EASTENGIN.

LIBRARY

A 760,540

K6T

5ASIC PHYSICS FOR

PILOTSANDFUGHTCREWS
/ K -! ar p
►

1
tries
CREWS
BASIC PHYSICS
FOR PILOTS and FLIGHT CREWS

By

EfJ.^NAPP, Ph.D.
Professor of Mathematics and Physics
Texas College of Mines

New York : 1943

PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
 Copyright, 1943, by
PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
70 Fifth Avenue, New York

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS BOOK

MAY BE REPRODUCED IN ANY PORM, BY MIMEO
GRAPH OR ANY OTHER MEANS, WITHOUT PER
MISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHERS.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 Preface

The purpose of this book is to teach the fundamentals of

physics as a preparation for Meteorology, Theory of Flight,
and Engine Operation. It is designed to meet the require
ments of primary flight training or air cadet training.
In a very condensed course there is always danger that some
students will become proficient "lesson learners." Thus a
student who has learned that acceleration is "the rate of
change of velocity" or "the change of velocity per unit of
time" may become confused when acceleration is denned as
"change of velocity divided by time." The student should
train himself to recognize the equivalence of slightly different
expressions of the same fact. However, in many instances
the student must master and adopt the method that has been
found most satisfactory and that has become generally
accepted.
Because graphic solutions are required in many of the
exercises, each student should have a scale graduated in
centimeters and a protractor. This equipment is inexpensive
and should be brought to every meeting of the class.
The student is urged to read each lesson several times.
However, new ideas in physics are not mastered by reading
alone. After studying a chapter or a part of a chapter, the
student himself should draw the figures, solve the problems
explained in the illustrations, and write out the definitions
given in the chapter.
The definitions have been phrased and rephrased in an
effort to make them clear, complete, and as brief as possible.
All of the text must be completely mastered.
ill
iv PREFACE

The content of this book has been used at the Texas College
of Mines and at four other institutions. Suggestions from
both instructors and students have led to modifications which
are incorporated in this text. The author is very grateful to
all who have checked and criticized his original notes.
Sincere thanks are due to Professor C. W. van der Merwe of
New York University for valuable criticisms and suggestions ;
and also, for their generous help and advice, to three of
the author's colleagues: Professor P. W. Durkee, Dr. Leon
Camp (now at the Underwater Sound Laboratory, Harvard
University), and Mr. Tom Barnes (now in war research at
Duke University).

E. J. K.
 Contents
Part One
PAGE
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. UNITS OF MEASURE 12

3. VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES 18

4. ACCELERATED MOTION AND LAWS OF MO

TION 30

5. FLUIDS AT REST 43

6. WORK, ENERGY, POWER, AND FRICTION .... 52

EXAMINATION FOR PART ONE 62

Part Two
7. FLUIDS IN MOTION 65

8. HEAT 70

9. HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE 75

10. PROPERTIES OF GASES 79

11. CHANGE OF STATE 89

12. ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY 95

SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 104

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS ... 113

INDEX 115
V
 PART ONE

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Science is taken from a Latin word meaning "to know"

and thus would include all knowledge. At present, the word
science is frequently limited to include the natural sciences,
any one of which may be defined as "an ordered knowledge of
natural phenomena and relations between them, supported
as far as possible by experimental evidence and correlated and
extended by reasoning and further experiment." The most
important natural sciences are astronomy, physics, and
chemistry, which are the physical sciences, and geology,
botany, and zoology, which are the biological sciences. These
sciences are not sharply separated from each other; they
overlap considerably. Each of the other sciences makes
some use of the methods and the equipment developed in the
study of physics.
What is physics? Curiously enough no entirely satisfactory
definition has ever been formulated. A definition of the
science of physics should tell the beginner what physics
is,

and should not make him depend upon intuition to find the
it

meanings of terms used. The words "science of physics,"

as introduced into the English language, meant "to know
nature," and had this broad meaning years ago when physics
was taught by professors of natural philosophy. At present
the meaning of "physics" much more limited. Physics has
is

been defined as "the study of matter and energy." Although

this definition has been justly criticized, at least enables
it

us to make start. However, does not show the beginner

it
a

1
2 INTRODUCTION [Chap. 1

why physics has given us the telephone, the radio, the airplane,
the refrigerator, and many other technical developments.
Why has the present war of machines been called "the
physicist's war"? Why did a thorough understanding of
physics enable S. P. Langley to build an airplane which the
Curtiss brothers flew after the gasoline engine had been
developed? Another definition of physics is "a science to
discover, describe, correlate, and explain facts of the inanimate
world."
The main subdivisions of physics are mechanics, heat,
electricity and magnetism, sound, light, radioactivity, X-rays,
and atomic physics.
Meteorology may be defined as the science of the atmos
phere, or as the study of weather, its changes, and its predic
tion. We do not know when man first began to study weather.
Ancient writings contain many phrases that were used to
predict weather changes. Some of these phrases can be
justified by scientific considerations; others cannot. Aristotle
(384 B.C.) is known to have made a study of weather.
Galileo (1564-1642) invented the thermometer and advanced
the scientific study of weather. The invention of the barom
eter enabled the science to make a real start. The growth
of meteorology was greatly speeded as a result of scientific
advancements made during the first World War.
Meteorology may be considered a specialized branch of
physics. It makes use of laws and theories of physics and
of much of the experimental apparatus of physics. A thorough
foundation in physics and mathematics is required in the
training of a professional meteorologist.
Meteorology is of utmost importance in civil and military
aeronautics. Much of the recent progress in meteorology is
due to the demands of aviation for more accurate and longer-
range predictions. Weather facts of importance to the pilot
are:
Chap. 1] INTRODUCTION 3

1. Visibility. 5. Prevailing winds.

2. Ceiling. 6. Wind considerations for tak-
3. Icing. ing off and landing.
4. Haze (solid particles). 7. Altimeter corrections.

The people of London complained when British newspapers

were forced to discontinue weather reports because, without
them, they were unable to know when they might be safe from
air raids. Information as to weather conditions in England
would be of extreme value to the Axis powers, both in planning
attacks and in predicting the weather for the continent.
Informed of weather conditions, the pilot can plan his trip
so as to avoid regions of very unfavorable weather. The pilot
makes use of all the weather information he can get from
professional weather forecasters. If complete weather fore
casts could be made with perfect accuracy and far enough in
advance, a pilot would not need much training in meteorology.
However, it is much easier to predict weather for a certain
locality a few hours in advance than to predict what will
happen in the next 12 hours. Thus the pilot is often forced
to be his own judge of weather conditions. In times of war,
the regular weather forecasts for some regions are greatly
hampered by the lack of observations from enemy-occupied
territory. Then local and last-minute observations become
especially important.

The Atmosphere

Atmosphere, taken from Greek words meaning vapor sphere,

isthe entire envelope of dry air and water vapor that sur
rounds the earth.
The composition of dry air is as follows:

78% nitrogen (serves to dilute the oxygen),

21 % oxygen,
 Aurora borealis
highest atmospheric ionosphere
40 effect
above 50 mi.
SO to 750 mi.
((((((((((((((((((((((Radio absorbing layer (Daytime)
(((((((((((((((

SO

Pilot balloon

STRA TO SPHERE
from tropopause
to SO mi.

OZONE LAYER
(no convection)-

iSTRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE fc

i
Figure
I
1

4
Ctop.11 INTRODUCTION 5

1% argon,
.03% carbon dioxide (exhaled by animals, consumed by plants,
kept constant through absorption by oceans),
.01 % of a mixture of neon, krypton, xenon, ozone, and hydrogen.

At sea level, about 1.2 per cent of the atmosphere is water

vapor, but this percentage varies greatly. At all times the
atmosphere holds myriads of microscopic particles of dust
and salt in suspension. We shall see that these solid particles
are of great importance.
Structure. (1) The atmosphere is elastic and easily
compressible. (2) It has weight, about ^hs of the weight of an
62 5
equal volume of water. One cubic foot weighs pounds,
^™x
or 1.2 ounces. The atmosphere contained in an average
college building weighs over a ton. (3) It exerts a pressure,
about 14.7 pounds per square inch at sea level. To see how
this pressure changes with altitude, refer to figure 1. (4) In
our latitude, the temperature of the atmosphere decreases
about 16°F each mile of altitude until a temperature of about
— 67°F is reached (figure
1). Above the equator, the decrease
continues until at a height of about 11 miles the temperature
is about -115T!

Atmospheric Phenomena
The general circulation of the earth's atmosphere is shown
in figure 2.
The bands indicated are drawn in the positions they occupy
at an equinox, when the sun is overhead at the equator (about
March 22 and September 22). The bands move to the south
in winter and to the north in summer. These shifts account
for the fact that some regions —for example, Southern Cali
fornia — have rainy winters and very dry summers.
The trade winds are stronger and steadier than the prevailing
westerlies. The westerlies of the southern hemisphere are
 INTRODUCTION [Chap. 1

more intense than those of the northern hemisphere because

the southern hemisphere contains less land to interfere with
the general circulation of the atmosphere. Thus the region
from 40°S. latitude to 50°S. latitude became known as "the
roaring forties."

740°
'Roaring
Forties"

Figure 2

We can understand many facts of weather and climate if we

remember prevailing wind directions. In our latitude,
weather conditions travel from west to east, usually about
700 miles each day. However, the rate of travel is irregular
and often a particular weather condition vanishes. A seaborne
Chap. 1] INTRODUCTION 7

invasion often can travel with a region of low visibility when

going east. All of the first flights across the Atlantic were
from west to east. The return is much more difficult.
A cyclone is a very large, gentle circulation of air whose
center is a region of low pressure, cloudiness, and probable
precipitation. The diameter of the entire cyclone is usually
about 1,000 miles. In the northern hemisphere the winds of a
cyclone travel in a counterclockwise direction. Cyclones
are very common. Almost any daily weather map of the
United States shows at least one cyclone. Cyclones are
separated from each other by regions of high pressure. These
regions of alternate low and high pressure travel from west to
east because of the prevailing westerlies. A low pressure
means that cloudiness and rain may be expected. A high-
pressure region indicates fair weather. If an observer stands
with his back to the wind, he may expect a low-pressure region
somewhere to his left. If the low-pressure region is to the
west, unsettled weather may be expected.
Hurricanes of the tropics and tornados of the temperate
zone are smaller and more violent than cyclones. They are
less important in weather forecasting.
Among the remaining atmospheric phenomena we may list
land breezes, sea breezes, anticyclones or "highs," mists, fogs,
clouds, dew, and electrical disturbances.

Functions of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere supports plant and animal life. Animals
need oxygen and plants need carbon dioxide. The atmosphere
decreases the diurnal variation of temperature. Because the
moon has no atmosphere, its noons are terrifically hot and its
nights are extremely cold. The atmosphere is fundamental
in causing weather and climate. The atmosphere supports
flight. No known type of flying craft could operate in a region
devoid of atmosphere.
8 INTRODUCTION [Chap. 1

Solid Particles in the Atmosphere

Although carbon dioxide, water vapor, and solid particles

exist in very small amounts in the earth's atmosphere, they
are of tremendous importance to us.
Life would be impossible without carbon dioxide to feed
plants or without water vapor to make rain. Furthermore,
it seems unlikely that we could live if the atmosphere were
entirely freed of solid particles. Some of them act as nuclei
around which saturated water vapor condenses into droplets
to form clouds. These nuclei are necessary for condensation.
If they were not present, very little condensation, if any,
would occur.
Although these particles are invisible, they produce impor
tant effects upon visibility. Together with water droplets,
they produce an effect which is known as the scattering of
light. Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919) and other physicists have
made interesting and detailed studies of this effect. They
show that when a light ray travels through an atmosphere
which contains very small droplets or solid particles, some
of the light is scattered out of the path of the ray. Relatively
large particles scatter all colors equally, but the smallest
particles and the smallest water droplets scatter blue light
much more than they scatter red light. Some of the atmos
pheric phenomena caused by scattering and some of the prac
tical applications of information about scattering are as
follows:

1.Cumulus clouds are often very white because the water

droplets which they contain are large enough to scatter all
colors.
2. Tobacco smoke is blue because its particles are so small
that they scatter mostly blue light.
Chap. U INTRODUCTION 9

3. The sun is especially red at sunrise because at that

time the rays travel through the atmosphere for a greater
distance than they do at noon.
4. The sky is blue because the light which comes to us
from a clear sky has been scattered chiefly by small particles
and molecules. The intense blue of the skies of Italy is
attributed to the presence of very fine volcanic dust.
5. Yellow lights (sodium-arc) are used for lighting highways
because this color, which is not far from the red end of the
spectrum, is less completely scattered than other colors near
the blue end of the spectrum.
6. Scattering reduces visibility. Distant mountains become
obscured in a bluish haze and details become indistinct. In a
deep haze, mountains may become entirely hidden.
7. In aerial photography for mapping and for large-scale
surveying, most of the visible light is intercepted by a filter
which permits infra-red (heat) rays to enter a camera provided
with a special film which is sensitive to heat rays. Infra-red
rays are not much affected by scattering. The rays travel
great distances through fog and dust-laden air with very little
loss, and thus sharp outlines are obtained in pictures of distant
terrain.
Atmospheric scattering of light may be imitated by means
of the lumirod.* This is a rod of transparent plastic material.
If intense white light is allowed to enter one end of the rod
and to traverse the length of the rod, the whole rod becomes
luminous because much of the light is scattered at right angles
to the main beam of light. The scattered light near the
illuminated end of the rod has a faint blue color because blue
light is especially subject to scattering by the material of which
•The apparatus may be purchased from manufacturers of physics
equipment. If an alpha ray track apparatus (Central Scientific Co.)
is available, it may be used in place of the cloud apparatus.
10 INTRODUCTION [Ch*P. 1

the rod is made. If we look directly at the other end of the

rod, we see that the whole end glows with an orange color.
Ordinary light, white light, is made up of all colors. If it is
robbed, by scattering, of much of its blue components, the
light that remains in the main beam becomes orange or red.
These effects are similar to atmospheric scattering, which
accounts for the blue of the sky and the redness of the sun at
sunrise or sunset.
By means of a simple cloud apparatus,* it may be shown
that clouds cannot be produced in an atmosphere which has
been entirely freed of solid particles. In this apparatus, a
rubber bulb from a battery tester is fitted over the mouth of a
laboratory flask which has a side tube fitted to its neck. Some
water and a little smoke are introduced into the flask through
the side tube, and the tube is closed by means of an eraser
of the type which fits over a pencil. The bulb is compressed
and then quickly released. The air in the flask expands
quickly and is cooled. As we shall see later, this is the com
mon cause for the condensation of water vapor into a cloud
of droplets. The whole bulb becomes filled with a cloud.
Each droplet is the result of condensation of vapor around a
microscopic solid particle which acts as a nucleus. The
droplets gradually sink to the water in the bulb and each one
carries a solid particle to the water. Thus many repetitions
of the experiment clear the air of solid particles and no more
clouds can be formed unless some smoke (or dust) is added
to the air in the flask. Thus we verify the fact that solid
particles in the atmosphere are necessary to cloud formation.
Sometimes it takes many repetitions of the experiment to
remove all the solid particles of the smoke. The instructor
may wish to save time by first clearing the air and then
showing that no clouds can be produced until solid particles
have been supplied.
*
See footnote on page 0.
ciwp.1] INTRODUCTION 11

Exercises
1.Which would take more gasoline, a flight from California to
New York or a return trip? Why?
2. The trade winds are stronger and more constant than the
prevailing westerlies. Why didn't the early trans-Atlantic fliers
believe that an east-to-west trip in the regions of the trade winds
would be safer than a trip from America to Europe?
3. Would you expect a world weather map at any given day to be
like figure 2? Explain.
4. How do you explain the fact that Lower California (23°N. lat.
to 32°N. lat.) has a very dry climate during all seasons even though
it is almost surrounded by water?
6. How much change in pressure and how much change in tem
perature are represented by the smallest divisions on the horizontal
scales of Fig. 1?
6. From Fig. what temperature and what atmospheric pressure
1,
would you expect at the top of Mt. Everest? At the greatest height
attained by the "Explorer II," which was sponsored by the National
Geographic Society?
7. Can you guess why the "horse latitudes" were so named by
early explorers?
8. If an observer notices a west wind, in what direction from his
position should he expect a low? Make a sketch to illustrate your
answer.
9. How much does the atmosphere of a cube 30 by 30 by 30 feet
weigh? How many slugs of air are there in this cube? (One
6lug = 32.2 pounds.)
10. Much of the preface to this book was written to help you.
Study it and then answer the following questions:
(a) What suggestions in addition to those given would you make to
a student who is beginning the study of physics?
(b) Name five pieces of equipment which a student should bring
to each class.
(c) What use can a student make of illustrations in which problems
are solved?
 CHAPTER 2

Units of Measure

All physical measurements may be expressed in terms of

one or more of the fundamental magnitudes: length, mass,
and time. The metric system has been planned very carefully
to reduce the amount of arithmetic needed in measurement and
to make it easy for the average person to know the entire
system of measurement.
Before the middle of the nineteenth century, there was very
little uniformity in standards of measurement. Often the
length of the king's foot was taken as the standard of length.
Whenever a new king was crowned, the standard changed.
One can easily realize the confusion that would result if this
practice were followed at present. Different countries had
different systems of measurement, and differences often existed
within a single country. With improved transportation
facilities, exchange of goods and ideas grew rapidly and made
it necessary for the various nations to choose permanent units
of measure and to reduce the number of systems in use. At
present, in the United States, two systems of measurement are
used: the metric system and the English system. In scientific
work, the metric system is used throughout the world. In
trade, it is used in practically all countries except Great
Britain and the United States.
The meter, the kilogram, and the second are the world
standard units of measurement. Our yard is legally defined
12
Chap. 2] UNITS OF MEASURE 13

as iHH$ of a meter. Our pound is de

fined in terms of the kilogram.
The standard meter is the distance
between two scratches on a platinum-
iridium bar at the temperature of melting
ice. The standard meter is kept at the
International Bureau of Weights and
Measures near Paris. Several copies of
this standard are kept at the U. S.
The Standard Meter
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
The kilogram is the mass of a
platinum-iridium cylinder which is
kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures. It is prac
tically equal to the mass of 1,000
cubic centimeters of water at the
temperature of its maximum density
(about 4°C).
The second is ^ of &s of A of a
mean solar day. This unit is common
to the metric and the English systems
The Standard Kilogram
of units.

Units of Length
Metric
1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm).
1 meter (m) = 100 cm.
1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 m.

English
1 foot (ft.) = 12 inches (in.).
1 yard (yd.) = 3 ft.
1 mile (mi.) = 5,280 ft.

mile is ^b- of a degree of a great circle of the earth.

A nautical
A nautical mile equals 6,080 ft. A knot is one nautical mile
per hour.
14 UNITS OF MEASURE [Chap. 2

Equivalents :

1 inch = 2.64 cm.

1 meter = 39.37 inches.
1 kilometer = 0.614 miles (or nearly f mile).

Units of Mass or Weight

1 gram (g) = 1,000 milligrams (mg).
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 g.
16 ounces (oz.) = 1 pound (lb.).
2,000 pounds = 1 ton.
2,240 pounds = 1 long ton or shipping ton.

Equivalents :

1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds.

