TITLE

EMERGING TICK-BORNE PATHOGENS OF PUBLIC HEALTH

IMPORTANCE

BY

FAVOUR LINDIWAY BENJAMIN

20/208MCB/384

A seminar submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of

Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) Degree in Microbiology.

Department of Microbiology,

Faculty of Science,

University of Abuja

Nigeria

March, 2024

i
 DEDICATION
I dedicate this research work to God almighty my creator, my inspiration and
driving force.

ii
 DECLARATION
I declare that this work is wholly that of the author and does not form part of any
presentation for any other qualification.

__________________________________________

FAVOUR LINDIWAY BENJAMIN, Signature & Date

iii
 CERTIFICATION
This seminar report entitled; “EMERGING TICK-BORNE PATHOGENS OF

PUBLIC HEALTH IMPORTANCE.” by FAVOUR LINDIWAY

BENJAMINwith registration number: 20/208MCB/384, meets the regulations

governing the award of the degree of Microbiology, University Of Abuja.

----------------------------------- ------------------------

Dr. Peters Date

Supervisor

---------------------------------- ---------------------

Dr. S.S. Machunga-Mambula Date

Head of Department

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My foremost gratitude goes to the never failing God for accomplishing this

important task within this specified time.

I am highly obliged in paying deepest gratitude to my amiable supervisor Dr.

Peters for the valuable guidance, care, patience and insightful comments which

helped me at all times during the course of this project.

I also acknowledge my Head of Department in person of Dr. S.S. Machunga-

Mambula and my lecturers for their advice given to me which they did with every

bit of compassion.

I express my deepest appreciation to my parents for their unending support.

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 Abstract
Tick-borne pathogens pose a significant and evolving threat to public health
globally. This seminar explored the diverse landscape of tick-borne diseases,
ranging from well-known pathogens like Borrelia burgdorferi to emerging threats
such as Powassan virus and Heartland virus. The seminar provided insights into the
biology of tick vectors, the epidemiology of various tick-borne diseases, and
factors influencing disease transmission dynamics. It emphasized the importance
of enhanced surveillance, public education, interdisciplinary collaboration, and
integrated vector management strategies for mitigating the impact of tick-borne
pathogens on human and animal populations. Additionally, the seminar
underscored the need for a One Health approach to tick-borne disease control,
recognizing the interconnectedness between environmental health, animal health,
and human health. By addressing the challenges posed by tick-borne diseases
comprehensively, we can better prepare for and respond to emerging threats,
ultimately safeguarding public health in a changing world.

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vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE
DEDICATION
DECLARATION
CERTIFICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Abstract
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction to Tick-borne Pathogens
1.1.1 Understanding Tick-borne Diseases
1.2 Historical Context and Emerging Trends
1.2.1 Key Historical Milestones
1.3 Public Health Significance
1.3.1 Challenges and Opportunities
CHAPTER TWO
TICK-BORNE PATHOGENS OF CONCERN
2.1 Lyme Disease (Borrelia burgdorferi)
2.1.1 Epidemiology and Risk Factors
2.2 Powassan Virus (POWV)
2.2.1 Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution
2.3 Anaplasmosis (Anaplasma phagocytophilum)
2.3.1 Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution
2.4 Babesiosis (Babesia microti)
2.4.1 Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution
2.5 Ehrlichiosis (Ehrlichia chaffeensis)
2.5.1 Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution
2.6 Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (Rickettsia rickettsii)
2.6.1 Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution
viii
2.7 Other Emerging Tick-borne Pathogens
CHAPTER THREE
EPIDEMIOLOGY AND TRANSMISSION DYNAMICS
3.1 Geographic Distribution
3.1.1 Factors Influencing Distribution
3.2 Hosts and Vectors
3.2.1 Vector Biology and Behavior
3.3 Transmission Routes
3.3.1 Vertical and Horizontal Transmission
3.4 Seasonal Variations
3.4.1 Impact of Climate Change
3.5 Factors Influencing Transmission
3.5.1 Human Behavior and Exposure Risk
CHAPTER FOUR
CONCLUSION, SUMMARY, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 CONCLUSION
4.2 SUMMARY
4.3 RECOMMENDATION
REFERENCES

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction to Tick-borne Pathogens

