© Kamla-Raj 2009 Stud Tribes Tribals, 7(1): 11-15 (2009)

African Traditional Approach to the Problems of Evil in the World

M. A. Izibili

Department of Philosophy, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria

KEYWORDS African. Traditional. Approach. Evil. Society

ABSTRACT The paper is centered on what the average African calls evil and the efforts put in place to checkmate
its occurrence. The relative nature of evil from society to society is not at all in doubt. However, the paper reflects
on the efficacy of the measures put in place to combat them in contemporary times. It concludes with a note of
caution that evil should be frowned at no matter who commits it if Africans must move forward as a people.

INTRODUCTION lowing the position of Momoh (1989) that Afri-

can worldview or philosophy should be defined
The meaning of evil is certainly a question from the area perspective of metaphysics, espe-
where at the most, we can hope for a glimpse of cially as many Philosophers agree that it is a
truth, not a finished and fully established under- philosophy rich in metaphysics….
standing. It is true that evil is relative to good. It Agidigbi (2001) puts it differently thus: Afri-
follows necessarily that to think of virtue is to can Philosophy could basically proceed from
presuppose a vice as its counterpart, and the metaphysical principles to tackle its most press-
two ideas imply one another. Echekwube (1999) ing religio-socio-political problems. This be-
said that if good develops within the system of comes obviously the case as metaphysics is an
culture, so does evil. The main thrust of this all-embracing discipline which examines among
paper is to explain as lucidly as possible what others, “Being as Being” in its totality, viewing
the traditional African call evil. It will be part of the universe in its component parts: God, Dei-
this explanatory task to review what exactly is ties, Heaven, Human communities, Inanimate
regarded as evil in African worldview. This is objects, et cetera.
deemed necessary because, it will enable us to In the light of the above, the foundation of
have a better understanding of the possible steps the African’s sense of good and evil is knitted
employed in Africa in the combat of evils (espe- closely to their philosophy. By this, we mean
cially moral and natural evils). A further attempt that the African sees an existing relationship
would be made to evaluate the strengths and between morality and the ontological order. In
weaknesses of the efforts made towards foster- the same vein, Agidigbi (2001) again opined that
ing a society that is less evils. Africans see morality not as an arbitrary creation
of the gods or anybody but rather as something
EVIL IN AFRICAN WORLD VIEW: demanded by the very nature of things. Howev-
AN OVERVIEW er, he added that this does not mean that God is
indifferent to morality.
The worldview of a people is a very impor- God in traditional African thought is con-
tant aspect of their life-style for it reveals the cerned about morality. This becomes truer be-
totality of their belief and thought system. Oko- cause, He is concerned about the welfare of hu-
lo (1992), posits that in the case of the African, man beings. Put syllogistically,
whatever he or she does, carries the authority 1. God cannot be indifferent to human welfare
and approval of conviction, apart from which it because he is a good God.
is considered abnormal and asocial, and indeed, 2. Because he cannot be indifferent to human
in some cases, an abomination. This review exer- welfare, He cannot also be indifferent to
cise, will help in no small measure to consolidate morality.
the position maintained by Okolo (1992) who 3. Therefore, he (God) ensures justice by re-
asserts that “African Philosophy is unique and warding the virtuous and punishing evil do-
distinct for its subject matter, African experience ers through the agency of the gods who
in its totality (past, present and the future) is serve Him.
unique and distinct.” It becomes appropriate fol- The syllogism above, help to better explain
12 M. A. IZIBILI

why in Africa, it is only an exercise in futility for people of Esan South East Local Government
anybody to think that he can commit a crime in Area of Edo State, for a man to have sexual inter-
secret and go unpunished. This, development, course on a farmland. No scientific explanation
Izibili (2003) sees as the supernatural dimension is given as to why actions forbidden by taboo
of ethics. To him, moral standards that guide man are wrong except that the gods hate such things
from evil, are man-made to an extent; but it be- and anybody who gets involved in them would
comes more reliable when a kind of appeal is made incur the wrath of the gods. Like in the case cited
to a power that is over and above the moral agent earlier about the Ugboha people, the reason giv-
(man). Here marks the fusion of religion and eth- en by the elders is that it affects fertility. Agbe-
ics. baku (2004) in unequivocal terms said that the
The question that comes to mind readily is: gods of fertility will be offended if sexual inter-
What is evil to the African? This question be- course takes place on a farm land.
comes relevant because our understanding of Placid Tempels (1959) observes that in Bantu
what Africans see as evil will facilitate the efforts society, “objective morality is entirely ontologi-
put in place to combat evil in the society. In cal, immanent and intrinsic. In addition, Bantu
addition, our understanding of goodness in Af- moral standards depends on things ontological-
rican thought will make this task much easier. ly understood. In other words, Tempels (1959)
Africans in their traditional ethics places some means that the Bantu people sees doing virtu-
level of emphasis on goodness of character. ous or evil acts, not as an arbitrary creation of
Goodness of character consist of virtues such the gods or anybody, but rather as something
as kindness, generosity, hospitality, justice, re- demanded by the very nature of things. Flowing
spect for elders while the elders ensures that they from the understanding of ‘ontology’ it clearly
stay off anything that is capable of bringing dis- implied that for the Bantu people, the perfor-
respect; others are obedience to legitimate au- mance of evil act or its avoidance is chiefly de-
thorities and humility. rived not from the world beyond or from gods.
Wiredu (1983) refers to evils to the Africans In the Bantu idea of evil or good, it does not
as vices like killing, stealing, adultery, and disre- rely on a power over and above man. Rather, it is
spect for elders, telling lies, incest, and cruelty based on reasoning and not on religion. Morali-
or doing harm in any way to other people. The ty n the words of Oluwole (2000), is always seen
essence of evil in African traditional thought in the social context. This is why any violation
consists in doing harm to others. To this extent, of the moral order has a social aspect, which at-
morality is essentially interpersonal and social tracts serious social consequences. The society
in contest, anchored on the well-being of human as a whole, is affected, for every evil act is an
beings. Traditionally, the African is his brother’s anti-social act which has adverse effects on the
keeper and is concerned about his well-being. community at large.
However, a distinction between customary From the foregoing survey, it is the case that
behaviour, taboo and morality, each with its own evil, no matter who is involved, is frowned at by
rule of conduct, is a necessity at this point. every virtuous conscious African. Not neces-
Among the Akan people of Ghana for example, sarily because of the fear of the gods and the
as explained by Wiredu (1983), there are some probable consequences, but for the harmonious
actions that are regarded as customary. Custom- co-existence of the people. The traditional Afri-
ary actions are justified on the basis that it is the can way of life, which is basically communal, can
custom of the people to perform such action. To be seen today in the extended family system.
this end, the fact that an action is customary and Mutual help and interdependence characterize
they have been done from time immemorial is this. We have established, following Omoregbe
enough reason for continuing to do them. (1998) and Agidigbi (2001) that the essence of
Some actions are referred to as taboo. The goodness in African traditional ethics consists
justification of taboos is always in terms of the in doing good to others, while the essence of
adverse consequences that would follow if they evil consists in doing harm to others. Thus, mo-
were done. If any forbidden act by taboo is per- rality in African traditional thought is essentially
formed, adverse consequences are believed to inter-personal and social, with a basis in human
follow with certainty. Okoruwa (2004) stated for well-being. The understanding of the worldview
example, that it is a taboo among the Ugboha of Africans concerning evil will again be further
AFRICAN TRADITIONAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEMS OF EVIL IN THE WORLD 13

exposed when the series of steps taken in com- speaking people of Edo State, Age Grade system
bating evils are properly understood. This will is put into operation. This system, among other
form our next issue for discussion. reasons is put in place to foster hard work, dili-
gence, and integrity. If any young man among
COMBATING EVILS IN THE the given age grade is alleged to have stolen, the
AFRICAN WAY leaders of the said group will investigate the al-
legation. This investigation takes different forms;
Traditionally, Africans see themselves as for example, divination, interviews, et cetera. Af-
their brothers’ keepers. This is the main reason ter thorough investigation and the accused is
responsible for the concern shown about his found guilty, a public show of him is normally
well-being. Africans do not talk about individu- made around the street naked with humiliating
alism because it is abhorrent to the traditional songs of reproach and ridicule. This action is
African mentality. This constitutes the heart of carried out to serve as deterrent to other youths.
African traditional ethics. The whole extended It follows therefore, that if any one hates ridicule
family, share in the fortune or misfortune, as the and reproach, such must stay off stealing.
case may be of its members. This takes different Another example is the step taken to discour-
forms. For example, the traditional African call age adultery especially among Esan women. If
and treat any relation as a brother or a sister. any woman is caught in the act of adultery, the
There exists no sharp distinction between ‘broth- eldest woman (wife) in the family stead will be
er’, ‘half-brother’, ‘half-sister’, et cetera. All of informed. She will in turn bring the information
these gestures are geared towards creating a to the knowledge of the eldest man in the family.
society that will be free of evil. He will give approval to her to carry out the nec-
In spite of the communal co-existence that is essary actions geared towards putting a stop to
from all indications expected to make the society the ugly act.
a morally conscious place, there are serious vio- What are the necessary actions one may ask?
lations of the moral order in African traditional Before now, it should be that the woman who
ethics. There is a school of thought that holds commits the act (adultery), will be paraded half
the view that one of the serious violations of naked through the major streets of the village;
moral order in Africa is the employment of mysti- after which she will provide a sizeable she goat
cal forces (witch-craft) to do harm to one’s neigh- and a chicken to appease the gods. This was the
bours. This, according to them, is a typical evil. effort made towards putting to an end such dis-
One would make haste to ask, what is witchcraft? graceful evil acts. In contemporary times, the idea
It is the employment of mystical forces to harm of getting the woman half naked and walk through
one’s neighbour. This force is seen as typical the streets in the village in broad day light like
example of evil; hence, it is uncompromisingly that has been stopped. She will only be asked to
condemned in almost all parts of Africa. make provision for a goat for the elders and she
In the view of Oluwole (2000), witchcraft pow- will be prayed for.
er is the power that some body can use to affect In some African communities, they adopt the
another person or make some one else do what traditional policing system. This is done in order
you want. From this definition, it does not mean that there may be security. The able bodied young
the power you are using to affect the other per- men are selected for the job. They can arrest any
son is necessarily evil. It is the decision of the suspected evildoer and bring such person to the
person having the power to use the power pos- court of the elders for prosecution. What is left
itively or negatively, depending on what the per- to be x-rayed here is whether these steps taken
son wants to achieve. Put differently, power can as enumerated above are truly successful or not.
be used for anything. You can use power either If not, what are the reasons for such? This and
for good or bad things just like you can use your others will form the next part of this paper
money to either purchase some thing good or
bad. Money is power; power to purchase things. TRADITIONAL MEASURES EMPLOYED IN
Eimionoria (2004) said that witchcraft is also pow- COMBATING EVIL IN AFRICA:
er, a power to make things happen, good or bad. THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
Africans honour good names and good char-
acter. In doing this for example, among the Esan It is truisms that the various ways in which
14 M. A. IZIBILI

evil acts was checkmated in African traditional failure to address this aspect of the adjudication
setting, have undergone as they still do, and of justice, is a major weak The amplified virtue
changes under the influence of modern and ex- of dignity in labour is a commendable one. In
ternal cultural factors. Every culture is dynamic order that this may be sustained, any member of
and not static; this assertion become truer when the extended family who has the fortune (eco-
we take into consideration the sociological and nomically) than others comes to their aid. This is
anthropological point of view. All cultural chang- one of the reasons why today all over Africa, as
es have occurred owing to modernization inevi- maintained by Omoregbe (1998), children of the
tably. The question that looms large is whether poor parents are being helped to acquire educa-
the existing changes have been favourable to tion by relations. In this modern world, in the
the progressive and qualitative development of words of Nyerere, there is an urgent need for the
the people is a question for posterity to answer. traditional African “brotherhood” or “family-
We have earlier in this chapter established hood” to be extended beyond the confines of
that in Africa, emphasis is placed on goodness the extended family and made to embrace the
of character. A man is considered good when he entire nation, the whole of Africa, and possibly
refrains from vices. The community rulers (Obas, even the whole human race. It therefore follows
Enigies, Emirs, et cetera), takes it upon them- from the above that every Nigerian, every Afri-
selves to honour such people with respected ti- can and every human being, for example, should
tles for their goodness as demonstrated in the be seen and treated as my brother. This project
development of the community especially in the of oneness would have been done, when young
cultivation of moral virtues. These rewards and men and women are cared for and meaningfully
awards served as encouragement to those who engaged in worthy vent
emulates good things and shorn evil entirely.
Unfortunately, the conferment of chieftaincy CONCLUSION
titles in modern era is not a true test of those
who merit it. Thugs, robbers, cruel people are We have been able to give an overview of
the various approaches among selected commu-
today honoured by the traditional rulers. The
nities in Africa about evil. It is revealing to know
reason for this is because of the material gains
that there is no perfect congruency on the rea-
they may get from the recipients. This is a major son why man in Africa should stay off evil and
weakness. Nobody again ask, what does Ineg- pursue good. While some tied morality to reli-
benoise do for a living? The moral virtue of ac- gion, others see it as a product of human reason.
countability is no more valued and appreciated. We made effort too to as clearly as possible dis-
Fugitives are made to be celebrities in most Afri- tinguish between customary practices, taboos
can communities because of greed. and morality. We posited that there are rational
The measure employed in combating sexual or religious reasons for following the standard
promiscuity among married women, has changed of living either seen as custom, taboo or ethics;
seriously. Civilization has enabled the Esan peo- and this is to ensure that there is peace, tranquil-
ple of Southwestern Nigeria for example, to stop ity and progress in the society.
the ‘uncivilized method of ensuring that any We made bold to conclude this paper by mak-
woman caught in the act of adultery, is paraded ing a clarion call on Africans both at home and in
nude through the village streets. Rather, she is diaspora to shorn anything evil that will not only
asked to plead and pay some fine to both the impede our destiny as a people but will also make
fellow women in the family stead and the elders us look more like the animals the Westerners have
of her husband’s family. After this, the husband mistaken us for all along. Evil cannot give birth
is advised to accept her as a wife again. There to good. This realization is borne out of the neg-
exist a worrisome aspect of these systems (both ative things affecting us as people that positive.
the so-called un-civilized and the civilized). When This is showcased in the incessant and endless
a married woman is caught in the act of sexual civil wars that have ravaged most African na-
unfaithfulness, why is it that nothing is serious- tions. It is no controversy that one evil person
ly said about the man with whom the evil act is can cause harm to one million people if he so
committed? Could it be said that men are not to wishes and if he/she has such powers. this does
be held culpable when they have sexual relation- not mean that evil is more than good. Oluwole
ship with a woman other than their wives? The (2000),said ‘we do not know a society where the
AFRICAN TRADITIONAL APPROACH TO THE PROBLEMS OF EVIL IN THE WORLD 15

evil people are more.’ On the whole, evil is evil Momoh CS (Ed.) 1989. The Substance of African Phi-
no matter who is involved. We must learn to say losophy. Auchi: African Philosophical Projects
Publishers.
no to evil and embrace virtues; then Africa will Okolo CB 1992. African Philosophy: An Overview.
be peaceful and progressive. Enugu: Cecta (Nig.) Ltd.
Okoruwa Ihimhire C 2004. 70yrs: An interview Ine-
REFERENCES men Ugboha, 30th Nov.
Oluwole S 2000. Smothering Practice called Witch-
craft. Guardian, Sept. 24th.
Agbebaku U 2004. An oral interview. Emaudo- Ugboha, Omoregbe JI 1998. Ethics: A Systematic and Historical
21st August. Study. Lagos: Joja Pub. Ltd.
Agidigbi BO 2001. Introductory Readings in African Phi- Otuokpaiwoh-Izibili Eimionoria C 2005. 64, An Inter-
losophy. (A Monograph Series). Ekpoma: Inno Prints. view. Odagbor Quarters, Inemen Ugboha, 13th Feb
Echekwube AO 1999. African Philosophy and Cultural Tempels P 1959. Bantu Philosophy. Paris: Presence
Transformation in Nigeria. Lagos: Spero Books Ltd. African.
Izibili MA, Enegho EE 2003. Supernaturalism in Eth- Wiredu K 1983. Morality and Religion in Akan Thought.
ics. EPHA: Ekpoma Journal of Religious Studies, In: HO Odera, DA Wasola (Eds.): Philosophy and
5(1 and 2): 52. Cultures. Kenya: Bookwise Ltd., p.11.
International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 1(8) pp. 145-155, December, 2009
Available online http://www.academicjournals.org/ijsa
ISSN 2006- 988x © 2009 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

An investigation of sin and evil in African cosmology

Kasomo Daniel
Department of Philosophy Religion and Theology, Maseno University, Kenya. E-mail: [email protected].
Tel: +254 722-770204 or +254 733-703603.
Accepted 19 November, 2009

The research has found out that, in our world, the appalling depth and extent of human suffering is
evident and very much experienced. Evil and suffering are not just philosophical and theological
aspects of human existence but is a personal problem that every human person experiences. There are
occurrences in nature, for example, catastrophes, floods, earthquakes, which cause harm, misery and
suffering to human persons. Human beings suffer from sickness, blindness, physical handicaps, which
are very often accompanied by physical pain. The researcher has found out that every sensible human
being questions why this should happen to humanity and individuals. The problem is even more crucial
in Africa where we have rampart wars like in Somalia, Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo and so many
other places. We are left asking the question: Why all this suffering in the world? How did it all begin?
How can we be free from it? In this research we have looked at the concept of sin, sin and community,
sin and God, moral culpability, consequences of sin, sin and covenant, sin and salvation in African
perspective.

