliker, 97 Gauthier, L., 75, 76 Guillaume, A. M., 34, 54, 77, 133, 152,
Floor plan, sample, 215 Gawel, D., 188 155, 157, 190, 256
Flowers, C. P., 150 Gay, G., 41, 45, 46 Guillaume, B., 278
Flynn, K. M., 76, 128 Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender Guillaume, G., 278
Focus content, 76 (GLBT) students, 82 Gunter, H., 244
Focus, tips for maintaining, 258 GE score, 182 Guskey, T. R., 196
Follow the leader, 132 Gegay PGs 102
Fombonne, E., 26 Gender equity, 80-82 Haar J 52
Food, 129 General education setting, 70 Hadhazy, A., 26
Ford, D., 117 George, C., 133 Hal Be 51552
Ford, D. Y., 44 Gepner, B., 127 Hall,G., 52
Ford, M. P., 67 Gersten, R., 76, 147, 149, 166 Hall,N. D., 239, 257
Formal data analysis, 197-199 Gestures, 255 Hale Pass 2395257)
Formative assessment, 88, 183, 190—192 Gibson, D., 81 Hall,T., 118, 122, 166, 209, 251,
fotobabble.com, 53 Gidseg, E., 240 255, 263
403(b) plan, 276 Gifted and Talented Education (GATE), Halsey, H. N., 257
Four-two-one, 170 78-80 Hambacher, E., 12, 209
Frank, C., 46, 47 Gifted learners, 33, 78-80 Hamm, M., 144
Frank, K., 44 Ginsberg, M., 46 Hancock, D. R., 150
Fraser, J., 12 Givner, C. C., 240 Hand signals, 131
Fraser, K., 204 Glasser, W., 136 Handheld devices, 9
Frederickson, N., 210 GLBT students, 82 Hardman, F., 130, 147
Free appropriate education, 69 Glickman, C., 28 Harkins, D. A., 80
Free Web-based materials, 97 Goals, 93-95 Harper, G. F., 118, 166
Freiberg, H., 209, 210, 217, 224, 237, Goldstein, L., 3 Harrison, G., 52
240, 248 Goleman, D., 91, 118 Harrow, A., 92
Freire, P., 236 Gonzales, M. A., 274 Hartig, T., 214
French, J: R. P:, 239 Gonzalez, N., 9 Hawley, R., 240
Freudenheim, D. A., 78 Good, T. L., 127, 145, 240 Hebert, E. A., 202
Frey, N., 96, 186 Good teaching, 23 Helsing, D., 4
Friedlaender, D., 27 Goodlad, J., 23, 28 Henderson, A. T., 52, 54
Frye, B., 42 Goodlad, J. I., 63, 275 Henderson, M. T., 52
Frymier, A., 251 Gootman, M. E., 220, 240, 247, 249 Henderson, N., 237, 245, 247, 248
Fuchs, D., 73, 74 Gordon, T., 249, 250 Herman, J., 75
Fuchs, L., 74 Gowin, D. B., 204 Herman, J. L., 183
Fuchs, L. S., 73 Grade equivalent score (GE), 182 Herold, Don, 269
Fuhler, C. J., 81 Grading, 200-201 Hidden curriculum, 25
Fuhrer, U., 214 Graeber, A. O., 185 Hiebert, E., 95
Fuhrman, S., [1 Graham, S., 67, 170 Higher-level thinking, 77—78
Fulkerson, S., 187, 192 Grant, C. A., 46, 63, 143, 266 Highly qualified teachers, 7
Functional behavior analysis, 257 Grants, 97 Hill, J. D., 76, 128
Funds of knowledge, 53 Graphic organizers, 123, 129, 204 Hill, W., 92
Furst, E., 92 Grasley, E., 63 Hints, 250
Fuzzy points, 131 Graves, A., 76 Hirsch, J., 98
Greb, F., 52 Hobbs, R., 220
Gable, R., 65 Green, S., 187, 189 Hohlfeld, T. N., 10
Gagne, R., 13 Green, T. D., 102 Holahan, J. M., 78
Gagnon, G. W., Jr., 12 Greenberg, M., 44, 238 Holbrook, T., 193
Greene, J. P., 80 Holcomb, L. B., 9
Galanter, E., 13
Gregg, M., 65 Holistic rubric, 197
Gallastegui, J. R., 145, 181
Gallery tour, 133 Gregory, A., 237, 245, 247, 248 Holmes, K., 75, 76
Gregory, G. H., 51, 68, 88, 189 Home schooling, 34
Gallingane, C., 12, 209
Griffin, P., 31, 82 Home visits, 46
Gamoran, A., 145, 146
Griffiths, A., 73 Horgan, D. D., 81, 143
Ganschow, L., 198
Gronlund, N. E., 107, 108 Horn, C., 133
Garage sales, 97
310 Index