1 cubic centimeter (cm3) of water weighs 1 gram.
1 cubic foot (ft.3) of water weighs 62.5 pounds.

Derived Units
Area = length X length. Itmay be measured in square feet
(ft.2), square meters (m2), etc. 1 square mile
= 640 acres.
Volume = length X length X length. It may be measured
in cubic feet, cubic centimeters, etc. 231 in.3 =
1 gallon. 1 liter = 1,000 cm3 = 1.06 quarts.

Density = mass per unit of volume. It is expressed as

g/cm3, lb./ft.3, etc. Density = mass + volume.
TABLE OF DENSITIES
Substance Grams per cm3 Pounds per ft.'
Platinum 21.5
Iron 7.1 to 7.9 444. to 494.
Aluminum 2.7 169.
Woods 0.4 to 1.1 25. to 68.8
Sea water 1.03 64.4
Water 1. 62.5
Gasoline .68 to .72 43.8 to 46.4
Mercury 13.6 850.
Air (at 0°C, 760 mm)... .00129 . .082
Air (at 59°F, 29.92 in.). .0765
Chap. 2) UNITS OF MEASURE 15

Other derived units. Speed and velocity involve units of

length and units of time. They may be expressed in miles per
hour, feet per second, or any units of length divided by any
units of time. The distinction between speed and velocity
will be made later on.
The processes of multiplication and division may be carried
out with units in the same way that these operations are
ordinarily performed with numbers. Thus additional units
may be produced: feet X pounds = foot-pounds (units of
work); kilowatts X hours = kilowatt-hours (units of energy).
Units of power involve all three of the fundamental units.
Power may be measured in foot-pounds per second; thus power
is (pounds X feet) /seconds.
The ohm, the ampere, the volt, and all other electrical
units are likewise derived from length, mass, and time.

Illustrations
1. Acar travels at a speed of 40 miles/hour. How far will it
go in 2.5 hours?

Distance = speed X time

fe?
/40)

= x 2.5terars-
ytours,
= 100 miles.

The specific gravity ofsubstance the weight of the sub

2.

is
a

stance divided by the weight of an equal volume of water. If two

cubic feet of substance weighs 1,000 pounds, what the specific
is
a

gravity of the substance?

Sp. gr. = - -
= an abstract number. Here you see
'

8,
rr

on
X W.o
IDS.
£

that the units have been cancelled just as numbers of arithmetic are
cancelled.
3. Often necessary to convert from one set of units to
is
it

different set. Years ago, famous auto racer insisted that some
a

it,

day he would attain speed of 60 miles per hour, or, as he put

a

"a mile minute." How far would he go each second?

a
 16 UNITS OF MEASURE [Chap. 2

60 miles per hour = 60 X 5,280 ft.Ar.

" MTXjqT-
5,280 fc .
ft-/mn-
.

-V
5,280.,
ft-/sec-
= 88 ft./sec.

This result should be memorized so that it may be used to convert

any number of mi./hr. to ft./sec. Thus 90 mi./hr. = |-§ X 88
ft./sec. = 132 ft./sec.

Exercises
in.* =
1. 231 1 gallon (U.S.). How many gallons are there in
a cubic foot?
2. 1 kg = 2.2 lb. How many grams are there in a pound?
3. How many centimeters are there in 1 foot?
4.kilowatt (1,000 watts) = 1.3 horsepower.
1 What is the
horsepower of a 550- watt electric iron?
6. A man runs 100 yards in 10 seconds. What is his speed in
miles per hour?
6. Convert 50 miles to kilometers. Convert 40 km to miles.
7. Recently a man returned to the United States after having
been in business in Mexico for many years. His car, having been
purchased in Mexico, had a speedometer which indicated km/hr.
How high may he allow his speedometer to read when he is in a
district in which the speed limit is 30 mi./hr.? How fast (mi./hr.)
was he going when his speedometer indicator pointed to 40? In
Mexico, this man found that his gasoline tank could hold 40 liters.
How many U.S. gallons can it hold?
8. How many square centimeters are there in a square inch?
9. One nautical mile is -$$ of a degree of a great circle of the
earth. What is the circumference of the earth in nautical miles?
10. A ship has a speed of 10 knots. Express this speed in feet
per second.
11. What is the easiest way to find the weight of a cubic foot of a
substance if the specific gravity is known?
Ch.p.2] UNITS OF MEASURE 17

12. A block of iron measures 10 cm X 20 cm X 5 cm. It weighs

7,600 g. What is its density in g/cm3? In lb./ft.3
13. The specific gravity of a substance is numerically equal to its
density expressed in grams per cubic centimeter. Why is this true?
Write the specific gravity of each substance listed in our table of
densities on page 14.
14. How much does an aluminum block weigh if it measures
4.2 cm X 5 cm X 10 cm?
15. Use the result of illustration 3 (page 15) to convert 40 mi./hr.
to ft./sec.; 70 mi./hr. to ft./sec.; 120 mi./hr. to ft./sec.; 30 ft./sec.
to mi./hr. ; and 100 ft./sec. to mi./hr.
16. Gasoline weighs 6 lb. /gal. and engine oil weighs 7.5 lb. /gal.
Express these densities in lb./ft.3
17. In
the study of aerodynamics, the density of air is taken as
.002378 slugs/ft.3 at 59°F and at a pressure of 29.92 inches of
mercury. Express this density in lb./ft.3 and in g/cm3. (One
slug = 32.2 lb.)
18. A recent advertisement indicates that injection carburetors
pass 5 tons of air per hour into each motor of a Flying Fortress. If
the density of air is .0765 lb./ft.3 how many cubic feet of air does
each motor take in one hour?
 CHAPTER 3

Vectors and Balanced Forces

Force is that which causes, or tends to cause, motion or
change of motion.
We are held to the surface of the earth by the force of
attraction which the earth exerts upon us. When a book
rests upon a table, the earth exerts a downward pull upon the
book, but no motion is produced, because the table exerts
an upward force of equal magnitude upon the book. As
far as motion is concerned, these two forces of equal magnitude
but opposite directions produce the same effect as no force
at all. How would you arrange things so that the book would
be acted upon by the downward force only? Would the force
cause motion?
The two kinds of motion are translation and rotation. Some
motions are combinations
of rotation and translation.
g^\
~* M "" •H/ ^n a satisfactory forward
the football rotates
pass,
while it is being "trans-
Translation Rotation iated" from the passer to
the receiver.
To describe a force adequately, one must give its magnitude
and its direction.
A quantity which has magnitude and direction is called a
vector quantity. Vector quantities are represented by
vectors. A vector is a straight line in a given direction with
an arrow on one end to indicate the direction in which the
vector quantity acts. The length of the vector is laid off to
scale to show the magnitude of the vector quantity.
Force, velocity, and acceleration are vector quantities.
18
Ch*P. 3] VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES 19

Quantities like volume, mass, and heat, which involve

no idea of direction, are called scalar quantities.

Addition (or Composition) of Concurrent Forces

Parallelogram of forces. What single force will produce the
same effect as
is produced by Scale :
the two forces I cm "25 it>.
shown? The
answer to this
question is ob
tained by means
of the following
steps:

1. The angle between the given forces is reproduced in a

second figure.
2. Each force is laid off to scale.
3. The parallelogram is completed.

The diagonal of the parallelogram represents the vector sum

of the two original forces. In this instance, the diagonal is
found to be 6.8 cm long. Since each centimeter represents
25 lb., 6.8 cm represents 170 lb. This force is called the
resultant of the two given forces.
The resultant of two or more forces is the single force which
will produce the same effect as is produced by the combined
action of all of the original forces. It is the vector sum of the
original forces. Any set of forces may be replaced by its
resultant. The anti-resultant (or equilibrant) of a group
of forces is the single force that would exactly balance the
group of forces. The resultant and the equilibrant are equal
in magnitude but are oppositely directed. When the vector
sum of all forces acting on an object is zero, the forces are said
to be balanced, or in equilibrium. Balanced forces produce
no change of motion.
20 VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES [Chap. 3

The resultant of two given forces depends upon the angle

between the two forces. To illustrate this, let us find the
resultant of a force of 3 lb. and a force of 4 lb. for various
directions of the two forces.

3 lb. ^-^
4-lb. r-7 lby
3 lb. 4 lb.
/?- / lb.
Scale: I cm -2 lb.

Thus, when and 4 are added together as vectors, the sum,

3
or resultant, may be anything from 1 to 7.
The polygon method. The polygon method is an abbrevia
tion of the parallelogram method. All lines not actually
needed are omitted. The illustrations below show the
method.
Find the resultant: Solution:
Chap. 3] VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES 21

If a system of concurrent forces yields a closed polygon, the

resultant is 0. That the forces are in equilibrium.

is,
If group of forces balanced, equilibrium destroyed

is

is
a

when any one of the forces removed. Thus every one of

is

a
set of balanced forces is the equilibrant of all the others.
This fact must be considered in the solution of many problems.

Illustrations
Find the tension in each of the inclined cords. The down-
1.

ward force of 75 lb.

is

the equilibrant of the

two inclined forces
acting at A. There
fore, the resultant of
the two unknown
forces 75 lb. upward.
is

By the construction
shown, the tensions Scale:
are found to be about cm =25 lb.
I

65 lb. and 40 lb., re

spectively. larger
A

figure would enable us

to get more accurate
results.

Neglecting
2.

the weight of the

inclined rod,
Scales find the force of
:

cm- ft. compression ex

I

erted on the rod

and and the tension
Cm - 50 lb. in the horizontal
I

cord.
Answer: 183
lb. and 1101b.
22 VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES [Chap. 3

In solving this problem by proportions, a

rough sketch is sufficient. In the figure, each
of the two force triangles is similar to the 3,4,5

triangle. Therefore = = 187.5 lb.:

150 ^orP
C 3
and-
150
= t4 or C = 112.51b.
3. At the midpoint of
a taut rope, a man
exerts an upward force of 100 lb. as indicated.
How much force does the rope exert upon the
car?

The force acting upon the car is equal to the tension (jP) in the
rope. To find its magnitude, we consider the three balanced forces
at the midpoint of the rope. The resultant of the two inclined
forces is 100 lb. downward and the vertical component of each of the
inclined forces is equal to 50 lb. Thus
50 I
and T = 1,000 lb.
T 20

4. The methods given above can be applied to any vector quan

tities. An airplane that
travels 80 mi./hr. when there Due to engine alone
is no wind is headed due
east. There is a northwest
wind of 20 mi./hr. Find scale: tan -ZQmL/hr.
the magnitude and the direc
tion of the actual velocity of the plane. From the figure, we find
that the velocity is 96 mi./hr. and is directed 48*° south of east.
By means of a small device called a "computer," a pilot
can add vectors very quickly and without drawing a figure.
From the magnitude and direction of the wind and his own air
speed, he finds his ground speed and his direction of travel
Chap. 3] VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES 23

(his true course). By a bit of maneuvering, the pilot takes

observations from which he can find the direction and speed
of the wind.

Resolution of Forces
Since two or more forces can be replaced by a single force,
it follows that a single force can be replaced by two forces
(called components) whose
resultant is equal to the
single force. The process of
resolving a force into com
ponents is the reverse of com
position. Resolution may
be carried out graphically 176
as illustrated. The 200-lb. Scale: 50 lb.
force may be replaced by a
horizontal force of 175 lb. and a vertical force of 100 lb.

Illustrations
1. Suppose that a sled rests upon a hill as shown. If the sled and
its load weigh 100 lb., how much force
tends to push the sled down the hill,
and with what force does the sled
push against the hill? The weight of
/ - . the sled may be resolved into two
/
icm 0?- so ih
<n to. components as shown. The compo-
nent parallel to the mu is 31 lb and
the component perpendicular to the hill is 95 lb.
2. When an airplane is traveling at constant velocity, all forces
are balanced. The air reaction is
resolved into two components as AJr reaction
shown. The vertical component Induced drag
neutralizes the weight of the plane.
The horizontal component and the Parasite
Pull ^^drag
parasite drag are balanced by the propeller Weight
pull exerted by the propeller. tof plana
24 VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES [Chap. 3

3. Sailing into the wind. (See the

figure at the left.)

Exercises
Wind
reactioi 1. If
you are exerting a force upon
a raft, in what way can you change
the point of application of the force
without changing the effect of the force?
2. Find the resultant in each case below, For the figure at the
right, use the polygon method.

200 lb. 100 lb.

Scale: 1 cm Jb. Scale: 1 cm Jb.
3. In the figure below find the tension in each of the inclined cords.

Scale: lcm -
4.Graphically, resolve each of these forces into a horizontal
component and a vertical component: (a) 200 lb. at an angle
Chap. 3] VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES 25

of 30° with the horizontal, (b) 500 lb. at an angle of -50° with the
horizontal.
6. A 100-lb. object rests upon a 13-ft. plank. One end of the
plank is raised 5 ft. above the level of the other end. Resolve the
weight of the object into a component parallel to the plank and a
component perpendicular to the plank.
6. The horizontal rod is hinged at A. Neglecting the weight of
the rod, find the tension in the inclined cord
and the compression in the rod. The figure
is drawn to scale.
7. Ascout radios to his base that, after fly
ing 100 miles east from his base and then 50
miles N.E., he has located a target. In what
direction from the base and how far must
bombers fly to reach the target? (Solve
graphically.)
8. On a certain airfoil, the total air reac
tion makes an angle of 10° with the vertical,
and the induced drag is 200 lb. Find the lift
and the magnitude of the total air reaction.

Moments of Force
The moment of a force measures its tendency to produce
rotation. The moment of a force, or torque, about a given
axis, is equal to the product of the force times the perpendicular
distance from the axis to the force.

l-ilJtf lb. & U *.

Torque about A = 40 pound-feet. Torque about B «■ 15 pound-feet.

Parallel Forces
For the sake of brevity, we shall consider vertical forces
only. This will not in any way limit the applications that
can be made of the facts to be presented.
26 VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES [Chap. 3

Since there are two types of motion — translation and

rotation— it follows that there are two conditions which must
be satisfied by the forces acting upon any object if the forces
are to be in equilibrium.
For vertical forces, the two conditions of equilibrium are:
1. The sum of the forces pulling up must be equal to the sum
of the forces pulling down. (Then the forces will produce
no translation.)
2. The sum of the clockwise moments about any point must
equal the sum of the counterclockwise moments about
the same point. (Then the forces will produce no
rotation.)
These conditions of equilibrium form the basis for the solution
of any problem involving parallel forces.
The center of gravity of an object is the point at which the
resultant of the weights of all the particles of the object
acts. In all of the problems in this book, we may consider
that the entire weight of any object acts at the center of
gravity of the object.
Illustrations
When a certain 2,200-lb. plane is grounded, its tail skid is 20 ft.
1.
(horizontally) behind the front wheels and the center of gravity of

L
'/^
—
-^^
*,
F "a —7
the plane is 1.5 ft. be-
hind the wheels.
much load is
How
supported
XTJu, — — — -i-
~~^^
Iz^-/
(<*) by the skid and (Z?)
— —
Y~
]& '£
by the wheels?
As an axis, consider
the line which joins the
two points at which the wheels touch the ground. Then :

Clockwise moments = counterclockwise moments

2,200 X 1.5 = A X 20
A = 165 lb.
and B - 2,200 - 165 = 2,035 lb.
Chap. 3] VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES 27

2. Ifa 180-lb. mechanic climbs onto the plane of illustration 1 at

a point which is 8 ft. behind the wheels, how much does the load on
the tail skid become?

2,200 X 1.5 + 180 X 8 = A X 20

A = 237 lb.

lb.
3. Find the equili- A6
j lb.
A
brant of the forces I
^
shown. Condition 1
tells us that we must
add a force of 6 lb.
+'
upward to produce
equilibrium. Condi- r 4-lb. ^^
S lb.
tion 2 enables us to
find where this force must be applied. Taking moments about A,
clockwise moments = counterclockwise moments.

5 X 9 = 6x + 3 X 4. x = 5Jft.
4. Find the equilibrant of the pair of forces shown. pair of A
forces of equal magnitude but opposite directions is called a couple.
A couple produces a twisting effect but does not produce translation.
^ . . If we neutralize the twist-
2 lb.* * inS e^ect by adding a single
/' + T force, the first condition of
A — equilibrium will no longer
' be satisfied. A couple can
^*2 lb. be balanced only by an-
"4- lb. "*" other C0uPle- To find a
couple which will produce
equilibrium, we may put any force at any place and find where
its mate must be placed. Let us add an upward force of 2 lb.
as indicated. Then we must add also a downward force at some
distance, x, to the right of A. For equilibrium,

Clockwise moment? _
—
(counterclockwise
about A ) ( moments about A
2x = 4X3 + 2Xl
x = 7 ft.

Moment of original couple

Check: = 4 X 3 = 12 (counterclockwise).
Moment of neutralizing couple = 2X6 = 12
(clockwise).
28 VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES [Chap. 3

exercises

1. A
160-lb. man sits on a balanced plank at a distance of 3 feet
from the center of the plank. Where must a 70-lb. boy sit in order
to balance the man? Draw a diagram.
2. Find the force or forces which are needed to produce equilib
rium in each of the four cases below. Draw a figure for each case.

*C
A B C a b
(1) 101b. 20 1b. 51b. 2 ft. 3 ft.
(2) 20 kg 10 kg 5 kg 20 cm 10 cm
(3) 0 101b. 201b. — 4 ft.
(4) 0 10 kg 10 kg — 30 cm

3. A 30-ft. bridge weighs 10 tons. A 3,000-lb. automobile is on

the bridge, 10 ft. from one end. Find the upward forces exerted
by the supports which are at the ends of the bridge.
4. Tell where the center of gravity of each of the following objects
is located: (a) a rectangular block, (b) a sphere, (c) a doughnut, (d)
a hammer. What has been gained by lowering the center of gravity
of the automobile? How was the lowering of the center of gravity
accomplished? What would happen to the center of gravity of an
automobile and its load if all of the passengers were to sit (a) upon
the roof of the car, (b) in the rear seat?
Tell all you can as to how the distribution of the load of a plane
5.
affects the location of the center of gravity of the plane and its load.
6. If
a plane noses over when the landing brakes are applied,
where is the axis about which the plane turns? Make a diagram to
show how far a plane can tilt before it noses over. Explain.
Solve exercise 34 on page 107 if the given distances are changed
7.
from 3 ft. and 4 ft. to 5 ft. and 12 ft., respectively.
[Chap. 3 VECTORS AND BALANCED FORCES 29

8.Solve exercise 33 on page 107 if the distances given are changed

from 4 ft. and 6 ft. to 3 ft. and 5 ft., respectively.
State the two conditions of equilibrium
9. for parallel forces.
Why are there two? Of what value are they?
10.Define the moment of a force. If a body is in equilibrium,
prove that the clockwise moments about any axis must equal the
counterclockwise moments about the same axis. Hint: What would
happen if this condition were not satisfied?
11. Find the loads supported by the skid and the wheels in illus
trations 1 and 2 if the center of gravity of the plane is 1 ft. behind
the wheels and the mechanic's weight is 140 lb.
12. Inan emergency, a pilot strapped a 160-lb. load to the wing of
his plane. If this extra load was 4 ft. from the center of the plane,
how much torque did the ailerons have to exert to keep the plane in
level flight? If the load was to the pilot's left, was the aileron torque
clockwise or counterclockwise?
A fundamental principle of mechanics tells us that any motion
which an airplane can have consists of a motion of its center of
gravity plus a rotation about an axis through the center of gravity.
For a plane which is in level flight, the rotation about the center of
gravity is 0. Then moments about any line drawn through the
center of gravity must be perfectly balanced.
13. If the lift, thrust, and drag exert a total moment of 2,000 lb.-ft.,
tending to make the plane nose up, and if the force on the tail is
vertical and acts at a point 12 ft. from the center of gravity of the
plane, how much tail force is needed to keep the plane in level
flight? In this instance, is the required force on the tail up or down?
14. An extra load of 4,000 lb. is placed 4 ft. behind the center of
gravity of a transport plane. How much additional upward force
must be exerted on the tail surface to keep the plane in level flight
if the tail surface is 45 ft. behind the center of gravity of the plane?
 CHAPTER 4

Accelerated Motion and Laws of Motion

Speed implies magnitude only, while velocity is a vector
quantity. If a motorist keeps his speedometer at 20 miles/hr.
while traveling round a lake, his speed is constant but his
velocity is not.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. The change
may be change in magnitude, direction, or both.
First we will confine our attention to motion in a straight
line, linear motion. Then the distinction between speed and
velocity disappears and any acceleration will involve a change
in the magnitude of a velocity. The expression a = 20
mi./hr./sec. means that, each second, the velocity is increased
by 20 miles per hour. The gain per second, 20 mi./hr., is
20 X 5 280
equal to y ft./sec/sec., or 29.3 ft./sec./sec. If this
'qq

aq
acceleration maintained for seconds, the total gain in
is

velocity will be 60 mi./hr.