Key words: Evil, sin, wrongdoing, suffering, religion.

INTRODUCTION

This paper is an investigation of answering the questions METHODOLOGY

of evil, sin and suffering that have disturbed humanity
The information contained here comes from content analysis
since time immemorial. We have explored the concept of gathered mainly from secondary sources
evil and sin in our African thought which we have always
been interpreting in relation to the other philosophical and
theological explanations of these phenomena. A human CONCEPT OF SIN
being is social by nature as rightly noted by the old
philosopher, Aristotle. Hence, in this article we have To begin with, rather than define "evil" in terms of theolo-
looked at sin and the community in our African context gical theory (for example, as "that which is contrary to
since the issue of the community seems to be more God's will"), it seems better to define it ostensibly, by
crucial in Africa. Since there is always a relationship referring to that which the word refers. According to Hick
between God and humanity, we have examined what sin (1983), evil refers to "physical pain, mental suffering and
is in relation to God. Finally, we have looked at the moral wickedness". The last one is one of the causes of
problem of evil and sin and its removal, atonement and the first two, for an enormous amount of human pain
restoration. In the final part we have looked at the subject arises from humankind's inhumanity. This pain includes
of sin and salvation which are not favourite subjects of such major scourges as poverty, oppression, persecution,
many African scholars of Religion. war, all injustice, indignity and inequality that occur in hu-
man societies. (Hick, 1983: 40). It is however, important
to note that although a great deal of pain and suffering
OBJECTIVE are caused by human action, there is much more that
arises from such natural causes as bacteria an and
The objective of this research was to investigate the earthquakes, storm, fire, lightening, flood and drought.
concept of sin and evil in an African cosmology. Another type of evil that can be identified is mental evil.
146 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

In many cases, mental evil is more serious than the elaborate, the most inarticulate expressions of the con-
purely physical evil. This applies especially to grave fession of evil that philosophic reason must listen. His
mental disorders such as insanity, mental retardation and suggestion is that we proceed regressively and revert
depression. This article emphasises on the third type of from the "speculative" expressions to the "spontaneous"
evil, namely, moral evil. Accordingly moral evil which he ones. To him, it is essential to be convinced from the start
also calls sin, is an act or an action performed by a free that the concept of original sin is not the beginning but
human person. Sin to him is an act of the will, because it the end of a cycle of living experience, the Christian
is a decision and indeed a free decision. Moral evil is a experience of sin. He says that the interpretation it gives
relational category, but it is not necessarily limited to the to this experience is only one of the possible rationa-
human sphere. Base and inhumane treatment of others, lisations of the root of evil according to Christianity. Above
as well as manipulation for personal ends, comprises of all, this rationalisation belongs to a period of thought
moral evil, regardless of its source. marked by gnostic pretensions to "know" the mysteries of
Crenshaw (1983: 3) mentions another category of evil, God and human destiny. In this way he departs from the
namely, religious evil. According to him, religious evil Augustinian interpretation of the fall of man.
signifies an inner disposition that perverts authentic The second is the Iraenean response, hinging upon the
response to the holy. This perversion may assume the idea of the gradual creation of a perfected humanity
form of idolatry, where worship is directed away from God through life in a highly imperfect world. Iraeneus (c.130 -
to a pale reflection of the ultimate. This type of evil 202) distinguished two stages of the creation of the hu-
operates on the vertical plane; it concerns human man race. In the first stage, human beings were brought
relationship with God and thus extends to the innermost into existence as intelligent animals endowed with the
recesses of imagination. In this respect, religious evil is capacity for immense moral and spiritual development. In
by its very nature more hidden than the other type of evils the second stage of the creation, which to him is still
we have identifies above. It is therefore, more pernicious taking place, they are gradually being transformed
since its presence can easily be concealed from human through their own free responses from human animals
eyes. into "children of God". Thus the human situation is that of
The Bible faithfully reflects the characteristic mixture of tension between the natural selfishness arising from our
good and evil in human experience. It records every kind instinct for survival and the calls of both morality and
of sorrow and suffering, every mode of man's inhumanity religion to transcend our self-centredness. The origin of
to man and of our painfully insecure existence in the moral evil to him is that it is a necessary condition in the
world. There is no attempt to regard evil as anything but creation of humanity from an epistemic distance from
dark, menacingly ugly, heartrending and crushing. There God. The third response is that of modern process
can be no doubt, then, that for biblical faith evil is entirely theodicy, hinging upon the idea of a God who is not all-
real and in no sense an illusion. powerful and not in fact able to prevent the evils arising
either in human beings or in the process of nature.
The common ground of all these responses has come
ORIGIN AND NATURE OF SIN IN AFRICAN to be called the free will defence at least as far as the
PERSPECTIVE moral evil of human wickedness is concerned; for
Christian thought has always seen moral evil as related
There have been various responses to the phenomenon to human freedom responsibility (Hick, 1983: 41). To be a
of evil in every society. Worth noting at this stage are the person is to be a finite centre of freedom, a (relatively)
three main Christian responses to this problem. The first self-directing agent responsible for one's own decisions.
one is the Augustinian response (354 - 430), hinging This involves being free to act wrongly as well as rightly.
upon the concept of the fall of man from an original state There can therefore be no certainty in advance that a
of righteousness. To him then, the world was as perfect genuinely free moral agent will never choose amiss.
as created by God. Evil came initially in those areas that Consequently, according to the strong form of free-will
involve free will: the levels of angels and human beings. defence, the possibility of wrong doing is logically
Some of the angels turned from the Supreme God (God) inseparable from creation of finite persons and to say that
to a lesser god. Thereby rebelling against their creator; God should have created beings who might sin amounts
they in turn tempted the first man and woman to fall. This to saying that God should not have created people.
fall of angelic and human beings according to Augustine Just like any human community, so also Africans are
was the origin of evil or sin. Thus he could say, "All evil is much aware of evil in the world and in various ways they
either sin or a punishment for sin" (Hick, 1983: 43). try to fight it. Several views exist concerning the origin of
Recoeur (1967), discussing this question of original sin evil. Many African societies say categorically that God did
says that nothing is less amenable to a direct not create what is evil nor does he do them any evil
confrontation with philosophy than this concept of original whatsoever. Mbiti (1969: 204ff) examines various African
sin, for nothing is more deceptive than its appearance of myths which highlight the fact that when God originally
rationality. He states that on the contrary, it is to the least created man, there was harmony and family relationships
 Kasomo 147

between the two and the first people enjoyed only what Uganda, the Christian concept of sin is translated as
was good. Where then did evil emanate from? "aronis" which literally means "a bad thing". Surprisingly,
Some societies see evil as originating from or the same word is used to refer to the occurrence of
associated with spiritual beings other than God. Part of death! This, however, does not mean that the more
this concept is a personification of evil itself. According to abstract notions of sin and evil are non-existent in African
Mbiti (1969: 204), the Vugusu say that there is an evil religious consciousness; it is to say that the moral
divinity which God created good, but later turned against perspective of African religion is quite concrete and
him and began to do evil. This evil divinity is assisted by pragmatic. The concept "sin/ evil" seems to give less
evil spirits and all evil now comes from that lot. Thus, a emphasis on wrong or bad actions, which emanate from
kind of duel exists, between good and evil forces in the bad people, people who have an "evil eye" or "bad heart",
world. There are other people who regard death, epide- which the African religious consciousness prefers.
mics, locusts and other major calamities as divinities in In African religion, sin is always attached to a wrong-
themselves or caused by divinities. Among the Iteso, for doer and ultimately the wrongdoer is a human person.
example, Edeke is a god or spirit who brings death, The sense here, then, is that sin and evil do not and can-
epidemics and other calamities. The same word is used not exist in the human experience except as perceived in
for the calamities themselves. Edeke is then the people. It is people who are evil or sinful, whether or not
embodiment of evil itself. they are aided by invisible forces. For, even when
In nearly all African societies, it is thought that the invisible forces intervene in human life to cause harm, it
spirits are either the origin of evil or agents of evil. When is more often than not because they are "used" by evil
human spirits become detached from human contact, people or are manipulated by forces on earth. Otherwise,
people experience or fear them as "evil" or "harmful". these spirits (though without physical bodies of their own)
Some are believed to possess individuals and to cause are personalised by the African mentality to express their
various maladies like epilepsy and madness. If the dead badness in what they do as "bodied" beings. If people or
are not properly buried, or have a grudge, are neglected personalised beings who are evil, precisely because they
or not obeyed when they give instructions, it is thought actually entertain bad intentions, utter bad words or
that they take revenge or punish the offenders. In this engage in wrong deeds. In other words, they are incar-
case, it is human beings who provoke the spirits of the nations of evil powers, at least for the time they behave in
dead to act in "evil" ways. an anti-life manner; they frustrate the flowering of life and
In Africa also, there are people in every community who life-energies (Magesa 1998: 148ff).
are suspected of working maliciously against their rela-
tives and neighbours through the use of magic, sorcery
and witchcraft. This is the centre of evil as people SIN AND THE COMMUNITY
experience it. Mystical power is neither good nor evil in
itself: but when used maliciously by some individuals it is In many societies of the world, social order and peace
experienced as evil. This view makes evil an independent are recognised. In the African context, the social order
and external object which, however, cannot act on its own and peace are seen as essential and sacred. Where the
but must be employed by human or spiritual agents. sense of corporate life is so deep, it is inevitable that the
People here become incarnations of evil power. In fact, solidarity of the community must be maintained, other-
the African conceive that there are certain classes of wise there is disintegration and destruction. This order is
people, age groups, clans, among others. (for example, conceived primarily in terms of kinship relationship, which
those with red eyes, squinted eyes, shifty people, very old simultaneously produces situations of tension since
single people, the greedy) who possess these potentially everybody is related to everybody else and deepens the
destructive powers. They can harm their victims by just sense of damage caused by the strain of such tensions. If
uttering evil words or gazing at them or applying some somebody steals a goat, personal relationships are at
witchcraft, magic or sorcery. once involved because the goat belongs to a member of
the corporate body, perhaps to someone who is a father,
or a brother, or a sister, or a cousin to the thief. As such it
CONCEPT OF "SIN" IN AFRICAN RELIGION is an offence to the whole community and its
consequences affect not only the thief but also the whole
It is important to be clear about the use and meaning of body of his relatives.
concepts in this realm. These involve both abstraction Harry Sawyerr supports this assertion when he says:
and concreteness of expression. Magesa (1998) notes
that what is elsewhere, especially in Christianity, is con- God does not enter directly into any discussion of sin
ceptualised and explained as "sin" or "evil", for example, among African peoples…Sin is seen within the context of
is better expressed in African religion by the concept of community life (as opposed to individualism) in which the
"wrong-doing", "badness", or "destruction of life." Again clan relationship embracing the living, the dead and the
citing from other community like among the Iteso of unborn is essentially a covenant relationship. Any breach
148 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

which punctures this communal relationship amounts to knit together by a web of kinship relationship and social
sin, whatever words may be applied to it. (So) the structures, cannot be overemphasised. Within the tightly
corporate solidarity of the family, the clan and the tribe knit society where personal relationships are so intense
becomes a fundamental factor of life … This solidarity is and so wide, one finds perhaps the most paradoxical
indispensable for the maintenance of ethical conduct and areas of African life. This corporate type of life makes
a common standard of behaviour… This sensus com- every member of the community dangerously naked in
munis seems to us to play a very important role in regard the sight of other members. In Mbiti's (1968: 209) words:
to sin (Sawyerr, 1968: 30 - 32).
It is paradoxically the centre of love and hatred, of
Sawyerr mentions two features of the attitude of sin. One friendship and enmity, of trust and suspicion, of joy and
is that "personal responsibility for one's actions is always sorrow, of generous tenderness and bitter jealousies. It is
to the fore. But usually this responsibility is extended to paradoxically the heard of security and insecurity, of
the other members of the family… The sensus communis building and destroying the individual and the community.
assumes the role of a public conscience of which every
member of the community is part…" The other is that In the community, therefore, everybody knows everybody
"guilt is determined by motive and intention. Where these else: a person cannot be individualistic but only corpo-
are to despoil the other man to one's own advantage, or rate. Every form of pain, misfortune, sorrow or suffering;
where one is out to gain unfair advantage over the rest of every kind of sickness and illness; every death whether of
the community, sanctions are invoked...They are an old man or of the infant child; every failure of the crop
regarded as offences against the society" (ibid,). The guilt in the fields, of hunting in the wilderness or of fishing in
incurred is now a sin, more so in the form of parabasis- the waters; every bad omen or dream: these and all other
the violation of a law…The essence of the sin lies in the manifestations of evil that man experiences are blamed
violation of the solidarity of the community. on somebody in the corporate society. Natural explana-
There exist, therefore, many laws, customs, set forms tions may indeed be found, but mystical explanations
of behaviour, regulations, rules, observances and taboos, must also be given. People create scapegoats for their
constituting the moral code and ethics of a given com- sorrows. Mbiti notes that the shorter the radius of kinship
munity or society. Wrong-doing relates to the and family ties, the more the scapegoats there are. Frus-
contravention of these specific codes of community trations, psychic disturbances, emotional tensions and
expectations. Some of these are held as sacred and are other states of the inner person, are readily externalised
believed to have been instituted by God and national and incarnated or made concrete in another human being
leaders. This gives sanctity to the customs and or in circumstances, which lay the blame on the external
regulations of the community. Any breach of this code of agent (Mbiti, 1968: 209).
behaviour is considered evil, wrong or bad, for it is an Here then, we find a vast range of occasions for
injury or destruction to the accepted social order or peace offences by one or more individuals against others in their
(Magesa, 1998: 153 - 154). It must therefore, be pu- corporate community. The environment of intense rela-
nished by the corporate community of both the living and tionship favours strongly the growth of the belief in magic,
the dead and God may also inflict punishment and bring sorcery, witchcraft and all fears, practices and concepts
about justice. that go with this belief. Although there are spiritual forces
Many of these moral codes are well known to the adult outside man which seem sometimes to function within
members of a given community and have been incul- human history and human society, the African belief in
cated from childhood through the normal daily process of mystical power is greater than the ways in which that
socialisation. During initiation they are imprinted on the power might actually function within the human history.
body and mind of an individual in a very special and The researcher can rightly state that the African
practically unforgettable way. Some codes or taboos may communities in the villages are deeply affected and per-
be less well-known and a few known only to a limited meated by the psychological atmosphere which creates
number of people because they escape mention during both real and imaginary powers or forces of evil that give
the initiation period or are simply taken for granted. But all rise to more tensions, jealousies, suspicions, slander,
moral customs, whether known or unknown, require accusations and scapegoats. It is a vicious circle.
observance. In fact, Magesa (1998: 154) notes that these In human relationships there is emphasis on the
less known codes or taboos present greater danger since concept of hierarchy based partly on age and partly on
it is possible to transgress them without being aware of it. status. In practice this amounts to a ladder ranging from
Ignorance though seldom exempts one from the God to the youngest child. God is creator and hence the
consequences of a transgression, although it may parent of human kind and holds the highest position so
occasionally lessen the force of the shame or ease the that He is the final point of reference and appeal.
conditions of purification. Still, whatever the circum- Beneath him are the divinities and spirits, then the an-
stances, any violation is wrongdoing. cestors. After them come human beings whose hierarchy
The corporate nature of African communities, which are includes kings, rulers, rainmakers, priests, diviners,
 Kasomo 149