Tick-borne pathogens pose a significant and evolving threat to public health

globally. These microorganisms, transmitted through the bites of infected ticks,

encompass a diverse range of bacteria, viruses, and parasites. The intricate

relationship between ticks, their vertebrate hosts, and the pathogens they carry

contributes to the complexity of tick-borne diseases. Understanding this intricate

web of interactions is crucial for effective disease management and prevention

strategies. Furthermore, the emergence of novel tick-borne pathogens and the

expanding geographic range of established ones underscore the dynamic nature of

this public health challenge. Thus, a comprehensive introduction to tick-borne

pathogens is essential for grasping the breadth and depth of the associated health

risks and for informing targeted interventions and research efforts (Pascucci et al.,

2019)

1.1.1 Understanding Tick-borne Diseases

Tick-borne diseases present a spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from

mild, self-limiting illnesses to severe, life-threatening conditions. The variability in

disease severity is influenced by factors such as the specific pathogen involved, the

tick species responsible for transmission, and individual host susceptibility.

Recognizing the signs and symptoms of tick-borne diseases, as well as

1
understanding their epidemiology and geographic distribution, is paramount for

accurate diagnosis and appropriate medical management. Moreover, gaining

insights into the underlying mechanisms of pathogenesis and immune evasion

employed by tick-borne pathogens is essential for the development of novel

therapeutic approaches and preventive measures. By delving into the intricacies of

tick-borne diseases, we can better equip healthcare professionals, researchers, and

public health authorities to mitigate the impact of these infections on human and

animal populations.

1.2 Historical Context and Emerging Trends

Exploring the historical context of tick-borne pathogens unveils a rich tapestry of

interactions between humans, animals, and ticks over centuries. Throughout

history, these tiny arachnids have been implicated in the transmission of various

diseases, influencing human populations, agricultural practices, and ecosystems.

The recognition and understanding of tick-borne diseases have evolved

significantly over time, driven by scientific discoveries, technological

advancements, and epidemiological investigations. Moreover, the emergence of

novel pathogens and the re-emergence of established ones highlight the dynamic

nature of tick-borne disease epidemiology. Understanding historical patterns of

disease emergence, as well as monitoring contemporary trends, are essential for

anticipating and responding to future public health challenges posed by tick-borne

pathogens (Whitmee et al., 2015)

2
1.2.1 Key Historical Milestones
Key historical milestones in the study of tick-borne pathogens include the

identification of specific pathogens responsible for diseases such as Lyme disease,

Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and tick-borne encephalitis. Additionally,

advancements in microscopy, molecular biology, and epidemiology have

revolutionized our ability to detect, characterize, and track these pathogens and

their associated diseases. The elucidation of tick life cycles, host preferences, and

geographical distributions has provided crucial insights into the ecology and

epidemiology of tick-borne diseases. Moreover, historical experiences with tick-

borne outbreaks have informed public health policies and interventions aimed at

reducing the burden of these infections. Understanding the historical context of

tick-borne pathogens provides a foundation for addressing current challenges and

preparing for future threats in the dynamic landscape of infectious diseases.

1.3 Public Health Significance

The public health significance of tick-borne pathogens cannot be overstated, as

these diseases represent a substantial burden on human and animal health

worldwide. Tick-borne illnesses can lead to a spectrum of clinical manifestations,

ranging from mild flu-like symptoms to severe neurological impairment and even

death in some cases. The impact of these diseases extends beyond individual health

outcomes, affecting communities, economies, and healthcare systems.

Additionally, the zoonotic nature of many tick-borne pathogens underscores the

3
interconnectedness between human, animal, and environmental health,

highlighting the need for a multidisciplinary One Health approach to disease

prevention and control. Moreover, climate change, habitat destruction, and

increasing human encroachment into natural environments are contributing to

shifts in tick distributions and disease transmission dynamics, further emphasizing

the urgency of addressing these emerging public health threats (Clow et al., 2016)

1.3.1 Challenges and Opportunities

Addressing the public health significance of tick-borne pathogens requires a

multifaceted approach that encompasses surveillance, education, research, and

collaboration across sectors. Challenges in disease detection, diagnosis, and

treatment underscore the need for improved laboratory capacity, diagnostic tools,

and therapeutic options. Furthermore, raising awareness among healthcare

providers, policymakers, and the general public is essential for early recognition of

symptoms, timely intervention, and implementation of preventive measures.

