Head to savemyexams.
com for more awesome resources
A Level Physics CIE Your notes
22.1 The Photoelectric Effect
Contents
22.1.1 T he Photon
22.1.2 T he Electronvolt
22.1.3 T he Photoelectric Effect: Basics
22.1.4 T hreshold Frequency
22.1.5 T he Work Function
Page 1 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
22.1.1 The Photon
Your notes
The Particle Nature of Light
In classical wave theory, electromagnetic (EM) radiation is assumed to behave as a wave
This is demonstrated by the fact EM radiation exhibits phenomena such as diffraction and
interference
However, experiments from the last century, such as the photoelectric effect and atomic line
spectra, can only be explained if EM radiation is assumed to behave as particles
These experiments have formed the basis of quantum theory, which will be explored in detail in
this section
The Photon
Photons are fundamental particles which make up all forms of electromagnetic radiation
A photon is a massless “packet” or a “quantum” of electromagnetic energy
What this means is that the energy is not transferred continuously, but as discrete packets of
energy
In other words, each photon carries a specific amount of energy, and transfers this energy all in
one go, rather than supplying a consistent amount of energy
Exam Tip
Make sure you learn the definition for a photon: discrete quantity / packet / quantum of
electromagnetic energy are all acceptable definitions
Page 2 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Calculating Photon Energy
The energy of a photon can be calculated using the formula: Your notes
E = hf
Using the wave equation, energy can also be equal to:
Where:
E = energy of the photon (J)
h = Planck's constant (J s)
c = the speed of light (m s -1)
f = frequency in Hertz (Hz )
λ = wavelength (m)
This equation tells us:
The higher the frequency of EM radiation, the higher the energy of the photon
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength
A long-wavelength photon of light has a lower energy than a shorter-wavelength photon
Worked example
Light of wavelength 490 nm is incident normally on a surface, as shown in the diagram.
The power of the light is 3.6 mW. The light is completely absorbed by the surface.Calculate the
number of photons incident on the surface in 2.0 s.
Page 3 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Wavelength, λ = 490 nm = 490 × 10 -9 m Your notes
Power, P = 3.6 mW = 3.6 × 10 -3 W
Time, t = 2.0 s
Step 2: Write the equations for wave speed and photon energy
Step 3: Calculate the energy of one photon
Step 4: Calculate the number of photons hitting the surface every second
Step 5: Calculate the number of photons that hit the surface in 2 s
(8.9 × 10 15 ) × 2 =1.8 × 10 16
Exam Tip
The values of Planck’s constant and the speed of light will always be given to you in an exam,
however, it helps to memorise them to speed up calculation questions!
Page 4 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Photon Momentum
Einstein showed that a photon travelling in a vacuum has momentum, despite it having no mass Your notes
The momentum (p) of a photon is related to its energy (E) by the equation:
Where c is the speed of light
Worked example
A 5.0 mW laser beam is incident normally on a fixed metal plate. The cross-sectional area of the
beam is 8.0 × 10-6 m2 . The light from the laser has frequency 5.6 × 1014 Hz .Assuming that all the
photons are absorbed by the plate, calculate the momentum of the photon, and the pressure
exerted by the laser beam on the metal plate.
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Power, P = 5.0 mW = 5.0 × 10 -3 W
Frequency, f = 5.6 × 10 14 Hz
Cross-sectional area, A = 8.0 × 10 -6 m2
Step 2: Write the equations for photon energy and momentum
photon energy: E = hf
Step 3: Calculate the photon momentum
Step 4: Calculate the number of photons incident on the plate every second
Page 5 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Step 5: Calculate the force exerted on the plate in a 1.0 s time interval
Force = rate of change of momentum Your notes
= number of photons per second × momentum of each photon
= (1.35 × 10 16 ) × (1.24 × 10 -27 )
= 1.67 × 10 -11 N
Step 6: Calculate the pressure
Page 6 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
22.1.2 The Electronvolt
Your notes
The Electronvolt
The electronvolt is a unit which is commonly used to express very small energies
This is because quantum energies tend to be much smaller than 1 Joule
The electronvolt is derived from the definition of potential difference:
When an electron travels through a potential difference, energy is transferred between two
points in a circuit, or electric field
If an electron, with a charge of 1.6 × 10-19 C, travels through a potential difference of 1 V, the energy
transferred is equal to:
E = QV = 1.6 × 10 -19 C × 1 V = 1.6 × 10 -19 J
Therefore, an electronvolt is defined as:
The energy gained by an electron travelling through a potential difference of one volt
1 eV = 1.6 × 10 -19 J
Relation to kinetic energy
When a charged particle is accelerated through a potential difference, it gains kinetic energy
If an electron accelerates from rest, an electronvolt is equal to the kinetic energy gained:
eV = ½ mv2
Rearranging the equation gives the speed of the electron:
Worked example
Show that the photon energy of light with wavelength 700nm is about 1.8 eV.