medicine-men, elders, parents, older brothers and sisters fixed rituals. In effect the community cannot offend itself,
and finally younger members of the community. Authority cannot "sin" against itself, nor against the individual. But it
is recognised as increasing from the youngest child to the can sin against God and/or where these are included in
highest being. This is what we can refer to as the the worldview, against spiritual beings like divinities or
"principle of primogeniture". Sin or offence is seen from clan or tribal heroes and heroines.
bottom to top not vice versa (Mbiti, 1968: 208). The In many African myths, man originally lived in paradise
ancestors do not offend against human beings, the king with God. But through man's disobedience, usually attri-
or ruler does not offend against his subjects, the elders buted to a woman or some detestable creature (such as a
do not offend against those who are younger or under vulture, hyena, etc.), there was separation. This was the
them, the parents do not offend against their children. If beginning of evil in the world. Some authors like Awolalu
parents do something that hurts the children and which and Dopamu regard or interpret the loss of man's original
constitutes an offence against the children, it is not the bliss and fellowship with God in African Religion as
children as such who experience it as an offence; rather it having occurred when man "sinned" through
is the community, the clan, the nation or the ancestors disobedience to God. They state:
who are the real object of the offence, since they are the
ones in higher status than the parents. Consequently it is The disobedience of man can be seen as sin against
not the children themselves but the offended community God…Sin is seen as coming between man and God; it is
or clan or ancestors who punish the parents. disharmony with the will of God (Awolalu and Dopamu,
Of course, there are exceptions to this. For example, if 1979: 67ff, 214ff).
the king departs from the laws and customs established It is true that some of man's creation stories and loss of
by the founders of the nation, he would be considered as bliss lend themselves to the interpretation that man's
offending against his subjects because he has departed "moral" sin caused this catastrophic loss of paradise.
from the established order. Indeed, the offence is also However, as Mbiti (1968) correctly states, it is not justified
against the founders of the nation and therefore, it is in to inject morals and ethics into these stories of
effect an offence against beings of a higher status. "separation" between heaven and earth, God and man.
There is no follow up of the consequences in terms of
blaming suffering, sickness and death, on a kind of
SIN AND GOD "original sin". We do not hear of this separation in ethical
terms. Mbiti (1968) prefers to see this separation as an
From the principle of hierarchy or primogeniture stated ontological separation that affirmed that God is God and
above, God does not or cannot commit evil against His man is man. According to African Religion, this primal
creation. Some societies like the Akamba and the Herero separation did not involve any direct act on the part of
who firmly hold that since God does no evil, they have no primeval man. It is then important to avoid advancing the
need to sacrifice to Him. When people feel that a same kind of interpretation to these African myths as has
misfortune or calamity has come from God, they interpret been done to the Genesis story of the "forbidden fruit".
this not as an offence, but as a punishment caused by This would be a deceptive import and introduce a
misdeeds. Christian concept into the African mythology. The myths
Omosade Awolalu has this to say about sin: must be seen in their own context and this is what
phenomenology is all about.
In African communities, there are sanctions recognised It is clear from what we have seen that for the Africans,
as the approved standard of social and religious conduct sin is "sin" when it occurs and that it is sin because it
on the part of individuals in the society and the com- injures the community or fellow members of the com-
munity as a whole. A breach of, or failure to adhere to the munity. Consequently, this is also injury to the higher
sanctions is sin… It includes any immoral behaviour, moral welfare of which God is the "Giver", the "Watcher",
ritual mistakes, any offences against God or man, breach the "Judge" and the "Sustainer". It is important to note
of covenant, breaking of taboos and doing anything that in Africa, man is not a "sinner" by birth but by deed.
regarded as abominable and polluting…To disregard As long as man is clean before his community and before
God, the divinities and the ancestral spirits, is to commit his conscience, there is no sin in him. Sickness, suffering
sin. Likewise to disregard the norms and taboos of the and other misfortunes can be pointers (but not in each
society is to commit sin (Omosade, 1976: 1 - 23). case) that someone has done wrong before the
community and its sanctions, for example, stealing, dis-
Awolalu sees also the dimension of sin that reaches God respect, adultery, incest, breaking a taboo, killing another
(and other spiritual realities). This means that sin can be person, etc. Where these forms of suffering are not
a breach by the individual against the corporate com- caused by another person through sorcery, magic and
munity; it can also be a breach by the community against witchcraft, or in some cases through the begrudged
the "will" of God as this may be communally agreed upon spirits of the ancestors, it is generally assumed that the
and expressed through traditions, taboos, sanctions and concerned person has committed some moral offence or
150 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

broken a taboo. He is a "sinner". says what I did was not good; shame says I am no good
(Bradshaw 1998: 2).

MORAL CULPABILITY In African moral consciousness, however, guilt and

shame are so intrinsically linked. Magesa has this to say:
In Christian theology, sin is in thought, word and deed
and sin has a lot to do with conscience. According to Karl …feeling results intrinsically and radically from being and
Rahner, what makes sin really sin is guilt. Guilt is the free being leads ineluctably to feeling and doing. Thus, it is
decision to evil, evil with regard to God and man. He, not possible for a person to have done wrong if there is
therefore, distinguishes in guilt an inward element and a nothing wrong with the person. An individual with an evil
social one, to which culpa and debitum correspond in eye harms others because he/she is evil…(Magesa,
Latin. The inward element lends itself to psychological 1998: 157).
analysis, which can often distinguish between inauthentic
feelings of guilt in real consciousness of guilt. He This means that being and doing cannot be divorced in
continues to say that the social element is embodied in the African understanding of things. Guilt in African
juridical guilt, which means being subject to a penalty and thought, then, is a moral stage of development where a
(or) being bound to make compensation. This juridical person "owns up to" personal worthlessness or shame. In
guilt is only ascribed in the administration of justice in the this case, shame is the primary factor in the recognition
society (Rahner, 1975: 1583ff). and confession of guilt.
In African thought, moral culpability, the admission of
wrongdoing by an individual or group of people, follows
several interlinked steps between the wrongdoer and the CONSEQUENCES OF SIN
community. It entails much more than personal, interior
feelings of guilt. As Magesa notes, such personal feelings Wrongdoing can never be neutral. It always has
constitute only an initial step in a wrongdoer's possible consequences to the perpetrator and very often to the
acceptance and confession of guilt. But the most decisive perpetrator's community. The story of Genesis 3 serves
element in the recognition and acceptance of moral as introduction to what amounts to a series of anecdotes
culpability involves the community. The community's intended to show how sin, once admitted in the world,
perception of a person's act or attitude as contrary to spreads everywhere, bringing death and destruction in its
accepted codes of ethical living may have two possible wake (McBrien, 1981: 162ff). St. Paul in the New
effects. On the one hand it may trigger in the wrongdoer Testament talks about the effect of the sin of Adam. (I
an awareness of failure, of having let down oneself and Corinthians 15: 21 - 23, Romans 5: 12 - 21). He states
the community. If so the wrongdoer feels remorse or that we are affected by the sin of Adam. Because of
"shame" for the wrong, a sense of personal shortcoming, Adam, we are all sinners without the Spirit (verse 19). He
of betrayal against oneself and the clan. If the matter in does not of course tell us how this is so without any per-
question is serious and the community insists that the sonal decision. Instead, he argues from the universality of
wrongdoer redress the wrong, the culprit may be led to death. Because we all die, we are all implicated in sin,
admit and confess. There are rites that are carried out to since death is the effect of sin. This sense of our corpo-
achieve this purpose. On the other hand if the person rate involvement in sin cannot be separated from the
presumed guilty by society does not feel shame and biblical belief in the solidarity of the human community
refuses to admit the wrongdoing, there are means sought and its notion of corporate personality. St. Augustine
to prove innocence or guilt. While they can be legal, like a developed this teaching of original sin and its effects on
trial before the elders, most often the means are religious. humanity. He portrayed original sin as a situation in which
They may include divination or trial by ordeal (for every human being finds himself/herself, but from which
example, jumping over fire, leaking a burning iron rode, only some are rescued. He links it to concupiscence, that
killing an animal and the verdict is believed to establish, is, the human person's spontaneous desire for material or
beyond reasonable doubt, innocence or guilt. sensual satisfaction. It is an effect of original sin and is
The role of shame has a very important significance in transmitted by the libido in the parents' love by which a
the African religious psychology of wrongdoing. In person first comes to existence. To the extent that
Western psychology, shame is associated with "being", concupiscence infects every human act, all our deeds are
whereas guilt is associated with "feeling" and these are in some sense sinful.
seen as radically different. Bradshaw (1998) says: According to Africans, although they have no establi-
shed doctrine for the origin of sin comparable to that of
Shame is a being wound and differs greatly from the the biblical concept presented above, they all the same
feeling of guilt. Guilt says I've done something wrong; accept the effect of sin on the individual and the com-
shame says there is something wrong with me. Guilt says munity. Consequences come in the form of calamities:
I've made a mistake; shame says I am a mistake. Guilt blight, failure to kill game or acquire food, murderous
 Kasomo 151

anger and all kinds of anti-life phenomena be they per- In the religious category, the ancestors may cause
sonal, social, physical, psychological or natural. Magesa illness and suffering. This is often diagnosed by religious
(1998: 155) categorises these calamities as affliction, specialists (diviners) to be the case. This happens when
usually perceived as illness or disease. There is disease the living neglect their duty of remembering the ancestors
if rains do not fall so there is no food in the land or if so such as pouring libation. The sick person must then rea-
much rain falls and crops are spoilt; or if cows do not give lise his neglect of responsibility and correct the situation.
birth so there is shortage of milk. Any failure that befalls Ancestral spirits may cause affliction because they desire
the individual or the community is interpreted as disease. sacrifice and offerings.
Human illness, of course, forms the deepest core of this Non-ancestral human spirits and human spirits may
conception. also cause misfortune. Many are simply malevolent spirits
The causality of disease in humans can be explained in who bring disorder for no good reason. They might be
three ways, using the description of Westerlund (1989). spirits of people who did not receive proper burial at
There is the religious (suprahuman) causality, which death who are resentful and seek to avenge themselves
presupposes a belief that human beings in different ways and are never satisfied. Spirits of children who did not
are influenced by spiritual powers beyond the human undergo initiation process also belong to this category.
such as God and spirits. Then there is the social (human) They are extremely dangerous in their potential to cause
causality which refers to relations between living human harm to the living. Nature spirits sometimes also cause
beings, such as in Africa, witchcraft and curses. Finally affliction because they have been harmed in the early
there is the natural (mainly physical) causation which elements they inhabit. It is known, for example, that
refers to entities of nature, for example, insects, germs, certain things and places are their dwelling places and
natural substances and weather (Westlund, 1989: 179ff). reserved for their use. There are certain trees, caves, or
Religious, social and natural causes of affliction cannot forests, which should neither be put to human use nor
be seen in Africa as entirely separated and unconnected. trespassed. To do this invites their anger and brings
Rather, they all constitute stages in the psychological and calamity.
spiritual awareness of an immoral situation. The order of
conceptual awareness and any attempt at analysis and
understanding of an affliction usually, though not neces- SIN AND COVENANT
sarily always, begins with a natural explanation. Unless
witchcraft, spirit, ancestral or divine causes are imme- One of the deepest levels of relationships is in covenants.
diately suspected, a natural cause is first sought and then Covenants normally involve two parties that draw up a
initially accepted as reason for a particular happening. In binding agreement and commit themselves to the
fact, natural causes are often very obvious, such as a contents of the agreement. The most known covenant we
tree falling on a person or hurting oneself while hunting. If read of in the Bible is the Sinai Covenant. The Sinai
the particular affliction does not grow in seriousness, the Covenant is a decisive moment in the history of Israel.
natural explanation will suffice. However, when afflictions Through this covenant, Yahweh became head of the
grow worse, as often happens, the second and third nation and the Israel became his chosen people. In
causation is sought. In fact, it is more correct to say that return, Yahweh exacted a pledge of fidelity to the Law
social causality is already contained in the natural cau- (Exodus 20: 1 - 17) or to the "Ten commandments"
sality. For example, if a tree falls on the man cutting it and (Exodus 34: 28). The Law discloses the divine will.
gets hurt, the person will certainly know that the falling Obedience brings blessings; transgression brings
tree hurt him. But at the back of his mind, he will be malediction. The whole destiny and subsequent history of
asking the question: Why me? Why did it have to fall this Israel was now tied inextricably to this covenant
way not that way? Why at this particular time? To answer (MacBrien, 1981: 203 - 204).
these questions, one must resort to human or religious Shenk (1983: 45 - 75), deals with the different forms of
explanations. It is on this level that misfortune begins to covenants in African society. He points out that there are
make sense in the African moral perception of the world. mainly two most serious or most common covenants in
The reason here as described by Magesa goes back to Africa: namely man-to-man covenants and God-to-man
the African world-view. The world ought to be har- covenants (though not to the same degree as the Biblical
monious, balanced and good. Accordingly, misfortune, covenants). He tells of the "friendship covenant" among
which means imbalance and disharmony in the universe, the Abaluya, which was drawn up in the presence of
does not just happen. If and when it does, it is because elders. A chicken is roasted and eaten together and from
there is a malevolent cause, either human or super- then on the friendship is declared as binding forever.
human. Morality demands that these causes of disruption Blood brotherhood covenants are common in Africa
and affliction in human life and their motivations must be where people share each other's blood thus furthering the
identified. Even if the offender is the victim, it is still dimension of friendship. Even among enemies, a blood
important that the fact be known and something be done pact would be a solemn declaration of reconciliation,
about it (Bjerke, 1981: 112ff). peace and forgiveness.
152 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

There are other kinds of covenants in Africa. Kinship to discover the reasons for disharmony in the universe.
covenants, though not practised in many places were These experts are generally expected not only to know
said to restore broken relationships among family mem- the causes of calamities, but also to prescribe antidotes
bers. These, according to Mbiti (1988), are more or less or cures for these problems.
confined to those who are closely related through kinship As we have already noted, the order of conceptual
or marriage. Some communities had Adoption covenants awareness and any attempt at analysis and under-
that covered both children and strangers who may settle standing of evil usually, though not necessarily always,
in a particular region away from their own biological begins with a natural explanation of causation. Unless
relatives. Shenk writes: witchcraft, spirit, ancestral or divine displeasure is imme-
diately suspected, a natural cause is first sought and then
Through adoption the stranger becomes a family mem- initially accepted as the reason for a particular happening.
ber… Appropriately the Meru call it "to be born with a Among the Zinza of Tanzania, for example, diseases that
goat" …for it was sealed through the sacrifice of a spot- people contract is "just disease". According to Bjerke
less goat…the sacrificial blood united all the participants: (1981), such a disease will typically either be ascribed to
the father and the new son, the living-dead and the living an accumulation of too much blood in the affected area.
clan (Shenk, 1983: 54). There are medicines intended to drive away disease.
Although cupping, the use of a specially made animal
Other covenants included the marriage covenants, land horn, a sharp razor or tin to suck "bad" or "harmful" blood
covenants, peace covenants. form the body is used among many African peoples,
The most serious form of "sin" in African Religion is the herbs and roots with medicinal qualities are a usual
breach of the covenant. It is believed to involve and affect means of treatment.
the relationship between individuals, among communi- If the affliction persists, then other causation is looked
ties, the ancestors and God. Shenk sums it all in this way: for. In the religious "category," if the ancestors are the
cause of suffering as diagnosed by religious experts,
Covenants establish relationships which are different morality demands that they are placated. The necessary
from kinship…A covenant is a very serious and profound sacrifices and offerings are made by those concerned.
matter…To break a covenant is to invite a The living must fulfil their responsibilities to the ancestors,
curse…Covenants require some form of sacrificial because that is the condition for order in the universe. A
shading of blood…The covenant is celebrated by feasting central element of order is peace and peace is expressed
together…The eating is a communion, a celebration of by way of commensality (Magesa, 1987: 161). Human
life in a community (1983: 72). beings destroy this peace if they do not adhere to the
Covenants, then, in their manifold forms and purposes, principle of commensality where their ancestors are
establish, re-establish, cement, bridge, purify, strengthen, concerned. The Sukuma say:
initiate, personal, individual and community relationships
with one another, the community and ultimately God. Sin If descendants suffer from maladies caused by the
is the undermining of all these. The breach of the ancestors, it is because the descendants have neglected
covenant is a direct blow to the vital force- it is in effect a them. For example, the living may have disregarded the
deathblow. In this way, sin becomes deadly and threatens possessions of the ancestors, failed to observe the
the life of the individual and of the community. It becomes lineage rules, or neglected to conduct rituals in the name
intolerable. of the ancestors. A descendant may also suffer because
of the past grievances (Westerlund, 1989: 188).