Harnessing innovative technologies, such as remote sensing and predictive

modeling, offers opportunities for enhancing disease surveillance and forecasting

outbreaks. Additionally, fostering international partnerships and sharing data and

resources are critical for monitoring global trends in tick-borne diseases and

coordinating responses to emerging threats. By addressing the public health

significance of tick-borne pathogens through a comprehensive and collaborative

4
approach, we can mitigate the impact of these diseases and safeguard the health

and well-being of populations worldwide.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

TICK-BORNE PATHOGENS OF CONCERN

2.1 Lyme Disease (Borrelia burgdorferi)

Lyme disease stands as one of the most prevalent and well-known tick-borne

illnesses globally, caused by the spirochete bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi. The

complex life cycle of the black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis in North America

and Ixodes ricinus in Europe), which serves as the primary vector, contributes to

the wide geographic distribution of Lyme disease. The clinical manifestations of

Lyme disease can vary widely, with early-stage symptoms often including

erythema migrans, flu-like symptoms, and neurological abnormalities. If left

untreated, Lyme disease can progress to more severe complications, including

arthritis, cardiac abnormalities, and neurological disorders. Furthermore, the ability

of Borrelia burgdorferi to evade the host immune response and establish persistent

infections presents challenges for diagnosis and treatment. With increasing reports

of Lyme disease cases in endemic areas and the expansion of tick habitats due to

environmental changes, Lyme disease remains a significant public health concern,

necessitating ongoing research and surveillance efforts to combat its spread and

mitigate its impact on affected populations (Diuk-Wasser et al., 2012)

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2.1.1 Epidemiology and Risk Factors
The epidemiology of Lyme disease is influenced by a complex interplay of

ecological, environmental, and socioeconomic factors. Endemic regions for Lyme

disease are typically characterized by wooded and grassy areas where ticks and

their animal hosts thrive. However, shifts in land use patterns, climate change, and

urbanization are altering tick habitats and expanding the geographic range of Lyme

disease transmission. Moreover, human behaviors, such as outdoor recreational

activities in tick-infested areas, contribute to increased exposure to tick bites and

subsequent infection. Certain demographic factors, such as age and sex, may also

influence the risk of Lyme disease, with children and adults engaging in outdoor

activities at higher risk. Understanding the epidemiology and risk factors

associated with Lyme disease is essential for targeted public health interventions,

including vector control measures, community education campaigns, and

promotion of personal protective strategies to reduce tick exposure and prevent

Lyme disease transmission.

2.2 Powassan Virus (POWV)

Powassan virus (POWV) is an emerging tick-borne flavivirus that has garnered

increased attention due to its potential for causing severe neurological disease.

Transmitted primarily by the black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis) in North

America and the taiga tick (Ixodes persulcatus) in Eurasia, POWV poses a

significant public health threat in endemic regions. Unlike other tick-borne viruses,

7
POWV can be transmitted rapidly within minutes of tick attachment, increasing the

risk of infection. While human cases of POWV infection are relatively rare, the

incidence of reported cases has been increasing in recent years, raising concerns

among public health authorities. The clinical spectrum of POWV infection ranges

from mild febrile illness to severe neurological complications, including

encephalitis and meningitis. Furthermore, there is currently no specific antiviral

treatment for POWV infection, emphasizing the importance of preventive

measures, such as avoiding tick bites and conducting timely tick checks after

outdoor activities, to reduce the risk of transmission (Hermance & Thangamani,

2017)

2.2.1 Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution

The epidemiology of Powassan virus is closely tied to the distribution and

abundance of its tick vectors, as well as the ecological factors that influence their

habitats. Endemic regions for POWV transmission typically coincide with areas

where black-legged and taiga ticks are prevalent, including wooded and forested

regions in North America and Eurasia. Climate change and environmental

modifications, such as deforestation and urbanization, may contribute to changes in

tick habitats and the geographic range of POWV transmission. Additionally, the

presence of suitable reservoir hosts, such as small mammals and birds, plays a

crucial role in maintaining the enzootic cycle of POWV in nature. Understanding

the epidemiology and geographic distribution of POWV is essential for targeted

8
surveillance efforts, risk assessment, and implementation of public health

interventions to prevent and control the spread of this emerging tick-borne virus.