Instructional models/strategies, Kaisler, G., 63

Housekeeping details, 109
142-179 Kajder, S., 121
Hu, W., 63
deductive/inductive strategies, 147 Kaplan, S., 4
Huang, X., 8
inductive teaching, 152-170. See also Karathanos, K., 75
Hubbard, R., 27
Inductive teaching Kaufman, J., 80, 272
Hufstedler, S., 27
information/communication Kazemi, E., 44, 45
Hughes, M. T., 130, 213
technology tools, 143-144 Kea, C. D., 44
Humor, 251
Hunt, J. W., 7 model selection, 145—147 KeepVid, 97
Hunter, M., 148 questions in classroom, 144—145 Keig, P., 46
sampling of models, 148-151 Keller Jab. 23555
Hurt, J., 94, 101
Huzinec, C., 209, 217, 224 Instructional resources, 95—100 Kelley, M., 65
Hymel, S., 244 brainstorming, 99 Kellough, R. D., 102
rich resources, 96-98 Kelly, C., 6
textbooks, 95-96 Kemker, K., 10
ICT, 24, 143-144
Instructional strategies, 14 Kemper, E., 150
ICT equipment, 217
Interacting, 130-136 Kennedy, K. M., 133
IDEA, 69
Interactive graphic organizers, 123 Kern, R., 274
ENED, sll, 70)
Ignorance questions, 147 Interactive whiteboards (IWBs), 9, 98 Khalsa, S. S., 243
I-messages, 250 Interest inventories, 90 Kidder, R. M., 275
Implicit curriculum, 25 Internet, as a language learning tool, 77 Kiefer, B. Z., 102, 103
Inclusion, 70 Interview Kienhuis, M., 251, 258
Inclusive and responsive instruction, ethnographic approach, 47 Killeavy, M., 275
16, 62-85 student assessment, 203 Kim, E., 44
differentiated instruction, 64-67. Iowa Test of Basic Skills (TBS), 183 Kim, J., 60
See also Differentiated Irvine, J., 12 Kincaid, D., 260
instruction Irwin-De Vitis, L., 129 |aungsy, INI, J, dite, 3
English language learners, 74-78 ITBS, 183 Kingsley, T., 39
gender equity, 80-82 Iwasyk, M., 145 Kingston, P. W., 27
gifted/advanced learners, 78-80 IWBs, 9, 98 Klaiman, C., 126
safe spaces, 82 Kleinfeld, J., 12
special needs students, 69-74 Jackson, L., 257 Kliebard, H. M., 27
student groupings, 67-69 Jackson, P., 4 Nitmekake es
treat students as individuals, 63-64 Jacob, E., 165 Knight, C., 238, 251
UDL, 64 Janzen, J., 76 Knobel, M., 47
Independence, promoting, 240-241 Jaser, S., 80 Knopf, J., 71
Individual accountability, 166 Jehlen, A., 95 Know thyself, 209-210
Individualized Education Program (IEP), Jennings, P., 44, 238 Knowles. L., 65
51, 70 Jensen, 12. 1, IBS Koenig, K., 126
Individuals with Disabilities Jeynes, W., 55 Koepke, M. F., 80
Education Improvement Act Jeynes, W. H., 9, 52 Kohn, A., 33, 54, 117, 185, 209, 239, 249
(IDEA), 69 Jigsaw I, 167-168 Kosciw, J. G., 82
Induction programs, 271 Jimeson, S., 244 Kottler, E., 249, 275
Inductive teaching, 147, 152-170 Johnsen, S., 79 Kottler, J. A., 46, 249, 251, 270, 275
concept attainment, 154-157 Johnson, B., 185 Kounin, J., 255
concept formation, 157-162 Johnson, D. D., 185 Kovalik, S. J., 102, 128
cooperative learning, 165-170 Johnson, D. W., 118, 165, 245 Kozol, J., 9
inquiry training, 152-154 Johnson, J. Y., 98 Krashen, S., 75
learning cycle, 157 Johnson, N., 251 Krasheny S: De 765 128
strengths/weaknesses, 164-165 Johnson, R., 187, 189 Kratwohl, D. R., 92, 93
unguided inquiry, 163-164 Johnson, R. T., 118, 165, 245 Kulik, C. C., 98
Inequities, 42 Johnson, V. R., 52, 54 Kulik, J. A., 98
Influences, teaching, 9-11 Johnston, B., 275 Kurose, A., 145
Information and communication Jones, F., 209, 214, 219, 224, 225, 239, Kuzmich, L., 51, 68, 88, 189
technology (ICT), 24 255, 258
Information processing approaches, 13 Jones, R., 96 Laczko-Kerr, I., 12
Input choices, 65 Jordan, L. K., 185 Ladson-Billings, G., 42, 185
Inquiry training, 152-154, Journals, 202 Laine, F., 127
sy tlhy/s) Joyner, R. E., 150 VambsS..237,, 2405248
Inside-outside circle, 168 Lambros, A., 163
Instructional management/routines, Kagan, S., 119, 131, 133, 166, 168, 202 Lane, K. L., 240
223-226 Kaiser, B., 237, 248 Language acquisition, 75
 Index 2 FL |