DEALING WITH SIN The way of dealing with such an affliction 5is by
performing "cleansing" rituals and ceremonies usually
Dealing with sin and evil depends on the nature of and officiated by ritual elders, medicine-men, priests or
evil and may differ from community to community. Chris- diviners. They usually involve the slaughtering of an
tian theology tells us that God had to send His only Son animal (like chickens, sheep, goats, bulls), the use of
Jesus Christ to free the world from the power of evil and blood, sometimes the use of internal organs of the
sin (John 3:16ff.). The solution to overcoming evil is then animal, or rituals mixed with ritual powders. Drinking the
to confess one's sins and to believe in Jesus Christ His blood or any other liquid and sprinkling with it, or perform-
Son: ing other symbols of cleansing, are important aspects of
For God so loved the world that He gave his only Son, the ceremonies of removing sin or evil concerned. These
that whoever believes in him should not perish but have can be comparable to the animal sacrifices that the Jews
eternal life…By his wounds on the Cross, we are used to have as a means of atonement. Ritual words,
saved…(John 3:16). litanies, prayers, or other words are said, as part of the
African Religion recognises various ways to deal with cleansing ritual and ceremony. Acts of reconciliation,
affliction and has different religious experts whose task is peace making and new beginning may be performed.
 Kasomo 153

These are what Mbiti (1969: 79) called "formal" or spirits, the ancestors, the elders or members of his
"communal" measures. society. The belief seems to suggest that neither punish-
Whereas ancestral and sometimes nature spirits need ment nor special rewards await a person in the hereafter,
to be placated through sacrifices and offerings, those for the deeds of this present life. There may be some
spirits that are merely malevolent and unknown must be exceptions in some areas in Africa but this seems to be
"expelled" or "driven away" so that they will not cause the major trend of thought (Magesa, 1987: 98).
affliction. The Ateso word for it is "acakar Edeke", literally There are other forms of evil that are directly sanc-
meaning "to throw away the calamity or the god of cala- tioned by the community. Each community or society has
mity." The services of a religious specialist are required its own set forms of restitution and punishment for various
for this. When such a spirit of affliction is diagnosed, it offences, both legal and moral. In some cases, sin is
must be disowned and made to go "where it belongs", punished very severely, brutally or even unjustly by fellow
that is, to its proper habitat. It is scolded some-times individuals, families, communities, chiefs, kings or accor-
using very dirty language in order to show that it is not ding to the traditional systems of judgement and justice.
welcome at all in the area (Magesa 1987: 89). These ranges from death for offences like incest,
It is also important to note the importance of prayers in committing murder or practising witchcraft, to paying fines
an African religiosity. Prayer in Africa is the commonest of cattle goats, sheep or money for minor cases like
act of worship (Adeyemo, 1979:35). When life is threa- adultery, quarrels and fights. It is generally the elders of
tened or weakened by evil and sin, prayer is most the area who deal with disputes and breaches arising
abundant, both in the public and private domain. Prayer from various types of moral harm or offences against
becomes a means of restoring wholeness and balance in ritual and custom. Traditional chiefs and rulers, where
life. The African prayer is comprehensive, requesting the they existed like Buganda kingdom in Uganda, have the
removal of evil and sin and demanding the restoration of duty of keeping law and order and executing justice in
all that was good. Nothing less satisfies the African their areas. In most cases, the sinner is given opportunity
religious mind. It is significant to note, that the very act of to regenerate, improve, avoid repetition, reintegrate and
prayer sheds light on the centrality of relationships in the lead a normal life in the family and community. But in
African moral vision. It acknowledges the mutual interde- some cases repeated acts of sin detach the culprit from
pendence of the visible and invisible worlds. Prayer says society and may eventually force him to leave the
that there comes a time when order and harmony in community or be banished by the community. In effect,
human life and in the world depend on powers greater this becomes his death (Mbiti, 1969: 210 - 212).
than human power. This is especially so when humanity There is another form of justice administered through
has done wrong or harbours anti-life elements within it. the use of a curse. Among the Iteso, it is called "aigat".
Praying places the individual or the community in the The basic principle here is that if a person is guilty, evil
hands of the invisible and mystical powers and intends to will befall him according to the words used in cursing him.
overcome or to assuage their displeasure. It is believed a person can curse an unknown thief or
There also existed specifically communal atonement if offender. "Aigat" for example, involves the slaughtering of
the community as a whole experienced severe misfor- a dog, decapitating it and putting the head in an anti-hill
tunes like epidemics, drought, disastrous flooding, with some curses of death pronounced. It is believed that
famine, locust invasion. It was customary in these cases the culprit, his family or animals will begin falling sick and
in many African societies to seek help from God. The eventually die. It is also used for arbitrating a dispute
commonest method was through communal sacrifice, at between two individuals or families. Among the Akamba,
which also an acknowledgement of people's ill-doings the breaking of the pot and jumping over it is believed to
(sin) would be made and God's forgiveness requested. cause harm to the offending party while among the Meru,
Mbiti (1969: 120) notes that this does not seem to have one party repeatedly stabs a he-goat on the back of the
been common practice for individuals alone to ask for other party in the proximity of the item in contention.
God's forgiveness of Sin, although in some cases indivi- Formal curses are so much feared in Africa especially by
duals would ask God to cleanse them before they could parents (Magesa, 1987: 89)
approach Him or speak further to Him.
Another important area of departure in thought of
African system of thought from Christianity is the punish- SIN AND SALVATION IN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE
ment for sin. The majority of African peoples believe that
God punishes in this life. Thus, He is concerned with the The word "salvation" in simple terms can be taken to
moral life of mankind and therefore, upholds the moral mean "the act of saving or being saved; it is a
law. With a few exceptions, there is no belief that a preservation from loss and calamity, "(Oxford Dictionary).
person is punished in the hereafter for the sins committed In theology it has to do with the deliverance from sin and
in this present life. It is for this reason that misfortunes its consequences and admission to heaven, brought
are or may be interpreted as indicating that the sufferer about by Christ.
has broken some moral or ritual conduct against God, the The word itself has a long history because man has al-
154 Int. J. Sociol. Anthropol.

ways searched for salvation in one form or another. All feeling of man's need for help which comes from outside
religions of the world have also addressed themselves to of his own abilities. African religion is rich in these acts.
the question of human salvation and have provided In probably all African societies, sacrifices and offerings
different answers to it. Mbiti (1969:56), in his article, are made as an essential part of African Religion. What-
Some Reflections on African Experience of Salvation ever theories of interpreting them may be put forward, the
Today, rightly notes that salvation is never outdated: it is basic need and idea behind them is to acknowledge the
always "salvation today", for each generation of people. saving activities of God and other spiritual beings as the
The doctrine of salvation in Christianity caused a rift case may be. Man wants to be free and feel safe in an
between Catholic and Protestant theology and spirituality. otherwise insecure world of sickness, death, droughts,
The Catholic tradition insists that God not only makes a floods, wars, epidemics, accidents, misfortunes, witch-
declaration of our unworthiness for salvation, but actually craft and malevolent spirits. Some societies of old used to
transforms us and makes us new creatures in Christ and have human sacrifices where either some people offered
the Holy Spirit. God offers this inner transformation to themselves to be sacrificed so that others may be saved
every person, without exception. No one is excluded or were forced to be sacrificed or in other times were
before hand. Only a free act of the will, rejecting the captured from other tribes for the purpose. Only major
divine offer of grace, can impede God's saving designs communal or national needs necessitated the sacrificing
(McBrien, 1981: 309). This doctrine was a modification of of human beings. The rationale behind this was that one
the pre-Trendentine doctrine that man must work for his or more persons would die so that the majority would be
salvation with good works which lent itself to abuses in saved from calamity or other adversity something
the Church, especially in connection with indulgences. comparable to the act of Jesus Christ. However, human
The Protestant reformation was in reaction to this view of sacrifices were very rare. What was more common was
salvation. They emphasised the radical unworthiness of the animal sacrifice. The ultimate aim is fairly similar: to
the person, even after God's redemptive activity on our affirm, renew, protect or rescue the life of the community,
behalf. Luther emphasised that no amount of our own that is, to keep that life in a state of "salvation" (Mbiti,
actions can "earn" us salvation. We can do nothing of our 1969:86).
own except by the grace of God (Lectures on Romans, In Africa, there are some places that are held sacred.
chapter 8). These can be shrines, sacred mountains, rocks, caves,
When Christianity came to Africa, different concepts of shrubs, etc. These places are considered to provide
salvation have been preached in different languages safety (salvation) for human beings, animals, birds and
sometimes without fully appreciating the cultural and trees. Any animal or person hiding in any of these places
social background of the words used in the proclamation. may not be killed or molested. Trees in sacred places
The researcher has observed that to give an example of may not be cut down nor the vegetation destroyed. This
Ugadan language, Ateso, the word for salvation is means in effect that sacred places save life from destruc-
"aitajario". The word "aitajario" is the abstract noun of the tion even if paradoxically they are spots where sacrifices
concrete verb "aitajar" which means "to rescue from a and offerings are made. According to Mbiti, the concept of
difficult or debilitating situation, for example, from hunger, salvation is thereby given a geographical concretization.
danger, death, sickness, war, drowning, captivity, animals Salvation is experienced in practice and it extends to
and calamity. It is practical and is not conceived as an other forms of life, to nature itself. It is not just an
abstract concept. The "Saviour" in the Christian concept abstraction.
is translated as "eketajaran" which is also abstract and In Africa, God is regarded as being ultimately the
never used in daily Teso life. The one who saves another Saviour of the people and other living things, since He is
is in effect a "saviour" but he is not referred to as such in their Creator. Although the word "Saviour" may not be
Ateso. Neither is the one who saves necessarily always a one of His titles, there are other names, titles and sayings
human person. It can be God, ancestors, spirits, another about Him which indicate clearly that people regard Him
person, an animal, a thing such as a branch of a tree and to be the ultimate Saviour. He is the Giver of life (thus in
stone. There is no continuous act of "saving". Mbiti notes effect saving death, annihilation); the Giver of Rain (thus
that there is no profession of saving or redeeming and saving man and nature from drought and shortage of
there have never been traditional saviours or redeemers. water). The fact that so many prayers are addressed to
In effect, linguistic considerations do not yield a great God, shows that people regard Him to be their Saviour, at
deal of meaning of the term salvation as understood in least in practical terms, even if they may not directly call
christianity. Him Saviour. In some African histories and mythologies, it
We can then ask a question at this juncture: Does is told of how God intervened and saved people from
African traditional religion has the concept of salvation? great calamities, famine, war, floods or other destructive
The answer is strongly affirmative. Mbiti out rightly affirms forces of nature.
that many of the practical expressions of African religion Concluding this aspect of salvation in African thought,
all over the continent are basically salvatory. These are we can say that Salvation in Africa has to do with physical
particularly prayers, offerings and sacrifices made towards and immediate dangers that threaten individual or
God and to other spiritual realities. They arise out of the community survival, good health and general prosperity
 Kasomo 155

or safety. Salvation is not just an abstraction: it is African scholars to clarify both African notions of sin and
concrete and pragmatic. Okorocha (1987: 82) observes salvation and the Christian use of the terms without any
that salvation is never experienced once and for all or apologies for the discrepancies. It is true that Christian
awaited at a futuristic eschaton, but rather encountered missionaries were the main importers and distributors of
and experienced situationally and in context. There is no the terms without due consideration to the Africans.
evidence in which people ask to be saved from an "evil" Finally, we do not in any way intend to deify everything
of a moral nature or from an "evil" which may have African as though nothing was wrong with it. Far from it,
intervened between God and man. African Religion has neither should we aptly dismiss everything African as
not produced a doctrine or concept of spiritual salvation. some missionaries and explorers did. Rather, salvation
There is no logical necessity for God to intervene in a within the African cultural heritage must mean redeeming
personal and cosmic way in human history, to bring a and sanctifying the good and destroying the evil.
new course of human history whose goal in the future The challenge remains with Africans to articulate
would be a consummation of time and history, a salvation themselves without any apologies for who they are and
of mankind, a new creation of all things. what they stand for. Only then can we talk about
inculturation, indegenisation, Africanisation and dialogue.

CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
The concept of sin in African thought system is quite a
Adeyemo T (1979). Salvation in African Tradition, Nairobi: Evangel
neglected area of study and discussion. Many who Publishing House.
venture to do so cannot avoid relating African myths of Bjerke S (1981). Religion and Misfortune, Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
the origin of evil and death to the biblical story of the fall. Bradshaw J (1998). Bradshaw on the Family-A Revolutionary Way of
self-discovery, Florida: Deerfield Beach.
These African myths of the origin of sin and evil must be
Crenshaw J (1983). Theodicy in the Old Testament, Philadelphia:
examined in their own right and must be allowed to speak Fortress Press.
for themselves rather than forging an unwarranted Hick J (1983). Philosophy of Religion, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
uniformity to fit the Christian teaching of the origin of sin Magesa L (1997). African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant
Life, Naoirobi: Paulines Press.
and evil. It is interesting to note that although many books Mbiti J (1969). African Religions and Philosophy, London: Heineman.
on Africa do not mention the concept of sin as such, it is McBrien R (1981). Catholicism, London: Chapman.
compensated in part by the use and discussion of other Okorocha C (1987). The Meaning of Religious Conversion in Africa,
related concepts, such as evil, magic, witchcraft, sorcery, London: Aldershot.
Rahner K (1975). Encyclopedia of Theology: A concise Sacramentum
sickness, misfortune and death. The reality is therefore,
Mundi, Kent: Burns and Oates.
that evil and sin are a reality in African thought which may Recoeur P (1967). The Symbolism of Evil, Boston: Beacon Press.
radically differ from the Western concept. Shenk D.W (1983). Covenants for Peace and Reconciliation, Nairobi:
We have also established that sin in African thought Uziama.
Westerlund D (1989). Pluralism and Change: A Comparative and
refers almost exclusively to the area of inter-human
Historical Approach to African Disease Etiologies, Stockholm:
relations. While God is ultimately the Judge of human Universitet Stockholm.
actions and condition, it is rare that sin is seen or said to
be "against" God. The community as a whole, or through
its representative, such as a king or chief, can commit
acts that constitute sin "against" God. Individuals do not
generally sin directly "against" God. Since sin has the
communal dimension, dealing with it is normally at the
level of inter-human relations and God is rarely brought
into the picture as far as individuals are concerned,
although at community level this may happen.
We also note that christian teaching and use of the
terms sin and salvation in many African languages is
confusing and inconsistent. The missionaries often
transferred the terms sin and salvation into the African
setting without much consideration of language and
different Christian traditions. It is, therefore, imperative for
 Journal Of Mother-Tongue Biblical Hermeneutics And Theology (MOTBIT)

ISSN 2676 - 2838

Volume 2 Issue 1 – April 2020 pp 21-27
DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.32051/motbit.2020.043

Research Article
The Concept of Evil in African Communities:
The Case of the Yoruba, Akan and Igbo People

ABSTRACT
Traditionally, Africans see themselves as each other’s keeper, and that is the GODFRED ADJEI NYARKO 1
main reason for the concern shown towards each other and the general wellbeing
1
Godfred Adjei Nyarko, MPhil is a
PhD Candidate at the Department of
of all in society. Africans do not talk about individualism because it contradicts Religious Studies - Kwame Nkrumah
the traditional African understanding of family, traditional practices, beliefs and University of Science and
values that seek to create a society that will be free from the effect of evil. Despite Technology -Ghana.
this communal co-existence to create a peaceful society, there are violations of Email: [email protected]
the moral order through the employment of mystical powers to harm others. The
Manuscript
belief in the presence of mystical powers that work against the progress of others Received 12th December 2019,
has influenced the cultural, religious and daily lives of the people, bringing into Accepted 16th March 2020,
question the role of the Supreme Being in all these. The use of these mystical Published online 2nd April 2020.
powers to impede people’s wellbeing is unacceptable in African thought. The
paper discusses metaphysics and contemporary philosophy about the problem
of evil and how it influences human actions. It has also conceptually and
comparatively explored the notion of evil in Akan, Yoruba and Igbo communities
within the African ethos. Again, it seeks to give exposition on some African
notions of evil, from the understanding that evil is not the creation of God but
results from the actions of humanity. The proposition of this paper is that most
African communities do not perceive the existence of evil as a sufficient reason
to discredit the existence of God, the Supreme Being.