2.3 Anaplasmosis (Anaplasma phagocytophilum)

Anaplasmosis is a tick-borne disease caused by the bacterium Anaplasma

phagocytophilum, which primarily infects white blood cells known as neutrophils.

The black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis) and the western black-legged tick

(Ixodes pacificus) are the primary vectors responsible for transmitting Anaplasma

phagocytophilum to humans in North America, while Ixodes ricinus is the main

vector in Europe. The clinical presentation of anaplasmosis typically includes

fever, headache, malaise, and myalgia, resembling symptoms of other febrile

illnesses such as influenza. Severe cases may manifest as complications such as

pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), or disseminated

intravascular coagulation (DIC). Prompt diagnosis and treatment with antibiotics,

such as doxycycline, are crucial for preventing severe outcomes in patients with

anaplasmosis. However, challenges in laboratory diagnostics and underrecognition

of the disease may contribute to delays in diagnosis and treatment, highlighting the

importance of raising awareness among healthcare providers and the public about

the risks of anaplasmosis and the need for early intervention (Aktas et al., 2011)

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2.3.1 Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution
The epidemiology of anaplasmosis is influenced by various factors, including the

distribution and abundance of its tick vectors, as well as the presence of reservoir

hosts such as small mammals and deer. Endemic regions for anaplasmosis

transmission coincide with areas where black-legged ticks are prevalent, including

the northeastern and upper Midwestern United States, as well as parts of Europe

and Asia. Climate and environmental factors, such as temperature and humidity,

play a role in shaping tick habitats and the geographic range of Anaplasma

phagocytophilum. Furthermore, changes in land use patterns, human behavior, and

wildlife populations may impact the risk of anaplasmosis transmission in certain

regions. Understanding the epidemiology and geographic distribution of

anaplasmosis is essential for targeted surveillance and control efforts, as well as for

informing public health strategies aimed at reducing the burden of this emerging

tick-borne disease.

2.4 Babesiosis (Babesia microti)

Babesiosis is a tick-borne disease caused by various species of Babesia parasites,

with Babesia microti being the most common etiological agent in the United

States. This intraerythrocytic protozoan parasite is primarily transmitted by the

black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis) in the northeastern and upper Midwestern

regions of the United States. Babesiosis can range from asymptomatic infections to

severe, life-threatening illness, particularly in immunocompromised individuals or

10
those with underlying health conditions. Clinical manifestations of babesiosis may

include fever, fatigue, hemolytic anemia, and jaundice, resembling those of

malaria. Severe cases of babesiosis can lead to complications such as acute

respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), renal failure, and disseminated

intravascular coagulation (DIC). Prompt diagnosis and treatment with antiparasitic

medications, such as atovaquone and azithromycin or clindamycin and quinine, are

essential for managing babesiosis and preventing severe outcomes (Lobo et al.,

2013)

2.4.1 Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution

The epidemiology of babesiosis is closely linked to the distribution and abundance

of its tick vectors, as well as the reservoir hosts involved in its transmission cycle.

Endemic regions for babesiosis transmission in the United States coincide with

areas where black-legged ticks are prevalent, particularly in the northeastern and

upper Midwestern states. However, cases of babesiosis have also been reported in

other parts of the country, including the southern and western regions, where

different tick species may serve as vectors. Climate and environmental factors,

such as temperature, humidity, and vegetation, influence tick habitats and the

geographic range of Babesia parasites. Moreover, changes in land use patterns,

wildlife populations, and human behavior may impact the risk of babesiosis

transmission in various regions. Understanding the epidemiology and geographic

distribution of babesiosis is essential for targeted surveillance and control efforts,

11
as well as for informing public health strategies aimed at reducing the burden of

this emerging tick-borne disease.

