UNIVERSIDAD DE DAGUPAN

PS3 | GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

GENERAL GEOLOGY

PREPARED BY:
ABRERA, BILLY JOE L.
BANIQUED, SOFIA ASHLEY
DIZON, NORMAN
RAMISCAL, RAINIER
SANTOS, JOHN KHEVIN S.
SIMEON, WARREN
TORIO, JOHN JOMARK
VALDEZ, SHAIRA MHAE L.
What is Geology?
- Geology (in Greek, Geo means Earth, Logos means Science) is a branch of science
dealing with the study of the Earth. It is also known as earth science.
- Geology is the study of the structure, evolution, and dynamics of the Earth

GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

- Geologists study the land to determine whether it is stable enough to support the
proposed project. They also study water patterns to determine if a particular site is prone
to flooding. Some civil engineers use geologists to examine rocks for important metals,
oil, natural gas, and groundwater.
- Geology plays a vital role in modern civil engineering construction

BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
1. Physical Geology
- As a branch of geology, it deals with the “various processes of physical agents such as
wind, water, glaciers, and sea waves”, these agents go on to modify the surface of the
earth continuously.

2. Geotectonic
- A study that focuses on plate tectonics and its process. The movement of Earth’s surface
and the formation it created at a certain time.

3. Crystallography
- As a branch of geology, it deals with ‘the study of crystals.
- A crystal is a regular polyhedral form bounded by smooth surfaces.
- The study of crystallography is not much important to civil engineering, but to recognize
the minerals the study of crystallography is necessary.

4. Mineralogy
- As a branch of geology that deals with ‘the study of minerals.
- A mineral may be defined as a naturally occurring, homogenous solid, inorganically
formed, having a definite chemical composition and ordered atomic arrangement.

5. Petrology
- As a branch of geology, it deals with ‘the study of rocks.
- Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
- A rock is defined as “the aggregation of minerals found in the earth’s crust”.
 - The study of petrology is most important for a civil engineer, in the selections of suitable
rocks for building stones, road metals, etc.
6. Structural Geology
- Deals with ‘the study of structures found in rocks.
- Also known as tectonic geology or simply tectonics.
- Structural geology is an arrangement of rocks and plays an important role in civil
engineering in the selection of suitable sites for all types of projects such as dams,
tunnels, multi-storeyed buildings, etc.

7.Stratigraphy
- As a branch of geology, it deals with ‘the study of stratified rocks and their correlation’.

8.Paleontology
- As a branch of geology, it deals with the ‘study of fossils’, and the ancient remains of
plants and animals are referred to as fossils.

9.Economic Geology
- Deals with “the study of minerals, rocks, and materials of economic importance like coal
and petroleum”.

10. Civil Engineering Geology

- A branch of geology, it deals with “all the geological problems that arise in the field of
civil engineering along with suitable treatments”.
- Thus, it includes the construction of dams, tunnels, mountain roads, building stones and
road metals.

11.Hydrology
- As a branch of geology, it deals with “the studies of both quality and quantity of water
that are present in the rocks in different states” (conditions) such as atmospheric water,
surface water, and underground water

12.Geomorphology
- It is the study of history or the origin of rocks that formed land on Earth. It focuses on the
evolution of landforms and its surface.

13.Geophysics
 - It explains and studies the physics behind the Earth’s structure. It includes the rocks,
naturally occurring movements on Earth and the space surrounding the planet.
14.Geochemistry
- It explains the geological systems and the mechanism of Earth’s surface, It uses or
applies the principles of chemistry and its tools.

EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

- Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago from gas and dust pulled by gravity. It has a core, mantle, and crust. The
Earth's structure is divided into four layers: crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. Each layer has a
unique composition and impacts life on the surface. The layers are physically and chemically different with
the innermost being the solid inner core and the outermost being the solid crust.