Keywords: Evil and Community

INTRODUCTION
Evil is perceived in diverse ways in many different African societies. It is explained in the Longman’s Dictionary as
something which is cruel, morally wrong or unpleasant and always harmful by causing loss and suffering.2 According
to Calder Todd, there are different dimensions of evil; demonic evil (evil performed to harm others), instrumental evil
(evil that occur to carry out other purposes), idealistic evil (evil justified by greater cause) and stupid evil (evil based on
human incompetence). 3 Evil in general therefore, is “any experience that is injurious, painful, hurtful, regretful or
calamitous which impedes the achievement of goals, ideals, happiness or general well-being” and “the essence
of evil…consists in doing harm to others.”4
The concept of good and bad (or evil), right and wrong, features prominently in African moral thought. The
philosophical problem of evil is critical and intentional effort to resolve the several challenges and responses put forward
by theists, to explain the problem of evil, which does not affect God’s omnipotent and benevolent attributes.5 According
to Levi Asher, there are several kinds of evil that affect humanity: be it religious or spiritual evil, moral or social evil as

2
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 537
3
Calder Todd, Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, The Concept of Evil. (Stanford University: Focus Publishing,2013).
4
Kola Abimbola, Yoruba Culture: A Philosophical Account. (Birmingham: Iroko Academic Publishers,1982), 27-30.
5
John Hick, Philosophy of Religion. (California; Prentice Hall of India, 1992), 40.

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MOTBIT Volume 2 Issue 1 – April 2020 pp 21 - 27

well as physical or natural evil.6 He further asserts that religious or spiritual evil is the opposite of righteousness which
is sin, and may be in the heart of human being, without any act of transgression by the person. Moral or social evil is
actions which contravenes the norms of society, while physical or natural evil are those inflicted on the human person
by environmental catastrophe or through the use of mystical powers on another person.7 Evil in general for Kwame
Gyekye, is any experience that is injurious, painful, hurtful, regretful or calamitous which impedes or obstructs the
achievements, goals and the general wellbeing of a person.8
Community however has to do with a group of people who live in the same area and have the same interest and
religion.9 Again it is about people with diverse characteristics who are linked by social ties, share common perspectives,
and engage in communal actions within a given geographical location or setting.10
The African according to Blessing Agidigbi, sees morality not as an arbitrary creation of the gods or anybody,
but rather as something demanded by the very nature of things.11 God in African traditional thought is therefore
concerned about morality, and the welfare of humanity. Many who venture to explain the concept of African thought
cannot avoid relating myths to the origin of evil and death. Even though God is the ultimately judge of human actions
and condition, sin committed from the comprehension of traditional world view cannot be against God, however evil
and sin are realities in African thought.

The Concept of evil among the Yoruba People

Blessing Agidigbi opines that Yoruba philosophy takes Esu as the progenitor of evil who works through chaos, and is
capable of doing evil, but do not equate it to Christian thought of Satan.12 Esu is known or conceived to be one of the
three primordial divinities, and had always existed with Olodumare, the Yoruba highest deity.13 Esu is a natural element
who is not inherently evil, but a mediator between all entities and forces of both the right and left divide, with the ability
to make ones sacrifices acceptable to the highest deity or not. For Awolalu Omosade and Dopanu Adelumo, Esu always
work in favour of any man depending on the consideration given to him along his line of duty.14 Esu is not a rival of
Olodumare (God), but works in tandem with him to ensure peace and order in the universe.15 Esu is capable of doing
well, even though he is held responsible for the occurrence of evil against other human beings.16
Evil does not necessarily have a religious connotation among the Yoruba thought but a matter of morality,
therefore evil cannot be blamed on God. In the opinion of Abiodum Oladele, witchcraft is a form of evil recognized by
Africans which employs mystical forces to harm one’s neighbour, and this force is a typical example of evil.17 For him
the various dimensions of evil are natural, spiritual, moral, social, psychological, and intellectual evils, but are
rarely made among the Yoruba.18 It means that the moral perspective of evil for Sophia Oluwole, is more dominant and
quite pragmatic in African cultural understanding. Evil, is always attached to a wrong doer who is ultimately a human
person, except in natural catastrophe.19 This strengthens the assertion that evil is done by human agents and all blame
should be directed to human beings.
John Mbiti agrees with Sophia Oluwole with respect to the mystical application of witchcraft by stating that: “Mystical
power is neither good nor evil in itself, but they become evil when used maliciously by some individuals”.20
This view makes evil independent and external, such that it cannot act on its own but must be employed by human or
spiritual agents.
Many African societies maintain that God is not responsible for the creation of evil nor should he be blamed
for it in any degree or circumstance.21 The Yoruba worldview is that evil does not emanate from one source
but from various supernatural forces known as the Ajogun; which forces are scattered around the cosmos.22 This view

6 Levi Asher, Philosophy Weekend: The Four Types of Evil. July 17th, 2010, 10.
7
Hick. Philosophy of Religion, 45.
8
Kwame Gyekye, “The Perspective of Evil; An Akan Concept of a Person”. Introduction Polycarp Ikuenobe,55.
9
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 307.
10
Kathleen MacQueen (et.al.), “What is Community? An Evidence-Based Definition for Participatory Public Health”. Journal of Public Health. https//www.ncbi.
nih.gov, 2. Assessed 4/12/2019
11
Blessing Agidigbi, An introductory reading in African philosophy. (Ekpoma: Inno Prints, 2001), 7
12
Agidigbi, An introductory reading in African Philosophy, 4.
13
Agidigbi, An introductory reading in African Philosophy, 6-8.
14
Omosade Awolalu and DopanuAdelumo, West African Traditional Religion. (Ibadan: Onibonoje Press, 1979),78-79.
15
Omosade and Adelumo, West African Traditional Religion, 80.
16
John Bewaji, “Olodumare: God in Yoruba Belief and the Theistic Problem of Evil”. African Studies.Quarterly, 1 Volume 2, Issue 1, 1998, http//www.africa.
edu,7-8, Assessed 5/1/2020
17
Abiodum Oladel, “The nature of evil and human wickedness in traditional African thought: Further Reflections on the Philosophical Problem of evil”.
October 2009,2-4, http;//lumina.hnu.edu.ph. Assessed 6/01/2020
18
Oladele, “The nature of evil and human wickedness in traditional African thought”,4
19
Sophia Oluwole, “African Traditional Thought”, in Journal of Philosophy and Development, no. 1, vol. 1, 1995,19.
20
John Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy. (London: Heinemann.1969), 34.
21
Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 43.
22
Akinseye Akinwande, The Problem of Evil: Philosophical and Religious Approaches. (Ago-Iwoye: NASR,2005),10.

22
MOTBIT Volume 2 Issue 1 – April 2020 pp 21 - 27

of the Yoruba absolves God of any complicity in the problem of evil, and pushes the blame to humans. In cases of
natural disaster like earthquake, it can be argued from the above that most natural happenings result from human earlier
actions, such as depletion of the ozone layer. It is people who are evil or sinful who are aided by invisible and natural
forces, because such people entertain bad intentions.23
The above understanding of evil has implications for the old philosophical Yoruba notion of evil, that absolves
God of any complicity in the problem of evil. To further buttress the African thought that God has nothing to do with
evil stress that there is no need to offer sacrifice to God for evil happenings.23 The indigenous Yoruba asserts that evil
is entirely a human doing, with all coming out of human discretion and actions. Yoruba notion of evil therefore place
both the existence and eradication of evil firmly on the shoulders of humanity. Hades and ‘Ifa’ cannot be equated with
the biblical Satan because he is not malevolent, but also benevolent, therefore there is dialectical and not diametrical
relationship between good and evil in Yoruba thought.24
According to Kola Abimbola, Esu is not an evil being but a neutral element who is neither good nor bad, but
conceived as diametrically opposed to Olodumare (God) and can work in favour of any person, depending on the
consideration given to the individual.25 This explains why it is always advisable that whenever sacrifices are offered,
the portion of Esu must be set aside.26 When human beings want to perpetrate evil against other human beings, Esu is
required by Olodumare to wreak havoc upon potential evil doers because it can do good and evil.
For the Yoruba, evil is as real and necessary as existence itself, hence their famous saying tibi tire la da ile aye
ibi (the world is created with both good and evil).27 The existence of evil and good is necessary and does not negate
the existence of a supernatural entity. The Yoruba hold the belief that the operation of the world is predicated on the
dialectics of ire and ibi (goodness and evil).28 In Yoruba worldview, there are different kinds of evil but they are all
caused by humans who can do evil both naturally and supernaturally. For the Yoruba, no single entity can be held
responsible for the occurrence of evil. The cosmological explanation and personification of evil by the Yoruba absolves
God of any complicity in the problem of evil but put the blame squarely at the doorsteps of humans.
The fundamental question to ask at this point is whether the concept of evil in Yoruba thought is largely shared
by other indigenous African communities? In order to answer this question, the Akan and Igbo perspective shall be
explored.

The Akan concept of Evil

God cannot be indifferent to human welfare because he is a good God who ensures that justice is done by rewarding
virtues and punishing vices through the agency of the gods who serve him.29 The Akan understanding of evil is that it is
caused by deities who are the lesser spirits.30 There are two main sources of evil in Akan thought; these are the deities
and spirits deities which were created by God. Evil is conceived in terms of not only the attributes of the deities and
spirits.31 In Akan religious thought and cosmology, Onyame (God) is conceived as omnipotent, wholly good, and that
evil is not the creation of God.32
According to Abrefa Busia, the Supreme Being of the African is the creator and the source of life, but between
the Supreme Being and human beings lies many powers and principalities which are good and bad, and these account
for the strange happenings in this world.33 The question then is, why should a wholly good God create a being that
embodies in itself both good and evil powers in disposition? The answer is that they are not the creation of God but
the operations of independent free will of spirits, and though God could have intervened in their evil operations, doing
so would have disrupted the free will with which God endowed them.34 The other source of evil according to Akan
thought is that human will comes from a person’s character, since character determines the nature of human actions. Bad
character gives rise to evil actions, and good character gives rise to good actions. A person with bad character thinks
evil and it is such evil thoughts that translates into morally evil actions. God is good, but it is character from which
evil proceeds; it is one’s own making and that whatever one’s character is or will be is one’s responsibility and not
God’s. Jonathan Kuwornu-Adjaottor is of the opinion that God is obliged to persuade every individual to act in the best
23
Oluwole, “African Traditional Thought”, 2
24
Godwin Sogolo, Foundations of African Philosophy: A Definitive Analysis of Conceptual issues in African Thought. (Ibadan: University Press, 1993), 50.
25
Abimbola, Yoruba Culture: A Philosophical Account, 24.
26
Abimbola, Yoruba Culture; A Philosophical account, 37
27
Awolalu Omosade and Dopamu Adelumo, West African Traditional Religion. (Ibadan: Onibonoje Press Ltd., 1979), 84.
28
Omosade and Adelumo, West African Traditional Religion,92
29
Agidigbi, An introductory reading in African philosophy, 20
30
Gyekye, “The Perspective of Evil; An Akan Perspective”,55
31
Hasskei Majeed, “God and the Demon in Cartesian and Akan Philosophies: A comparative analysis”, Journal of Religious Studies, Ilorin vol.6 No. 2,
2016,80-81
32
Majeed, “God and the Demon in Cartesian and Akan Philosophies: A comparative analysis”,85
33
Kofi Abrefa Busia, The African World View: A Comparative Approach in Cultural Adaptations within Modern Africa. (New York: Columbia Univ. Teachers
College Press, 1972), 23.
34
Mathew Izibili, “African Traditional Approach to the problems of Evil in the World,” 11-15.

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MOTBIT Volume 2 Issue 1 – April 2020 pp 21 - 27

possible manner, however there is no guarantee that God’s benevolent persuasion will lead to a favourable outcome.35
The good God always acts for the best interest for creation, but the coercing force is not able to ensure that the divine
will is exercised. The conception of the source of moral evil in humans has two dimensions which are that God did not
create evil, but evil comes from human actions and God is not the cause of evil, but it comes from our own thinking and
choices.
God is not the author of evil, but evil comes from human conscience and character which enables them to see
the difference between good and evil since “Man is not a beast to fail to distinguish between good and evil”.36 The
human being as the head of all creation was created a moral agent, gifted with the ability to distinguish between right
and wrong. The comparison between the human being and beast is intended as a distinction between moral sense on one
hand, with rational and irrational on the other. Our moral sense corrects the moral thinking, therefore evil stems from
our inability to exercise either moral sense or our moral will. Character determines the nature of our actions therefore
bad character give rise to evil actions and good character give rise to good actions. Thus, a person with bad character
thinks evil, and it is such evil thoughts that translate into morally evil actions. The basic assumption or argument of the
Akan thinkers on the concept of evil is generally that God does not like evil and hence did not create it.37 Evil in the
Akan thought therefore proceeds from the human being’s character, conscience, desires and thoughts, as well as from
the exercise of one’s own free will.38
The general nature of destiny allows for the concept of human freedom of choice within the context of human
action. Thus, the view of the human source of moral evil appears to stem from a set of related concepts in the Akan
metaphysical system. The omnipotent and wholly good God did not create humans such that they can always chose
the good and avoid evil. God does not intervene when the human uses the freedom to do evil instead of good, since if
God had intervened, the human would have acted in a determined way without any choice.39 Such a situation would
have run God counter to the general nature of the concept of destiny and the notion of human action as held by Akan
thinkers.40 Without endowing the human the right of thought, it would have made the human irrational and without the
ability to make a choice.
The Akan thought would rather have humankind endowed with rationality and conscience, than to have him
or her fashioned to behave like a beast, hence God’s provision of rationality and freedom of the will and choice is
justified.41 If human debase this provision knowing that this choice brings evil in its wake, then it is the human and not
the creator who should be held responsible for wrongful acts. A question to ask at this point is, what would have been
the case if God made the human being to use his or her rationality to always choose the good, and would such human
be free under such circumstance? The answer is no, since the choice of the good would have been predetermined and
no choice would ever exist.
Evil in Akan thought is ultimately the result of the exercise of human freedom of choice and will, and with this
a person has been endowed with by the Creator. One of the manifestations of this evil is witchcraft, which is a form
of evil recognized by the Akan to be employed as a mystical force to harm one’s neighbour. It is also a form of power
that somebody can employ to affect another person or make someone else do what she or he wants without consent
or awareness of the other.42 There are however some who do not see witchcraft as evil, and to such people witchcraft
becomes evil only when the person decides to use such powers negatively.43 This strengthens the assertion that evil
is done by human agents, and all blames should be directed to human beings, but not God. John Mbiti supports this
assertion with the view that mystical power in itself is neither good nor evil, but when used maliciously by some
individuals it is then experienced as evil.44 The Akan belief maintain that God is not responsible for the creation of
evil nor should be blamed for it in any way or circumstances. The content of evil is seen as originating from human
associated with spiritual beings other than God who were created good but later turned against God and began to do
evil.45 Evil is therefore always attached to a wrong-doer who is a human person, except in natural catastrophes. In
cases of natural disasters like earthquake, it can be argued that most natural disasters happen as a result of the human’s
earlier actions, having an imprint of his or actions, such as the depletion of the ozone layer through deforestation and air

35
Jonathan Kuwornu-Adjaottor, “God and the Suffering of his People”. Journal of Science and Technology (Ghana) vol.33, 2013/11/15,114-120.Assessed
13/9/201.
36
Omosade Awolalu, “Sin and its Removal in African Traditional Religion”. Journal of the American Academy of Religion vol.44, No.2, Jun. 1976, 275-287:
Oxford University Press.
37
Kwasi Wiredu, Cultural Universals and Particulars; An African Perspective. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,1996),36.
38
Kwame Gyekye, African Philosophical Thought: The Akan Conceptual Scheme. ( Norris:Temple University Press,1995),113.
39
Wiredu, Cultural Universals and Particulars: An African Perspective,46.
40
Kofi Abrefa Busia, The African World View; A Comparative Approach in Cultural Adaptations within Modern Africa,43.
41
Abrefa Busia, The African World View: A Comparative Approach in Cultural Adaptations within Modern Africa,53.
42
Hasskei Majeed, “God and the Demon in Cartesian and Akan Philosophies”,98
43
Uzodinma Nwala, Igbo Philosophy. (Lagos: Lantern Books, 1985), 16.
44
John Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy. (London: Heineman,.1969), 19.
45
Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 29.