2.5 Ehrlichiosis (Ehrlichia chaffeensis)

Ehrlichiosis is a tick-borne disease caused by obligate intracellular bacteria

belonging to the genus Ehrlichia, with Ehrlichia chaffeensis being the primary

species responsible for human infections in the United States. The lone star tick

(Amblyomma americanum) serves as the principal vector for transmitting Ehrlichia

chaffeensis to humans, predominantly in the southeastern and south-central regions

of the United States. Clinical manifestations of ehrlichiosis vary from mild flu-like

symptoms to severe illness characterized by fever, headache, myalgia, and

gastrointestinal disturbances. In severe cases, complications such as acute

respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), renal failure, and neurological

abnormalities may occur. Prompt recognition and treatment with antibiotics, such

as doxycycline, are crucial for managing ehrlichiosis and preventing severe

outcomes. However, challenges in laboratory diagnosis and underrecognition of

the disease may contribute to delays in treatment, emphasizing the importance of

raising awareness among healthcare providers and the public about the risks of

ehrlichiosis and the need for early intervention (Qurollo et al., 2013)

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2.5.1 Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution
The epidemiology of ehrlichiosis is closely tied to the distribution and abundance

of its tick vectors, as well as the reservoir hosts involved in its transmission cycle.

Endemic regions for ehrlichiosis transmission in the United States typically

coincide with areas where lone star ticks are prevalent, particularly in the

southeastern and south-central states. However, cases of ehrlichiosis have also

been reported in other regions of the country, including the northeastern and

midwestern states, where different tick species may serve as vectors. Climate and

environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, and vegetation, influence

tick habitats and the geographic range of Ehrlichia bacteria. Moreover, changes in

land use patterns, wildlife populations, and human behavior may impact the risk of

ehrlichiosis transmission in various regions. Understanding the epidemiology and

geographic distribution of ehrlichiosis is essential for targeted surveillance and

control efforts, as well as for informing public health strategies aimed at reducing

the burden of this emerging tick-borne disease.

2.6 Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (Rickettsia rickettsii)

Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is a severe tick-borne illness caused by the

bacterium Rickettsia rickettsii, transmitted primarily by the American dog tick

(Dermacentor variabilis), the Rocky Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersoni),

and the brown dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus). Although the name suggests a

regional association, RMSF can occur throughout North and South America, with

13
cases reported in various states in the United States, as well as countries in Central

and South America. RMSF can present with nonspecific symptoms in the early

stages, including fever, headache, and rash, making diagnosis challenging.

However, if left untreated, RMSF can progress rapidly to severe complications

such as organ failure, neurological impairment, and death. Timely recognition and

treatment with antibiotics, particularly doxycycline, are crucial for preventing

adverse outcomes in patients with RMSF. Public education campaigns

emphasizing the importance of tick bite prevention and prompt medical attention

for suspected cases of RMSF are essential for reducing the burden of this

potentially fatal disease (Phillips et al., 2020)

2.6.1 Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution

The epidemiology of RMSF is influenced by the distribution and abundance of its

tick vectors, as well as ecological and environmental factors that affect tick

habitats and the transmission cycle of Rickettsia rickettsii. Endemic regions for

RMSF transmission in the United States include areas where American dog ticks

and Rocky Mountain wood ticks are prevalent, such as the southeastern and south-

central states, as well as parts of the western United States. Additionally, cases of

RMSF have been reported in countries in Central and South America, where

different tick species may serve as vectors. Climate change, urbanization, and

alterations in wildlife populations may impact the geographic range and intensity

of RMSF transmission. Understanding the epidemiology and geographic

14
distribution of RMSF is crucial for targeted surveillance, early detection of

outbreaks, and implementation of preventive measures to reduce the burden of this

potentially life-threatening tick-borne disease.

2.7 Other Emerging Tick-borne Pathogens

In addition to well-known tick-borne diseases like Lyme disease, Powassan virus,

and Rocky Mountain spotted fever, there is a growing recognition of other

emerging tick-borne pathogens that pose threats to public health. These include but

are not limited to Borrelia miyamotoi, a spirochete bacterium closely related to the

agent of Lyme disease, which causes a relapsing fever-like illness; Heartland virus,

an emerging phlebovirus associated with fever, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia;

and Bourbon virus, a novel thogotovirus first identified in the United States, linked

to severe febrile illness and multiorgan failure. These emerging tick-borne

pathogens present unique challenges in terms of diagnosis, treatment, and

prevention, as their clinical presentations may mimic those of other more common

tick-borne diseases. Furthermore, limited awareness among healthcare providers

and the public about these emerging pathogens underscores the need for enhanced

surveillance, research, and public health interventions to mitigate their impact

(Diuk-Wasser et al., 2016)