Language games, 77 Living things, 129 Meng, L., 26

Language podcasts, 77 Local influences, 9 Menken, K., 185
Lapp, B., 27 Lock, R. H., 189 Mentors, 9
Lau v. Nichols, 75 Loewen, J. W., 95 Metacognition, 125
Laughter, 251 Logical consequences, 241 Metaphors, 212
Laursen, S., 80 London, R. A., 10 Meyer, D. K., 252
Law, 5-7 Long, B., 186 Meyer, L. M., 76
Layton, C. A., 189 Long, D., 145, 146 Meyers, L., 193
Lazarus, W., 10 Long-range planning, 100-107 Michielli-Pendl, J., 118, 166
Lazerson, M., 11 Long-term redirection, 260-263 Middlecamp, C. H., 145, 147
Leander, R., 7 Lopez, O. S., 98 Midgley, C., 252
Learning cycle approach, 157, Lorentz, J., 209 Miller, G., 122, 209, 251), 255, 263
159-161, 175 Bours, 67 Miller, G. A., 13, 122
Learning environment, 208-235 Ludington, J., 170 Milstein, M., 237, 245, 247, 248
classroom ambience, 209-213 Misbehavior. See Classroom discipline
communications, 218 MacGillivray, L., 53 Mishna, F., 244
digital equipment, 217-218 Maclver, M. A., 150 Mistaken goals, 260, 261
paper flow, 217 Mackie, R., 211 Mitchell, M., 187, 189
physical space, 213-217 Mael, F., 81 Modeling, 125-127
positive, 254-255 Maestra Manifesto, 56 Models. See Instructional models/
structured/consistent/supportive, Mager, R. F., 107, 108 strategies
245-248 Maheady, L., 118, 166 Modifications, 71—72
time management, 219-226. See also Main, E., 187, 192 Modlo, M., 129
Time management Major, C. H., 163 Modzeleski, W., 244
your own management plan, 226-233 Makuch, R. W., 78 Mokhtari, K., 186
Learning styles, 51 Mallette, B., 118, 166 Moll, L., 9
Learning tips. See Tips Maloney, R. S., 144 Moll sizaGas
Least restrictive environment, 69 Management plan, 226-233 Moloney, A., 275
Lee, D. S., 147, 149, 166 Manning, S., 78, 79 Monitoring, 214
Lee, J., 7 Manset, G., 150 Montgomery, W., 44
Beers Mapp, K. L., 52, 54 Moody, S. W., 130, 213
Lee, S., 71 Mapping, 47 Moore, D. W., 145, 146
Legal issues, 5—7 Marlowe, B. A., 12, 93, 157 Moore, K., 96
Legitimate power, 239 Marshall, M., 239, 240, 241, 254 Moos, D., 125
Lenski, S. D., 146 Marx, A., 214 Mora, F., 10
Lesbian students, 82 Marzano, R. J., 14, 16, 88, 98, 118, 119, Morals, 275
Lesson plan, 108 120, 123, 135, 146, 147, 166, Moriarty, A., 259
Lesson planning, 107—113 2 ORO 0221 Morris, R., 217
elements of lesson plan, 108-113 Masia, B., 92 Moseley, D., 51, 52
lesson structure, 108 Matsumura, L. C., 200 Mosher, R. S., 14
sample plan, 110 Matthews, T., 60 Moss, C., 186
sample plan format, 112 Matthews, W. J., 257 Motivation, 44, 252—253
writing objectives, 107—108 Mayer, R. E., 93 Mroz, M., 130, 147
Lesson structure, 108 McCarthy, M. M., 6 Mudrey-Camino, R., 238, 251
Lesson Study group, 274 Me@lmtc. Gye 13 Muller, C., 44
betendre, Gake 10 McCloskey, L., 185, 202 Multimedia projects, 102
Letter and number tiles, 131 McConney, A., 42 Multiple embodiments, 125
Levstik, L. S., 102, 103 McCullough, L. L., 88 Multiple intelligence theory, 13
iLesay, 11, 95 McDaniel, M., 51 Multiple measures, 181
Lewis, C., 54 McDaniel, T. R., 6 Mulvey, J., 81
Lewis, J., 44 McKay, R. R., 32 Munro, D., 133
Lewis, R., 44, 238, 240 McKnight, C. C., 32 Murray, T., 240
Lewis, T., 247, 251 McMahon-Klosterman, K., 198 Mursky, C., 79
McTighe, J., 101, 197, 273 Music, 129
Libel, 6
Limits, classroom behavior, 247 Meadows, D., 256 Mutual accommodation, 53, 63
Media literacy, 23 Myers, D., 209, 213
Lin, Y., 44, 45
Linan-Thompson, S., 76 Medina, A., 189 Myles, B. S., 26
Lindqvist, P., 4 Medina-Jerez, W., 189
Linguistic clues, 161 Meeks, G., 98 NAEP assessment, 43
Mehta-Parekh, H., 71 National Assessment of Education
Listening, 14, 249
Mendes, E., 278 Progress (NAEP), 7, 185
Little, E., 251, 258
312 Index