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The structure of the Earth consists of various spherical shells or layers that can be categorized in two manners:

a) Chemical/ Elemental composition. b) Mechanical/physical properties

Figure 1: Layers of the Earth

COMPOSITIONAL (CHEMICAL) LAYERS OF EARTH

• more commonly discussed layers of
earth; layers are defined based on its
chemical or elemental composition
 Figure 2 : Compositional
Layers of Earth

1. CRUST
• Consists of several
elements

• 3 to 5 miles thick under the ocean and approximately 25 miles thick under the continents

2 TYPES of CRUST
a. OCEANIC CRUST (Basaltic) 71%
• Composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flow; or cools
deeper down to create igneous rock gabbro
• Sediments coat the seafloor, thickest near the shore
b. CONTINENTAL CRUST (Granitic) 29%
• Made up of different types of rocks
• Average composition is granite which is less dense than mafic igneous rocks oceanic
crust
• Thicker part of the crust

2. MANTLE
• Layer under the crust, compromises 82% of Earth's volume
 • About 1, 800 miles deep
• Consist mostly of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron
• Heat causes rocks to rise

3. CORE
- Center of the Earth made of 85% iron metal and 15% nickel

a. Inner core
• Solid part of the core made of iron
• Has a radius of about 760 miles according to NASA
• Hottest layer of earth at 7000°C

b. Outer core
• Liquid part of the core composed of nickel-iron alloy
• About 1,355 miles thick
• Temperature at 5000°C

MECHANICAL (PHYSICAL) LAYERS OF EARTH

• layers of earth defined and divided based on the behaviors of the layers;
corresponds to the mechanical properties of the layers

a) LITHOSPHERE
• the solid, outer part of the Earth; includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle
and the crust, the outermost layers of Earth's structure
• bounded by the atmosphere above and the asthenosphere
• sometimes called the Geosphere itself

b) ASTHENOSPHERE
• the soft upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere, relatively low
resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur.

c) MESOSPHERE
• layer below the asthenosphere but above the outer core; essentially the lower
mantle.
• Despite high temperatures, the intense pressure in this region restricts the
movements of the molecules of the silicate material despite being under high
temperature, thus making it extremely rigid.
ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE
TECTONICS
Earth is a dynamic planet with constantly changing landscapes. Two significant processes help
explain these changes: continental drift and plate tectonics. In this handout, we will delve into
these fascinating concepts and learn how they have shaped our planet.

Continental Drift
- -Continental drift refers to the movement of Earth's continents over time. This idea was
first proposed by a German meteorologist named Alfred Wegener in the early 1900s.

Key Points:
- Wegener observed similarities in rock formations and fossils between the east coast of
South America and the west coast of Africa, leading him to believe that these landmasses
were once connected.
- He proposed the existence of a supercontinent called Pangaea, which gradually broke
apart and drifted to their current positions.
- Evidence for continental drift includes matching fossils, rock formations, and ancient
climates across continents.

Plate Tectonics
- Plate tectonics is the study of how Earth's outer shell, called the lithosphere, is divided
into large, moving pieces called plates. These plates are made up of the Earth's crust and
the upper part of the mantle.

Key Points:
- Earth's lithosphere is divided into seven major and several minor plates.
- These plates are always in motion, moving at a rate of a few centimeters per year.
- Plate movement is driven by convection currents in the mantle, which is caused by heat
escaping from Earth's core.
Types of Plate Boundaries
- There are three main types of plate boundaries where the movement of plates causes
various geological activities: convergent, divergent, and transform.

1. Convergent Boundaries:
- When two plates move towards each other, they form a convergent boundary. This can
lead to the formation of mountain ranges and subduction zones, where one plate slides
under the other.

Fact Box: The Himalayan Mountains were formed due to the collision of the Indian Plate with
the Eurasian Plate.
2. Divergent Boundaries:
- At divergent boundaries, plates move away from each other. This creates new crust in the
form of mid-ocean ridges, which results in the growth of continents and the formation of
ocean basins.

Fact Box: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of a divergent boundary where the North
American Plate and the Eurasian Plate are separating.
3. Transform Boundaries:
- When two plates slide past each other horizontally, they form a transform boundary. This
movement causes earthquakes along the boundary, such as the San Andreas Fault in
California.

Fact Box: The San Andreas Fault is the result of the Pacific Plate sliding past the North
American Plate.