For constant acceleration:

Gain in velocity = acceleration X time.

It common knowledge that for great acceleration or

is

"pick-up" an automobile should have powerful engine and

a

small total weight.

a

Newton's three laws of motion form the basis for more

exact study of velocity, acceleration, force, and other related
topics. The laws may be stated as follows.
30
 Chap. 4] ACCELERATED MOTION 31

1. Every object persists in a state of rest or of uniform

motion in a straight line unless acted upon by some
unbalanced force.
2. The acceleration of an object is proportional to the
unbalanced force acting upon it and is in the direction
of the force
3. For every action (or force) there is an equal and opposite
reaction. (Action and reaction never act on the same
object.)

Imagine that, on a certain object, the unbalanced force is

first F and then F\. Newton's second law tells us that the
acceleration will satisfy the proportion,

If
an object is allowed to drop, the unbalanced force acting
on it is the weight, w, of the object. The acceleration is
found by experiment to be about 32 ft./sec./sec. or 980
cm/sec. /sec. The letter g is used to designate this accelera
tion. Thus in the proportion (1), we know that the accelera
tion is g when the force is to, and the proportion becomes:

/o\
(2)
-a = -Fw or
„
F = -w a.
g
9

From the second equation, the acceleration of any object can

be calculated if the weight of the object and the unbalanced
w
force acting upon it are known. In the English system, —

is called the mass in slugs.

The acceleration by gravity varies from place to
caused
place. At the equator it is about 977 cm/sec. /sec; at the
poles it is about 983 cm/sec./sec. Very often the dyne is
used as a unit of force. A dyne is a force which will give a
mass of 1 gram acceleration of 1 cm/sec./sec. One of the
32 ACCELERATED MOTION [Chap. 4

chief advantages of the use of the dyne lies in the fact that the
value of a dyne is always the same, while the gram of force
(pull of gravity upon a mass of one gram) varies slightly with
geographical position. With this unit of force, the equation
F = — a may be written:
9
F(dynes) = 7n(grams) X o(cm/sec./sec.).

Illustrations

1d\F
i i
■«,
= l5lh-
■»
, =.2.o, 1.-19
F — = — a, a = 48 ft./Bec./sec.
15

(No friction.)

7^\ F - -w a,
= 15 lb.
—► F 10
J[J 13 = g a, a = 41.6 ft./sec./sec.

(2 lb. friction.)

15-lb.pulL
F =
«a(F=i5-l0 = 5

5 = — a, o = 16 ft./sec./sec.
i 10-lb. pull
i of earth.

Equations of motion of an object which moves in a straight

line, with a constant acceleration, the acceleration being
in the line of motion.
The velocity at any time equal to the initial velocity,
is
(t)

v0, plus the gain in velocity, o Thus,

X
t.

=
+

(a) at.
V

t>o
Ch^p. 4] ACCELERATED MOTION 33

The net distance traveled is

S = (average velocity) X (time)
■[! f (initial velocity) + (final velocity) ]

X
(time)

I
+ + at)
= vo (vo
x (t.me) Therefore)
= + iat*.
S
(b) v0t

In one of the following lessons we will prove the third relation,

= v0* 2aS.
+
(c) v*

In these important equations a, and are vector quanti

S
v,

ties. If, in
problem, two of them are oppositely directed,
a

one must be considered positive and the other must be taken

as negative.
If the object starts from rest, the initial velocity and the
is
equations become: 0
= at, = iof2, and = 2aS
S

(a') (b') (c') v1

v

or = y/2aS.
t;

Illustrations
25-lb. force acts upon 100-lb. object for Find
A

seconds.
L

the acceleration, the final velocity, and the distance covered in

5

seconds.

= — a, 25 = -55- o, a =
F

ft./sec./sec.
8

61
g

= X = 40 ft./sec., =
^^- = 100 ft.
S
5
8
v

man dives from height of 36 ft. With what speed does

A
2.

he hit the water?

= \/2*S = \/2 X 32 X 36 = X = 48 ft./sec.
8

6
v

An object shot vertically upward with an initial velocity of

3.

is

144 For how many seconds will rise?

it

ft./sec.
= at.
+

Vo
v
34 ACCELERATED MOTION [Ch.P. 4

It will rise until its velocity becomes 0. Thus

0 = 144 - 32<, and t = 4.5 seconds.

Minus 32 was substituted for a because we took the upward initial

velocity as positive, and the acceleration due to gravity is downward.
If the object had been shot downward, the equation would have been
v = 144 + 32t.
4. Where would the object mentioned in (3) be at the end of
4 seconds?

- 32 *

16.
S = v„t + $at*, S = (144 X 4)
= 320 feet (above the earth).

Momentum, Impulse, Impacts

Momentum (amount of motion) = mass X velocity = — v.

Impulse = force X time = change of momentum.

If vo = then Ft = -
w
0,

v.
9

This may be proved as follows:

= —a, Ft = —at = —v.

F
9

In collision, total momentum before impact = total

a

momentum after impact. This an exact relation which

is

does not depend upon any simplifying assumptions such as

the assumption that friction may be disregarded. When
this relation used, velocities in opposite directions must be
is

given opposite algebraic signs.

Illustrations
If these
two objects stick together after they collide, find their
1.

common velocity.

20 ft. /sec. (ffcfy— » «■

vfSj 30ft./sec.
 Chap. 4] ACCELERATED MOTION 35

Momentum before collision = momentum after collision.

gjgx20-^X30-(200+150)„.
350v = -500
v = —1.43 ft./sec. What does the minus sign mean?
2. A 5-lb. rifle shoots a .05-lb.
—
_ . .
bullet with a velocity of 1,000 '/ioLb
<
"^^^ sit>
ft./sec. Find the velocity of L^"^
recoil of the gun.

Momentum before impact = momentum after impact.

0 = .05 X 1,000 - 5».
v = 10 ft./sec.

Curvilinear Motion, Centrifugal Force

When an object moves in a curved path, the direction of
its velocity is always changing. Any change of velocity
requires a force. In this case, the force is directed toward
the center of curvature of the path and is called centripetal
(toward the center) force. Its magnitude is given by the
equation

a R

For a plane making loops or turns at constant speed, the

centripetal force
varies with the C.F.-O
J^^l^T
*.°r ^
sharpness of the
straig^ «
tumsasindicated.
If the speed is
increased from lOOmi./hr. to 141 mi./hr., these forces are doubled.
Centrifugal means "tending away from the center." In a
turn, the force which the seat of the plane exerts
upon the
36 ACCELERATED MOTION [Chap. 4

pilot is the centripetal force, and the force which the pilot
exerts upon the seat is the centrifugal force. Test pilots are
very thoroughly "taped" to protect themselves against these
forces. In coming out of a steep dive, the pilot loses conscious
ness for a short time. Young men regain consciousness much
quicker than do older men.

Illustration
A 2,000-lb. car travels 60 mi./hr. (88 ft./sec.) on a 1-mi. circular
track. How much centripetal force acts upon the car?

C.F. = - -=^X
. (88)1
R 32 5,280/2jt
= 576 lb.

What exerts this central push upon the car?

Trajectories
The path of a bomb, a bullet, or a golf ball is called the
trajectory. A high-speed bullet has a relatively "flat"
trajectory. If air resistance were not encountered, every tra
jectory would be a true parabola. After any object is thrown
into the air in any direction, it is acted upon by the force
of gravity alone and has a downward acceleration of 32 ft./
sec./sec. Neglecting air resistance, we find that the path
of any projectile is determined by its initial velocity and the
force of gravity. If the initial velocity is 0, the object will
fall downward 16 ft. during the first second, 64 ft. during the
first two seconds, 144 ft. during the first three seconds, and
so on.
Now, suppose that an object is shot vertically upward with
an initial velocity of 96 ft./sec. If the initial velocity were
the only cause of motion, the object would rise 96 ft. in 1 sec.
If gravity were the only cause of motion, the object would
fall 16 ft. during the first second. Combining the effect of the
Chap. 4] ACCELERATED MOTION 37

initial velocity with the effect due to gravity, we find that, in

1 second,
8 = 96 ft. - 16 ft. = 80 ft.
In two seconds,

S = (2 X 96) - 64 m 128 ft.

The complete excursion may be charted as follows:

1. Rise due to 2. Fall due to

Time (sec.) initial
velocity 96« - gravity — 16t1
8 -
Net
-
(1)
rise,
(2)

0
1 96 X 1 -
0
96 ft.
0
16 ft.
0
80 ft.
X 2 = 64 ft.
-
2 96 192 ft. 128 ft.
3 96 X 3 288 ft. 144 ft. 144 ft.
4 96 X 4 «- 384 ft. 256 ft. 128 ft.
5 96 X 5 = 480 ft. 400 ft. 80 ft.
6 98 X 6 = 576 ft. 576 ft. Oft.

The formula S = vd + $ at"1 could be proved in the manner

in which the above equations were obtained. The important
fact is that gravity will produce a displacement,
S = $al2,

while the initial velocity is producing a displacement,

S = v0t.

An object which is thrown horizon-

tally falls exactly as far as one which
0^-\
is dropped from rest. Both will
strike the floor at the same time.
The paths of two such objects are
i
i
\
I
shown by the diagram.
38 ACCELERATED MOTION [Chap. 4

Illustrations
L From a height offt., a ball is thrown horizontally
81 with a
velocity of 60 ft./sec. How far forward will the ball travel before
it strikes the earth? Each second that the ball is in the air, it goes
forward 60 ft. The time of flight is obtained from S = $af = 1672.

Then 81 = 16t2 and t = \/f& = £ sec., and the horizontal distance

covered is
60 X | = 135 ft.

2. A plane traveling horizontally with a

velocity of 150 ft./sec. releases a bomb. The
drawing shows how the path of the bomb
can be constructed.

3. A ball is
Scale thrown in the di
rection OA with a
I cm speed of 100 ft./sec.
Construct the path.
The path is as
indicated.

Exercises
Acceleration.
1. angles to the cushion of a
A billiard ball traveling at right
billiard table at 20 ft./sec. rebounds with a velocity of 18 ft./sec.
Chap. 4] ACCELERATED MOTION 39

along its original path. How much was the change (a) in speed and
(b) in velocity? If the ball was in contact with the cushion for
.01 sec., what was the average value of its acceleration?
2. An automobile accelerated from 30 mi./hr. to 60 mi./hr. in
4 seconds. Express this acceleration in ft./sec./sec.
3. If
the brakes of a car cause a retardation of 11 ft./sec./sec.,
in how many seconds will they stop the car if the car is going 60
mi./hr.?
4. Solve the equation for acceleration:

Change in velocity = acceleration X time.

What "time" Express your final equation in words

is meant here?
to form a modified statement of the definition of acceleration. This
form of the definition of acceleration is preferred by some.

Newton's second law or F = — a.

9

5. How much tractive force must the engine in (2) produce if

the car weighs 2,000 lb.?
6. A30-lb. object is fastened to one end of a cord. A 20-lb.
object is fastened to the other end. The cord is then hung over a
very light, frictionless pulley. How much unbalanced force is there
to cause acceleration? How much mass is accelerated? How much
acceleration is produced?
7. A20-lb. object is placed upon a frictionless inclined plane.
The plane is 13 ft. long and one of its ends is 5 ft. above the level
of the other end. Find the component of force which causes accelera
tion and find the acceleration produced.
8. In a delayed parachute jump, a man meets an air resistance

of =g lb. v is the man's velocity, in mi./hr. What is his acceleration

when his velocity is 0, 100 mi./hr., 120 mi./hr.? The man and his
equipment weigh 192 lb.
9. After the parachute in (8) opens, the air resistance becomes
fcv1. With the parachute, at what velocity will the man's accelera
tion become 0?
40 ACCELERATED MOTION [Chap, a

Equations of motion.
Most of the problems to which these equations apply can be solved
by use of only one of the equations. The equation to use is the one
that involves only those quantities which are given in the statement
of the problem and those quantities which are to be found.
Fill in the blank spaces of the following table for a freely falling
10.
body which starts from rest. Use g = 32 ft. /sec. /sec.

Distance Fallen
Velocity Total Distance During the
Time of Fall (sec.) (ft./sec.) Fallen (ft.) Second (ft.)

4J
11. To check his altimeter, a pilot, flying horizontally, drops a
stone into the ocean. He sees the splash 5.4 seconds later. What is
his altitude?
A parachutist hits the ground with the velocity he would get
12.
by jumping from a height of 10 ft. Express this velocity in ft./sec.
and in mi./hr.
13. In level bombing, how long does it take fora bomb to reach the
earth from a height of 10,000 ft.? The time is the same as the time
it would take to fall10,000 ft. vertically downward.

What velocity does an object gain in falling from a height of

14.
100 ft.?

15. From what height must an object be dropped so that its final
velocity will be 75 ft./sec.?
An object is shot vertically upward with an initial velocity of
16.
144 ft./sec. For how many seconds will it continue to rise? What
will
velocity will it have at the end of the first 3 seconds? Where
it be at this time? Does the acceleration of the object change at
any point in its flight? What causes the acceleration of the object.
Does it change?
Chap. 4] ACCELERATED MOTION 41

Momentum, impulse, impacts.

17. A
30-ton railroad engine, with no train, hits a stalled auto and
carries it along. The auto weighs 1 ton. Find the common velocity
after impact if the train had been traveling at a rate of 30 mi./hr.
18. A 1,000-lb. gun shoots a 2-lb. bullet with a muzzle velocity of
1,200 ft./sec. Find the velocity of recoil of the gun.
19. If
in (18) the bullet took .005 sec. to travel the length of the
gun, what average force did the explosion exert upon the bullet?

Curvilinear motion.
20. A 10-lb. object travels 20 ft./sec. in a circle whose radius is
3 ft. Find the centripetal force.
21. A pilot can stand 5 "g's" of acceleration. At how small a
radius can he take a turn at 120 mi./hr. ?
22. When a plane makes a 45° bank at constant altitude, the centri
petal force is numerically equal to the weight
of the plane. What is the radius of the path
of a plane when it makes a 45° bank at 100
mi./hr.? At 120 mi./hr.?
23. For a 45° bank as in (22), express the
lift, L, which the wings must withstand in
terms of the weight, w, of the plane and its
^7 afbank

load. (See figure.)

24. The ratio - is called the load factor. Find, graphically, the
load factor for a 30° bank and for an 80° bank. A 90° bank at con
stant altitude is impossible. Why? Why must a designer consider
load factors? In addition to banking, a large load factor may be
brought into play in dives, in loops, and by gusts of wind. (A
licensed plane must be able to withstand a vertical gust of 30 ft./sec.)

Trajectories.
25. An object is shot at an angle of 45° with the horizon, with an
initial velocity of 100 ft./sec. Construct the path for the first
3 seconds.

26. From the top of a high building, a ball is thrown horizontally

with a velocity of 50 ft./sec. Construct the path for the first 4
seconds.
42 ACCELERATED MOTION [Chap. 4

27. Ifthe building (exercise 26) is 100 ft. high, how far (horizon
tally) will the ball travel before it strikes the earth?
28. In level bombing from 20,000 ft., how far forward does the
bomb travel if the velocity of the bomber is 120 mi./hr.?
29. An object is projected its vertical component of
so that
velocity is 96 ft./sec. and its horizontal component of velocity is
50 ft./sec. For how many seconds will it continue to rise? To what
maximum height will it rise? How far forward will it go before it
strikes the earth?
 CHAPTER 5

Fluids at Rest

Gases, liquids, and vapors are called fluids.

Pressure is force per unit area.
The pressure exerted by a liquid is equal to the weight of a
column of the liquid which lies above a horizontal unit of area.
Water weighs 62.5 pounds per cubic foot. Therefore, pressure
due to water (lb./ft.2) = 62.5 X depth (feet). In the metric
system, the density of water is 1 gram per cubic centimeter.
Thus pressure due to water (g/cm2) = 1 X depth (cm). In
other words, the pressure (in g/cm2) is numerically equal to
the depth (in cm) of the water.
Pressure always acts at right angles to the surface of a
container and is exerted equally in all directions. In the
figure, the pressure is the same at each point indicated since
each point is equally far below the surface.

Arrows in
dicote pressure

The force acting upon a surface is equal to pressure X area.

An automobile oil-pressure gage is shown on the next page.
43
44 FLUIDS AT REST [Chap. 5

The oil enters the flattened tube and tends to straighten it,
just as a garden hose straightens when the water is turned on.
This causes the pointer to rotate
further as the pressure is in
creased. The Bourdon gage is
the most common type.
In some discussions it becomes
necessary to distinguish between
"gage pressure" and total or
" absolute pressure." If the pres
sure inside a tank is equal to
atmospheric pressure, an ordi
nary gage attached to the tank
would read 0. The amount by
which the pressure inside the tank
Bourdon Gage exceeds atmospheric pressure is
called the "gage pressure." The
"
actual pressure is called the absolute pressure." If a student
calculates a pressure exerted by the weight of a liquid, his
answer is the gage pressure. If he wants the absolute pressure,
he must add atmospheric pressure to his answer. Ordinarily,
in discussing liquid pressures, we are interested in the gage
pressure only.
On a vertical wall, the pressure due to a liquid varies uni
formly as indicated by the length of the arrows in the figure.
The average pressure on
the end of the tank of
water shown is 62.5 X
(average depth); that
is,

62.5 X4 = 250 lb. /ft.2

The force acting upon the
end of the tank (average
is

pressure) X (area) = 250 SO'

X X 10 = 20,000 lb. The force acting upon the bot
8
Chap. 5J FLUIDS AT REST 45

torn of the tank is (62.5 X 8) X (10 X 20) = 100,000 lb.