Step 1: Write the equations for wave speed and photon energy
Page 7 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Your notes
Step 2: Calculate the photon energy in Joules
Step 3: Convert the photon energy into electronvolts
1 eV = 1.6 × 10 -19 J J → eV: divide by 1.6 × 10 -19
Exam Tip
To convert between eV and J:
eV → J: multiply by 1.6 × 10-19
J → eV: divide by 1.6 × 10-19
Page 8 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
22.1.3 The Photoelectric Effect: Basics
Your notes
The Photoelectric Effect: Basics
The photoelectric effect is the phenomena in which electrons are emitted from the surface of a
metal upon the absorption of electromagnetic radiation
Electrons removed from a metal in this manner are known as photoelectrons
The photoelectric effect provides important evidence that light is quantised, or carried in
discrete packets
This is shown by the fact each electron can absorb only a single photon
This means only the frequencies of light above a threshold frequency will emit a
photoelectron
Photoelectrons are emitted from the surface of metal when light shines onto it
Observing the Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect can be observed on a gold leaf electroscope
A plate of metal, usually zinc, is attached to a gold leaf, which initially has a negative charge,
causing it to be repelled by a central negatively charged rod
This causes negative charge, or electrons, to build up on the z inc plate
UV light is shone onto the metal plate, leading to the emission of photoelectrons
This causes the extra electrons on the central rod and gold leaf to be removed, so, the gold leaf
begins to fall back towards the central rod
This is because they become less negatively charged, and hence repel less
Page 9 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Some notable observations:
Placing the UV light source closer to the metal plate causes the gold leaf to fall more quickly
Using a higher frequency light source does not change the how quickly the gold leaf falls Your notes
Using a filament light source causes no change in the gold leaf’s position
Using a positively charged plate also causes no change in the gold leaf’s position
Page 10 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Your notes
Typical set-up of the gold leaf electroscope experiment
Page 11 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
22.1.4 Threshold Frequency
Your notes
Threshold Frequency & Wavelength
The concept of a threshold frequency is required in order to explain why a low frequency source,
such as a filament lamp, was unable to liberate any electrons in the gold leaf experiment
The threshold frequency is defined as:
The minimum frequency of incident electromagnetic radiation required to remove a
photoelectron from the surface of a metal
The threshold wavelength, related to threshold frequency by the wave equation, is defined as:
The longest wavelength of incident electromagnetic radiation that would remove a
photoelectron from the surface of a metal
Threshold frequency and wavelength are properties of a material, and vary from metal to metal
Threshold frequencies and wavelengths for different metals
Page 12 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Exam Tip
Your notes
A useful analogy for threshold frequency is a fairground coconut shy:
One person is throwing table tennis balls at the coconuts, and another person has a pistol
No matter how many of the table tennis balls are thrown at the coconut it will still stay firmly in
place – this represents the low frequency quanta
However, a single shot from the pistol will knock off the coconut immediately – this
represents the high frequency quanta
Page 13 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
The Photoelectric Equation
Since energy is always conserved, the energy of an incident photon is equal to: Your notes
The threshold energy + the kinetic energy of the photoelectron
The energy within a photon is equal to hf
This energy is transferred to the electron to release it from a material (the work function) and
gives the emitted photoelectron the remaining amount as kinetic energy
This equation is known as the photoelectric equation:
E = hf = Φ + ½mv2max
Symbols:
h = Planck's constant (J s)
f = the frequency of the incident radiation (Hz )
Φ = the work function of the material (J)
½mv2max= the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons (J)
This equation demonstrates:
If the incident photons do not have a high enough frequency (f) and energy to overcome the
work function (Φ), then no electrons will be emitted
When hf0 = Φ, where f0 = threshold frequency, photoelectric emission only just occurs
Ekmax depends only on the frequency of the incident photon, and not the intensity of the
radiation
The majority of photoelectrons will have kinetic energies less than Ekmax
Graphical Representation of Work Function
The photoelectric equation can be rearranged into the straight line equation:
y = mx + c
Comparing this to the photoelectric equation:
Ekmax = hf - Φ
A graph of maximum kinetic energy Ekmax against frequency f can be obtained
Page 14 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Your notes
Graph of maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons against photon frequency
The key elements of the graph:
The work function Φ is the y-intercept
The threshold frequency f0 is the x-intercept
The gradient is equal to Planck's constant h
There are no electrons emitted below the threshold frequency f0
Page 15 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Worked example
Your notes
The graph below shows how the maximum kinetic energy Ek of electrons emitted from the
surface of sodium metal varies with the frequency f of the incident radiation.