Impact of Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

These processes have significantly shaped Earth's surface, influencing the formation of
continents, oceans, and various landforms.
1. Formation of Continents and Oceans:
- As plates move, they create and destroy continents and ocean basins. For example, the
breakup of Pangaea led to the formation of the Atlantic Ocean and the current continental
arrangement.
2. Earthquakes and Volcanoes:
 - Plate boundaries are areas of high seismic and volcanic activity. Earthquakes occur when
plates shift, while volcanoes form due to the release of molten rock from the mantle at
divergent or convergent boundaries.
3. Climate and Weather:
- The movement of continents and the formation of mountain ranges can affect global wind
patterns and ocean currents, which in turn influence climate and weather around the
world.

EARTH PROCESSES
- Dynamic actions that occur inside the earth or on the earth’s surface

WEATHERING
- is what takes place when a body of rock is exposed to the “weather” in other words, to
the forces and conditions that exist at Earth’s surface.
- is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by the action of rainwater, extremes of
temperature, and biological activity. It does not involve the removal of rock material.

WEATHERING INCLUDES TWO MAIN PROCESSES THAT ARE QUITE DIFFERENT.

1. Mechanical weathering provides fresh surfaces for attack by chemical processes.
2. Chemical weathering weakens the rock so that it is more susceptible to
mechanical weathering.

MECHANICAL WEATHERING
- is also known as physical weathering. When rocks break down or change shape or texture
without changing the chemical composition of the rocks.

AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING

1. Frost Action - The freezing and thawing causes alternate expansion and
contraction of rocks eventually breaking them apart.
2. Biological Action - With plant growth the root system will increase in volume
and cause cracks in the rock to expand.
3. Exfoliation – Rock breaks apart in layers that are parallel to the earth’s surface; as
rock is uncovered, it expands (due to the lower confining pressure) resulting in
exfoliation.
4. Abrasion – When a rock collides with one another, grinding of rock fragments
takes place, and the rock is broken into pieces. Abrasion cuts them into smaller
particles.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
 - Is caused by rainwater reacting with the mineral grains in rocks to form new minerals
(clays) and soluble salts.

AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING

1. Oxidation - Oxygen combines with minerals to form oxides.
2. Hydration - minerals absorb water and chemically change the composition of the
material.
3. Hydrolysis – a combination of hydrogen and oxygen in water with rock to form
new substances.
4. Carbonation - When pollutants like Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen & Sulfuric Oxides
mix with rain water creating acid rain, which can dissolve limestone and harm the
living environment.
5. Water - Is unique and dissolves most minerals and metals in our environment.

FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING

1. CLIMATE
- Temperature and moisture characteristics

Different climates and temperatures produce more favorable forms of weathering.

 Chemical weathering is more prevalent in warm, wet tropical climates
 Humid Climates are moist and the rate of weathering is fairly fast.
 Mechanical weathering less important here
 Mechanical weathering is more prevalent in cold, relatively dry regions
 Arid Climates are very dry and the rate of weathering is slow
 Chemical weathering occurs slowly here

2. PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE AS PARTICLE SIZE DECREASES THE

WEATHERING RATE INCREASES
- when the surface area increase, more sides are able to react with the elements.

• Angular Sediments-have more surface area.

• weather at a faster rate.
• Round sediments-have less surface area
• weathering rate decreases.

3. MINERAL COMPOSITION
- Some rocks are resistant to weathering because of their composition.

• Rocks - will weather at different rates due to their chemical compositions.

• Rock composition
 Minerals weather at different rates
  Calcite weathers quickly through dissolution
 Quartz is very resistant to chemical and mechanical weathering
 Mafic rocks with ferromagnesian minerals weather more easily

• Rock structure
 Distribution of joints influence rate of weathering

WORK OF RIVERS, WIND AND SEA AND THEIR ENGINEERING

IMPORTANCE
RIVERS
- As the rivers have a beginning which is called head. The place where as river ends in the
sea or lake is called mouth. In all the cases, the slope of the rivers at the head is high so
that it can carry all the materials (the coarse and fine weathered products) from the parent
rocks down.
- The slope slowly decreases and in the plains it is smaller. Thus, the shape of the slope
from the head to the mouth is concave.

GEOLOGIC FUNCTIONS OF THE RIVERS

I. EROSION
- The erosion is one of the most expressive features of river which is turbulent with
currents in all directions. Most rivers carve the river valley by erosion.
- The river erodes in four main ways:

1. ATTRITION
- Eroded particles in the water ash into each other and break into smaller pieces. Their
edges get rounded off as they bash into each other.