Note that the force acting upon the bottom of the tank is
equal to the total weight of the liquid.

Buoyancy/ Archimedes' Principle

Archimedes' principle states that (1) an object that is
submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force that is equal to
the weight of its
own volume of the
fluid and (2) that
an object which
floats in a fluid
"XT v-
displaces its own
weight of the fluid
— that is, the Figure 1 Figure 2

buoyant force is equal to the weight of the object.

In figure 1 the upward force is F2 = hida, where d = density
of the liquid and a is the area of the top, or bottom, of the
object. The downward force is Fi = hda. The resultant
upward force, the buoyant force, is

hida — hda = (hi — h)ad

= (volume of object) X (density of liquid)
= weight of displaced liquid.

In figure 2 the upward force is

Ft = hida = hiad
= (volume of displaced liquid) X (density of liquid).

Since the object floats, this upward force must be equal

to the weight of the object. The liquid exerts no downward
force upon the floating object. Archimedes' principle is
often used to find the volume of an irregular object, or to
find the specific gravity of a solid or of a liquid.
46 FLUIDS AT REST [Chap. 5

Illustrations
1. The raft indicated is made of solid wood which weighs 50 lb. /ft.'
i How far will it sink into fresh water?
Solution:
/O' The raft will sink until it displaces its
own weight of water.
<\l
Weight of raft = weight of displaced water.
^Water 5OX2X*XZ0 = 62.5 X z X i X 10
line x — 1.6 feet.
2. An object weighs 10 g in air, 8 g in water, and 8.5 g in alcohol.
Find (a) the specific gravity of the object, (b) the specific gravity
of the alcohol, and (c) the volume of the object. Solution:
weight of object 10
(a) Sp. gr. of object =- . = 5.
weight of equal volume of water 10-8
.. . _ , , , , weight of displaced alcohol
(b) Sp. gr. of alcohol =
weight of equal vol. of water

™^-5 = 0.75.

(c) The object displaces 2 g of water. The volume of 2 g of

water is 2 cubic centimeters. Therefore, the volume of the object is
2cm.»
Atmospheric Pressure
The average value of atmospheric pressure, at
sea level, is 14.7 pounds per square inch. This
is equal to the pressure that would be exerted by
a 34-ft. depth of water or a 76-cm ( = 29.92-in.)
8
depth of mercury. This pressure is equal to
the weight of the atmosphere above a unit of
t
area. Atmospheric pressure decreases with alti o
tude at a rate of about 0.5 lb./in.2 for each 1,000
ft. of increase in altitude. (See Fig. 1, page 4.)
Ordinarily we are not conscious of the fact that N

4
the atmosphere exerts a considerable pressure.

r
This is because forces due to atmospheric pressure
are usually balanced. However, some of us have
Chap. 5] FLUIDS AT REST 47

noticed unpleasant effects due to quick changes in atmospheric

pressure. The magnitude of atmospheric pressure may be
demonstrated by boiling water in an old can for a while,
.sealing the can, and allowing it to cool; or by pumping the
air out of the can.
A barometer is a device for measur O Vacuum
ing atmospheric pressure. There are
two types of barometers: the mercury \ljr5cale and
*" vernier
barometer and the aneroid. The mer
cury barometer is the standard preci
sion instrument for fixed installation.
The pressure at A (atmospheric pres
sure) is equal to the pressure at B
which, in turn, is equal to the pressure
exerted by the column of mercury from
B upward. Thus atmospheric pressure Zero of
is measured by the height of the mer scale
cury as indicated on the scale. For
accurate work, the mercury barometer
must be corrected for capillary depres Mercury Barometer
sion, temperature, and gravity.
The aneroid barometer is made of an air-tight box of very
thin metal. The box is evacuated so that the upper surface
presses upon an external spring which keeps the box from
collapsing. If much air were
left in the box, variations of
\<A the inside pressure due to tem

Q?
-x
Mt perature changes would cause
serious errors. As atmospheric
pressure increases, the top of
Aneroid Barometer the box is pushed downward
very slightly. This motion is
greatly magnified by a system of levers as indicated in the
figure. Aneroid barometers have been improved constantly.
48 FLUIDS AT REST [Chap. 5

Today the best ones are almost as reliable as the mercury

barometer. In addition to being small and rugged, they can
be read quickly and can be made very sensitive. It has been
said that the most sensitive aneroid barometers show a change
in reading when they are moved from the top of a desk to
the floor.
The scale may be laid off to indicate pressure in centimeters
or inches of mercury; or the instrument may be used as an
altimeter by means of a scale which is marked off in feet of
elevation. For the latter use, the instrument is provided
with a means of adjusting the zero reading to correspond with
the pressure on the earth's surface.
The recording barograph consists essentially of an aneroid
barometer with a
pen attached to the
end of the pointer.
As the pointer
moves up and down
with variations in
air pressure, the
pen traces a wavy
line on ascale
wrapped around
a slowly revolving

Recording Barograph
cylinder. The
barograph provides
a continuous record of atmospheric pressure over a period of
hours, days, or an entire week. Sealed barographs have
been used to verify the establisment of new altitude records.
In some work, pressure is expressed in atmospheres. An
atmosphere is 14.7 lb./in.2 Thus a pressure of 10 atmospheres
is 147 lb./in.s
In meteorology, the millibar is often used as a unit of pres
sure. A millibar (mb) is 1,000 dynes/cm2. At sea level,
Chap. 5] FLUIDS AT REST
 50 FLUIDS AT REST [Ch.P. 5

the normal atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 mb. Thus a

millibar is roughly Yftnfi of an atmosphere.

Isobars. On daily weather maps, lines are drawn which
connect points of equal atmospheric pressure. These lines,
called isobars, constitute a very important part of the map.
Before observations are plotted, they are reduced to sea level.
Weather maps often show an atmospheric pressure of more
than 30 inches for El Paso, Texas, although the actual pressure
recorded at El Paso is about 26.2 inches. To correct for
elevation, about -jV of an hich is added to the barometer
reading for each 100 feet of elevation.

Exercises
1. A tank
ft. wide, 10 ft. long, and 5 ft. deep is full of water.
4 If
water weighs 62.5 lb. /ft.', find the force exerted by the water on
(a) the bottom of the tank and (b) at the 4 ft. by 5 ft. end of the tank.
2. Solve problem (1) if the tank is full of gasoline whose specific
gravity is 0.7.
3. A raft
is 4 ft. wide, 10 ft. long, and 8 in. thick. It is made of
white pine whose density is 40 lb./ft.3 How much weight can the
raft support in fresh water?
4. How far will the raft of problem (3) sink into fresh water when
it carries no load?

6. The airship R-100 had a gross weight of 150 tons. Assuming

that it could float in an atmosphere whose density is .08 lb./ft.*,
find the volume of the airship.
6. A
metal object weighs 27 g in air, 17 g in water, and 20 g in
a liquid. Find the specific gravity of the object and the specific
gravity of the liquid. Use your answers and the table on page 14
to identify the metal and the liquid.
7. Study the altimeter of a plane to see how many feet of altitude
are represented by each of the smallest divisions on its scale. In
laboratory practice, the reading of a scale should be estimated to
tV °f the smallest scale division. How many feet of altitude would
Chap. 51 FLUIDS AT REST 51

be represented by iV of the smallest division on the scale of the

altimeter? To how many inches of mercury would this be
equivalent?
8. Estimate the elevation of El Paso, Texas. Its actual elevation
is 3,762 ft. in the business district.

9. Normal atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 mb = 29.92 in. (of

mercury). Use this equation to convert (a) 900 mb to inches and
(b) 28 in. to millibars.
 CHAPTER 6

Work, Energy, Power, and Friction

Work
The terms work, energy, and power are often misused in
daily speech. Work = force X distance. The force and the
distance through which the force moves must be measured in
the same direction.
Work is most commonly expressed in foot-pounds. How
ever, we can combine any unit of force with any unit of length
to form a unit of work. An erg is
the amount of work done when a
dyne of force acts through a distance
of 1 cm. Thus an erg is a dyne-
centimeter. Because this unit is
too small for convenience in many
applications, the joule (107 ergs) is often used. The kilowatt-
hour, which costs us from 3 to 5 cents, is 3,600,000 joules
of work.
If a man lifts 20 lb. vertically upward for 5 ft., he does
20 X 5 = 100 ft.-lb. of work. If he carries a 100-lb. load
about on a level field, he does no work. Suppose that a man
pulls on a rope as indicated and drags the load forward for
20 ft. How much work does he do? Since the motion is in
a horizontal direction, the work done = (the horizontal compo
nent of force) X 20 ft. The horizontal component of the
100-lb. force is 86.6 lb. Therefore the work = W = 86.6 X
20 = 1,730 ft.-lb. The vertical component of force, 50 lb.,
52
Chap. 6] WORK, ENERGY, POWER, AND FRICTION 53

does no work because there is no motion in the vertical

direction.

Energy
Energy is ability to do work. It is measured in units of
work or in equivalent heat units. There are two kinds of
energy: (1) potential energy and (2) kinetic energy.
Potential energy is energy due to position or to internal
strains. If a 10-lb. object is 8 ft. above the
floor, its P.E. is 80 ft.-lb.
Examples of P.E.: (1) A weight raised
above the floor. (2) A wound-up clock
spring, or a compressed automobile spring.
(3) Chemical energy, as in fuel (1 lb. of
average gasoline possesses about 16,000,000 p£ ■
W'ft
ft.-lb. of potential energy).
Kinetic energy is the energy of an object which is due to the
motion of the object. A moving object always does work when
it is brought to rest. When the head of a hammer strikes a
nail, work is done upon the nail. The kinetic energy of an
object is equal to the work which the object does when it is
brought to rest. It is also equal to the work which has been
done to give the object its velocity. The formula by means
of which the kinetic energy of an

f V0=0 object may be calculated is ob-

,/TTN ttr. ~^*vyN tained as follows:
^\^s ~~=^ — ^y' Suppose that a constant force, F
~~

^g pounds, acts, through a distance,

S feet, upon an object which is
initially at rest. Then the work done on the object is

K.E. = W = F X S ft.-lb.
w 1
F = — a and S
-?«6-> since = ^ at2.
9 2
54 WORK, ENERGY, POWER, AND FRICTION [Chap. 6

9 2

w*
=
^
2?
ft.-lb.

Thus K.E. = ~,
wv*
2g

Energy can be transformed from one form to another but

it cannot be destroyed or created. This fact is known as the
law of conservation of energy.

- 150 lb.
—3poort.-ib.
of PE.

w\
► 20 ft. « — 60 mi./hr.
300O ft.-lb.

n
I
of K.E.
363.000 ft.-lb. ZO million ft.-lb
^ywy^wwwwyw * Of K.E.. of K.E

Examples of Kinetic Energy and of Potential Energy

Illustrations

1. If
a 3,200-lb. auto is traveling at a rate of 90 ft./sec. (about
urn* 3,200(90) 2
60 mi./hr.), its kinetic energy is K.E. = 405,000
2g 2 X 32
ft.-lb. When the brakes are applied, the car is retarded by a force
of 1,000 lb. In what distance, S, will the car be brought to rest?

K.E. =F XS, 405,000 = 1.000S, S = 405 feet.

2. Suppose that a plane dives from a point, A, to a point, B, which

is 900 ft. lower than A, and that the propeller thrust is just enough
Chap. 61 WORK, ENERGY, POWER, AND FRICTION 55

to compensate for the energy which the plane would lose to air
resistance. If the velocity of the plane is 60 mi./hr. at A, what
velocity will it have at B1 (This problem is equivalent to the
problem of a sled which slides down a frictionless hill.)
Loss in P.E. from A to B = gain in K.E. from A to B.

w X 900 = — (v = gain in velocity.)

04
v = V900 x 64 = 240 ft./sec.
= 164 mi./hr.

and the final velocity = 60 mi./hr. + 164 mi./hr. = 224 mi./hr.

Notice that the result is independent of the path which the plane
takes from A to B.

rower
Power is the rate at which work is being done. In the
British system, the units of power are the foot-pound per
second and the horsepower.

1 hp. = 550 ft.-lb./sec. or 33,000 ft.-lb./min.

In the metric system, the units of power are the watt and the
kilowatt.

1 watt =
1 joule/sec.

1 kilowatt (kw) = 1.3 hp., approximately.

Illustration

A 180-lb. man climbs a 20-ft. rope in 10 seconds. How much work

does he do and what is his horsepower?

Work done = 180 X 20 = 3,600 ft.-lb.

Power developed = -*— - = 360 ft.-lb./sec.

;c. =
—n hp.
10 55U
= 0.655 hp.
56 WORK, ENERGY, POWER, AND FRICTION [Chap. 6

Friction
Whenever one surface slides
over another, the motion is
opposed by the force of fric
!* tion. Friction is due to ad
hesion and to interlocking of
the irregularities of the two
surfaces. In a machine, fric
Putt
tion causes wear, heating, and

Force of friction
-y loss of power. Friction is re
duced by proper design of
bearings and by lubrication.
Laws of sliding friction.
1. Starting friction is greater than sliding friction.
2. Friction is less at high velocities than it is at low veloci
ties.
The force of friction is independent of the amount of
3.
surface area if the force which presses the two surfaces together
remains unchanged.
4. The force of friction is proportional to the normal force
which pushes one of the surfaces against the other. This
fourth law may be expressed as follows:
Force of friction = KX (normal force),
force of friction
otK =
force normal to surface

The constant K is
called the coefficient of friction.
Coefficients of friction are obtained by means of very simple
experiments. Suppose that some weights are put on a block
of oak so that the block and its load have a total weight of
30 lb. If it takes a horizontal force of 10 lb. to keep the block
sliding over an oak floor, at a constant speed, the coefficient
of friction between the two surfaces is $% or $.
Chap. 61 WORK, ENERGY, POWER, AND FRICTION 57

COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION

Materials K

Oak on oak 0.3 to 0.5

Iron on oak 0.6 to 0.65
Steel on ice 0.2
Iron on bronze (no lubrication) 0.25
Iron on bronze (lubricated) .05 to .08

Usually we think of the undesirable effects of friction.

However, friction performs many useful functions. Without
friction we could not walk across a floor, belts could not be used
to drive pulleys, ropes and thread could not be made, brakes
and clutches would not operate. Anybody can think of many
more instances in which friction is helpful.
Viscosity is a frictional resistance offered by a fluid to the
relative motion of its particles.

If a liquid fills the space

between the two concentric cylinders
shown, the rotating cylinder tends to impart its motion to the
hollow cylinder. Thus the outer cylinder will be set in motion
unless it is held back by the application of a force, F. The
liquid touching the inner cylinder assumes the surface velocity
of the inner cylinder and moves faster than any of the rest
of the liquid. This inner layer slides inside the next layer
and drags it along, and so on. The velocities of these layers of
liquid vary as indicated by the arrows in the cross-section
diagram. The layer in contact with the inner cylinder has the
58 WORK, ENERGY, POWER, AND FRICTION [Chap. 6

greatest velocity and the layer in contact with the outer

cylinder remains at rest. If the dimensions of the cylinders
and the speed of rotation are given, the viscosity of the liquid
can be measured by the magnitude of the force F. In labora
tory practice the method indicated above must be modified
slightly.
In industry, viscosity is measured by the number of seconds
in which a given amount of the liquid will
flow through a jet. The viscosimeter is
calibrated so that determinations can be
made quickly and easily.
In practical tests on lubricating oils, the
viscosimeter shown is placed in an oven to
measure viscosity at high temperatures and
in refrigerators to measure the viscosity of
the sample at low temperatures. Most of us
Viscosimeter have heard such expressions as the "zero pour
test."
Lubricating oils have been listed in order of increasing
viscosity by the Society of Automotive Engineers (S.A.E.).
The classification is given in the table. The remarks apply to
use in automobiles.

S.A.E.
Number
«— 10 Extra light (winter and breaking-in oil) .
")
M 20 Light > Viscosity very low.
c 30 Medium /
a
u
o 40 Heavy (for very hot weather \
(*- 50 Extra heavy (trucks and tractors) [nigh viscositv
90 Winter gear lubricant 1

150 Summer gear lubricant )

Most of us have noticed that liquids such as syrup or oils flow

much more rapidly in summer than they do in winter. The
viscosity of any liquid decreases markedly when the tempera
ture is increased. Because of this fact, engineers have been
Chap. 6] WORK, ENERGY, POWER, AND FRICTION 59

unable to find an ideal solution to the problem of lubrication

of gasoline engines. If the engine
oil is fight enough to lubricate
properly when the engine is cold,
Viscosity of
it becomes too thin after the
castor oil
engine has been warmed up.
The oil actually used is too heavy
to circulate properly while the
engine is cold. To favor the Temperature
engine as much as possible, it
should be warmed up very carefully before it is given any
great load.
Effects of viscosity. Viscous friction is proportional to
Pipe velocity. Because of
the viscosity of air, a
Boat raindrop meets more
tzaanazzTBW and more frictional re
sistance as its speed in
creases. Finally the
Velocity is great
A and is
est at frictional force becomes
zero at shore equal to the weight of
and bottom. the drop. Then the
forces acting on the raindrop are balanced and there is no
further increase in velocity. The drop continues its fall with
a constant velocity, which Is called the terminal velocity.
The terminal velocity is only one or two cm/sec. for very
small drops. Thus droplets of water, as in clouds, remain
suspended in air (or sink very slowly if the air is perfectly
still), while large drops fall to the earth.
Streamlining. Viscosity accounts for only a part of the air
resistance encountered by trains, automobiles, and airplanes.
At high velocities, much of the air drag is due to inertia of the
air and to turbulence (swirls and eddies), and the total air
resistance usually varies as the square of the velocity. Drag,
60 WORK, ENERGY, POWER, AND FRICTION [Chap. 6

which is due to inertia of the air and to turbulence, is greatly

reduced by streamlining. For a man falling without using
his parachute, the terminal velocity is about 120 mi./hr.
After the parachute opens, the terminal velocity is reduced to
about 17 mi./hr.
relative
motion of air
*-

motion of object
Object "C" meets least air resistance

exercises
1. How much kinetic energy does a 6,400-lb. airplane have when
itis flying at a rate of 240 mi./hr.? How much potential energy
does the plane have at an altitude of 15,000 ft.?
2. A 2-lb. hammerhead having a velocity of 6 ft./sec. strikes a
nail. How much work is done upon the nail? If the blow drives
the nail 1 in. into a plank, find the force with which the plank resists
the progress of the nail.
3. If all the energy of gasoline could be used to do work, through
what distance could the energy of 1 lb. of gasoline exert a force of
2001b.?
4. A bomber releases a 4-ton "block buster" from the altitude of
10,000 ft. How much potential energy does the bomb have just
after it is released, after it has fallen 8,000 feet, just before it strikes
the ground? (Neglect the chemical energy of the bomb's explosive
charge.) What additional information would we need if we wished
to calculate the kinetic energy of the bomb at each of these points?
5. If
a fly weighs 0.01 g, how many ergs of work does it do when
it climbs 2 meters up a wall?
6. A French auto engine was rated at 15 kw. What was its
horsepower?
Chap. 6] WORK, ENERGY, POWER, AND FRICTION 61

7. A 150-lb. man runs up a stairway, raising himself 12 ft. in

4 seconds. What horsepower does he develop?
8. In the United States, the service ceiling of a plane is defined
as the altitude at which the plane cannot climb more than 100 ft./min.
How much reserve horsepower must a small 1,100-lb. plane have
when flying at the service ceiling?
9. A tractor traveling at a rate of 4 mi./hr. can exert a pull of
1 ,000 lb. What is the drawbar horsepower of the tractor?
What horsepower is needed for a thrust of 200 lb. at 90 mi./hr.
10.
if (a) the thrust is in the direction of the flight path and (b) if the
thrust makes an angle of 10° with the flight path? In (b) find the
required component of thrust, graphically.
Why must the automobile engine be placed at the rear end if
11.
automobiles are to be streamlined? What should be done to the
underside of the car? Which is more nearly streamlined, an airplane
or an expensive automobile? Which of nature's creatures are most
nearly streamlined?
12. Do you think that most of the air resistance at the angle
between the hood and the windshield of a modern automobile is due
to viscosity of air, to turbulence, or to overcoming the inertia of the
air?
13. The lift on a plane varies as the square of the velocity. If the
take-off speed of a 6,400-lb. plane is 60 mi./hr., how many pounds of
the propeller thrust are needed to overcome the friction between the
wheels and the surface of a field covered with long grass (a) when the
plane just begins to roll, (b) when the velocity is 30 mi./hr., and (c)
when the velocity is 60 mi./hr.? (Coefficient of friction = 0.1.)
14.At 30 mi./hr., 160 lb. of propeller thrust are needed to over
come friction between the wheels of a plane and the surface of a
certain landing field. At this given speed, how much of the plane's
horsepower is lost to ground friction?
 Examination for Part One
1. Physics is a science whose purpose is to .
2. Meteorology is the science of
3. A cyclone is

4. The location of a cyclone is observed by .

6. The center of a cyclone travels from to across
the U. S.
6. If the wind
is from the west, an observer may expect that there
is a low-pressure region to the of him.
7. The most important components of the atmosphere are
(1) , .-..%; (2) , ....%;
(3) , ....%; (4) , ....%.
8. The temperature of the atmosphere drops about CF for
every mile of altitude until a height of about mi. is reached.
9. The average atmospheric pressure, at sea level, is about
lb./in.2, and the barometer reads in.
10. Air weighs about as much as water.