National Board certification, 15 Osher, D., 237, 247, 251 PISA, 184
Osler, Sir W., 278 Place, A. W., 144
National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards (NBPTS), 15 Osmundson, E., 183 Planning for instruction, 86-115
assessment of students’ needs, 88-90
National Child Labor Committee, 27 Otero, J., 145, 181
Otter, D., 276 goals, 90-95
National Educational Assessment
Program (NAEP) assessment, 43 Ouelett, M., 82 instructional resources, 95—100
National level assessments, 185 Overlapping, classroom discipline, 258 lesson planning, 107-113. See also
Natural consequences, 241 Lesson planning
Nature of learning, 33 Pacing, 224 sample planning web, 103
NBPTS, 15 Pacing guide, 100 standards based instruction, 87-88
NCLB Act, 7 Rasen Mia lh 2593557 unit planning, 101-104
Negative emotions, 238, 239 aT Ye. Sil weekly/daily schedules, 104-106
Nelson, P. A., 81 Paige, R., 10 yearlong planning, 100-101
Ness, D., 185 Painter, D., 65 Planning web, 103
Nevin, A. L., 66 Palmer, S., 71 Platinum Rule, 260
Newmann, V., 202 Palumbo, A., 209 Podcasting, 39
Nickel, A. L., 145, 147 Panyan, M. V., 257 Polite assumption, 46
Nieto, S., 42, 53, 63, 122, 273 Paper flow, 217 Pollock, J. E., 14, 16, 118, 120, 123,
Nishio, M., 43 Pappas, C. C., 102, 103 146, 147, 166
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Parish, T. B., 78 Polya, G., 23
Act of 2001, 7 Parson, L., 73 Pope, A., 180
Noble, T., 93 Partner journals, 133 Pope, N., 187, 189
Noddings, N., 27, 88 Partner talk, 191 Popham, W. J., 183
Noguera, P., 237 Partners, 47 Portfolios, 202
Noninstructional routines, 221—222 Partnership for 21st Century Learning’s Positive behavior support, 260
Nonverbal communication, 255—256 rainbow of student outcomes, 91 Positive emotions, 238
Noonan, M., 53 Pascal, J., 200 Positive interdependence, 166
Nordanger, U. K., 4 Pashler, H., 51 Positive learning environment, 254-255
Norm-referenced assessments, 182—183 Pastor, M., 10 Poulsen, C., 67
Note taking, 47 Patrick, H., 145, 146, 252 Poverty, 10
Novak, J. D., 204 Pawan, F., 44, 120 Power seeking, 261
Null curriculum, 26 Payne, R., 240, 246, 248, 255 Power struggles, 243
Numbered heads together, 132 Peer coach, 132 Powers, J. M., 87
Nunley, K. F., 65 Peer interview, 132 Praise, 255
Nystrand, M., 145, 146 Peer listening, 249 Prakash, M. S., 27
Peer teach, 170 Praxis, 16
Oakes, J., 11, 67, 87, 130 Peer-mediated instruction, 166 Preassessment of students’ needs/
Obenchain, K. M., 243, 248 Pellegrini, A. D., 7 interests, 88
Objectives, vs. goals, 93 Penaloza, O., 42 Preassessments, 190.
Observation Pension plans, 276 Predavec, M., 144
ethnographic approach, 47 Pepper, F., 260 Prensky, M., 8
professional development, 274 Percentile, 182 Pressley, M., 209, 213, 221
understanding a student, 50 Percy, W. A., 26 Prevention, misbehavior, 251—256
Off task, 255 Performance-based assessments, 202 Pribram, K. H., 13
Ogle, D., 77 Perry, L., 42 Primacy effect, 136
Olivos, E. M., 53 Person-first terminology, 70 Private correction, 250
Olsen, K. D., 102, 128 Peters, J. M., 102 Problem-based learning, 143, 163
Olson, J., 146 Peterson, M., 143 Product option contracts, 65
On task, 214 Phelps, R. P., 185 Productivity, 214
Online learning, 274 Phillips, R., 188 Products, 202
Online quizzes, 189 Physical movement during classroom Professional community, 269-275
Online survey services, 51 instruction, 135—136 Professional growth, 268-279
Open-ended questions, 201 Physical proximity, 255 advanced certification/study, 274
Opinionnaire, 131 Physical representations, 135 e-development, 274
Organizational plan, 124 Physical space, 213-217 ethicss2)/5 2,
Organizing instruction, 122-125 Piaget, J., 13 feedback, utilizing, 271-273
content organization, 122-124 Pickering, D. J., 14, 16, 118, 120, membership in professional
times/tasks organization, 124-125 123, 146, 147, 166 organizations, 273-274
Omelles, C., 53 Picture files, 129 observations/travel, 274
Orozco, C. E., 32 Pierson, M. R., 240 professional community, 269-275
Orsborn, E., 145, 146 Pintrich, R. R., 93 workshops, 273
 Index 313