2. CORROSION (SOLUTION)
- In this process the water dissolves particles of the river banks or bottom and carries them
in solution.
- Weak carbonic acid in sweaters dissolves rock like chalk and limestone.

3. CORRASION (ABRASION)
- Eroded particles in the water scrape against the rock (cliff), removing small pieces.

4. HYDRAULIC ACTION
- The waves crash against rock and compress the air in the cracks.
 II. TRANSPORTATION OF ERODED MATERIALS
1. Dissolved Load
2. Suspended load: the fine particles of Sand silt and clay can remain in suspension.
3. Bed Load: The large-sized materials settle to the bed of the river and move along the bed
by rolling, sliding or by sudden movement (saltation). This bottom load is also called the
traction load.

III. DEPOSITION (ALLUVIAL DEPOSITION)

- These Function act on the following three physical processes involved in the formation of
river valleys, namely:

1. Deepening of the river valley

2. Lengthening or shortening of the river valley
3. Widening the river valleys

WIND
- The movement of air over the surface of the earth is called wind.
- Wind performs all the three functions of erosion, transportation, and deposition of
the weathered products.
- The wind deposits are also called Aeolian deposits.

EROSION WORK OF WINDS

- The processes of erosion due to wind are (1) Deflation, and (2) Abrasion
1. Deflation
- The act of removing the loose particles of the earth from one area and forming
depression as shown in the figure is called deflation. By this process of removing the
sand to the groundwater level, oasis is formed in deserts.
2. Abrasion
- Abrasion is the process of impact of the coarse particles in the wind against formations
like understanding rock and eroding them. Most of the coarse materials in the wind
remain in the lower 30 to 60 cm height of the wind from the ground as bed load and some
coarse sand particles will be swept by rolling them on the ground.
SEA
- Seas and Oceans covered 70% of the Earth’s surface. The term “sea “is generally used for
saline water bodies surrounded by landforms and also water bodies of shallower depth
less than 4km.

FORMATION OF THE SHORELINE

1. sea waves, sea currents, the theory of formation of coastlines by erosion, deposition and
sea level changes.
 2. Coral deposits

SEA WAVES
- The waves are created by the winds. This disturbance travels to the coast and gets its
energy destroyed. The distance between the crests of adjacent waves is the wavelength in
the deep part of the sea; waves are only oscillatory (goes only up and down). These are
called oscillatory waves.

LITTORAL CURRENTS
- The word littoral means about the shoreline. The movement of water up to the coast
when the waves break is called swash and the return of the water back into the sea is
called backwash. While the flow (velocity) of the swash is directed to the shore the
currents set up by the backwash (which is called the rip current) usually act below the sea
level and are directed to the deeper waters.

FORMATION OF LANDFORMS BY SEA LEVEL CHANGES

Types of Shorelines:
1. Shoreline of submergence - A shoreline, characterized by bays, promontories, and other
minor features, formed by the dominant relative submergence of a landmass. Also known
as positive shoreline; submerged shoreline.
2. Shoreline of emergence - A straight or gently curving shoreline formed by the dominant
relative emergence of the floor of an ocean or a lake. Also known as emerged shoreline;
negative shoreline.

ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE
SEAWALLS AND BULKHEADS
1. Seawalls and bulkheads are massive structures built along the coast. (Built parallel to the
coast.) Their faces may be vertical, sloping, or parabolic to produce as little force on the
wall as possible.
2. Bulkheads are made of steel, concrete, or timber piles and they are used where the
impact of waves is not very large. The large hollow prestressed concrete pipes have been
used for shore protection near Chennai harbor with some success.
ORIGIN, OCCURRENCE OF EARTHQUAKE

Origin of Earthquake
- Earthquakes can stem from abrupt movement along faults, volcanic eruptions, bomb
blasts, landslides, or any sudden release of energy on or in the Earth. While not every
fault is associated with active earthquakes, some are prone to seismic activity. Certain
faults exhibit passive sliding, while others stick together, deforming a sudden release of
energy triggers an earthquake. Materials behave in a brile manner under tectonic
pressure, resulting in cracking and earthquakes in the upper few kilometers of the Earth.
The earthquake's origin, known as the focus, is where energy is first released, with
subsequent smaller earthquakes occurring in the surrounding area. The epicenter is the
point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus.
- Earthquakes can occur in several modes, each associated with different types of tectonic
plate movements and geological features. The primary modes of earthquake occurrence
include:

1. Tectonic Earthquakes:
- Plate tectonics, a fundamental geological concept, elucidates the dynamic processes
shaping Earth's lithosphere. This report explores its history, mechanisms, and profound
planetary impact.