11. The atmosphere is valuable to man because (1) ,

(2) ,(3) ,(4)

12. When the atmospheric pressure is 15 lb./in.*, the force on a
square foot of surface is lb.
13. 1 inch = cm; 1 foot = cm; 1 km =
miles.

14. All
measurements made by man may be reduced to measure
ment of one or more of these three things: (1) ,

(2) (3)
16. The world standard of (1) is the , of (2) is the
of (3) is the
62
 EXAMINATION FOR PART ONE 63

16. It is important to have world standards which are exactly

defined because

17. A vector quantity is one which involves and

18. (1) , (2) , (3)

are vector quantities.
19. A single force which will balance two or more forces is called
the of these forces.

20. Find the resultant:

21. Find the tension in

each inclined cord.

22. If an object falls from rest, it will drop feet in 3 sec.

23. Ifan object is shot vertically upward with an initial velocity

of 81 ft./sec. it will go up for seconds.

24. The formula for centrifugal force, or for centripetal force, is

C.F. =

25. The direction of centripetal force is

and the direction of centrifugal force is
26. The formula for momentum is M =

27. Impulse and momentum are related by the following equation

28. If a pond is 10 ft. deep, the pressure on the bottom is.

lb./ft.2
64 EXAMINATION FOR PART ONE
29. If the bottom of a tank is 15 ft. long and 10 ft. wide, the force
on the bottom is
30. When an object is submerged in water, it seems to lose an
amount of weight which is equal to the weight of
31. An isobar is
32. The two kinds of barometers are the barometer and the
barometer.
33. If a 150-lb. man climbs a 20-ft. rope in 10 sec., he does
of work and develops hp.
34. If a 320-lb. object has a velocity of 20 ft./sec., its kinetic energy-
is K.E. =

35. If it takes a force of 20 lb. to drag a 60-lb. object, the coefficient

of friction is
36. Viscosity is
 PART TWO

•
CHAPTER 7

Fluids in Motion

The velocity which an object gains in falling (from rest)

through a distance, h, can be obtained as follows :

P.E. at A = K.E. at B (if no energy is lost

through friction) r® A
1 v^ .
2ff
v = y/2gh
If h = 100 ft., v = V2 X 32 X 100 = 80ft./sec.
I OB
By similar reasoning, it can be shown that the velocity with
which a liquid will flow through a jet near the bottom of a
tank is as indicated in the figure at the left.

Volume/sec. = (area of cross-section) X (velocity).

Flow of a Fluid Through a Pipe

When a fluid flows through two pipes of different sizes,

as shown, volume/sec. equals AiVi = Aavi. Therefore:
65
66 FLUIDS IN MOTION [Chap. 7

—
«»
= t
= — »> where r is the radius of a pipe and A is the area
Ai ri2 »

of cross-section of the pipe. Thus the speed of flow is greater

in the smaller pipe.
Bernoulli's principle.
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782)
proved that wherever a fluid
flows through a horizontal pipe
system, the pressure plus the
kinetic energy per unit of
volume is the same at every
point in the flow.

Pressure Gage

jdvB1
Thus: Pa + Pb +

- -
9 9
id
or Pa Pb = (vb* pa1)

g = 980
P = pressure in g/cm2
d = density (g/cm*)
v = velocity (cm/sec.)

Thus, whenever a fluid is given an increased velocity

throughout a certain length of its flow, the pressure at right
angles to this velocity is reduced. This statement is Ber
noulli's principle. If the constriction is very small, the
reduction in pressure is very great. In some applications Pa
is more than one atmosphere and Pb is only a small fraction of
an atmosphere.

Illustration
Water flows through the pipes shown at a rate of 9 liters/sec.
What is the pressure drop from A to Bl
Chap. 7] FLUIDS IN MOTION 67

9,000
Va = _ = 318 cm/sec.

vb — 4va = 4 X 318 cm/sec.

P'-Pfl=!X9i6X[(4><318)2- ± y
(318) »]

= 783 g/cm1.

Applications of Bernoulli's principle.

1. The sink aspirator shown in the figure.
Water
2. The mercury vapor pump, which is used
in the manufacture of thermos bottles, radio
tubes, X-ray tubes, and all other devices
which require very high vacuums. This
pump was invented by Irving Langmuir.
It With

it,
made entirely of glass.
is

pressures as low as 10-7 mm of mercury may

1

be obtained. 10~7 mm of mercury = of an

7,600,000,000
atmosphere.
Thus than
less
one molecule out
of each seven
billion remains
after this pump *- Cooling water
has done its work. mechanical
We know of no pump
Pressure /0'3mm
o MircuryS^^^
other pump which will produce so "good" a
WWi vacuum. Sometimes the mercury re
is

placed by oils of suitable physical properties.

The spool and card demonstration.
3.

As one blows through the spool, the pressure

ca " under the spool reduced because of the
is
68 FLUIDS IN MOTION [Chap. 7

directed velocity of the air, and the card is pushed to the

spool by atmospheric pressure.
4. As one blows across the top of
the paper, a reduction in pressure
is produced and the paper is pushed
upward.
5. The airplane wing. The air
plane wing is affected very much
like the paper in the above demon
stration. Its aerodynamic design is
based upon Bernoulli's effect. The
wing is so formed that the air which flows over its top surface
is made to travel over a longer path and thus at a higher
velocity than the air which flows along its under surface.
Thus there is a region of re
duced pressure immediately
above the wing. This area
accounts for most of the lift.
Thus the airplane in flight is
supported by a force upon the top surfaces of its wings
rather than by a push upon the under surfaces of the
wings. When an accumulation of ice changes the shape of
the airfoil, its lift may become so greatly reduced that the
plane cannot be kept in flight even after the pilot has discarded
enough of the plane's load to compensate for the added weight
due to the ice.
6. Other applications. The Pitot tube for indicating air
speed of a plane, the carburetor jet, and the atomizer depend
upon the Bernoulli effect.

Exercises
1. A hole is drilled into a tank of water. If the hole is 9 ft. below
the surface of the water, with what velocity will the water flow
through the hole? If the area of the hole is .01 ft.2, how much water
will flow from the tank each second?
Chap. 71 FLUIDS IN MOTION 69

2. Water flows at the rate of 2 ft. 3/sec. through a pipe. Find the
velocity of the water in the pipe if the diameter of the pipe is (a)
4 in., (b) 2 in.

3. Examine the Pitot tube on a plane. How many holes are there
along its circumference? Is it placed above the wing or below the
wing? Why? Can you see any tubing leading from the Pitot
tube to the instrument panel? How does the air speed indicator
work?
 CHAPTER 8

Heat
The molecules of any object are in a state of random motion.
If the object is heated, this motion increases. Temperature
is denned as the degree of this thermal agitation, or as the
degree of heat.
The centigrade temperature scale is used in scientific work
and in countries using the metric system. The Fahrenheit
scale is used in daily life in countries using the foot, pound,
and second system of measurement.

P P
I00C -212 F-Boilin«
water when
barometer
reads 30".

— Temperature
o°c '
— 32°F~ of melting

i
ice.

1
Centigrade Fahrenheit

Observations may be converted from one scale to the other

by means of the equation
°C = i(°F - 32).

Types of Thermometers
1. Liquid -in-glass thermometers usually contain mercury
or alcohol.
70
Oup. 8] HEAT 71

2. The resistance thermometer is a small coil of wire,

usually platinum, whose electrical resistance increases with
temperature.
3. The thermocouple is made of two wires of unlike mate
rials. The junction acts like a tiny electric cell whose voltage
increases with temperature. These wires are connected to a
sensitive voltmeter. The thermocouple is often preferred in
industry and in engine testing.
4. The automobile engine thermometer is made of a metal
bulb containing a liquid whose increase of pressure, due to
heating, is transmitted to an instrument on the instrument
panel.

Heat is a form of energy. It is measured in calories or in

British thermal units (B.T.U.).

Heat Units

A calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise the tem

perature of 1 gram of water 1 degree centigrade.
A B.T.U. is the amount of heat needed to raise the tem
perature of 1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit.
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat needed
to raise the temperature of a unit of mass of a substance one
degree. It may be expressed in calories per gram per degree
centigrade or in B.T.U. per pound per degree Fahrenheit.

SPECIFIC HEAT: CALORIES PER GRAM PER "C OR B.T.U.

PER POUND PER °F

Aluminum . 0.21
Iron .105
Copper. . . . .093
Water •1.

* From the definition of the calorie and the B.T.U.

72 HEAT [Chap. 8

Water has the greatest heat capacity of all the common sub
stances. This fact is of great importance in the study of
meteorology.

The Measurement of Heat

The most common way to measure a quantity of heat is to

pass the heat into a known quantity of water and to measure
the rise in temperature of the water. The heat gained by the
water is equal to the mass of the water times its change in
temperature.
The method of mixtures. The number of calories of heat
gained or lost by any object is equal to mass X sp. ht. X
change of temperature.
Suppose that we wish to determine the specific heat of a
metal. The metal should be in small chunks. If we take
200 g of the metal, heat it to 100°C, drop it into 110 g of water
contained in a copper cup weighing 90 g, and find that the
temperature of the water rises from 10°C to 25°C, we can
calculate the specific heat as follows:

Heat lost by metal

-
= heat gained by water + heat gained by cup.
200 X sp. ht. X (100
= 110 X 1
25)
X (25
- 10) + 90 X .093 X (25
- 10)
15,000 X sp. ht.
= 1650 + 125.5
1775
sp. ht. = _ nnA = 0.119 calories per gram per °C.

In this experiment, we have assumed that all of the heat

lost by the metal is gained by the water, and that the water
gains no heat from its surroundings.
To meet the requirements of this assumption, we try to have
the initial temperature of the water as much below room tem-
Chap. 8] HEAT 73

perature as thefinal temperature

will be above room temperature.
As a further precaution, the cup is
surrounded by a jacket, as shown, to Y{//(/<
reduce the heat exchange between
the cup and the room.
The mechanical equivalent of
heat. When 778 ft.-lb. of work are
done against friction, 1 B.T.U. of
heat is developed. Energy of any
type could be expressed either in
A Calorimeter
B.T.U. or in foot-pounds.
778 ft.-lb. = 1 B.T.U.

Heat of Combustion
The heat of combustion is the most import factor in deter
mining the value of a fuel. It is defined as the number of
heat units given off when a unit of mass of the substance is
completely burned.

Heat of Combustion
Substance
Calories/gram B.T.U./pound

Coal (anthracite) 7,600 to 8,400 13,500 to 15,000

Gasoline 11,000 to 11,400 20,000 to 20,500
Wood 4,000 to 4,500 7,000 to 8,000

Exercises
1. Convert 59°F to centigrade. Convert 60°C to Fahrenheit.
2. Experiments on gases indicate that no temperature can be
lower than — 273.18°C. Convert this to Fahrenheit.
74 HEAT IChap. 8

3. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of 300 lb.

of iron from 70°F to 180°F?
4. A
large air-cooled engine contains 1,100 lb. of iron, 300 lb. of
aluminum, and 200 lb. of oil (sp. ht. = 0.5). How much heat is
needed to warm this engine from 50°F to 180°F?

6. If 20,000 ft.-lb. of work are done against friction, how much

heat is developed?
6. Two hundred grams of copper at 100°C are dropped into 100 g
of water at 20°C. Neglecting the heat capacity of the container
of the water, calculate the final temperature. (Use a heat equation
like the one above.)
7. Solve exercise 69 on page 1 10 if the weight of the water is 90 g
and the water is contained in a 100-g copper (sp. ht. = .095) cup.
8. How much gasoline would it take to supply as much heat as
is needed in exercise 4?
 CHAPTER 9

Heating of the Atmosphere

In our first lesson, we saw that the temperature of the
atmosphere decreases about 16°F for each mile of elevation
until a temperature of about — 67°F is reached. Now we
shall consider causes of these low temperatures at high alti
tudes. The atmosphere absorbs little of the sun's thermal
radiation. Most of the heating of the atmosphere is due to
convection and conduction of heat from the earth, which is
heated by the sun. High altitudes, being far from the earth,
receive very little of this heat. This fact causes a part of the
great drop in temperature.
Another important cause is the fact that air, which rises
from the surface of the earth, expands greatly upon reaching
the regions of low pressure. Whenever a gas expands, its
temperature drops unless it can gain heat from some source.
The reader may wonder why, if the absorption in the atmos
phere is as small as indicated above, the atmosphere can
prevent very high noon temperatures like those on the moon,
which has no atmosphere. We owe much of our protection
to the fact that about 37% of the sun's radiation is turned
away from us by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere,
and by clouds. Furthermore, the atmosphere permits con
vection currents which, during the hottest part of the day,
carry tremendous amounts of heat up from the surface of
the earth.

The Transportation of Heat

Conduction, convection, and radiation are the three ways
in which heat is transferred from one region to another.
75
76 HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE [Chap. 9

Conduction. If one sticks one end of an iron rod into a fire,

the other end soon gets hot. With a silver rod, the same thing
would happen even sooner, because silver is a better conductor
of heat than iron.
Theory of heat conduction. When one end of a rod is
heated, the motion of the molecules increases. In a solid,
Tt 7; this molecular motion is
Hot Cold confined to vibration of the
molecules. The vibration
of the molecules at the hot
end of a metal rod sets the
L neighboring molecules in
motion, and the process continues until the molecules at the
far end have been affected. This molecular motion is heat.
The rate at which heat is conducted can be found by means
of the following equation:

KA{h - h)
Calories/sec. =

A (area) is in cm2, h and tt in degrees centigrade, and

cm. L in
The constant, K, depends upon the material. If if is large,
the material is called a good conductor of heat. If K is very
small, the material is called a good heat insulator.

Thermal Thermal
Material Conductivity, Material Conductivity,
K K

Silver 0.974 Glass 0.0015

0.918 Paper 0.0003
0.504 Water •0.0014
0.161 Air •0.000052

* Special precautions must be taken in measuring the thermal conductivities of

liquids and of cases; otherwise moat of the heat will be transferred by convection.
Chap. 9] HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE 77

Convection. If a house is heated by a stove, by a hot-air

furnace, or by a hot-water furnace, most of the heat is trans
ported from the heater to the living quarters by convection.
The Model-T Ford relied entirely upon
convection for the circulation of its
cooling-water. If a room is heated by a
stove, the convection currents are as
shown in the figure. When air is heated,
it expands and its density decreases. It
is buoyed up by the heavier air around
it. Cold air sinks, is heated, and rises.
Heating units should be placed as low as possible to permit
free convection. The freezing unit in a refrigerator is always
placed as high as possible.
Radiation. The term radiation is often misused. An
ordinary radiator does not do much radiating. It heats a
room almost entirely by convection. Radiated heat can
travel through free space. Its nature is much the same as that
of light. Unless an object is very hot, it will not radiate
much heat. At very high temperatures the amount of heat
radiated becomes large. It has been found that

Radiation per second = C(t + 273)4 calories.

t is the temperature (centigrade) of the hot object. C is a

constant which depends upon the nature of the surface of the
object; it is small for a bright surface and large for a blackened
surface.
Heat balance, daily variation. When the temperature of a
region is constant, the region is losing heat as rapidly as it
gains heat. The daily variation of temperature is reduced
by the proximity of bodies of water. This is especially true
if the prevailing winds are from the water to the land. Land
breezes (night) and sea breezes (day) help to reduce daily
78 HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE [Chap. 9

variation of temperature. They are due to the fact that land

surfaces warm and cool more than surfaces of water. Rising
air currents are strong over land in the daytime; strong over

Rough Rough
Flying Flying
/

NIGHT DAY
water at night. Smoothest flying may be expected at night
over land and by day over water.

Exercises
1. Acopper rod is 10 cm long. Its area of cross-section is 2 cm2.
Find the number of calories per second which flow through the rod
if one end is kept at 100°C and the other end is kept at 20°C.
2. A window 30 cm X 50 cm is glazed with 0.6-cm glass. The
inside temperature is 20°C and the outside temperature is 0°C.
How many calories of heat pass through the glass in 24 hours?
3. Why does thermos bottle keep cold things cold better than
a
it keeps hot things hot? Why is there very little convection over
sea in the daytime? Why is there very little convection just above
the tropopause (Fig. 1, page 4)?

4. If
an object radiates 20 calories/sec. when the object is at
427°C, how many calories/sec. will be radiated when the object is
at 1127°C?
 CHAPTER 10

Properties of Gases

A always fills its container completely. A given

gas
quantity of gas does not have a definite volume; it assumes the
volume of its container.
Gases diffuse rapidly. If a gas with a strong odor is released
in one corner of a room, the odor can be detected, in a short
time, at any point in the room. All gases are elastic and are
easily compressed. The density of any gas is much less than
that of any liquid or solid. Additional properties of gases
will be described further on in this chapter.