Programme for International Assessment Retirement plans, 276 Santos, K. E., 88

(PISA), 184 Rettig, M. D., 88 SARC, 36
Progress monitoring, 183, 191 Revenge seeking, 261 SattessbaWDeal4>
Proximity control, 259 Revised taxonomy, 93 Savage, T. V., 102, 239
Pryor, B. W., 7 Reward power, 239 Sawchuk, S., 272
Pryor Cake ial Reynolds, A., 16 Sawyer, B. E., 238
Public Law, 94-142 Reynolds, J., 80 Scaffolds, 120
Public library, 97 Ribble, M. S., 244 Scarcella, R., 76
Punishment. See Classroom discipline Riccomini, P., 200 Scavenger hunt, 132
Purpose of education, 31—32 Rice, J., 43 Schifini, A., 129
Putman, S., 39 Ricesoee45 Schiller, K., 44
Pythagoras, 240 Richardson, V., 3, 16, 23 Schimmel, D., 6, 11
Richter, M., 251 Schmidt, W. H., 32, 44, 87
Quality teaching, 23 Ridenour, C. S., 144 Schneider, M. F., 243, 249, 251
Questions in classroom, 144—145 Rideout, V.J., 8 Schneider, S., 183
Quick scan analysis, 196-197 Riegle-Crumb, C., 44 Schoepp, P., 52
Quick write, 131 Riley, Bs 1435238 Schofield, J. W., 63
Quiocho, A. M. L., 52 Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., 238 School accountability, 7
Quizlet, 77 Risko, V., 63 School Accountability Report Card
Quizzes online, 189 Ritzhaupt, A. D., 10 (SARC), 36
Roberts, P. L., 102 School culture, 26
Race, 45 Rock, M., 65 School, role of, 34
Rachor, R., 150 Rodriguez, M., 127 School-level assessments, 186
Raider-Roth, N., 240 Rodriguez-Brown, F. V., 52, 53 Schroeder, P., 27
Ramps, 64 Roehrig, A. D., 209, 213, 221 Schultz, K., 14
Randolph, J., 133 Rogers, J., 11, 87 Schultz-Zander, R., 144
Rasminsky, J., 237, 248 Rogers, K., 81 Selassie ID VUNG ea
Rathbun, A., 43 Rogers, M., 26 Schweder, W., 103
Raths, J., 93 Rogers, S., 170 Scope and sequence, 101
Raven, B., 239 Rohrer, D., 51 Sorin (Ce, Sh
Ravitch, D., 95 Roller, C. M., 7 Scrapblogging, 48
Read-aloud, 254 Rollins, K., 79 Screen magnifiers, 72
Reading choices, 65 Ronis, D. L., 102 Syoulloynrere, dj, PA. 1G)
Reading level of text, 96 Roosevelt, F. D., 31 SDAIE, 76
Real tools, 129 Roosevelt, T., 32 Selection-type items, 185
Realia, 129 Roses PG say Self-analysis questionnaire, 17
Recency effect, 136 Rosenfeld, M., 15 Self-control, encouraging, 241-244
Redirecting, 254 Rosner, M., 10 Self-correction, 242—243
Reed, D., 272 Ross, D., 12, 209 Self-discipline, 240-245
Reeves, D. B., 10, 186 Ross, T. W., 244 anger shields, 243
Reeves, S., 79 Routines, 220 climate that promotes independence,
Referent power, 239 Rowe, M., 146 240-241
Reichert, M., 240 RTI, 7R-74 conflict resolution, 244
Rubrics, 102 encouraging self-control, 241-245
Reid, D., 71
Reinforcing, 254 Rueben, K., 272 power struggles, avoiding, 243
Rules on rules, 247 self-correction, 242—243
Reis, S. M., 79
Relationship, teacher-student, 248-251 Rush, S. E., 11 Self-efficacy, 275
Russell, H. R., 129 Self-presentation, 48
Reliable information, 181
Ryan, A. L., 257 Semantic clues, 161
Religion, 6
Service learning, !1
Reminding, 254
Sachse-Lee, C., 147 Shadiow, L., 31
Renzulli, J. S., 79
Safe spaces, 82 Shah-Coltrane, S., 79
Reparations, 241
Safety, 6 Shanahan, T., 76
Resnick, L., 143
Saini, M., 244 Share a story, 131
Resources, instructional. See
Saklofske, D., 52 Share expectations, 118
Instructional resources
Salend, S., 188 Shaywitz, B. A., 78
Respect, treating students with, 248, 249
Salinas, K., 54 Shaywitz, S. E., 78
Response to intervention (RTI), 7R-74
Sample works, 198 Sheehey, P., 53
Responsive/inclusive instruction.
Sanacore, J., 209 Sheldon, S. B., 9, 52
See Inclusive and responsive
Sandomierski, T., 260 Sheltered instruction, 76
instruction
Sangster, M., 224 Shim, M., 8
Reteaching, 191
314 Index