Calculate the work function of sodium in eV.
Step 1: Write out the photoelectric equation and rearrange to fit the equation of a
straight line
E = hf = Φ + ½mv2max → Ekmax = hf - Φ
y = mx + c
Step 2: Identify the threshold frequency from the x-axis of the graph
When E k = 0, f = f 0
Therefore, the threshold frequency is f 0 = 4 × 10 14 Hz
Step 3: Calculate the work function
From the graph at f 0 , ½ mvmax2 = 0
Page 16 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Φ = hf 0 = (6.63 × 10 -34 ) × (4 × 10 14 ) = 2.652 × 10 -19 J
Step 4: Convert the work function into eV Your notes
1 eV = 1.6 × 10 -19 J J → eV: divide by 1.6 × 10 -19
Page 17 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
22.1.5 The Work Function
Your notes
Photoelectric Emission
The work function Φ, or threshold energy, of a material is defined as:
The minimum energy required to release a photoelectron from the surface of a
material
Consider the electrons in a metal as trapped inside an ‘energy well’ where the energy between the
surface and the top of the well is equal to the work function Φ
A single electron absorbs one photon
Therefore, an electron can only escape the surface of the metal if it absorbs a photon which has
an energy equal to Φ or higher
Different metals have different threshold frequencies, and hence different work functions
Using the well analogy:
A more tightly bound electron requires more energy to reach the top of the well
A less tightly bound electron requires less energy to reach the top of the well
In the photoelectric effect, a single photon may cause a surface electron to be released if it has sufficient
energy
Alkali metals, such as sodium and potassium, have threshold frequencies in the visible light
region
Page 18 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
This is because the attractive forces between the surface electrons and positive metal ions
are relatively weak
Your notes
Transition metals, such as manganese and iron, have threshold frequencies in the ultraviolet
region
This is because the attractive forces between the surface electrons and positive metal ions
are much stronger
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
Observation:
Placing the UV light source closer to the metal plate causes the gold leaf to fall more quickly
Explanation:
Placing the UV source closer to the plate increases the intensity incident on the surface of
the metal
Increasing the intensity, or brightness, of the incident radiation increases the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second
Therefore, the gold leaf loses negative charge more rapidly
Observation:
Using a higher frequency light source does not change how quickly the gold leaf falls
Explanation:
The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons increases with the frequency of the
incident radiation
In the case of the photoelectric effect, energy and frequency are independent of the
intensity of the radiation
So, the intensity of the incident radiation affects how quickly the gold leaf falls, not the
frequency
Observation:
Using a filament light source causes no change in the gold leaf’s position
Explanation:
If the incident frequency is below a certain threshold frequency, no electrons are emitted, no
matter the intensity of the radiation
A filament light source has a frequency below the threshold frequency of the metal, so, no
photoelectrons are released
Observation:
Page 19 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Using a positively charged plate causes no change in the gold leaf’s position
Explanation: Your notes
If the plate is positively charged, that means there is an excess of positive charge on the
surface of the metal plate
Electrons are negatively charged, so they will not be emitted unless they are on the surface of
the metal
Any electrons emitted will be attracted back by positive charges on the surface of the metal
Observation:
Emission of photoelectrons happens as soon as the radiation is incident on the surface of
the metal
Explanation:
A single photon interacts with a single electron
If the energy of the photon is equal to the work function of the metal, photoelectrons will be
released instantaneously
Page 20 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Intensity & Photoelectric Current
The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of the Your notes
incident radiation
This is because each electron can only absorb one photon
Kinetic energy is only dependent on the frequency of the incident radiation
Intensity is a measure of the number of photons incident on the surface of the metal
So, increasing the number of photons striking the metal will not increase the kinetic energy of the
electrons, it will increase the number of photoelectrons emitted
Photoelectric Current
The photoelectric current is the number of photoelectrons emitted per second
Photoelectric current is proportional to the intensity of the radiation incident on the surface of
the metal
This is because intensity is proportional to the number of photons striking the metal per second
Since each photoelectron absorbs a single photon, the photoelectric current must be
proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation
Page 21 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Your notes
Kinetic energy of photoelectrons is independent of intensity, whereas the photoelectric current is
proportional to intensity and independent of frequency
Page 22 of 22
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