The Gas Laws

Boyle's law states that, if the temperature of a gas is kept
constant, the volume of a given mass of the gas varies inversely

JL
as its pressure.

or

PiV1 = PiVt (at constant

temperature).
V,
*
v2
I pa

If Vt - J7„ Pt = 2P,.
this and following formulas, V = volume; P = pressure;
In
T = (absolute) temperature; d = density.
Charles's law. It is found by experiment that, if the pres
sure on a gas is kept constant, the volume of the gas increases
rrs of its volume at 0°C for each °C of rise in temperature.
79
80 PROPERTIES OF GASES [Chap. 10

When a gas is cooled down to the lowest temperatures com

monly encountered, it behaves as though its volume would
become 0 at -273°C (more exactly -273.18°C). This is
known as the absolute zero of temperature. Theory indicates
that it is impossible for any temperature to be less than
absolute zero and that all linear motion of molecules ceases at
absolute zero.
The absolute scale of temperature is commonly used in the
study of gases. To convert from centigrade to absolute, add
273 to the centigrade temperature. From the graph, we can
see that
Vi = Tt (abs.)
Vt Ti (abs.)
Thus, if the
pressure of a gas
is kept constant,
the volume
varies as the
2 73°C 100* absolute tem
273° 373 Abs. perature. This
is known as
Charles's law. It may be shown that, if the volume is kept
constant,
Pi
P2 Ti
The general law of gases. Any problem involving Boyle's
law or Charles's law may be solved by means of this general
law: Ptfi/Ti = PiVi/T1.
Since the density of a gas is inversely proportional to its
volume, the gas laws may be written as follows:

.y = -f£ (at constant pressure),

Ol i 1
Chap. 10] PROPERTIES OF GASES 81

=
-r d^ (at constant temperature),
P P
and j-^- = -j-^- (the general law).
(l\l 1 (l-ll 2

When Fahrenheit temperatures are given in problems

involving the gas laws, it is more convenient to use absolute
Fahrenheit temperatures than to use absolute centigrade
as used above. To convert from Fahrenheit to absolute
Fahrenheit, add 460 to the Fahrenheit temperatures. Thus,
for constant pressure,

Vi _ Ft + 460
°r
rfi _ F2 + 460
Vt F8 + 460' d2 Fi + 460'

Illustrations
Aeronautical engineers consider 59°F (15°C) and 29.92 in. of
1.
mercury as standard conditions. Under standard conditions, the
density of dry air is .0765 lb./ft.* What is the density of dry air at
70°F and 22 inches of mercury?

29.92 22
.0765 X (59 + 460) dt X (70 + 460)
= .0551
<2,

lb./ft.'
At 30°C and 15 lb./in.1 of pressure, the volume of
5 2.

gas
a

ft.* Find the volume of the gas when = 30 lb./in.2 and

is

= 10°C
T

V
5

15 X t^A-kk = 30 X
273 30 + 273 + 10

V~ 15X5X283 ~2-33ft-
30X303
of

The Kinetic Theory Gases

Early attempts to explain how gas can exert pressure
a

were made on the assumption that the molecules repelled

82 PROPERTIES OF GASES [Chap. 10

each other and thus pushed the boundary layers of molecules

against the walls of the container. Since the time of Isaac
Newton, however, it has been known that "every object in
the universe is attracted by every other object in the universe."
The effects of surface tension are due to intermolecular attrac
tion. Since molecules attract each other, the theory based
upon repulsion had to be discarded. A vast amount of experi
mental evidence supports the modern theory which is known
as the kinetic theory of gases. We shall consider a very brief
outline of this theory.
According to the kinetic theory, the molecules of a gas are
in a state of random motion. If we could watch an individual
molecule, we would find that it travels with a constant velocity
until it collides with another molecule. When it suffers a
collision, the magnitude and the direction of its velocity are
changed.
The path of the molecule might look about like this:
The wall of a container is hit many
times per second. This bombardment
results in a steady push upon the walls.
'
The kinetic theory gives us an explanation "K?
of Boyle 's law. If the volume of a gas
is decreased, the number of molecules per cm" is increased,
and there are more collisions per second on every unit of area
of the container. Thus the pressure varies inversely as the
volume.
If a gas is heated, its molecules move faster. Since they
move faster, they hit the walls more frequently and are more
effective when they do hit. Thus the law of Charles is
explained by the kinetic theory.
At 0°C, the mean velocity of the hydrogen molecule is
183,000 cm/sec. or 6,060 ft./sec. The mean distance traveled
between collisions is .00002 cm under standard pressure. A
molecule gets hit about 9,200 million times each second.
Chap. 10] PROPERTIES OF GASES 83

If two gases with different molecular weights are mixed,

the heavier molecule has a mean velocity which is much smaller
than that of the lighter molecule. As a gas is compressed,
the molecules striking the advancing piston rebound with
increased velocity. Increased molecular velocity means
increased temperature. Thus a gas is heated when it is com
pressed. How would you modify these statements to explain
how a gas is cooled when it expands?

Compression and Expansion of Gases

In the field of thermodynamics are two quite different kinds

of processes which are very important in the study of heat
engines and in meteorology.
An isothermal process is one in which the temperature
remains constant. If the piston is moved down on the gas in
the cylinder shown, work is done upon the gas. This means
that heat is developed. If the tern- fl
perature is to remain constant, the -V

heat of compression must be dissipated ?ZZZZZZZL

as fast as it is generated. A perfect
T const.
isothermal process is impossible, but the
isothermal ideal may be approached if -&*?
the compression is very slow and the
v a A A *
cylinder walls are good conductors
11
ofe
ISOTHERMAL
heat. In an isothermal expansion, heat must flow into the
cylinder to keep the temperature from falling. For an
isothermal compression or expansion, the pressure and volume
are related by this law: PV = C, C signifying a constant
value. This is the same as Boyle's law.
An adiabatic process is one in which no heat enters or
leaves the working substance. In an adiabatic expansion,
the temperature falls; in an adiabatic compression, the
temperature rises. The law relating pressure and volume
84 PROPERTIES OF GASES [Chap. 10

in an adiabatic change is PV = C, or PiVv — P\Vf- For

air, the exponent, y, is 1.403.
For a given change in volume, the change in pressure is more
if the change is adiabatic than if the change is isothermal. *

Efficiencies of Heat Engines

output, or work done
The efficiency of an engine is E =
input, or energy taken in
By considering isothermal processes and adiabatic processes,
Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), a brilliant young engineer of the
French Army, proved that the efficiency of a heat engine
cannot be more than

Eomaximum) T,
For a steam engine, Tt is the temperature of the steam entering
the cylinder and Ti is the temperature of the expanded exhaust
steam. For a gasoline engine, Ti is the temperature of the
mixture in the cylinder at the beginning of the compression
stroke and Tt is the temperature attained at the end of the
compression stroke as a result of the quick, adiabatic compres
sion of the mixture. In Carnot's formula, all temperatures
must be expressed in absolute centigrade degrees or absolute
Fahrenheit degrees. Owing to friction and to heat losses,
the efficiencies actually realized are about one half of Carnot's
maximum efficiency.
For more than a hundred years, Carnot's expression has
served as a guide to engineers who seek increased efficiencies
of heat engines. Any increase in Tt or any decrease in Ti will
result in greater efficiency.
The efficiency of a steam engine is increased if the steam is
superheated before it enters the cylinder and by the use of
* See exercise 1 following.
Chap. 10] PROPERTIES OF GASES 85

multiple expansions and condensers to lower the temperature

(Ti) of the exhaust. The degree of superheating is limited by
the fact that steam, at high temperatures, exerts excessive
pressures. Recently huge turbines have been built to use
mercury vapor in place of steam. The vapor pressure of
mercury is much less than that of steam. Thus mercury may
be safely heated to very high temperatures.
In the internal combustion engine, nothing is done to reduce
Ti, but Tt is increased by use of a higher compression ratio.
A high-compression gasoline engine takes in 6 volumes of air
and gasoline vapor and compresses the mixture to 1 volume.
Quick compression causes the temperature to rise to about
320°C. If the compression ratio is too great, the gasoline
will ignite prematurely and cause a "knock." High-octane
gasolines have been developed that make higher compressions
possible without causing pre-ignition.
The Diesel engine should be regarded as an ultra-high
compression engine. It commonly employs a compression
ratio of 16:1. At this extreme compression, even the most
advanced anti-knock gasoline would ignite long before the
compression is completed.
Therefore, the Diesel engine compresses air only. The fuel
is injected into the cylinder after the air has been compressed,
and it burns upon contact with the air, whose temperature has
been raised to about 1,000°F. The fact that the Diesel engine
requires neither carburetor nor a spark is of relatively little
importance. Its main advantage lies in its high efficiency,
which is due to the very high temperature at the end of the
compression stroke.
When Diesel engines were first offered for airplane use,
they were advocated because the fuel they burn does not
ignite very easily and thus the fire hazard is reduced. How
ever, Diesel engines have certain characteristics which have
86 PROPERTIES OF GASES [Chap. 10

kept them from gaining much popularity among aeronautical

engineers.

Adiabatic Processes in the Atmosphere

When perfectly dry air, rises and expands adiabatically, its

temperature falls at a rate of 1°C for each 100 meters of its
rise. (One hundred meters is the length of an average city
block.) One degree C per 100 meters (5£°F/1,000 ft.) is said
to be the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
If a mass of air rises in our atmosphere, why is its expansion
very nearly adiabatic? We can give several good reasons:
First, the atmosphere in which the mass rises is a poor con
ductor and radiator of heat. Second, the temperatures
already existing at the higher altitudes are approximately
equal to those which the mass would reach by adiabatic
expansion alone. Third, the rising masses have very large
volumes and their centers are far removed from the surround
ing atmosphere. Thus the exchange of heat between the
mass of air and the surrounding atmosphere is relatively small.
The moisture content of the atmosphere produces little
effect upon the cooling due to expansion alone. However,
when the air has reached some definite altitude, it has been
cooled to a temperature at which it can no longer hold all of
its moisture content. Some of its water vapor condenses to
form the base of a cloud. As the air continues to rise, and
to cool, its ability to hold water vapor is further reduced, and
more condensation takes place.
When vapor condenses, heat is liberated. About 600
calories of heat are given off for each gram of water vapor
which condenses. Thus, after condensation starts, the mass
of air is heated by condensation of water vapor and cooled by
further expansion, as the air continues to rise. This heat of
condensation reduces the net lapse rate to 2° or 3°F per 1,000
feet. This is called the moist adiabatic lapse rate.
Chap. 10] PROPERTIES OF GASES 87

Exercises
1. Justify the statement marked (*) near the top of page 84.

2. From the data given in illustration 1, find the density of dry air
at 29.92 inches of mercury and (a) 70°F, (b) 100°F.
3. Find the density of dry air at 59°F if the pressure is (a) 22
inches and (b) 26 inches of mercury.
4. A
chemist collects 100 cm3 of a gas at 20°C and 67 cm of
pressure. What volume will this gas occupy under standard condi
tions (0°C and 76 cm of pressure)?
5. As a safety measure, small holes (vents) are made in the lower
surface of an airfoil. If the volume enclosed by the fabric of an
airfoil is 100 ft.3, how many cubic feet of air flow out of the wing
structure while the plane is rising from the earth where the pressure
is 14.7 lb./in.2 to an altitude at which the external pressure is
8 lb./in.2? (Neglect the change in temperature.)
6. If
the vents in exercise 5 were sealed so that the air could not
escape, how much force due to pressure difference would tend to push
the fabric of the lower surface away from the ribs? (Assume that
the area of the lower surface is 80 ft.2)
7. A radial engine, equipped with a rotary blower (supercharger),
takes in 6 volumes of air and gasoline vapor at 27°C and 20 lb./in.2
and compresses it to 1 volume at 297°C. What is the pressure at the
end of the compression stroke?
8. (a) One cubic foot of air at 15 lb./in.2 expands adiabatically to
2 ft.3 What is the final pressure? (21-4
=
2.64.)
(b) If the initial temperature of the air is 80°F, what will be the
temperature after the expansion? (Use the result of (a) and the
general gas law as it is used in illustration 1, page 81.)

9. How do we conclude that — 273°C is the lowest temperature

possible?
10. The velocities of the molecules of a gas are exceedingly great.
How do you account for the fact that it takes several seconds for an
odor to travel the length of a large room?
11. Some dry air rises 1,000 ft. over a mountain top and then sinks
600 ft. into a canyon. If the initial temperature of the air is 60°F,
88 PROPERTIES OF GASES [Chap. 10

what is its temperature at the top of the mountain and what is its
final temperature? (Use the dry adiabatic lapse rate.)
12. Ifyou want to fly as far as possible with a given amount of
gasoline, should you choose an engine which occasionally exhibits a
slight pre-ignition knock, or one which cannot be made to knock?
Explain.
13. Which would be more apt to knock: an engine which is in
good condition, or an engine which needs new piston rings? Explain.
14. Why is it true that carbon, deposited in the head of a cylinder,
increases the compression ratio of an engine? How does this lead
to pre-ignition knocks?
16. Carbon is a poor conductor of heat. How does this fact
increase the likelihood of pre-ignition knocks?
 CHAPTER 11

Change of State

Fusion and Freezing

On a cold day, when the outdoor temperature is several

degrees below zero on the centigrade thermometer, it is pos
sible to perform a simple experiment that will demonstrate
some interesting and important facts. A can of water at
20°C is placed outdoors and the temperature of the water is
observed every 5 minutes. It is important to remember that

20 C

0 C-

Freezing of Water

as long as the can and its contents are warmer than their sur
roundings, heat will flow out of the water. The observations
are indicated by the graph of temperature, plotted as a func
tion of time. At first, the temperature falls fairly rapidly
until the water is cooled to its freezing point. At B, ice starts
to form. Even though heat is still flowing from the can, the
temperature ceases to fall. It does not fall below zero until all
of the water has been frozen.
89
90 CHANGE OF STATE [Chap. 11

Then C is reached, and the temperature of the ice falls and

gradually reaches the temperature of the surroundings.
During the time from B to C, heat flows from the water; but
the temperature of the water stays constant because 80 calories
of heat must be given up by each gram of water at 0°C to
change the water to ice. This heat, which causes no change in
temperature, is called the latent heat of fusion.
The process may be reversed. In that case heat must be
added to ice to cause fusion.
The heat of fusion of a substance is defined as the number of
heat units required to change a unit of mass of the substance
from the solid state to the liquid state without causing a change
of temperature. The heat of fusion of ice is 80 calories per
gram. The heat of fusion of ice is usually measured by
methods very much like those used in determining specific
heats of metals. We may observe that the slope of the curve
at C is about twice the slope at B. This difference is due to
the fact that the specific heat of ice is only 0.5 calorie per gram
per degree C.
Most substances shrink upon freezing. Water, however,
expands when it changes to
ice. This accounts for the
bursting of pipes and radi
ators. Because the density
of ice is 0.917 grams per
cubic centimeter, ice floats
in water. Eighty-nine per
Iceber« cent of the total volume of
an iceberg lies below the surface of the sea.

Super-cooling
If the experiment with the can of water is repeated in a very
quiet place which is free from vibrations, the water may be
cooled several degrees below its freezing point and will still
Chap. 11] CHANGE OF STATE 91

remain in the liquid state. This is an unstable condition; any

slight vibration will cause a
very sudden formation of ice.
If the air dissolved in the 20°C-
water is removed by boiling or
by putting the water under a
0°C
partial vacuum, super-cooling
is much more likely to take Time
place. For this reason, the
Super-cooling
hot-water pipes in an unoc-
cupied house are especially subject to damage by frost if the
heating system is not kept in operation.

Vaporization

Boiling. If heat is applied to water, the temperature of the

water rises until the boiling point is reached. After this, the
water will remain at a constant temperature regardless of
the rate at which heat is supplied. If the burners are turned
up, the water will be vaporized more rapidly. The heat of
vaporization of a substance is the amount of heat required to
change a unit mass of the substance from the liquid state to the
vapor state with no change of temperature. When water
boils at 100°C, its heat of vaporization is 539 calories per gram
or 970 B.T.U. per pound.
Evaporation. Boiling occurs only after the temperature
of the liquid has reached the boiling point. Then the rate of
boding depends only upon the rate at which heat is applied.
Evaporation takes place at any temperature of the liquid.
Evaporation is quiet, and the vaporization takes place much
more slowly than in boiling. The rate of evaporation is
greatly affected by the degree of confinement of the air above
the liquid and is greatly hastened by winds. Evaporation
takes place rapidly in arid climates.
92 CHANGE OF STATE [Chap. 11

If some liquid is put into a closed container, molecules will

go from the liquid to the space above it. This evaporation
will continue until the space holds as much vapor as it can.
The space is then said to be saturated with the vapor, and we
say that a condition of equilibrium has been reached. Some
molecules will still go from the liquid to the vapor, but an
equal number will return from the vapor to the liquid. The
number of grams of vapor that a unit volume of space can hold
is called the capacity. It depends only upon temperature.
The kinetic theory leads us to expect that the vapor will
exert a pressure which increases when density of the vapor
increases. This expectation is confirmed by the experimental
data given in the table below.
SATURATED WATER VAPOR
Vapor Density
(grams of vapor
Temperature per cubic meter Vapor Pressure
(°C) of space) (mm of mercury)

-20 0.89 0.94

-10 2.2 2.0
0 4.9 4.6
10 9.4 9.2
20 17.3 17.4
30 30.4 31.8
100 598.0 760.0
120 1,122.0 1,491.0

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the

vapor pressure is just enough to overcome atmospheric pres
sure. Then the fact that the space above the liquid is satu
rated will not prevent further vaporization. Thus our table
can be used as an expression of the boiling point of water as a
function of atmospheric pressure. From the table we can see
that, if we wished to boil water at 20°C, we would have to
reduce the pressure of the space above the water to 17.4 mm
of mercury.
Chap. 11] CHANGE OF STATE 93

Dalton's law of partial pressures, as applied to our discus

sion, tells us that, if dry air and a vapor are mixed, each sub
stance will exert its own pressure regardless of the presence
of the other. Thus, if we have a closed tank of dry air at
760 mm of pressure and insert enough water to saturate the
space in the tank, the total pressure will be 760 mm + 17.4
mm, or 777.4 mm, if the temperature is 20°C. If, at 20°C,
the barometer indicates an atmospheric pressure of 673.3 mm

sure due to dry air alone is 673.3-

and the air holds 50% of its capacity of water vapor, the pres
(50% of 17.4) = 664.6 mm.
To review some of the facts already considered, let us see
what happens if we try to compress a vapor. When we bring
the piston down, the pressure
does not increase. Some of
the vapor passes into the
liquid state. This conden Saturated
vapor
sation would naturally warm
the liquid because the latent
Temp, kept
heat of vaporization would constant
be given off. If we want the
liquid to remain at a constant temperature, this heat must be
withdrawn by some method. The pressure will not increase
until all of the vapor has been driven into the liquid.
If the piston is drawn upward, liquid will vaporize and the
liquid will have to be heated if its temperature is to be kept
constant.
Sublimation. Sublimation is a change from the solid state
directly to the vapor state without going through the liquid
state. You will notice that our table gives vapor densities
and pressures for temperatures below 0°C. At these tem
peratures water exists either as ice as as a vapor, but not as a
liquid (unless the water is in the unstable super-cooled con
dition). Under normal conditions, "dry ice" (solid COs),
iodine crystals, and camphor sublime but do not melt or boil.
94 CHANGE OF STATE [Chap. 11

exercises
1. If one
blows much of the vapor out of a wide-mouthed bottle of
ether, fixes a stopper firmly into the bottle, and shakes the bottle, a
loud report is heard when the stopper is removed. In some trials,
the stopper is blown out of the bottle. Use Dalton's law to explain
this demonstration. Hint: How great is the pressure inside the
bottle at the instant in which the stopper is inserted? For this
demonstration, why is ether better than other liquids?
2. If
a can of boiling water is sealed and allowed to cool, the can
collapses. Explain this on the basis of vapor pressure and atmos
pheric pressure.
3. measures 8 m X 12 m X 3 m. The temperature of
A room the
room is 20°C. How many grams of water vapor are there in the
room when the air contains 30% of its capacity for water vapor?
4. When water boils or evaporates at room temperature, its heat
of vaporization is 585 calories per gram. An evaporation cooler
evaporates 1 cm8 of water each second. How many calories of heat
does the cooler remove from the home each hour?