2. Evolution of Plate Tectonics:

- Mid-20th century saw the emergence of plate tectonics as a comprehensive theory,
consolidating earlier ideas. Pioneers like Alfred Wegener proposed continental drift,
laying the crucial foundation for understanding Earth's lithospheric plate movements.

Occurrence of Earthquake
1. Tectonic Plates and Earthquakes:
- Earthquakes are primarily caused by the movement of tectonic plates, which are large,
irregularly shaped slabs of the Earth's crust and upper mantle. These plates float on the
semi-fluid asthenosphere and interact at their boundaries, resulting in three main types of
plate movements: convergent, divergent, and transform.
 2. Stress and Strain in the Earth's Crust:
- As tectonic plates move, they exert forces on the Earth's crust, causing stress. Over time,
this stress accumulates, leading to strain in the rocks. When the strain becomes too great,
the rocks can no longer withstand the stress, and they suddenly deform or rupture,
resulting in an earthquake.

3. Faults and Earthquake Generation:

- A fault is a zone of geological discontinuity where two rock masses have moved relative
to each other. Earthquakes occur when there is a sudden release of energy along a fault,
causing the rocks to slip or slide. This slip can be triggered by several factors, including:
a. Stress Transfer: As tectonic plates continue to move, stress is transferred from one
fault to another, potentially causing a previously stable fault to become active and
generate an earthquake.

b. Fluid Pressure: The presence of fluids, such as water or gas, in rock formations can
reduce the friction between the rock surfaces, making it easier for a fault to slip and
generate an earthquake.

c. Temperature Changes: Temperature changes can affect the strength of rocks,

making them more susceptible to slip along faults.

4. Seismic Waves and Earthquake Propagation:

- When an earthquake occurs, it generates seismic waves that travel through the Earth's
interior and along its surface. These waves can be classified into two main types:

a. Body Waves: P and S waves, which travel through the Earth's interior, with P waves
being faster but less destructive, while S waves cause more significant ground
shaking.

b. Surface Waves: Love and Rayleigh waves, which travel along the Earth's surface and
cause the most damage to structures and infrastructure.

Earthquake Magnitude and Measurement:

- Earthquake magnitude is measured using scales like the Richter Scale and the Moment
Magnitude Scale (MMS). These scales help scientists and engineers assess the energy
released during an earthquake and estimate its potential impact on the Earth's surface and
human-made structures.
MODE OF OCCURRENCE
- Geology, the scientific study of the Earth, its composition, and the processes that have
shaped it, offers valuable insights into the formation and distribution of various
geological features and resources. One of the key aspects of geological study is
understanding the mode of occurrence, which refers to the manner in which minerals,
rocks, and fossils are found in the Earth's crust. This handout aims to provide a
comprehensive overview of the various modes of occurrence in geology.

1. Igneous Occurrence:
- Igneous rocks and minerals are formed through the cooling and solidification of magma
or lava. They can occur in three primary modes:

2. Sedimentary Occurrence:
- Sedimentary rocks and minerals are formed from the accumulation and cementation of
mineral and organic particles over time.

3. Metamorphic Occurrence:
- Metamorphic rocks and minerals form when existing rocks undergo physical and
chemical changes due to heat, pressure, or mineral exchange.

4. Hydrothermal Occurrence:
- Hydrothermal processes involve the movement of hot, mineral-rich fluids through the
Earth's crust.

5. Ore Genesis:
- Understanding the mode of occurrence is crucial for predicting and discovering mineral
deposits. Ore genesis is the study of the processes that lead to the formation of mineral
deposits.

PROSPECTING
 - Is the field search for mineral deposits, usually with the ultimate objective of economic
development by mining operations.
- It involves the detailed examination of surficial materials and underlying bedrock in
search of an ore deposit, or evidence of the nearby existence of an ore deposit, utilizing
geological, geochemical and geophysical tools.