Stance towards education, 22-39 Summative assessment, 183, 191-192

Short, D., 76, 128
conceptions of education, 27—30 Sun, Y., 275
Short-term redirection, 260—263
cultural values, 31 Sunkin, A., 95
“Show Each Other,” 132-133
excellent teaching, 33-34 Support levels, 65
“Show Me,” 131
Shukla-Mehta, S. M., 253 nature of learning, 33 Support providers, 271
Shulman, L. S., 44 purpose of education, 31-32 Supportive learning environment,
Silberman, M., 119 questions of education, 26-27 245-248
Simonsen, B., 209, 213 role of school, 34 Survey, 48, 51
Simpson, D., 145 three curricula, 24-26 Sutton, R., 238, 251
Simpson, R., 26 Stand and Stretch, 135 Svihla, V., 188
Simulations, 143 Stand to share, 131 Swain, M., 76, 128
Simultaneous interaction, 166 Standardized assessments, 183 Swanson, H. L., 147
Sincire, Dionne, 56 Stanford, B., 79 Swearer, S., 244
Sip and puff systems, 72 Starnes, B., 23 Systems approach, classroom discipline,
Skiba, R., 237 State-level assessments, 185 256-263
Skinner, B. F., 13 Stefanakis, E. H., 202 group size, 257-258
Slander, 6 Stegila, A., 118, 166 habits of a systems thinker, 256
Slavin, R. E., 146, 149, 166, 167, 168 Stephenson, J., 133 misbehavior, motivation, 260
Slavin-Baden, M., 163 Sternberg, R. J., 145 overlapping, 258—259
Sleeter, C. E., 46, 143 Stchterm lesz response intensity, 259-260
Small group, 67 Stiggins, R., 182, 183 short-/long-term redirection, 260—263
“Smile If You Love Me,” 119 Stone, L., 47
Smith, D. H., 52 Storo, J. N., 81 Taba, H., 157
Smith, F., 130, 147 Strategies. See Instructional models/ Taft, W. H., 31
Smith, M., 81 strategies Tagalakis, V., 26
Smith, T. J., 257 Strength refreshers, 251 Talk to your partner, 132
Smutny, J. F., 78 Stress, 277 Tanaka, J., 126
Snow, C., 75 Strong presence, 255 Tannenbaum, R., 15
Snowballs, 132 Stronge, J. H., 16 Wardit,| Ge 127
Social action, 11 Structured interaction for language Taxonomies for the domains
Social media, 98 development, 134-135 of learning, 92—93
Social network services, 8 Structured learning environment, 245—248 Teachable moments, 124
Sociocultural factors, 4 Strulovitch, J., 26 Teacher observations, 202—203
Socioeconomic status, 10 Student assessment. See Assessment Teacher retirement plans, 276
Socrates, 240 Student Information Systems, 196 Teacher’s editions, 101
Solomon, S., 244 Student participation, 130 Teacher-student interactions, 130
Solomon, Y., 54 Student performance standards, 87 Teaching, 2—21
Soltis, J. F., 275 Student questions, 131, 147 general perception of, 3—5
Sormeli, R., 249, 252 Student quiz, 132 goal-driven, 11—12
Sorts, 132 Student-led conferences, 196 law, and, 5—7
Soukup, J., 71 Student-led recitation, 132 local influences, 9
Space management, classroom, 213-217 Student(s) opportunities/challenges, 9-11
Special interest areas, 216 achievement, 7 professional growth. See Professional
Special needs students, 69-74 assessment involvement, growth
accommodations/modifications, 193-194, 195 requirements/expectations
71-72 fights, 259 for teachers, 15—17
assistive technology, 72-73 groupings, 67-69 telling, vs., 12-15
classroom discipline, 237 motivation, 44 21st century, 7-9
inclusive and responsive instruction, Students’ lives/families, getting to know Teaching tips. See Tips
69-74 classroom diversity, 41-42 Team statements, 168
response to intervention, 73—74 gaps/inequities, 42-44 Tech survey, 48
serving, 71 gathering information, 46-52 Technology, 8-9, 97-98
Specially designed academic instruction questioning assumptions, 45-46 digital equipment, 217-218
in English (SDAIE), 76 working with families, 52—58 ICT equipment, 217
Speech synthesizers, 72 Student-student interactions, 132-133 information/communication tools,
Spence, J. C., 67 Student-teams achievement division 143-144
Spencer Bab ewiaalon (STAD), 168 IWBs, 98
Sprague, J., 237, 247, 251 Stuff White People Like, 44 student needs, and, 137
Spread, 65 Successful teaching, 23 Web, 98
St. John, E. P., 150 Suchman, J. R., 152 “Tell Me,” 131
STAD, 168 Sugai, G., 209, 213, 247 Templeton, S., 209, 217, 224
 Index 315