15
 CHAPTER THREE

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND TRANSMISSION DYNAMICS

3.1 Geographic Distribution

The geographic distribution of tick-borne pathogens is influenced by a myriad of

factors, including climate, habitat suitability, and the presence of competent tick

vectors and reservoir hosts. Endemic regions for tick-borne diseases are typically

characterized by specific ecological conditions that favor the survival and

proliferation of ticks and the pathogens they carry. For instance, Lyme disease is

prevalent in wooded and grassy areas where the black-legged tick (Ixodes

scapularis) thrives, whereas Rocky Mountain spotted fever is endemic to regions

inhabited by the American dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis) and the Rocky

Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersoni). Climate change and alterations in

land use patterns may impact the distribution of tick habitats and the range of tick-

borne diseases, potentially leading to shifts in disease epidemiology and emergence

in new geographic areas. Understanding the geographic distribution of tick-borne

pathogens is essential for targeted surveillance and control efforts, as well as for

informing public health policies aimed at reducing the burden of these diseases on

affected populations (Eisen et al., 2017)

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3.1.1 Factors Influencing Distribution
Various environmental and ecological factors play a role in shaping the geographic

distribution of tick-borne pathogens. Temperature and humidity are critical

determinants of tick survival and activity, influencing their distribution and

seasonal abundance. Changes in climate patterns may alter the suitability of

habitats for ticks, expanding their range into previously unaffected regions.

Additionally, habitat fragmentation, deforestation, and urbanization can create

ecological niches favorable for ticks and increase human exposure to tick-borne

diseases. The presence of reservoir hosts, such as small mammals and birds, also

contributes to the maintenance of tick-borne pathogens in nature and influences

their distribution patterns. Understanding the complex interplay of these factors is

crucial for predicting future changes in the geographic distribution of tick-borne

diseases and implementing effective prevention and control strategies.

3.2 Hosts and Vectors

The intricate relationship between tick-borne pathogens, their vector ticks, and

reservoir hosts plays a crucial role in the transmission dynamics of these diseases.

Ticks serve as vectors for a wide array of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses,

and parasites, while various vertebrate hosts, such as mammals, birds, and reptiles,

serve as reservoirs for these pathogens. The choice of vector tick species and

reservoir hosts is often species-specific and can vary depending on the geographic

location and ecological conditions. For example, the black-legged tick (Ixodes

17
scapularis) is a vector for Lyme disease in North America, with white-footed mice

(Peromyscus leucopus) serving as important reservoir hosts. Understanding the

complex interactions between vectors, hosts, and pathogens is essential for

elucidating disease transmission cycles and identifying key components for

targeted intervention strategies (Hasle, 2013)

3.2.1 Vector Biology and Behavior

The biology and behavior of tick vectors significantly influence the transmission

dynamics of tick-borne pathogens. Ticks undergo various life stages (larva, nymph,

and adult) and require blood meals at each stage to complete their life cycle.

During feeding, infected ticks can transmit pathogens to their hosts, facilitating

disease transmission. The questing behavior of ticks, where they climb vegetation

and wait for a suitable host to pass by, increases the likelihood of contact with

humans and animals and contributes to disease transmission. Factors such as

temperature, humidity, and host availability influence tick activity and questing

behavior, with seasonal variations affecting the risk of tick-borne disease

transmission. Understanding the biology and behavior of tick vectors is crucial for

developing effective control measures, such as habitat modification, tick control

strategies, and public education campaigns aimed at reducing human exposure to

infected ticks.

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3.3 Transmission Routes
Tick-borne pathogens employ diverse strategies for transmission, with the bite of

an infected tick representing the primary route of transmission to humans and

animals. Upon feeding, infected ticks can transmit pathogens through saliva, which

contains a cocktail of bioactive molecules that facilitate blood feeding and

modulate host immune responses. Transmission can occur within minutes to hours

of tick attachment, highlighting the importance of early detection and removal of

ticks to prevent infection. In addition to direct transmission via tick bites, some

tick-borne pathogens can also be transmitted transovarially (from female ticks to

their offspring) or through co-feeding transmission, where pathogens are

exchanged between ticks feeding in close proximity on the same host.