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MOTBIT Volume 2 Issue 1 – April 2020 pp 21 - 27

pollution.46
The sense here is that evil does not and cannot exist in the human experience except as perceived in people who
are evil or sinful, whether they were aided by invisible and natural forces. Even when it is claimed that invisible forces
cause humans to do evil, it is because such people entertain bad intentions and utter evil words or engage in wrong
deeds, and by this human become incarnation of evil powers or forces and not God.47

The Igbo notion of Evil

The metaphysical problem of evil, can be meaningfully discussed within the Igbo cosmological thought where God is
viewed as Okike’(creator), who is essentially good in himself and that his creation is also intrinsically good.48 Emmanuel
Edeh is of the opinion that evil is something external to God and it is the consequences of moral evil committed by
human beings, and the upholders of this view point to the myth of God’s withdrawal.49 The first view in his opinion
states that the human being is solely accountable for the evil in the world; the second speaks of a personal god and
destiny; while the third school of thought combines the two views together as being responsible for the evil in the
world.50
The Igbo belief is that the created universe is controlled by Chukwu-Okike (creator), therefore the human being
is at the centre of this creation and endowed with freedom with attendant responsibilities.51 Thus, the Igbo believe that,
evil is the function of the human being, who is at the centre of God’s creati52on. This view consolidates the African
notion of evil that God can never be the possible cause of evil in the world. 53 Evil is not linked directly to the human
being, but with the personal god of each human being and destiny which are responsible for the mistakes in life.
The belief here according to Igbo Benson is that the Supreme Being assigns Chi (a personal god) to an individual,
whose Chi brings to him or her all the good and sometimes bad fortunes.54 He further asserts that despite the
criticism of the ambiguity or the equivocal nature of the concept of Chi, the traditional Igbo believes that God does not
commit evil against his creation.55 They also believe that any misfortune or evil suffered by a human being is interpreted
as punishment for his or her misbehaviour in his present or previous life. This holds because the Igbo believes that the
actions of human beings have consequences whether in this life or the next, not only on those who commit them but on
those who live after them.56 Uzodinma Nwala contend that evil in the world does not detract God from the goodness
and omnipotence of his Divinity.57 God transcends the moral and ontological orders, while being the ultimate
source and guarantor, without any of his essential characteristics being compromised.58
Many modern Igbo scholars conceive evil in the world as being contingent upon the actions of human beings
and the spirits, thus, absolving God of any involvement or blame in the problem of evil.59 The actions of human
beings avail himself or herself for evil influence and attack. For Oguejio Okafor, the apparent evil in the world and
imperfection in the world are not intrinsic but rather the negation of the perfect cosmic order mainly caused by the
actions of human beings and spirits.60 God cannot be the cause of evil, and blame the human being and the spirits
for the existence of evil; with the causative factors being evil spirits, the gods and human beings.61 This view does
not sacrifice or detract from the goodness and omnipotence of God who is also considered as a Supremely Being and
all-powerful.

CONCLUSION
There are diverse philosophical thoughts about the problem of evil which manifest in human affairs, thereby bringing
suffering and pain. For the Yoruba, Esu which is a spirirual agent has existed with Olodumare, the Supreme Being who
is inherently good. In Yoruba thought, moral evil is more dominant, and evil comes as a result of wrong actions by
human, except for natural disasters. Mystical powers are not evil in themselves but becomes evil when used by human

46
Daniel Kasomo, “An investigation of sin and evil in African Cosmology,” International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, vol. 1,2009, 145-150.
47
Kasomo, An investigation of sin and evil in African Cosmology, 152-155.
48
Charles Okeke,“Judeo-Igbo Traditional Religious Conception of sin: Socio- Religious Implications on Igbo Society”. Department of Christian Religious
Studies, College of Education, Nsugbe,127
49
Emmanuel Edeh, Towards Igbo Metaphysics. (Chicago: Loyola University Press. 1985), 40.
50
Edeh, Towards Igbo Metaphysics,49-50
51
Uzodinma Nwala, Igbo Philosophy, (Lagos: Lantern Books.1985), 16.
52
Emmanuel Ogunyemi, The Philosophy of Religion. (Ibadan: Onibonoje, 1985), 43.
53
Ogunyemi, The Philosophy of Religion, 49.
54
Benson Igboin, An African Reflection on the Best Possible World. (Amawbia: Lumos, 2006), 56.
55
Igboin, An African Reflection on the Best possible world, 61.
56
Edeh, Towards Igbo Metaphysics, 62.
57
Nwala, Igbo Philosophy,18
58
Nwala, Igbo Philosophy,19
59
Nwala, Igbo Philosophy,28
60
Oguejio Okafor, Igbo Philosophy of Law, (Enugu: Fourth Dimensional Publishing Co. Ltd. 1992), 53.
61
Celestine Mbaegbu, “The Paradox of Evil and the Good God: The Igbo Perspective”. Journal of Religion and Human Relations. Vol 1, No 2 (2009), 20

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MOTBIT Volume 2 Issue 1 – April 2020 pp 21 - 27

agents to inflict pain on another. Evil therefore do not act on its own unless employed by human or spiritual agents, and
it happens when people entertain bad intentions. Natural disasters are the result of human earlier actions according to
the Yoruba.
For the Akans, God is good and seeks human welfare by ensuring that justice is done, virtues rewarded while
vices are punished through the agencies of the gods who are servants. Between the Supreme Being and human lies
many powers and principalities who are both good and bad. These are those who account for the strange happenings
in the world. Evil is as a result of the exercise of freewill of human, who has been endowed by those powers God. Evil
proceeds from human character, conscience and choices. Bad character leads to bad actions, but good character leads to
good actions.
Igbo conceive God as good and creation as intrinsically good, therefore evil is caused by human personal god
and destiny, as well as the combination of the two. The Supreme Being has assigned a personal god to every human, and
they bring good and bad fortune. Evil is caused by personal god of each human being as punishment for bad actions
in the present or previous behaviour. Consequences of evil is therefore not only on those present, but on generations to
come. The overall deduction from the Yoruba, Akan and Igbo conception of evil is that, it emanates from human action
as a result of wrong choices. This finds expression in the saying that if the last tree dies (as a result of human destructive
actions, then) the last human will also die. All these dispel the notion that it is God and spirits that visit evil on humanity,
which present human as innocent and being responsibility for the misfortunes and disasters that befall humanity. All
the three African communities and their philosophical thoughts affirm that God, the Supreme Being and his creation are
inherently good, and evil is not the creation of a good God, but humanity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abimbola, K., Yoruba Culture: A Philosophical Account. Birmingham: Iroko Academic Publishers. 1982.
Abrefa Busia, K., The African World View: A Comparative Approach in Cultural Adaptations within Modern Africa.
New York: Columbia Univ. Teachers College Press. 1972.
Agidigbi, B, An Introductory Reading in African Philosophy. Ekpoma: Inno Prints. 2001.
Akinwande, A. F., The Problem of Evil: Philosophical and Religious Approaches. Ago-Iwoye: NASR,2005.
Asher, L., Philosophy Weekend: The Four Types of Evil. July 17th, 2010.
Awolalu, Omosade., “Sin and its Removal in African Traditional Religion”. Journal of the American Academy of
Religion vol.44, No.2, Jun. 1976, 275-287: Oxford University Pres
Bewaji, O. J., “God in Yoruba Belief and the Theistic Problem of Evil”. African Studies: Quarterly 1 Volume 2, Issue 1,
1998, http//www.africa.edu
Calder, T., Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, The Concept of Evil. Stanford University: Focus Publishing, 2013.
Edeh, E., Towards Igbo Metaphysics. Chicago: Loyola University Press. 1985.
Gyekye, K., The Perspective of Evil; An Akan Concept of a Person. Norris: University Press .1995.
Hick, J., Philosophy of Religion. California: Prentice Hall of India, 1992.
Igboin, B., An African Reflection on the Best possible world. Amawbia: Lumos, 2006.
Izibili, M., “African Traditional Approach to the problems of Evil in the World; Studies of Tribes and Tribals”
Department of Philosophy, Ambrose Alli University, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2009.
Kasomo, D., “An investigation of sin and evil in African Cosmology”. International Journal of Sociology and Anthro
pology, vol. 1, 2009.
Kuwornu-Adjaottor, J., “God and the Suffering of his people”. Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 33 No.1, 2013.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
MacQueen, K. et.al., “What is Community? An Evidence-Based Definition for Participatory Public Health.”. Journal of
Public Health.
Majeed, H., “God and the Demon in Cartesian and Akan Philosophies; A Comparative Analysis”. Journal of Religious
Studies. Ilorin Vol. 6, No. 2, 2016.
Mbaegbu, C., “The Paradox of Evil and the Good God: the Igbo Perspective”. Journal of Religion and Human Relations.
Vol 1, No 2 2009.
Mbiti, J., African Religious and Philosophy. London: Heinemann.1969.
Nwala, U., Igbo Philosophy. Lagos: Lantern Books, 1985.
Ogunyemi, E. Y., The Philosophy of Religion. Ibadan: Onibonoje, 1985.
Oladele, A., “The nature of evil and human wickedness in traditional African thought: Further Reflections on the Philo
sophical Problem of evil”. October 2009,2-4, http;//lumina.hnu.edu.ph

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Oluwole, S., “African Traditional Thought”, in Journal of Philosophy and Development, no. 1, vol. 1, 1995
Omosade, A., and Adelumo, D. West African Traditional Religion. Ibadan: Onibonoje Press Ltd., 1979.
Sologo, G., Foundations of African Philosophy: A Definitive Analysis of Conceptual issues in African Thought. Ibadan:
University Press, 1983.
Wiredu, K., Cultural Universals and Particulars; An African Perspective. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996.

27
Conradie, EM and Sakuba, XS
University of the Western Cape
Sin and evil in African Christian
theologies: A classification
ABSTRACT

This article is based on the observation that there is a tension between an affirmation of
the inherent goodness of humanity and the widespread prevalence of corruption in
Africa. In African traditional culture, there is a tendency to regard human wrongdoing
(sin) as the product of external evil forces beyond the control the individual. By contrast,
there has been a tendency in Western Christianity to regard evil as the product of sin,
understood as alienation from God. This contribution is based on a bibliographic survey
of how African Christian theologians relate such traditional African thought patterns
with Christian convictions. It offers a classification of the ways in which the relationship
between sin and evil is understood in enculturation theologies, liberation theologies,
Pentecostal theologies, by Zionist churches and in evangelical theologies in the African
context.

1. INTRODUCTION: UBUNTU OR CORRUPTION?

How is the relationship between sin and evil understood in contemporary African Christian
theologies? This is the question which will be explored in this contribution. The significance of
this question has to be understood in the light of the contrast between an affirmation of ubuntu and
the widespread prevalence of corruption in the African context. A few comments in this regard are
important:
In African traditional culture the inherent goodness of human beings is typically affirmed. This
is classically expressed in the notion of “ubuntu”. It seems that especially three connotations
contribute to the meaning of ubuntu. Firstly, it expresses the conviction that a human being is
human through other human beings. One’s basic sense of identity is formed through one’s
belonging to a larger community. Secondly, it calls for respect for the basic human dignity of
others because one’s own sense of identity and dignity is determined by the way in which others
are treated. Thirdly, it calls for solidarity within human communities. Those members of a local
community who are experiencing difficult personal circumstances and those who have specific
material needs should be assisted by others in the community.
In calling for a spirit of ubuntu, the individualism that is prevalent in modern urbanised and
industrialised societies is often criticised. Many hope to retrieve something of the social harmony
of traditional African villages. However, an enthusiasm for the notion of ubuntu should guard
against a romanticised version of the “the sweet African village of a bygone period”. In traditional
culture a spirit of ubuntu did not always prevent authoritarian rule, cruelty against outcasts, the
oppression of women and children and brutal ethnic conflict. Ubuntu may therefore be understood
(perhaps more appropriately) as a future vision for the good society – a society which has never
existed before.

58 DEEL 47 NOMMERS 1 & 2 MAART & JUNIE 2006

 What is more important for the present argument is that the inherent goodness of humanity is
typically affirmed on the basis of the notion of ubuntu. Musopole (1994:177) argues that human
beings have dignity and integrity that is exclusively human and that the source of these qualities
is God. In addition to that, he comments that any conduct, that is inappropriate, amoral and a
betrayal of moral integrity reduces one to a level of a beast with a human face. Apart from that,
ubuntu can also be attributed to what Tempels (1959) refers to as vital force or what Setiloane
(1986) refers to as seriti. Tempels argues that, in African thought, everything is seen in terms of
vital forces. He maintains that, from an African perspective, a human being is a vital force that is
related to other forces. A human being can either influence or be influenced by other forces. Like
Musopole, Tempels claims that the vital force originates from God and for that reason is sacred. It
can be argued therefore that actions of ubuntu are nothing other than the manifestations of that
vital force which is part of human nature. Setiloane (1986:13) describes “seriti” as the physical
phenomenon that manifests itself externally to the human body. Africans believe that “seriti” is in
the human blood. Seriti gives human beings power that enables them to interact with others in a
harmonious way. It can be argued therefore that actions of ubuntu are nothing other than the
manifestations of the vital force or seriti. Therefore, in African thinking, human beings are
regarded as being inherently good, and that such goodness implies dignity, which is deeply seated
in human nature.
In the light of this view on the human condition, Africans have to come to terms with the hard
reality of corruption, which is prevalent throughout the African continent. In almost all African
countries, poor people are suffering under the hands of corrupt individuals. There are various
forms of corruption in Africa, including bureaucratic corruption and political corruption. The
realisation that corruption is endemic in Africa raises a fundamental question regarding an
affirmation of the goodness and the dignity of humanity. If humans are inherently good, as the
notion of ubuntu seems to suggest, where should the origins of corruption be located? Why is
corruption so pervasive, if a spirit of ubuntu prevails in African communities?
There is no need to compare Western, Eastern and African manifestations of corruption here.
Many plausible explanations for endemic corruption may also be offered with reference to the
legacy of slavery, Western imperialism, colonialism, apartheid in South Africa, capitalism, the
forces of globalisation, the burden of international debt and so forth. However, for Africans, the
hard question which cannot be evaded is: Where does evil really come from? Is it not all too easy
to always blame the origins of evil on outside forces? Is there not a need for Africans to accept
some responsibility for endemic corruption? If so, how does an acknowledgement of corruption
correlate with an affirmation of ubuntu, understood as an expression of the inherent goodness of
humanity?

2. CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIES ON HUMAN DIGNITY AND SIN

In the context of Christian theology, this appreciation of the dignity of humanity and the recog-
nition of human corruption has traditionally been expressed in terms of both the goodness and the
fallenness of humanity. Christianity has traditionally affirmed both these seemingly paradoxical
statements. The relation between them has engaged the attention of the most renowned theologians
such as Paul, Augustine (e.g. in his famous controversy with Pelagius), Aquinas, Luther, Calvin
and several contemporary theologians.
The affirmations of both the goodness and the sin of humanity raise questions about the origin
of sin and evil. Does sin come from God? Does it come from some primordial power or being that
is in opposition to God, or does it come from human beings? This is one of the most vexing
questions that have been discussed within the history of the Christian doctrine of sin. In the history

SIN AND EVIL IN AFRICAN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIES: A CLASSIFICATION 59

of the Christian doctrine, three classic approaches to this question may be identified, namely:
dualism, monism and human responsibility for sin.
Dualism: The classic example of this approach is Manichaeism. It maintains that since God
cannot be the origin of sin, sin must have its origin in a reality other than God. This approach is
attractive because it protects both God and human beings from being seen as the authors of evil.
However, it was widely rejected because it seems to indicate that there has been, from the
beginning, a force that is as powerful as God, thus compromising the sovereignty of God.
Monism: Under the conviction that God is the creator of everything (including sin?), and also
cautious not to repeat the mistakes of dualism, monistic thinkers reached the conclusion that God
was the author of sin. Sin could therefore not fall outside of the confession of God as the ultimate
source of reality (see Berkhof 1986). This position was rejected by the mainline Christian tradition
because it suggests an internal tension within God.
Human responsibility: One of the core Christian convictions is that these many manifestations of
evil cannot ultimately be derived from Godself (monism), from a power (for example Satan or fate)
1
that is beyond God’s reach (dualism), or from the finite material world itself (e.g. a Manichaeist
denouncing of bodily existence or human sexuality where the emergence of good and evil is related
to the duality of spirit and matter). Such explanations for the origins of evil can only lead to human
exculpations. The world of finite, dependant and contingent existence has not become evil due to its
finiteness or brevity. It is primarily through the action of human beings that evil entered the world.
Evil remains an enigma; it is something that ought not to be, does not have to be, but nevertheless is
(Williams 1985:197). Our natural inclination is to shift the blame for evil unto someone or something
else. It is easy enough to recognise the pervasiveness of evil; it is less easy to accept responsibility for
such evil. As Luther insisted, this is perhaps the final sin of humanity: to stubbornly refuse to concede
the obvious truth, namely that we human beings have to accept the primary responsibility for the evil
that surrounds us. This is expressed in the Christian confession that human beings – all human beings
– are sinners. Human sin is, if anything, the origin and root of evil. This confession suggests that other
explanations of the origin of evil have to be resisted, since this may tempt us to justify ourselves and
2
to shift our responsibility upon God, the devil or the material world. The confession that we are
ultimately responsible for sin constitutes a refusal to be drawn into attempts to explain the origin of
sin in any way that will let humans off the hook.
3
On this basis, one may argue that evil describe the consequences of sin in the world. Sin is the
origin of evil and evil should therefore not be regarded as the origin of sin. This description of the
relationship between sin and evil may nevertheless be too simplistic. In Christian theology, the
reality of evil forces such as demons and Satan is usually acknowledged. One also has to reckon
with the problem of what is called “natural suffering” and “natural evil”. Moreover, there is a
dialectic between what is sometimes called structural violence and a culture of violence that result
from oppression. Clearly, evil also leads to sin if this is understood as moral wrongdoing.

1 See also the excellent essay by David Bosch (1974:62-91) on monist and dualist approaches to the
existence of evil, with specific reference to African theology. Bosch suggests that traditional religions in
Africa have tended to see good and evil as two sides of the divine being: As long as God stays far from
us (God’s transcendence) and does not interfere with human existence, then God may be considered to
be good. The God who comes to close to us (God’s immanence) is dangerous and may cause humans
harm. African myths suggest that God has withdrawn himself from humans in primeval times and this
has been a blessing. Communion with God is not considered to be something desirable.
2 Debates on the origin of evil tend to become rather sterile. It is perhaps more appropriate to speak of the
(human) beginning of sin instead of the origin of sin (König 1988:127).
3 For the notion of evil as the effect of sin, see Tillich ST 2, 1957:59f, Gutièrrez 1973:173f, Peters 1994:8f.

60 DEEL 47 NOMMERS 1 & 2 MAART & JUNIE 2006

 If human beings are responsible for evil, there is still a need to account for the very possibility
of human sin. This is often related to human volition. It may also be related to an awareness and
anxieties over human finitude (see Tillich 1957:33f). Wolfhart Pannenberg (1998:561) more
cautiously defines sin as the “non-acceptance of finitude”. He thus relates the possibility of sin (not
its inevitability) with an awareness of finitude: “The deeper reason for the possibility of sin, and
therefore for the coming of evil into creation with all its consequences, is that there is an original
imperfection in the creature because the creature is ontically limited, cannot know all things, may
be mistaken about many things and can thus be guilty of other failings. ... Limitation is a necessary
part of creature-hood insofar as every creature is different from God and his perfection”
(Pannenberg 1994:171). Pannenberg adds that this does not explain the origin of evil in any way:
“We are to seek the root of evil, rather, in revolt against the limit of finitude, in the refusal to accept
one’s own finitude, and in the related illusion of being like God (Gen 3:5)” (1994:172f). The
emphasis here remains clearly on human responsibility and human guilt, for spreading evil in the
world.

3. AFRICAN TRADITIONAL CULTURE AND RELIGION ON SIN AND EVIL

In traditional African religion and culture, both human sin and evil are perceived in terms of the
breaking of peaceful relationships within the community (see Maimela 1982). Mbiti (1991:200)
argues that African people recognise social order and peace as essential and sacred. Any disruption
of these would therefore be regarded as sin, and would thereby be punishable. However, at times,
this sense of peace and harmony may be disrupted and this is typically understood to be the work
of the evil spirits. Apart from the direct impact that evil spirits are seen to have on people’s lives,
it is also believed that certain individuals within the community manipulate these forces to
accomplish their evil deeds. This usually transpires in the form of witchcraft and sorcery.
According to Thorpe (1996), witchcraft is the major form of disruption within the community,
since it represents the dark malevolent feelings that lie in human hearts, namely hatred, envy,
vengefulness and malice. After spending a period of approximately five years in Soweto,
Ashworth (1996: 91) observes that although people hardly speak about witchcraft in public, except
to those close to them, it is part of ordinary life and something that all people are concerned with.
Parish (1999: 438) makes similar observations about witchcraft in her study of the Akan society.
Both Ashworth (1996) and Parish (1999) agree that jealousy is the root cause why people inflict
harm against each other through witchcraft.
According to the Shona, witchcraft manifest in anti-social behaviour: “Their conduct is an
inversion of that which is approved of by society, and this disregard for generally accepted norms
gives them their extraordinary power to harm their fellow men” (Bucher 1980:110). According to
this description, evil spirits are the reason why there is unrest within the community. Firstly, they
attack people and cause illnesses and thereby cause people to point fingers at each other. Secondly,
and more importantly, with the aid of these forces, those who want to cause misery and make life
difficult for others do so without any difficulty.
One may therefore argue that human sin is regarded in terms of a disruption by evil forces. Sin
is the result of the contamination of evil. Again, this description may be too simplistic. Individual
human guilt is usually acknowledged in African worldviews and moral philosophy (see Mbiti
1969, Turner 1967, Sawyerr 1964, 1972, Adegbola 1969, and Pobee 1979). In fact, a pervasive
sense of guilt may perhaps be regarded as the polar opposite of social rhetoric where the blame for
wrongdoing is placed on external evil forces. In a society where social patterns are governed by a
sense of honour and of shame, it is extremely difficult to accept responsibility for wrongdoing
publicly. A confession of guilt is therefore often repressed. Guilt is something that is widely

SIN AND EVIL IN AFRICAN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIES: A CLASSIFICATION 61

recognised, but remains hidden deep beneath the surface. It is present only as the unspeakable. To
know that you have done wrong and to fear that this may become public knowledge causes
immense anxiety, as is expressed in the Xhosa notion of “Isazela” which is used to refer to being
haunted by an acute sense of guilt which may manifest itself in psychosomatic illness and intense
suffering. Nonetheless, the emphasis in traditional African culture on evil forces that may
influence and contaminate society is quite striking.

4. THE EMERGENCE OF AFRICAN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIES

Christianity has its roots in the Ancient Near East. This implies that it is as much an African, as it
is a European religion. Nevertheless, most contemporary forms of Christianity have been deeply
influenced by Western forms of Christianity as a result of the legacy of colonialism and missionary
work. Many African theologians have therefore called for Christianity with an African face. This
suggests the need for an African theology and African forms of Christianity. Theologians such as
Bediako (1995), Bujo (1992), Dickson (1984), Idowu (1973), Mbiti (1969), Mugambi (1989),
Oduyoye (1986), Pobee (1979) have been at the forefront of this endeavour.
Any attempt to explain the relationship between Christianity and Africa remains problematic.
This is due to the fact that both terms are complex and are influenced by a conflicting plurality of
traditions. Different methodological strategies to engage in African theology have been proposed
on the basis of concepts such as indigenisation, enculturation (Keteyi 1998), contextualisation (see
Bosch 1992: 425-432, Martey 1993: 63-87), accommodation, or “constructing local theologies”
(Schreiter 1985). Since these concepts are all contested and ambiguous, the methodological
debates within the context of African theology remain unresolved. African theologians have been
accused of putting too much emphasis on culture and thereby disregarding other important issues
such as the history of the encounter of African peoples with Christianity (Ross 1997).
Nevertheless, it is clear that African theology may be regarded as an attempt to relate Christianity
and African traditional culture.
Contemporary Christian theologies in the African context have diversified considerably.
Various typologies have been offered to chart the terrain of African Christian theology (see Bosch
1974, Maluleke 1997, Parratt 1995). For the purposes of this contribution, the following different
manifestations of African Christian theology may be identified:

a) African enculturation theology is a trend of African Christian theology that puts emphasis on
the importance of African religion and culture, especially in terms of the survival of Christianity
on the African continent. Such theologians believe that in order for Christianity to appeal to the
religious aspirations of the African peoples, it must be integrated with African religion and culture.
African enculturation theology is therefore mainly concerned with the use of African culture and
traditional African religion, as a base from which Africans express their Christian faith. To
accomplish this, African theologians following this trend have called for a continuous dialogue
between Christianity, African culture, and African traditional religion. Ukpong (1984: 18) warns
that African enculturation theology is not a way of promoting African culture: “... it would be
wrong to think of African theology as a means of promoting African culture; any theology aiming
at the promotion of a particular culture would hardly be worthy of the name theology.” He further
warns that African theology also does not aim at justifying every aspect of African culture whether
good or bad, for that would lead to syncretism. Instead, African enculturation theology seeks to
inquire into the religious sensibility of the African peoples through a study of their cultural
practices.

62 DEEL 47 NOMMERS 1 & 2 MAART & JUNIE 2006

b) Liberation theology seeks to reflect on the socio-economic development of the poor with a view
to structural change (Ukpong 1984: 49). In Africa, liberation theology became popular after a
conference of the Third World Theologians, held in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania in 1976, where Latin
American theologians played a major role (see Sergio and Virginia 1977). This theology became
attractive to Africans, because it addressed challenges which were similar to those that Africans
had to cope with (Ukpong 1984: 49-50). Such challenges included poverty, hunger, malnutrition,
starvation, political oppression, discrimination and colonialism. According to Ukpong (1984:52),
there are three currents of African liberation theology (see also the analysis of Parratt 1995 who
distinguishes between Latin American-style approach, South African Black theology and feminist
theology):
• The indigenous approach: According to Ukpong (1984:52), theologians following this
approach, tend to employ indigenous African concepts to promote human development, which
they believe have the potential to free poor people from situations such poverty.
• The Latin American approach: Ukpong (1984: 54) notes that African liberation theologies
often focus on issues of race, whereas Latin American liberation theologies typically focus on
the issue of a class struggle (where Marxist categories are often employed). Some African
liberation theologies follow the Latin American example by also focusing on class struggles
within the African context.
• The combined approach: Some African theologians employ both African socialism (which is
typical of the first approach) and an analysis of class struggles (which is typical of Latin
American liberation theology. Ukpong (1984: 55) refers to Laurenti Magesa’s theology as a
typical example of this form of African liberation theology.

c) African evangelical theology is a trend of African Christian theology that puts emphasis on the
use of scripture as the only source of doing Christian theology, also within the African context. In
accordance with this conviction, some African evangelical theologians have openly challenged the
openness of African enculturation theology towards African religion and culture. African
evangelical theology emerged in the early seventies as a critical response to African enculturation
theology (Mbiti 2003:13) and, at times, to African liberation theology and African ecumenical
organisations (see Bediako 1992). The leading figure in African evangelical theology since the
1970’s was Bang Kato. In 1975 he published a book entitled Theo-logical Pitfalls in Africa. In this
book Kato voices his criticism of the method used by African enculturation theologians, especially
John Mbiti. Byang Kato is also the founder of the Association of Evangelicals in Africa and
Madagascar.

d) African Pentecostal Theology is a biblically based theology that puts emphasis on the work of
the Holy Spirit. According to this theology, the promise of Pentecost can still be realised today.
Through the Holy Spirit people can be saved from their sinful lives, they can be baptised in the
Holy Spirit, healed, and they can speak in tongues. For this reason, African Pentecostal theologians
put emphasis on issues such as the baptism of the Holy Spirit and the fruits and the gifts of the
Holy Spirit. According to African Pentecostal theology, God is working through the Holy Spirit to
communicate with people. It is the Holy Spirit who regenerates the sinners. Anderson (1992:7)
classifies African Pentecostals into three major streams, namely, Pentecostal mission churches,
independent Pentecostal churches and indigenous Pentecostal-type churches, also known as the
spirit-type churches or Zionist-type churches (also see Hollenweger 1972:149-171).

SIN AND EVIL IN AFRICAN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIES: A CLASSIFICATION 63

5. MAPPING CONTRIBUTIONS ON SIN AND EVIL IN AFRICAN CHRISTIAN
THEOLOGIES

In terms of these observations, one may observe that, in generalised terms, while classic Christian
theology regards evil as the product of sin, the emphasis in traditional African religion and culture
is on humans being the victims of evil forces. This raises a number of interesting questions,
especially in the context of African Christian theology. What is the relationship between sin and
evil? How do African Christians integrate the classic expressions of the Christian faith and
theology with traditional African culture and religion? Is the emphasis on human responsibility?
Or is it perhaps on the way in which humans are subjected to evil that is beyond their control?
More specifically: How is the relationship between sin and evil understood in recent publications
in the field of African Christian theology?
A research project to address this problem has recently been completed at the University of the
Western Cape (see Sakuba 2005). The task of this project was to identify, classify and describe
different ways in which the relationship between sin and evil is understood in the context of
contemporary African Christian theologies. The task of this study was therefore one of a
classification of various approaches that may be identified in the relevant literature.
For the purposes of this project recent English language publications from the post-colonial period
were considered, with specific reference to the four decades, between 1960 and 2000, in which African
Christian theology started to flourish. This implies that classic African contributions to an
understanding of the Christian faith, for example those by Tertullian, Origen, Athanasius, Augustine
and many others were excluded from the scope of this study. The ways in which the relationship
between sin and evil is understood and expressed in the oral and contemplative wisdom of ordinary
Christians in Africa, which may be fascinating to investigate, were also not considered.
This project forms part of a larger co-operative research project entitled “Mapping Systematic
Theology in Africa” initiated by Prof Ernst Conradie of the University of the Western Cape. The
purpose of this larger project is to co-ordinate a number of post-graduate research projects in the
field of systematic theology that will investigate specific aspects of Christian doctrine, as this has
emerged in post-colonial African theology. An indexed bibliography, edited by Conradie and
Fredericks (2004) has been published in this regard as part of a series of “Study Guides in Religion
and Theology” by the Department of Religion and Theology at the University of the Western Cape.
The purpose of this bibliography is to provide logistical support to postgraduate students working
on themes within the context of the larger project. The hope is that this project will contribute to
the growth of systematic theology within an African context.