Text reading levels, 96 free online quizzes, 189 Turner, J., 210
Textbook adoptions, 9 gender equity, 81 Durer IC. 252
Textbooks, 95—96 inquiry quick start, 152 Twardos, K., 54
Text-to-speech synthesizers, 72 interactive graphic organizers, 123 21“ century outcomes, 8
Thematic instruction, 102 interest inventories, 90 Tyack, D., 27
Think aloud strategy, 126 Internet, as source of instructional Tyre, P., 81
Think outside the box questions, 147 materials, 113 Tyson, K., 42
Thiry, H., 80 long-range planning, 100
Thoma, J., 186 media literacy: photo analysis, 23 UDL, 64
Thomas, K., 144 observing student behavior, 50 Underwood, J., 6
Thomas, L., 73 online learning fit, 274 Unguided inquiry, 163—164, 177
Thomas, S. B., 6 openers, 136 Unit, 101
Thomas, W. P., 75, 76, 78, 128 organizational plan, 124 Unit planning, 101-104
Thomson, P., 244 pacing, 225 Universal Design for Learning
Thorson, S. A., 50, 212 personal traits, teachers, 238 (UDL), 64
Thousand, J. S., 66 person-first terminology, 70 University library, 97
Thrift shops, 97 podcasting, 39 Unschooling, 27
Tiered assessments, 189 resourcefulness in obtaining
Tiered interventions, 73 instructional materials, 97 Vacca, J. J., 189
Time management, 219-226 reteaching, 226 Vaillancourt, T., 244
academic learning time, 219-220 rules on rules, 247 Valencia, R., 52
instructional management/routines, sample works, 198 Valid information, 181
223-226 school culture, uncovering, 26 Valli, L., 185
noninstructional routines, 221—222 stress, coping, 277 Values line up, 132
Time-outs, 241 student fights, 259 van Ceulen, L., 30
Timms, S. M., 183 student participation, 130 van Tartwijk, J., 245
TIMSS, 184 student questions, encouraging, 147 van Zee, E. H., 145
Tips systems thinking skills, 257 VanDerHeyden, A., 73
accessibility features, computer teacher’s epitaph, 30 Vandewater, E. A., 8
programs, 72 tech survey, 48 Vaughan, E., 80
active listening, 14 term start, 221 Vaughn, S., 74, 130, 213
assessment vs. evaluation, 187 test, reteach, 199 Veldman, I., 245
audience plants, 134 text reading levels, 96 Video quizzes, 77
back-to-school night, 54 think: what else?, 45 Viegut, D., 186, 187
behavior analysis, 257 tiered assessments, 189 Villa, R. A., 66
big kids, 240 time management, 220 Vincent, T., 39
bridging students’ and school’s 21st century learning outcomes, 8 Visitors, 129
world, 252 using your stance, educational Vocab cards, 77
bullying, 245 accountability, 35 Vocabulary flashcards, 77
classroom competition, 212 vocab cards, 77 Vogt, H., 42
clear directions, 125 Web communication tools, 53, 55 Vogt, M. E., 76, 128
community building, 211 wipe boards, 191 Voki, 77
concept formation quick start, 162 Tobin, K., 146 Vote with your feet, 136
cooperative learning quick start, 170 tokbox.com, 53 Vye, N., 188
cultural proficiency, 210 Tomlinson, C. A., 65, 190 Vygotsky, L. S., 13
democratic classroom practices, 11 Tomlinson-Clarke, S., 25-26, 44, 45,
differentiated instruction quick 209, 210 Wahl, L., 137
start, 66 Torff, T. R., 98 Wakefield, J. F., 95
digital citizenship, 244 Toss the ball, 132 Walker, J., 245
digital files, 97 Tracking, 36 Walker-Dalhouse, D., 63
digital presentations, students, 48 Trade books, 102 Wall, K., 130, 147
digital stories, 121 “Trading Places,” 119 Walsch, J. A., 145
direct instruction quick start, 151 Traditional tests, 201—202 Wang, H. C., 32
discipline/management, 265 Transgendered students, 82 Wanzek, J., 74
Transitions, 224—225 Wanzer, M., 251
effective feedback, 134
Travel, 274 Ware, F., 210
effective modeling, 125
Traveling partners, 170 Warren, L., 210
ethnographers, 46-47
Trends in International Mathematics and Warrin, J., 54
evaluation vs. assessment, 187
Science Study (TIMSS), 184 Warschauer, M., 47
exit cards, 4
Tees, 26 Wartella, E. A., 8
families as assessment partners, 196
Tullis, P., 143 Watanabe, M., 42
financial literacy, 276
316 Index