Increased vapor density does not account for all of the increase
5.
in vapor pressure which you will observe in the table of vapor pres
sure. What kinetic theory consideration accounts for the rest of the
increase?
6. How much heat is needed to change 200 g of ice at 0°C to steam
at 100°C?
7. A
500-g block of iron (sp. ht. = 0.1) is heated to 300°C and
then placed upon a block of ice which is at 0°C. How much of the
ice will be melted?
8. How many pounds of steam at 212°F must condense in a
200-lb. iron radiator to warm it from 40°F to 130°F?
9. In which is the water more apt to freeze: an auto radiator which
has been freshly filled, or one which has been used without addition
of water? If the water in each radiator does freeze, which radiator
is more likely to be damaged? Explain.
 CHAPTER 12

Atmospheric Humidity
In the Chapter 11, we saw that the amount of water vapor
which a unit of volume of space, or air, can hold depends upon
the temperature and increases greatly as the temperature rises.
When the atmosphere holds as much water as it can at a given
temperature, it is said to be saturated.
Capacity is the number of grams of water vapor per cubic
meter that air or space can hold, at saturation. The column
of densities in the table in Chapter 11 gives the capacity of
space for water vapor at several temperatures.
Absolute humidity is the number of grams of water vapor
actually present in each cubic meter of space. It may be
equal to or less than the capacity.

« 1 X- l -j.*-
Relative humidity =
absolute humidity .
.-
capacity

Relative humidity is the degree of saturation and is expressed

in per cent.
'
If air at 20°C contains 4 grams of moisture per
4
cubic meter of space, the relative humidity is T=-g =23.1%

(see table on page 92).

The dew point is the temperature to which the air must be
cooled in order that the air be saturated. This condition is
indicated by the condensation of vapor to form dew or frost.
If the temperature is 20°C and the dew point is 0°C, it might
95
96 ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY [Chap 12

4.9
appear that the relative humidity is Tyo or 28.3 %. However,
a correction must be applied to the numerator. If a cubic
meter of air were cooled from 20°C to 0°C, its volume would
be decreased to |£f of a cubic meter. Therefore, at 20°C, each
cubic meter of air contains $£§ X 4.9 g, or 4.56 g, of water
4 56
vapor. The relative humidity is then t^-«>
or 26.4%.

In winter the relative humidity in most homes is too low for

comfort and health. As a furnace heats air, it increases its
capacity and thus lowers the relative humidity unless some
provision is made to add moisture to the air. The drying
effect of air is determined by the relative humidity rather than
by the absolute humidity.

Hygromctry
Hygrometry is the measurement of the moisture in the
atmosphere. A hygrometer is an instrument used to measure
atmospheric moisture. All humidity determinations made at
weather stations require tables like the one given in Chapter
11, with an entry for each tenth of a degree, and other tables
which are derived from this basic table. An immense amount
of work was required in the establishment of these tables, but
the technique involved is quite simple and direct. The chem
ical hygrometer and a vapor-pressure apparatus were used.
The chemical hygrometer is also known as the absolute
hygrometer. The apparatus (page 97) needs little explana
tion. By lowering the liquid in A, the operator draws a
known volume of saturated air through the drying chamber B.
A very active drying agent absorbs the water vapor. The
increase in weight of the drying agent measures the number of
grams of water vapor in the saturated air. Very many repeti
tions of this experiment give us the density column of our
tables.
Chap. 12] ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY 97

G
Chamber which can
be Kept at any de
sired temperature
The Absolute Hygrometer

To determine saturated vapor pressures, a few drops of water

are inserted above the mercury in a barome r—
ter. The difference between the reading of I
I
n i

this barometer and the reading of a normal I

I

-J
I
barometer indicates the vapor pressure.
The bath is arranged so that the tempera
Bath
ture of the liquid and the vapor can be kept
at any desired value. Extensive tables of
density and pressure of saturated water
vapor expressed as functions of temperature
are published by the Smithsonian Institu
tion. The first edition was published in 1852.

Hygrometers in Daily Use

The dew-point hygrometer is a device for measuring the dew
point. The Alluard type is shown on page 98. A nickel-
plated container is partly filled with ether. Air is bubbled
through the ether by means of an aspirator bulb. The con
tainer is cooled by the evaporation of ether until dew or frost
forms on the front surface. After the dew appears, the
operator can make it disappear or reappear at will. The tem
perature at which dew appears is a little below the dew point.
The temperature of disappearance is a little above the dew
point. The average of these two slightly different tempera
98 ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY [Chap. 12

tures is taken as the true dew point. The absolute humidity

and the relative humidity are calculated from the atmospheric
temperature and the dew point by the method described earlier
in this chapter.

Dew-point Hygrometer

Wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometers are commonly used.

Weather observers prefer the type known as the sling psy-
chrometer. This device consists of two thermometers
mounted so that they may be whirled in the air. The bulb
of one of the thermometers is encased in gauze which is kept
moist. This is the wet bulb. Evaporation cools the wet bulb.
Chap. 12] ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY 99

The amount of cooling depends upon the dryness of the air.

the wet bulb
The apparatus is whirled until the temperature of

Hu mi di guide Sling Psychrometer

no longer falls. From the temperatures indicated by the two

thermometers, the relative humidity is calculated by means of
tables. The Smithsonian tables are in general use in the
100 ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY [Chap. 1 2

United States. Parts of them have been reproduced, by per

mission, in several manuals and handbooks.
Hair hygrometers depend upon the fact
that, as a hair absorbs water, its length
A/ increases. This device indicates relative

f
11 humidity directly, but it is usually unreliable
/I - hair unless it is calibrated very frequently by com
parison with dew-point or wet-and-dry-bulb
hygrometers. The hair hygrometer is used
where the other types cannot be employed as
in recording hygrographs and in the tiny
radio apparatus which the Weather Bureau
sends up with sounding balloons.

Clouds

Clouds are composed of very tiny droplets of water or, in the

case of very high clouds such as the cirrus clouds, of very small
ice crystals. The common
cumulus (cu'mu lus) clouds
look like collections of huge
bolls of cotton and are often
flat-bottomed. Frequently
these clouds are the source of
other types of clouds. They
are of great importance in
meteorology. A glider pilot
often makes use of the fact
that he may expect a rising
current of air under a cumu
Glider Gaining Altitude
lus cloud, and can gain alti
tude by circling about in this upward stream of air. These
rising columns of air are produced in three ways: (1) by winds
Chap. 12] ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY 101

blowing against rising slopes of mountains, as on our West

Coast, (2) by convection, (3) by warm, moist winds being
forced to rise over cold, dense layers of air. Over much of the
United States, the third cause is the most common. As the
air rises, it cools, owing to expansion and to other causes which
we considered in our study of the heating of the atmosphere.
When the rising air has been cooled to its dew point, condensa
tion begins. Condensation always occurs around some
minute particle; usually a microscopic particle of dust or salt
acts as the nucleus around which the vapor condenses. How
ever, an electron or other electrical charge may act as the
nucleus. If we watch the cloud chamber of an alpha ray
track apparatus, we can see droplets, each of which has been
condensed upon an electrically charged particle.
If, at the surface of the earth, the relative humidity and the
temperature are known, the altitude of a cumulus cloud can be
estimated. The method is explained in texts on meteorology.
The viscosity of the air keeps the droplets of a cloud prac
tically in suspension, but it is not great enough to prevent the
fall of raindrops, which are much larger than cloud droplets.
However, air friction does limit the velocity which a raindrop
gains in falling. Viscous friction is much more effective on
small particles than it is on large ones. All of us have observed
dust which remains suspended in the air, and we know that
larger particles of the same material would fall rapidly. Care
ful studies of rates at which small particles fall through air
have been vital to many discoveries in physics. Without this
information Professor Millikan would have been unable to
make his measurements of the charge on the electron.
There are several other types of clouds which the pilot must
know. Their classification and their characteristics are
studied in the course in meteorology that has been designed for
pilots.
102 ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY [Chap.i2

exercises

(Use the table on page 92)

1. If the
absolute humidity of a room is constant while the tem
perature increases, what change takes place in (a) the capacity, (b)
the relative humidity, and (c) the dew point?
2. How many grams of water vapor are there in a room
20 m X 10 m X 4 m at 20°C if the relative humidity is 28%?

3. If the temperature
of the room of exercise 2 is 20°C, how many
grams of water must be evaporated in the room to raise the relative
humidity from 20% to 33%?
4. On a certain day the outdoor temperature is 10°C and the dew
point is 0°C. What is the relative humidity?
5. If the temperature is 30°C and the relative humidity is 31%,
make a rough estimate of the dew point without correcting for the
fact that air would contract when cooled from 30°C to the dew point.
6. Find the absolute humidity if the temperature is 0°C and the
relative humidity is 35%.
7. Why is the difference between the wet-bulb temperature and
the dry-bulb temperature governed by the relative humidity rather
than by the absolute humidity?
8. If some
moist air expands without losing any water vapor, what
change occurs in the absolute humidity? How does the expansion
affect the dew point?
9. Ordinarily, the relative humidity is high in the morning and
becomes lower toward noon. Give two reasons for this decrease.

10. In
the atmosphere, the dew point decreases about 0.2°C per
100 meters of ascent. Is this decrease due to the fall in temperature
or to the increase in volume of the air? Explain.
11. The radiosonde sends signals to a receiving apparatus on the
ground. The receiving apparatus then operates a mechanism which
draws charts to show temperature and relative humidity at various
altitudes. From these records, show how the dew point at each
altitude could be determined.
12. If one
cubic meter of air is saturated at 20°C, how many grams
of its water vapor are condensed when the air is cooled (a) from 20°C
Chap. 12] ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY 103

to 10°C, (b) from 10°C to 0°C, (c) from 0°C to -10°C, and (d) from
— 10°C to — 20°C. Assume that the volume of the air does not
change.
13. Considering your answers to exercise 12, what is the main
cause of the uncertainty (2°F to 3°F) per 1,000 ft. in the moist
adiabatic lapse rate?
14. At what i altitudes would you expect the lapse rate to be
2°F/1,000 ft. ? Where would you expect it to be 3°F/1,000 ft. ?
15. On a certain day when the surface temperature is 70°F, the dry
adiabatic lapse rate holds for the first 2,000 ft. Then condensation
begins, cumulus clouds form, and the moist adiabatic lapse rate
(average = 2.5°F/1,000 ft.) becomes effective. Find the tempera
ture of the atmosphere at 2,000 ft. and at 12,000 ft. Draw a graph of
temperature, plotted horizontally, against altitude, plotted vertically.
(If a ruler is available, graph paper is not needed, because the
graph consists of only two straight lines.) Between what two alti
tudes would clouds be composed of droplets of water? Beyond what
altitude would clouds be composed of crystals of ice or super-cooled
water droplets?
The graph shows how a rough approximation to actual conditions
in the atmosphere are obtained from a few observations which are
made at the surface of the earth. Actual lapse rates, recorded by
means of radiosondes, are much more irregular than our simple graph.
16. A pilot notices that there are rising currents of air along a fairly
well-defined line. He sees no rising slopes and can see nothing in
the coverage of the earth beneath him which could account for his
observation. The sky is cloudless even above the rising currents of
air. What would he think was the cause of the vertical currents?
What would you suspect as to the relative humidity when this effect
is observed?
17. If thedew point at the surface of the earth is 10°C, what dew
point would you expect at 5,000 ft.? at 10,000 ft.? In exercise 15,
your graph shows the dew point at 2,000 ft. Draw a dotted line
down from this point to the earth to show how the dew point varies
with altitude. (See exercise 10.)
 Supplementary Exercises
Chapter 1

1. Draw a large circle to represent the earth; on it indicate and

name the various wind belts and calms.
2. Why do the western slopes of the Rockies get much rain while
the eastern slopes are quite arid?
3. Define: science, physics, meteorology, atmosphere, cyclone.
4. Why are the westerlies of the southern hemisphere stronger and
steadier than those of the northern hemisphere?
5. Describe the structure of the atmosphere.
6. What is the composition of the atmosphere? Name the four
components which are most valuable to man.
7. What factors disturb the regular wind directions shown in
figure 2 (page 6).
8. Sketch figure 2 as it would appear if the earth did not rotate.
9. What evidence shows that the atmosphere extends to a height
of more than 700 miles? Why does the pressure of the atmosphere
decrease with altitude? Why does the temperature of the atmos
phere decrease with altitude? What causes the reversal of this
change at the tropopause?

Chapter 2

10. What are the three fundamental magnitudes which are

measured?

11. Give the definition of the standard for each of the three funda
mental magnitudes. Name five derived units.
12. Find the number of square centimeters in a square inch. Find
the number of cubic centimeters in a cubic inch.
104
 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 105

13. A man weighs 180 lb. and is 6 ft. tall. Express his weight in
kilograms and his height in meters.
14. Use the fact that 1 kg = 2.2 lb. to find the number of grams in
lib.
15. If a plane travels at 200 mi./hr., what is its velocity expressed
in feet per second?
16. Las Cruces is 40 miles from El Paso. Express this distance
in nautical miles. If a truck goes from El Paso to Las Cruces in
1 hour and 20 minutes, what is its average speed in miles per hour?

in knots?
17. If a man runs at a rate of 100 yards in 10 seconds, how long will
it take him to run 100 meters?

18. Define density, specific gravity.

19. A block is 10 cm long, 8 cm wide, and 4 cm thick. It
weighs
1,500 g. Express its density in g/cm3 and in lb. /ft.3 What is the
specific gravity of the material of the block?
20. A cylindrical tank is 30 in. long. Its radius is 10 in. How
many gallons can the tank hold?

Chapter 3
21. What is force? What is a vector? What is a vector quantity?
22. What two kinds of motion are there? Name three vector
quantities. Name some scalar quantities.
23. What is meant by composition of vectors? What is meant by
resolution of a force? Give an application in which it would be
helpful to resolve a force into components.
24. Define : concurrent forces, resultant of several forces, equilibrant
of several forces.
25. A force of 200 lb. makes an angle of 40° with the horizontal.
Find its horizontal component and its vertical component.
26. Find the magnitude and the direction of a force so that its
horizontal component will be 80 lb. and its vertical component will
be 100 lb.

27. A board One end rests on the ground; the other

is 5 ft. long.
end is 3 ft. above the ground. A 100-lb. object rests on the board.
106 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES

Resolve the weight of the object into a component parallel to the

board and a component perpendicular to the board. Solve in two
ways.
28. Find the resultant of each group of forces. When three forces
are given, use the polygon method. •

Angle Angle
Ft Ft Ft between between
F i and F , Fi and Ft

a) 300 1b. 4001b. 90"

b) 1001b. 1201b. 50°
c) 5001b. 8001b. 130°
d) 1001b. 2001b. 150 1b. 40° 150°
e) 200 kg 100 kg 180 kg 100° 170°

29. A 100-lb. object is suspended from a building by means of a

rope. Find the angle which the rope makes with the side of the
building when the weight is pulled away from the building by a
horizontal force of 25 lb. Hints: The tension in the cord is the
equilibrant of the other forces acting upon the weight. Make a
second sketch from which the required angle may be found by means
of a protractor.

30. Find the force exerted by the horizontal cord

and the push exerted by the rod. Neglect the weight
of the rod. (Solve graphically and also by proportions. )
100

31. Define: torque, or moment of force. State the two conditions

of equilibrium for vertical forces.

45 lb.
32. Find the equilibrant of the
parallel forces shown.
7 lb.
 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 107

The plank shown weighs

33. F
50 pounds. How much force, 100
F, must a man be able to exert lb.
to raise the end of the plank
from the floor?
V- 6'-

34. The horizontal rod weighs 100 lb. Find the

tension in the inclined cord. (Find the length, AD,
and then consider moments about A.)

Hinged

Chapter 4
35. Distinguish between speed and velocity. State Newton's
three laws of motion. Which of these three laws is used most fre
quently in the solution of problems involving forces and accelerations?
36. Define acceleration. Give an example of "action" and
"reaction."
37. Find the acceleration in each case:
(a) (b) (c) (d)

yoo 3Vlb.
lb.
no friction coef. of fr/c
mO.1

(Disregard friction in Fig. d.)

38. Complete the following equations as they apply to uniformly
accelerated motion. If the initial velocity is not zero, v = ,

S = , and v1 = If the initial velocity is zero,

v = , S
= , and v
=

39. An object is dropped from a height of 100 ft. In how many

seconds will it reach the ground? With what velocity will it strike
the ground? What is the average velocity of the object during its
fall?
108 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES

40. An object is shot vertically upward with an initial velocity of

200 ft./sec. Where will it be at the end of 3 sec.? For how many
seconds will it rise? How high will it rise?
41. A catapult 100 ft. long sends a naval plane into the air with a
speed of 60 mi./hr. Find the acceleration of the plane while it
is on the catapult, assuming that the acceleration is constant.
42. Ifthe plane in exercise 41 weighs 4,800 lb., what force must
the catapult and the propeller exert to give the plane the required
acceleration?
43. How many seconds does it take for the plane to travel the
length of the catapult?
44. A plane with a speed of 120 mi./hr. travels in a circular path
whose radius is 1,000 ft. Find the centripetal force on the pilot
if he weighs 160 lb.
45. An object is shot at an angle of 30° with the horizontal with an
initial velocity of 200 ft./sec. Resolve the initial velocity into a
vertical component and a horizontal component. For how many
seconds does the object rise? How far horizontally does the object
travel before it hits the ground?
46. From what height must an object be dropped so that its final
velocity will be 100 ft./sec.?
47. Two skaters, a 150-lb. man and a 100-lb. boy, meet in a head-on
collision. The man has been traveling 30 ft./sec.; the boy, at 40
ft./sec. They grasp each other when they meet. Find the magni
tude and the direction of their common velocity after collision.

Chapter 5
48. Define pressure. Sketch and explain the aneroid barometer
and the mercury barometer. Explain the advantages and the dis
advantages of the mercury barometer.
49. A tank is 24 ft. long, 10 ft. wide, and 12 ft. deep. It is full of
fresh water. Find the pressure due to the water on the bottom of the
tank, the average pressure on the end of the tank, the force due to
water pressure on the bottom, and the force due to water pressure on
the 10 ft. X 12 ft. end of the tank.
60. An instructor in the U.S. Submarine Service made a record
dive of 440 feet below the surface of the sea. The density of sea
 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 109

water is 1.03 g/cm*. Find the pressure due to the water at this
depth.
51. A barge is 12 ft. long, 6 ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep. It weighs
500 lb. To what depth will it sink into fresh water when it is
empty? when it carries a load of 2,000 lb.? What maximum
load can it carry if the top of the barge must remain 6 in. above the
surface of the water?
62. State Archimedes' principle. An object weighs 20 g in air,
17 g in water, and 18 g in an oil. Find the specific gravity of
the object and the specific gravity of the oil. What is the volume
of the object?
63. Convert 960 mb of pressure to g/cms, to inches of mercury,
and to mm of mercury.