Understanding the various transmission routes employed by tick-borne pathogens

is essential for elucidating disease dynamics and informing preventive measures

aimed at interrupting transmission cycles and reducing the risk of infection (Lacey

et al., 2015)

3.3.1 Vertical and Horizontal Transmission

Vertical transmission, or transovarial transmission, occurs when infected female

ticks pass pathogens to their offspring through the egg stage. This mechanism

allows for the maintenance of tick-borne pathogens in the environment across

generations, contributing to the persistence of these pathogens in endemic areas.

19
Horizontal transmission occurs when infected ticks transmit pathogens to hosts

during feeding, either through the injection of saliva or through the regurgitation of

pathogens into the host's bloodstream. Co-feeding transmission, a form of

horizontal transmission, occurs when infected ticks simultaneously feed in close

proximity on the same host, allowing for the exchange of pathogens between ticks

without the need for systemic infection in the host. Understanding the interplay

between vertical and horizontal transmission routes is crucial for comprehensively

assessing the risk of tick-borne disease transmission and developing effective

control strategies targeting both ticks and vertebrate hosts.

3.4 Seasonal Variations

Seasonal variations play a significant role in the ecology and epidemiology of tick-

borne diseases, influencing the activity patterns of ticks and their hosts, as well as

the transmission dynamics of tick-borne pathogens. In temperate regions, tick

activity typically peaks during the warmer months, from spring to fall,

corresponding to periods of increased outdoor activities and human interactions

with tick-infested habitats. During these peak seasons, the risk of tick bites and

tick-borne disease transmission is higher, leading to a higher incidence of tick-

borne illnesses. However, tick activity may vary depending on local climatic

conditions, habitat characteristics, and the life cycle of tick species, with some

species exhibiting different seasonal activity patterns. Understanding the seasonal

variations in tick activity and disease transmission is essential for implementing

20
targeted surveillance efforts, public health interventions, and personal protective

measures to reduce the risk of tick-borne diseases during peak transmission periods

(Bournez et al., 2020)

3.4.1 Impact of Climate Change

Climate change is altering the seasonal patterns of temperature and precipitation,

which in turn affect the distribution and abundance of ticks and the pathogens they

carry. Warmer temperatures and changes in humidity levels can extend the active

season for ticks, allowing for increased reproduction rates and longer periods of

host seeking activity. Furthermore, changes in precipitation patterns can influence

vegetation growth and alter wildlife populations, potentially creating more

favorable habitats for ticks and their hosts. These shifts in tick ecology and

behavior may lead to changes in the geographic range of tick-borne diseases and

shifts in disease transmission patterns, including earlier onset of tick activity and

prolonged transmission seasons. Understanding the complex interplay between

climate change and seasonal variations in tick-borne disease transmission is crucial

for predicting future disease risks and implementing adaptive strategies to mitigate

the impact of climate change on public health.

3.5 Factors Influencing Transmission

Various factors influence the transmission of tick-borne pathogens, including

ecological, biological, and sociodemographic determinants. Ecological factors such

as habitat characteristics, land use patterns, and climate play a crucial role in
21
shaping the distribution and abundance of ticks and their vertebrate hosts, thereby

influencing the risk of tick-borne disease transmission. For example, forested areas

with dense vegetation provide suitable habitats for ticks and increase the likelihood

of human exposure to infected vectors. Additionally, biological factors such as tick

density, pathogen prevalence in tick populations, and the presence of competent

reservoir hosts influence the intensity of disease transmission. High tick densities

and a high prevalence of infected ticks amplify the risk of human infection, while

the availability of reservoir hosts contributes to the maintenance of tick-borne

pathogens in nature.

3.5.1 Human Behavior and Exposure Risk

Human behavior and activities also play a significant role in determining the risk

of tick-borne disease transmission. Outdoor recreational activities such as hiking,

camping, and gardening increase the likelihood of encountering tick-infested

habitats and coming into contact with infected ticks. Moreover, occupational

exposures, such as forestry work or outdoor labor, may elevate the risk of tick bites

and tick-borne disease transmission among certain populations. Sociodemographic

factors such as age, gender, and socioeconomic status may also influence exposure

risk, with children, outdoor workers, and individuals living in rural areas at higher

risk of tick bites and tick-borne infections. Awareness of personal protective

measures, such as wearing protective clothing, using insect repellents, and

conducting regular tick checks, is essential for reducing the risk of tick bites and

22
minimizing the transmission of tick-borne pathogens. Additionally, community-

based education programs aimed at promoting tick bite prevention strategies and

raising awareness about the symptoms of tick-borne diseases can empower

individuals to take proactive steps to protect themselves and their families from

tick-borne infections.