Watson, C.R., 88 Wiggins, G., 101, 273 Wordle, 20

Web communication tools, 53, 55 Wiki start chart, 120 Wormeli, R., 189, 190, 202
Webb, L. D., 6 Wild, J., 145 Worsham, M. E., 226
Web-based learning, 98 Wilkinson, L., 44 Worship, 6
Weekly schedules, 104-106 William, D., 183 Worthington, K., 150
Wehmeyer, M., 71 Williams, R., 45 Wren, D., 26
Weinstein, C. S., 25-26, 44, 45, Wilson, J., 27 Wu, L., 145, 146
209, 210 WImer, J. W., 144 Wubbels, T., 245
Weinstein, R., 237 Winters, M. A., 80
Wells, D., 145 Wipe boards, 191 Yang, K., 237
Wenglinsky, H., 128 Wissick, C. A., 103 Yearlong planning, 100-101
Werderich, D. E., 81 Withitness, 255-256 Yopp, H. Kz, 34,133, 152,195,157 190
Westby, C., 143 Wittrock, M. C., 93 Yopp: Ras 34594, 1335152,
Wexler, J., 74 Witty, E., 10 ISS, a7, USO
Whaples, R., 27 Wojtaszczyk, A., 251 Younc eRe 33
What Works Clearinghouse, 146 Wolf, J., 126 Nuk, JL. WSK)
Whip, 131 Wolfgang, C. H., 80
Whiteboards, 131 Wolk, R., 27 Zam~zar, 97
Whittaker, T., 251 Wonderful ideas, 121 Zeiser, S., 145, 146
Whole class (group), 67 Wong Fillmore, L., 75 Zk eS
Whole-class instruction Wood, J., 32-33 Zuckerman, J., 248, 250
station, 216 Word cloud, 19, 20
S
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Gu illaume, Andr oe
K-12 j oom 7 ching
 ANDREA M. GUILLAUME .
K-12
CLASSROOM TEACHING
A PRIMER FOR NEW PROFESSIONALS
FOURTH EDITION

K-12 Classroom Teaching: A Primer for New Professionals, Fourth Edition is

a brief, practical book to help new teachers explore key aspects of classroom
teaching during their pre-service program and a must-have resource—providing
strategies for learning about students, planning and assessment, instruction,
classroom management, defining a personal educational stance and growing
professionally—to refer to daily in their first classrooms.
Written in clear, reader-friendly language, the primer is solidly grounded in the
newest research (with hundreds of new citations) and reflects understanding of
the demands of classrooms today. This edition reflects a conception of inclusive
and responsive instruction that encourages teachers to place students and families
at the center of each educational decision and build instruction, assessment, and
management and discipline approaches “from the ground up” to meet the wide
range of students needs in today’s classrooms.
This edition also focuses on the demands of the 21st Century and prepares
teachers and their students’ to develop competencies such as critical and systems
thinking; creativity; collaborative skills; and information and technology literacy.
Finally, the fourth edition offers teachers practical new coverage of the following
topics:
¢ The Achievement Gap and how to use instruction to create more equitable
schooling communities
¢ A step-by-step process of conducting assessment from question
conceptualization through data collection and analysis
* Updated research in the areas of instruction, assessment, management and a

discipline
e Engaging, practical voices and stories from real teachers presented through
Teacher Talk, a new feature located throughout the text.

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