PROSPECTING TECHNIQUES
1. Geochemical prospecting
- Is based on systematic measurement of chemical properties of rock, soil, glacial
debris, stream sediment, water or plants.
- It includes any method of mineral exploration based on systematic measurement of
the chemical properties of a naturally occurring material.
- The purpose of the measurements is the location of geochemical anomalies or of
areas where the chemical pattern indicates the presence of ore in the vicinity.

2. Geophysical prospecting
- Exploring for minerals or mineral fuels, or determining the nature of earth materials
by measuring a physical property of the rocks, and interpreting the results in terms of
geologic features or the economic deposits sought.
- It combines the sciences of physics and geology to assist the prospector in exploring
for both mineral and energy fuel deposits.
- There are Five major geophysical methods: magnetic, gravimetric, geoelectric,
radiometric and seismic.

3. Geobotanical prospecting
- Refers to prospecting based on indicator plants like metallophytes and the analysis of
vegetation.
- One such category of plants is called metallophytes that help explore and identify
metals.
- One of the most reliable indicators among plants is Ocimum centraliafricanum, the
copper plant or copper flower, only found on copper containing soils in central to
southern Africa.

GROUNDWATER
- Groundwater is the largest reservoir of liquid fresh water on Earth and is found in
aquifers, porous rock and sediment with water in between. Water is attracted to the
soil particles and capillary action, which describes how water moves through a
porous media, moves water from wet soil to dry areas.
 - The amount of water that is available to enter groundwater in a region is influenced
by the local climate, the slope of the land, the type of rock found at the surface, the
vegetation cover, land use in the area, and water retention, which is the amount of
water that remains in the ground. More water goes into the ground where there is a lot
of rain, flat land, porous rock, exposed soil, and where water is not already filling the
soil and rock.

AQUIFERS
Features of an Aquifer
- To be a good aquifer, the rock in the aquifer must have good:

a. Porosity: small spaces between grains

b. Permeability: connections between pores
- To reach an aquifer, surface water infiltrates downward into the ground through tiny
spaces or pores in the rock. The water travels down through the permeable rock until
it reaches a layer that does not have pores; this rock is impermeable. This
impermeable rock layer forms the base of the aquifer. The upper surface where the
groundwater reaches is the water table.

The Water Table

- For a groundwater aquifer to contain the same amount of water, the amount of
recharge must equal the amount of discharge. What are the likely sources of recharge?
What are the likely sources of discharge?

- One of the most interesting, but extremely atypical types of aquifers is found in
Florida. Although aquifers are very rarely underground rivers, in Florida water has
dissolved the limestone so that streams travel underground and above ground.
IMPORTANCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
1. Site investigation: Geology helps civil engineers evaluate the site's geological
conditions, such as soil composition, bedrock depth, and groundwater levels, to
determine the stability of the site and appropriate foundation designs.
2. Materials selection: Understanding geology allows engineers to select suitable natural
materials like soil, rock, and sand for construction purposes, such as aggregates for
concrete or foundation materials.
3. Hazard assessment: Geology helps engineers identify potential geological hazards, such
as landslides, soil liquefaction, and earthquakes, and design structures that can withstand
these risks.
4. Foundation design: Geological information is crucial for designing foundations that can
effectively support structures, considering factors like soil-bearing capacity and
groundwater conditions.
5. Subsurface exploration: Geology assists in exploring the subsurface conditions, which
is essential for designing underground structures like tunnels, pipelines, and utility
systems.
6. Soil mechanics: Civil engineers need to understand soil mechanics, which is a branch of
geology, to design structures that can withstand soil-related issues like settlement,
erosion, and compaction.
7. Rock mechanics: Geology helps engineers understand rock mechanics, which is
essential for designing structures in rocky areas, such as rock anchors, retaining walls,
and tunnels.
8. Geotechnical engineering: Geology is the foundation of geotechnical engineering,
which deals with the engineering behavior of earth materials and is crucial for various
civil engineering projects.
9. Environmental impact assessment: Geological studies help civil engineers assess the
environmental impact of their projects, including potential soil and water pollution,
habitat disturbance, and erosion.
10. Slope stability analysis: Geology is vital for analyzing slope stability in hilly or
mountainous areas, ensuring the safety of roads, buildings, and other infrastructure.