23
 CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION, SUMMARY, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, tick-borne pathogens represent a significant and evolving public

health challenge globally. The diverse array of pathogens transmitted by ticks,

coupled with the complex interactions between ticks, vertebrate hosts, and humans,

underscores the multifaceted nature of tick-borne diseases. From well-known

pathogens like Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, to

emerging threats such as Powassan virus and Heartland virus, the landscape of

tick-borne illnesses continues to evolve, necessitating ongoing research,

surveillance, and public health interventions. Understanding the epidemiology,

transmission dynamics, and geographic distribution of tick-borne diseases is

crucial for implementing targeted prevention and control measures aimed at

reducing the burden of these infections on affected populations.

Furthermore, the impact of climate change, habitat destruction, and human

behavior on tick ecology and disease transmission underscores the

interconnectedness between environmental health and human health. Addressing

the challenges posed by tick-borne pathogens requires a One Health approach that

integrates knowledge from diverse disciplines, including ecology, epidemiology,

veterinary medicine, and public health. By fostering collaboration across sectors

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and investing in research, surveillance, and public education initiatives, we can

enhance our ability to detect, prevent, and mitigate the impact of tick-borne

diseases on human and animal populations. Ultimately, a concerted effort to

address the complexities of tick-borne pathogens is essential for safeguarding

public health and promoting well-being in a changing world.

4.2 SUMMARY
In summary, the seminar on "Emerging Tick-borne Pathogens of Public Health

Importance" delved into the intricate landscape of tick-borne diseases, highlighting

key aspects ranging from the biology of tick vectors to the epidemiology and

clinical manifestations of various tick-borne pathogens. The seminar began by

providing an introduction to tick-borne pathogens, emphasizing their significance

as a global public health concern and the evolving nature of the threats they pose.

It explored specific diseases such as Lyme disease, Powassan virus, and Rocky

Mountain spotted fever, discussing their etiology, epidemiology, and clinical

features. Additionally, the seminar addressed emerging tick-borne pathogens,

shedding light on lesser-known diseases such as babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, and other

emerging threats like Borrelia miyamotoi and Heartland virus.

4.3 RECOMMENDATION
 Enhanced Surveillance Efforts: Implement comprehensive surveillance

programs to monitor the geographic distribution, prevalence, and emerging

trends of tick-borne pathogens. This includes active surveillance of tick

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 populations, wildlife reservoirs, and human cases, utilizing advanced

molecular and serological techniques for pathogen detection and

characterization.

 Public Education Campaigns: Launch targeted public education campaigns

to raise awareness about the risks of tick bites and tick-borne diseases.

Provide information on preventive measures, such as wearing protective

clothing, using insect repellents, conducting regular tick checks, and

employing landscaping techniques to reduce tick habitats around residential

areas.

 Research Funding and Collaboration: Increase funding for research on tick-

borne pathogens, vector biology, and disease transmission dynamics. Foster

interdisciplinary collaboration among scientists, healthcare professionals,

veterinarians, and public health agencies to facilitate knowledge sharing,

data exchange, and the development of innovative strategies for disease

prevention and control.

 Vector Control Strategies: Implement integrated vector management

approaches to reduce tick populations and minimize human exposure to

infected ticks. This may involve habitat modification, targeted application of

acaricides, and the use of biological control agents to disrupt tick life cycles

and reduce tick densities in endemic areas.

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 Healthcare Provider Training: Provide training and resources for healthcare

providers to improve the recognition, diagnosis, and treatment of tick-borne

diseases. Promote the use of evidence-based guidelines for disease

management and encourage early initiation of antibiotic therapy for

suspected cases to prevent severe outcomes.

 One Health Approach: Adopt a One Health approach to tick-borne disease

surveillance and control, recognizing the interconnectedness between

human, animal, and environmental health. Foster collaboration between

public health agencies, veterinary organizations, wildlife management

agencies, and environmental agencies to address the complex challenges

posed by tick-borne pathogens comprehensively.

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