Chapter 6

64. Define: work, energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, power,

horsepower.

66. A tractor traveling at a rate of 5 mi./hr. exerts a pull of 1,000

lb. on a scraper. What is the output horsepower of the tractor?

A
56. How many foot-pounds of kinetic
energy does a 3,200-lb. automobile have
when its speed is 45 mi./hr.? 10 0

67. A sled starts from rest at A. If no energy is lost due to fric

tion, with what velocity will the sled reach B1
58. If a force of 30 lb. is needed to pull a 100-lb. object along a
level floor, what is the coefficient of friction? Assume that the force
acts in a horizontal direction.

69. Aforce of 20 lb. acts on a 100-lb. object initially at rest. Find

the final velocity (a) if the force acts for 5 sec., and (b) if the force
acts through a distance of 20 ft.

60. Find the answer to exercise 42 by use of the equation FS «= —.

2g
110 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES

Chapter 7
61. State Bernoulli's principle. Name four demonstrations or
applications of the principle and explain how one of them works.
62. How many cubic feet of water will flow through a round hole
in the bottom of a tank if the hole is J in. in diameter and the depth
of the water in the tank is kept at 16 ft.?

Chapter 8
63. The melting point of tin is 232°C. Convert this temperature
to Fahrenheit. The normal temperature of the human body is
98.6°F. Convert this to centigrade.
64. Upon what physical fact is the operation of the liquid-in-glass
thermometer based? Define: heat, calorie, B.T.U., specific heat.
66. How many calories of heat are needed to raise the temperature
of 120 g of aluminum from 20°C to 100°C? How much water would
be heated from 20°C to 100°C by this same number of calories?
66. Two hundred grams of water are contained in a 100-g iron cup.
How much heat is needed to raise the temperature from 20°C to 40°C?
67. In if the masses were 200 lb. and 100 lb.
the preceding exercise,
respectively, and the required increase in temperature were from
20°F to 40°F, how many B.T.U.'s of heat would be required?
68. Suppose 150 g of lead (sp. ht. = 0.03) at 100°C are dropped
into a 90-g brass (sp. ht. = 0.09) cup containing 80 g of water at
10°C. Calculate the final temperature.
69. If
200 g of a metal at 100°C are dropped into 100 g of water at
10°C, the resulting temperature is 25°C. Calculate the specific
heat of the metal. (The heat capacity of the container of the water is
so small that it may be neglected.) Ana. 0.1 calorie/gram/°C.

Chapter 9
70. Name some of the causes of the great decrease in atmospheric
temperature with altitude.
71.By what means can heat pass through a perfect vacuum?
How could you make it possible to see convection currents in a room?
72.Why are furnaces put in basements rather than in attics?
Why is ice placed in the upper part of the cabinet of a refrigerator?
 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 111

Would the ice last longer if it were placed in the bottom of the
cabinet? Explain.
73.Explain the manner in which sea breezes and land breezes are
produced. During the daytime, would you expect bumpy flying
over very dry land or over a surface covered with heavy vegetation?
Explain. Show how night flying over these two surfaces would
compare.

Chapter 10
74. State Boyle's law, Charles's law, the general gas law. How do
we reach the conclusion that — 273°C is the absolute zero of
temperature?
76. An automobile tire contains 2,000 in.* of air at a gage pressure
of 30 lb./in.2 What volume does this air occupy if it expands to
atmospheric pressure? Assume that atmospheric pressure = 15
lb./in.2
76. An automobile tire at 27°C contains air at 30 lb./in.2 above
atmospheric pressure, which is 15 lb./in.1 Find the pressure of the
air in the tire if the temperature rises to 47°C (116.6°F).
77. A chemist collects 100 cm3 of hydrogen at 27°C and 70 cm of
pressure. What volume will this gas occupy under standard
conditions (0°C and 76 cm of pressure) ?
78. How did Newton's law that "every object in the universe is
attracted by every other object in the universe" affect man's ideas
as to how a gas exerts a pressure?

79. What is an isothermal process? What is an adiabatic process?

80. Air at
a pressure of 100 lb./in.2 and a volume of 10 in.' expands
to a volume of 20 in.* Find the final pressure (a) if the expansion is
isothermal and (b) if the expansion is adiabatic. (lO1-4
= 25 and
2011 = 66.)

81. Write down each of the following statements as it should be

completed. A very slow expansion is apt to be A very
quick expansion is apt to be In an adiabatic expansion
the temperature of the gas In an adiabatic compression, the
temperature
82. Define: heat of fusion, heat of vaporization, super-cooling. The
heat of fusion of ice is per The heat of vaporiza
tion of water is per
112 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES

83. The three states in which water may exist are ,

, and
84. A25-g cube of ice at 0°C is put into 200 g of water at 30°C.
Calculate the final temperature. (Neglect the heat capacity of the
container of the water.)
86. Five grams of steam at 100°C are condensed in 200 g of water
at 20°C. Calculate the final temperature.
86. A 400-g block of iron is heated to 300°C and placed on a block
of ice which is at 0°C. How many grams of ice will be melted ?
87. With reference to atmospheric humidity, define: capacity,
absolute humidity, relative humidity, dew point.
88. Why is the decrease in temperature of a wet bulb an indication
of relative humidity? How does the dew-point hygrometer enable
one to find the dew point?
89. Very commonly, the water content of clouds is super-cooled
below 0°C. How does this fact introduce dangers to aviation?
90. The temperature of a room is 20°C and the absolute humidity
is 5 g of water vapor per cubic meter. What is the relative humidity?
91. What is the relative humidity of a room if the temperature is
20°C and the dew point is 0°C?
92. Sketch and name three different types of hygrometers which
are in daily use. Why is the absolute hygrometer not used by
weather observers?
93. If the
temperature of a tightly closed room is increased, what
change occurs in the absolute humidity, the capacity, the relative
humidity, the dew point.
94. Name the three factors which determine the altitude of the
base of a cumulus cloud. Of what is a cumulus cloud composed?
Of what is a cirrus cloud composed?
95. Water vapor is invisible. Would you call the collection of
droplets which we see at the spout of a kettle fog, dew, haze, mist,
or a cloud? In a recent "quiz program" frost was defined as frozen
dew. Why is this definition incorrect?
96. As moist air rises from the surface of the earth, more and more
of its vapor condenses. Which would be cooled more in rising
quickly, moist air or dry air? Explain.
97. On a hot day, would a glider pilot have a better opportunity
to maintain altitude over dry land or over water? Explain.
 Answers to Questions and Problems
Answers are mostly to odd-numbered numerical exercises. A few
other answers are given when it is deemed advisable.

Page 11
6. -45°F, 9 in., -60°F, 1.2 in. 9. 2,025 lb., 62.9 slugs.

Pages 16-17
1. 7.48 gallons. 3. 30.48 cm.
6. 20.45 mi./hr. 7. 48 km/hr.,
25 mi./hr., 9.4 gallons. 9. 21,600 nautical miles. 11. Multiply
62.5 by the specific gravity. 16. 58.67 ft./sec, 102.67 ft./sec.
17. .0765 lb./ft.3, .00122 g/cm3.

Pages 24-26
8. Approximately 53 lb. and 84 lb. 6. 38.5 lb., 92.3 lb.
7. 14.5° north of east, 140 mi.

Pages 28-29
1. 6.9 ft. from center. 3. 5.5 tons and 6 tons. 7. 54.16 lb.
11. 166 lb., 2,174 lb. 13. 166.7 lb. up.

Pages 38-42
1. 2 ft./sec, 38 ft./sec., 3,800 ft./sec. /sec. 3. 8 sec. 6. 688 lb.
7. 7.7 lb., 12.3 ft./sec./sec. 9. 20 mi./hr. 11. 466.6 ft.
13. 25 sec. 16. 87.8 ft. 17. 29 mi./hr. 19. 15,000 lb. 21. 193.6 ft.
23. 1.41ic. 27. 125 ft. 29. 3 sec., 144 ft., 300 ft.

Pages 60-61
1. 12,480 lb., 3,120 lb. 8. 597 lb. 6. 3,333,000 cu. ft.
9. 26.58 in., 948.2 mb.

Pages 60-61
1. 12,390,000
9. 10} hp.
ft.-lb.
13. 640
8. 80,000 ft. 6. 1,960 ergs. 7. A hp.
lb., 160 lb.
113
114 ANSWERS

Pages 68-69
1. 24 ft./sec., 0.24 ft.3

Pages 73-74
I. 15°C, 140°F. 3. 3,465 B.T.U. 6. 25.7 B.T.U.
7. .0995 calorie/gram/°C.

Page 78
1. 14.7 calories/sec. 4. 320 calories/sec.

Pages 87-88
3. .0562 lb./ft.3, .0665 lb./ft.3 6. 83.75 ft.3 7. 228 lb./in.1
II. 54.5°F., 57.8°F.

Page 94
3. 1,494.7 g. 6. Increased velocity of the molecules of water vapor at
the higher temperatures. 7. 187.5 g.

Pages 102-103
1. increases, decreases, remains unchanged. 3. 1.799 kg. 6. 108C.
12. 7.9 g, 4.5 g, , .

16. 59°F, 34°F, from 2,000 ft. to 12,800 ft., above 12,800 ft.
17. 6.95°C, 3.9°C.

Pages 104-112
13. 81.8 kg, 1.83 m. 16. 293 ft./sec. 17. 10.9 sec.
19. 4.69 g/cm«, 293 lb. /ft.3 26. Approximately 153 lb. and 129 lb.
27. 60 lb., 80 lb. 29. 14°. 33. 65 lb. 37. 16 ft./sec./sec.,
6.4 ft./sec./sec, 12.8 ft./sec./sec, 12.3 ft./sec./sec.
39. 2.5 sec, 80 ft./sec., 40 ft./sec. 41. 38.7 ft./sec./sec.
43. 2.27 sec. 46. 100 ft./sec., 173 ft./sec., 3.13 sec, 1,081 ft.
47. 2 ft./sec. in the direction in which the man was going.
49. 750 lb./ft.3, 375 lb./ft.8, 180,000 lb., 45,000 lb.
61. 1.33 in., 6.67 in., 6,250 lb. 63. 979.6 g/cm', 28.35 in., 720.1 mm.
66. 13.33 hp., 67. 80 ft./sec. 69. 32 ft./sec., 16 ft./sec.
63. 449.6°F, 37°C. 65. 2,016 calories, 25.2 g. 67. 4,210 B.T.U.
76. 6,000 in.3 77. 83.8 cm/. 86. 35.1°C. 91. 26.4%.
 Ind ex
Boyle's law, 79
B.t.u., as unit of heat, 71
Absolute humidity, 95 Buoyancy, principle of, 45
Absolute hygrometer, 06
Absolute pressure, denned, 44
Acceleration,
as vector quantity, 18 Calorie, as unit of heat, 71
caused by gravity, 31 Calorimeter, use of, 73
defined, 30 Capacity, vapor, 92, 95
Newton's laws of motion, 30-31 Carburetor jet, as application of
Adiabatic process, Bernoulli's principle, 68
defined, 83-84 Carnot's formula, 84
in the atmosphere, 86 Center of gravity, 26
Airplane wing, as application of Centrifugal force, 35-36
Bernoulli's principle, 68 Change of state, 89-93
Aneroid barometer, principle of, Charles's law, 79-80
47-48 Chemical hygrometer, 96
Archimedes' principle, 45 Cloud apparatus, use of, 10
Area, derivation of, 14 Clouds, 100-101
Atmosphere, Coefficient of friction, 56
adiabatic processes in the, 86 Collision, 34
as measure of pressure, 48 Color, effect of atmospheric particles
composition of dry air, 3-5 on, 8-9
defined, 3 Combustion, heat of, 73
functions of the, 7 Composition of dry air, 3-5
heating of the, 75-78 Compression of gases, 83-84
phenomena of the, 5-7 Computer, use of, 22-23
solid particles in the, 8-10 Concurrent forces, addition of, 19-23
structure of the, 4, 5 Conduction of heat, 76
Atmospheric humidity, 95-101 Conservation of energy, law of, 54
Atmospheric phenomena, 5-7 Convection of heat, 77
Atmospheric pressure, 46-50 Cumulus clouds, 100
Atomizer, as application of Ber Curvilinear motion, 35
noulli's principle, 68 Cyclone, 7
Automobile engine thermometer, 71
Average pressure, 44

B Dalton's law of partial pressure, 93

Densities,
Balanced forces, vectors and, 18-27 derivation of, 14
Barograph, recording, principle of, table of, 14
48 Derived units, 14-16
Barometers, principle of, 47-48 Dew point, 95-96
Bernoulli's principle, 66 Dew-point hygrometer, 97-98
applications of, 67-68 Diesel engine, efficiency of, 85-86
Boiling, 91 Drag, reduction of, by streamlining,
Bourdon gage, principle of, 44 60
115
116 INDEX

Dry adiabatic lapse rate, 86 General law of gases, 80-81

Dyne, denned, 31-32 Gravity,
acceleration caused by, 31
center of, 26

Efficiencies of heat engines, 84-86

Energy,
conservation of, law of, 54 Hair hygrometers, 100
denned, 53-54 Heat, 70-73
kinetic, 53-54 as scalar quantity, 19
potential, 53 balance, daily variation, 77-78
Engines, heat, efficiencies of, 84-86 conduction of, 76
Equations of motion, 32-33 convection of, 77
Erg, as unit of work, 52 defined, 71
Evaporation, 91-92 latent, of fusion, 90
Expansion of gases, 83-84 measurement of, 72-73
mechanical equivalent of, 73
of combustion, 73
of fusion, denned, 90
Fluids, of vaporization, 91
at rest, 43-50 radiation of, 77
in motion, 65-68 transportation of, 75-78
Foot-pounds, as unit of work, 52 units of, 71-72
Forces, Heat engines, efficiencies of, 84-86
as vector quantity, 18 Heating of the atmosphere, 75-78
centrifugal, 35-36 Humidiguide, 99
concurrent, addition of, 19-23 Humidity,
denned, 18 absolute, 95
moments of, 25 atmospheric, 95-101
parallel, 25-26 Hurricanes, 7
parallelogram of, 19-20 Hygrometers,
polygon method of determining, chemical, 96
20-23 defined, 96
resolution of, 23 dew-point, 97-98
Freezing, 89-90 hair, 100
Friction, in daily use, 97-100
coefficient of, 56 wet-and-dry-bulb, 98-100
defined, 56 Hygrometry, 96-97
effects of viscosity, 59-60
sliding, laws of, 56
streamlining, effects of, 60
viscosity as, 57-59 Impacts, 34
Functions of the atmosphere! 7 Impulse, 34
Fusion, 89-90 Infra-red rays, 9
heat of, defined, 90 Internal combustion engine, effi
latent heat of, 90 ciency of, 85
Isobars, 49, 50
Isothermal process, defined, 83
Gage pressure, defined, 44
Gases, as fluids, 43
Boyle's law, 79 Joule, as unit of work, 52
Charles's law, 79-80
compression of, 83-84 K
expansion of, 83-84
general law of, 80-81 Kilogram, as unit of measure, 12—13
kinetic theory of, 81-83 Kilowatt, as unit of power, 55
properties of, 79-86 Kinetic energy, defined, 53
 INDEX 117

Kinetic theory of gases, 81-83 Polygon method of determining

Knot, defined, 13 forces, 20-23
Potential energy, defined, 53
Power,
defined, 55
Latent heat of fusion, 90 measurement of, 15
Laws, Pressure,
Boyle's, 79 atmospheric, 46-50
Charles's, 79-80 defined, 43-44
Dalton's, 93 graphic presentation of, isobars,
general, of gases, 80-81 49, 50
Newton's, of motion, 30-31
measurement of, 47-48
sliding friction, 56 partial, Dalton's law of, 03
Length, units of, 13-14
units of, 48-49
Light, scattering of, by atmospheric
particles, 8 Principles,
Liquid-in-glass thermometers, 70 Archimedes', 45
Liquids, 43 Bernoulli's, 66
Lumirod, use of, 9-10 Psychrometer, sling, 99

M R
Mass, Radiation of heat, 77
as scalar quantity, 19 Recording barograph, principle of, 48
units of, 14 Relative humidity, 95-96
Measure, units of, 12-16 Resistance thermometer, 71
Mechanical equivalent of heat, 73 Resolution of forces, 23
Mercury barometer, principle of, 47 Rising air columns, 100-101
Mercury vapor pump, as application " Roaring forties," 6
of Bernoulli's principle, 67 Rotation, 18
Meteorology, importance of, 2—3
Meter, as unit of measure, 12-13 S
Millibar, as unit of pressure, 48-50
Moist adiabatic lapse rate, 86 of
Moments of force, 25 Saturated water vapor, table
Momentum, 34 density and pressure, 92
Motion, Saturation, defined, 95
accelerated, 30-37 Scalar quantities, 19
curvilinear, 35 Science, defined, 1
equations of, 32-33 Second, as unit of measure, 12-13
fluids in, 65-68 Sink aspirator, as application of
kinds of, 18 Bernoulli's principle, 67
laws of, 30-31 Sliding friction, laws of, 56
Sling psychrometer, 99
N Solid particles in the atmosphere,
8-10
Nautical mile, defined, 13 Specific heat,
Newton's laws of motion, 30-31 defined, 71
determining, 72
Speed, derivation of, 15
Parallel forces, 25-26 Spool and card demonstration of
Parallelogram of forces, 19-20 Bernoulli's principle, 67-68
Partial pressures, Dalton's law of, 93 State, change of, 89-93
Physics, Steam engine, efficiency of, 84-85
defined, 1-2 Streamlining, effects of, 60
main subdivisions of, 2 Structure of the atmosphere, 4, 5
Pitot tube, as application of Ber Sublimation, 93
noulli's principle, 68 Super-cooling, 90-91
118 INDEX

Velocity,
as vector quantity, 18
Temperature, defined, 70 derivation of, 15
Terminal velocity, 59-60 equation for finding, 32-33
Thermocouple, 71 of falling objects, 65
Thermometers, terminal, 59-60
automobile engine, 71 Viscosity,
liquid-in-glass, 70 defined, 57-59
resistance, 71 effects of, 59-60
Tornados, 7 Volume,
Trajectories, 36-37 as scalar quantity, 19
Translation, as motion, 18 derivation of, 14
Transportation of heat, 75-78
W

Water vapor, saturated, table of

Vaporization, 91-93 densities and pressures, 92
Vapors, Watt, as unit of power, 55
as fluids, 43 Weather facts important to pilots,
saturated water, table of density 2-3
and pressure, 92 Weight, units of, 14
Vectors, Wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometers, 98-
balanced forces and, 18-27 100
defined, 18 Wind direction, prevailing, 5—7
quantities, 18 Work, defined, 52-53
''<*!*

• »<
 UNIVERSITY Of MICHIGAN

3 9015 02 28 3273

AC

.k.L7