6. AFRICAN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIES ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIN AND

EVIL

An investigation off the relationship between sin and evil in African Christian theology is faced
with two methodological problems. Firstly, not much has been written on sin and evil in African
4
Christian Theology. Secondly, the literature that is available, as limited as it is, does not always

4 There are only a limited number of articles written by African Christian theologians on the subject of sin.
Adeolu Adegbola wrote an article entitled “The theological basis of ethics” (in Dickson & Ellingworth
1969:116-136). Sawyer (1964, 1972) wrote two articles, the first one was entitled “Sin and forgiveness
in Africa” and the other one “Sin and salvation: Soteriology viewed from the African situation “ (in

64 DEEL 47 NOMMERS 1 & 2 MAART & JUNIE 2006

deal with issues of sin and evil in African Christian Theology. Instead, when writing on this
5
subject, most authors tend to allocate more space to sin and evil in African Traditional Religion.
Due to these problems, several other related topics such as sorcery, witchcraft, healing, exorcism
and salvation had to be taken into consideration in this project.
There are especially two ways in which contributions on sin and evil in African Christian
theology may be classified. Firstly, one may use a classification based on two contrasting
positions, namely that sin is the source of evil or, alternatively, that evil is the source of sin. Let us
investigate this first classification in more detail:

a) Sin as the source of evil

The belief that sin leads to evil forms a major part of any African Christian doctrine of sin. This
thought is common, especially among those who understand sin as alienation from God. Also, it
is probably the most common way in which most African Christians and theologians understand
the relationship between sin and evil. When they teach about sin during their Sunday sermons and
Sunday school classes, preachers and Sunday school teachers from all denominations teach that
sin leads to evil. Parents and elders also teach the same thing whenever they offer some sort of
guidance to those under their care. Every African child who is brought up in a Christian home
knows that Adam and Eve were chased out of the Garden of Eden because of their sin. The most
common expression attesting to this fact among the Xhosas of South Africa, is that “Umvuzo
wesono bububi”, which means, the prize one gets out of sin is evil. All African Christian
theologians, irrespective of the trend of African Theology which they may follow, know this by
virtue of being Christians.
Most people in Africa therefore take it for granted that sin leads to evil. This is also reflected
in the writings and sayings of African Christian theologians across the spectrum:
African Enculturation Theology: The fact that sin leads to evil is definitely affirmed within the
context of African enculturation theology. This affirmation comes out clearly through the work and
thought of African Christian theologians such as John Mbiti (1969: 1979), Harry Sawyerr (1972,
1964), Adeolu Adegbola (1969) and John Pobee (1979).

Becken 1972). Simon Maimela also wrote two articles, which were both published in The Journal of
Theology in Southern Africa. The first one was entitled “The atonement in the context of liberation
theology” (Maimela 1982) and the second one “Traditional African anthropology and Christian theology”
(Maimela 1991). John Pobee wrote a chapter on sin entitled “Sin in African Christian theology” in his
Towards African Theology (Pobee 1979:99-118). John Mbiti also wrote a chapter entitled “The concepts
of evil, ethics and justice” in his African Religions and Philosophy (Mbiti 1969: 204-215). Another article
by Mbiti (1989) was on “God, sin and salvation in African religion. G.C. Oosthuizen (1964:188-205)
wrote a section on “The concept of sin in the nativistic movements” in his Post-Christianity in Africa: a
theological and anthropological study. Van der Merwe (1989) wrote an article on sin in which he reported
the findings of a research project which he conducted on the concept of sin among Zionists in Kwazulu
Natal. Turner (1967) wrote about the concept of sin in a study he conducted among the members of the
Aladura Church of Christ. In a collection of Byang Kato’ s articles and addresses (1985) there are also
some very brief comments on the issue of sin. See also Bediako (1992: 386-425) for a contribution in this
regard.
5 More or less 90% of each of the articles mentioned above, except for Kato and Turner, deal with sin only
in African traditional religion. Only a few sentences and a paragraph here and there, deal with sin in
African Christian theology. Even then, almost all these authors fail to be more specific on their own
thoughts as African theologians on this subject. All that they do is to give suggestions for what an African
Christian theological doctrine of sin may entail.

SIN AND EVIL IN AFRICAN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIES: A CLASSIFICATION 65

 African Liberation Theology: African liberation theologians also view sin as the origin of evil,
albeit that they emphasise that the suffering of the oppressed is the result of the sinful actions of
the oppressors lead to evil and oppressive structures (such as the apartheid system). The oppressed
are therefore being sinned against. Hence Simon Maimela (1991) believes that the idea of sin and
evil in African anthropology, whereby sin is measured in terms of the life of the individuals who
suffer injustice, oppression and destruction at the hands of their fellow human beings, can be a
valuable contribution to Christian theology. On this basis, Maimela (1982: 51) criticises the
traditional concept of sin. According to him, in traditional Christian conceptions of sin, sin is only
understood as a personal problem and as an abstract idea, which must be discussed theoretically
with reference to obedience to some divine laws, laws that are not familiar to African people.
African Independent Churches / Zionist Churches: The view that sin leads to evil is also
reflected among the leaders and followers of African Independent Churches. Analysing the
concept of sin in “The Church of the Lord” (Aladura), Turner (1967: 359-361) observes, that its
members have a view of sin that is based on the Bible, with special emphasis on sin as a human
responsibility instead of on personal misfortune. He further reports that even though the role of the
supernatural evil spirits is not denied in this church, the magnitude and reality of this demonic
realm does not exempt people from personal responsibility for their own sins. Instead, since the
Lord is believed to have power over all the forces of evil, if the evil spirits captures a person, that
person is regarded as a sinner or as being alienated from the Lord. To be captured by evil forces,
6
in other words, is seen as a form of punishment by God (Turner 1967:361).
African Pentecostal Theology: African Pentecostal theologians strongly believe that evil
which takes the form of human suffering and problems is the direct outcome of sin. One may argue
that this conviction has to do with the very origins of the world-wide Pentecostal movement.
African Pentecostals believe that problems such as drunkenness, smoking, adultery uncertainty,
hunger, unemployment, boredom, homelessness, indifference and hopelessness, are the direct
results of being distant from God. Accordingly, they believe that when Jesus Christ enters into a
person’s life, such a person’s problems will diminish and that sinners will thus be liberated from
the problems associated with their sinfulness. Filled with the Holy Spirit, a sinner goes through a
process of regeneration that restores the sinner to his or her original perfection. Sin in this context
seems to be mainly understood in terms of being separated from God. In South Africa, most
Pentecostal African theologians or leaders – such as Elias Letwaba, Edward Mutaung, Engenas
Lekganyane, Job Chiliza, Nicholas Bhengu, Richard Ngidi, Frank Chikane and Mosa Sono – are
known for their ability to heal the sick and help people with different problems. All these leaders
believed that sufferers should allow Christ to dwell inside them before they can be saved from
sickness and other forms of evil (see Anderson 1992: 36-55).

b) Evil as the source of sin

According to various African Christian theologies evil is not only the product of sin; evil can also,
from time to time, lead to sin. In Africa it is very common to hear people referring to a sinful
incident as the work of the devil or of the evil forces, or to hear them saying: “uSathana
uyabasebenzisa abantu bakaThixo”. This means, “The devil is using God’s poor people.” Those
who share this view believe that there are evil forces that can possess a person and cause him or
her to act in ways beyond the person’s control. For example, they believe that some mysterious

6 For more information on sin as the cause of certain diseases, see Becken (1972:37), Martin (1964: 116),
and Oosthuizen (1991:17).

66 DEEL 47 NOMMERS 1 & 2 MAART & JUNIE 2006

force can possess a person and cause him or her to commit sinful acts such as incest, rape or
murder. Among the Xhosa, this is known as “ukubulawa”, which means to be killed. To be killed
means that the person is totally under the control of the evil force. This can happen even if
someone is a devoted member of the church. For example, if a supposedly good man rapes a child,
or a woman, and this is exposed, it is possible that a verdict may be that the whole incident was
the work of an evil spirit. Both the rapist and the raped person would then be regarded as victims
of this evil force. The perpetrator would remain a sinner, but the evil force is regarded as the main
cause of his sin. It might happen that the aims of the evil one were either to harm the reputation
of the rapist or to destroy the future of the rape victim. In such a case evil leads to sin because the
victims are not aware of their actions.
Sin is regarded as the product of evil when it is believed that some evil force is behind a sinful
act. This would apply especially to cases where a particular act does not correspond with the
previous reputation of the sinner. The classic context in which sin may be regarded as the product
of evil is that of witchcraft. Witchcraft is crucial in this regard because, for most Africans,
witchcraft is the greatest of all sins, while the witch is the greatest of all sinners. Witchcraft is any
human endeavour that is aided by mystical powers in order to harm or to manipulate events
according to the liking of a witch (Mbiti: 1979: 202).
The notion that sin is the product of evil forces is found in various manifestations of African
Christian Theology:
African Enculturation Theology: African enculturation theologians strongly emphasise the
individual’s responsibility of sin. Pobee made it clear that evil forces do not absolve people from
their responsibility for sin. Nevertheless, the notion that evil may lead to sin is not completely
rejected within the circles of African enculturation theology. Pobee (1979: 118) acknowledges
that, “… in Africa, witchcraft beliefs continue to hold their ground and to some extent account for
the popularity of the spiritual churches, which are sometimes also called ‘witchcraft eradication
movements’ because that appears to be their major concern and preoccupation. So with no
apology, one can speak of sin as captivity by the forces of evil ... “ Pobee’s comments have not
been challenged by other African theologians. This suggests that African enculturation theologians
are partly in agreement with the view that evil can lead to sin.
Zionist theology: The view that sin is the product of evil is definitely affirmed among the
members of Zionist churches. This is evident from the emphasis that these churches put on the
impact that evil spirits have on human lives and the society at large. For example, followers of
these churches believe that evil spirits may possess human beings with the aim of using them as
instruments to accomplish their evil deeds. It is believed that such interference by evil spirits in
human lives is reflected in anti-social behaviour, for example, failing to assist one’s loved ones and
community, cruelty, pride, selfishness as well as stupidity. Sin is thus understood in terms of
disturbing harmonious communal relationships and as the product of evil forces. Accordingly, a
sinner is not necessarily responsible for his or her sins, for he or she is sick from evil. Hence
healing through exorcism plays a major role in Zionist churches (see Daneel 1992: 195-236).
African liberation theologies also acknowledge that sin can be the product of evil forces,
especially in the case of oppressive social and economic structures Gutierrez (1973: 232). In
apartheid South Africa the government, its laws, its policies, its officials and its institutions were
typically regarded as the embodiments of evil. Maimela (1982: 50) refers to these as powers of
enslavement. Dwane (1977: 10) argues that such enslaving powers can be socio-political, cultural,
and psychological or spiritual. Such oppressive structures are regarded as at least partly responsible
for the wrongdoings South Africans who suffered as “innocent” victims under apartheid.
That sin can be the product of evil also features in an African Pentecostal theologies, especially
in terms of references to the devil and demons. Pentecostal churches teach that sin is the work of

SIN AND EVIL IN AFRICAN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIES: A CLASSIFICATION 67

the devil that sends his agents (the demons) to possess some people and use them as tools to do
his dirty work. In addition, these churches teach that the world is being taken over by the devil and
all those who are not saved are working for him. In some Pentecostal churches this has completely
overshadowed an emphasis on the individual’s guilt for sin. Because the blame is put on the devil
and the demons, people – also those who are HIV-positive – are made to believe that the devil and
the demons have inflicted their sicknesses on them. Church members with dysfunctional families
and relationships are taught that their partners are being controlled by the devil, or that they are
possessed. Only if the demons inside of them are removed will they be able to act rationally again.

7. A FOURFOLD CLASSIFICATION

In the discussion above two opposing views on the relationship between sin and evil have been
identified and mapped out. It is striking that some forms of African Christian theology subscribe
to both these views. This seems to indicate the need for a more sophisticated classification. It is
also possible to identify four main positions in views on the relationship between sin and evil.
These positions may be located on a continuum between an exclusive focus on evil as the product
of sin and an exclusive focus on sin as the product of evil forces.
The first position is that sin leads to evil while it is also acknowledged that evil can lead to sin
in exceptional cases. African enculturation theologians represent a typical example of this
position. For example, if asked what the relationship between sin and evil is, most African
enculturation theologians would probably respond by saying that sin leads to evil, but if someone
else answers differently, they would not challenge that either.
The second position is that sin is the product of evil although evil can sometimes also be a product
of sin. The main representatives of this view of the relationship between sin and evil are the followers
of African Independent Churches or Zionist churches and African liberation theologians, albeit in
different ways. In AIC’s this is affirmed through a strong belief in evil spirits that can control and
manipulate human beings into doing things they would not have been able to do if they were not
possessed. In liberation theology this is expressed in the view that the evil embodied in oppressive
structures, put in place by the rich and powerful, may cause people, mainly the oppressed, to engage
in anti-social behaviour – which may sometimes be regarded as a form of retaliation or rebellion
against such structures. The poor and the oppressed are victims of the sins of others.
The third position maintains that evil should be understood exclusively as the product of sin.
The main representatives of this position are evangelical theologians who resist any suggestion
that would allow people to find a scapegoat which they may blame for their sins. For these
theologians, human beings are themselves responsible for their sins.
The fourth position is that sin is the product of evil as much as evil is the product of sin. The
main representatives of this position are the followers and theologians of the African Pentecostal
churches. African Pentecostals have a strong belief in the individual’s guilt for sin. This implies
that humans are fully responsible for their sins, and not some external force. At the same time,
there is an equally strong emphasis on the role of the devil who works through demons to torment
people. African Pentecostals teach that the demons possess people and use them for their own evil
purposes. This implies that a person can do something, not out of his or her own will, but through
being manipulated by the devil.

8. CONCLUSION

The purpose of this contribution is primarily one of classification in order to discern the state of
the current debate on the relationship between sin and evil in African Christian theology and not

68 DEEL 47 NOMMERS 1 & 2 MAART & JUNIE 2006

to offer constructive views in this regard. Nevertheless, it seems that a retrieval of the classic
Christian doctrine of human responsibility for sin and evil would be advantageous in the context
of African Christian theology. Africans need to accept responsibility for their own mistakes and
failures instead of attributing every failure to the work of evil spirits. Clarity on the relationship
between sin and evil can also address the problem of a moralistic gospel, that is, a gospel which
calls for respectable individuals and does not announce forgiveness for sinners.
In addition, it is important to note especially two factors in African Christianity which
contribute to the view that sin is caused by evil:
A lack of exposure to the Christian doctrine of sin is one important reason why many
Christians presume that evil can lead to sin. Many Christians in Africa are simply not aware of the
Augustinian legacy within the Christian doctrine of sin. They would not know the significance of
expressions such as, bondage of the will, original sin, total human responsibility for sin, total
depravity and God’s grace. In trying to address the mystery of sin, people would therefore have to
rely on traditional African ways of accounting for the origins of evil. A lack of adequate
theological education amongst the leaders of churches in Africa contributes to this problem. This
may be exacerbated by a lack of communication between theologians and the laity.
Another factor is an inability to differentiate between sin and moral issues. Sin is not
understood as alienation from God, but in terms of breaking the moral codes of the society. To sin
is equal to stealing, drinking alcohol, incest, having an extra marital relationship, not respecting
one’s husband or smoking. Many regard smoking as more sinful than breaking all ties with God,
pride, self-appraisal or excessive love for money! This inability to distinguish between sin and the
breaking of moral codes has not only reduced God to the level of a judge whose role is to punish
those who break the moral codes; it has also allowed a moralistic view of the Christian gospel.
Although such a view of sin emphasises human responsibility, it does not preclude the view that
perpetrators are the victims of evil forces beyond their control.

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KEY WORDS

African theology
Evangelical theology
Evil
Inculturation theology
Liberation theology
Pentecostal theology
Sin

TREFWOORDE

Afrika-teologie
Bevrydingsteologie
Evangeliese teologie
Inkulturasie
Kwaad
Pinksterteologie
Sonde

SIN AND EVIL IN AFRICAN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGIES: A CLASSIFICATION 71