Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

UNIT 14 : BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

UNIT STRUCTURE

14.1 Learning Objectives

14.2 Introduction
14.3 Definition, Properties and Examples
14.4 Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra
14.5 Boolean Expression
14.6 Let Us Sum Up
14.7 Answers To Check Your Progress
14.8 Further Readings
14.9 Model Questions

14.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will able to know

 boolean algebra, its properties, examples
 basic laws of boolean algebra
 boolean expression.

14.2 INTRODUCTION

Boolean Algebra is an algebraic structure after the name of British

logician George Boole (1813-1864). By an algebraic structure we mean a
set equipped with one or more binary operations defined on it satisfying
certain axioms. Though it is an abstract algebraic sturucture, it can be
used for analysing electrical circuits. Nowadays it is immensely used for
the analysis and design of electronic computers.

14.3 DEFINITION, PROPERTIES AND EXAMPLES

Definition : Let B a non-empty set equipped with two binary operations +

and . , a unary operation /, and two distinct elements 0 and 1. Then B is
called a Boolean Algebra if the following conditions are satisfied.

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1. Commutative laws
(i) a + b = b + a, (ii) a.b = b.a, a, b  B
2. Distributive laws
(i) a + (b.c) = (a + b).(a + c)
(ii) a. (b + c) = (a.b) + (a.c), a, b, c  B
3. Identity laws
(i) a + 0 = a, (ii) a.1 = a
4. Complement laws
(i) a + a/ = 1, (ii) a.a/ = 0
Note : 1. From the definition it is clear that there cannot a Boolean Algebra
with one element.
2. 1 is called unit element, and 0 is called zero element.
3. a/ is called complement of a.
4. A Boolean Algebra is generally denoted by (B, + , . , /, 0, 1) or (B, +,
. ,/ ) or simply by B.
5. The symbols 0 and 1 are not necessaily real numbers 0 and 1
respectively.
Example 1 : B = {0, 1} is a Boolean Algebra under +, . , / defined by

+ 1 0 . 1 0 /
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

Solution : From the definition of +, . , /, it follows that

1. (i) a + b = b + a
(ii) a.b = b.a, a, b  B
2. (i) a + (b.c) = (a+b).(a + c)
(ii) a.(b+c) = (a.b) + (a.c), a, b, c  B
3. (i) a + 0 = a, (ii) a.1 = a, a  B
4. (i) a + a/ = 1 (1 + 1/ = 1 + 0 = 1),
0 + 0/ = 0 + 1 = 1)
(ii) a. a/ = 0 (1. 1/ = 1.0 = 0,
0.0/ = 0.1 = 0)
 (b, + , . , / ) is a Boolean Algebra.

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Properties
1. In a Boolean Algebra B, zero element is unique.
Proof : Let (B, + , . , / ) be a Boolean Algebra.
If possible, let there be two zero elements 0 and 01
 a + 0 = a, a  B
a + 01 = a, a  B
 01 + 0 = 0 ( 0 is zero element)
Again 01+0 = 0 + 01 (by commutative law)
=0 ( 01 is zero element)
 01 = 0
i.e. zero element is unique.
Note : In view of the above property, we will write as “the” zero element.
2. In a Boolean Algebra B, unit element is unique.
Proof : Let (B, +, . , / ) be a Boolean Algebra.
If possible, let there be two unit elements 1, and 1u.
 a.1  a, a  B
a.1u  a, a  B
 1u.1 = 1u ( 1 is unit element)
 1u = 1
i.e unit element is unique.
Note : In view of the above theorem, we will write as “the” unit element.
3. In a Boolean Algebra B, complement of each element is unique.
Proof : Let (B, + , . , / ) be a Boolean Algebra.
Let 0 be the zero element, and
1 be the unit element.
Let a  B
If possible, let a/ and a1 be complements of a
 a + a/ = 1, a . a/ = 0 ( a/ is complement of a)
a + a1 = 1,a . a1 = 0 ( a1 is complement of a)
Now a/ = a/.1
= a/. (a + a1)
= (a/.a) + (a/.a1)
= (a.a/) + (a/.a1)
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= 0 + (a/.a1)
= (a/.a1) + 0
= a/.a1 (1)
Again a1 = a1.1
= a1. (a + a/)
= (a1.a) + (a1.a/)
= (a.a1) + (a1.a/)
= 0 + (a1.a1)
= (a/.a1) + 0
= a/.a1 (2)
From (1) and (2), we get
a/ = a1
Note : In view of the above theorem, we write as “a/” is the complement of
a.
4. In a Boolean Algebra B,
(i) 1/ = 0, (ii) 0/ = 1, where 0 is the zero element, and 1 is the unit
element.
Proof : (i) Let B be a Boolean Algebra,
Now, by identity laws, we have a + 0 = 1 and a.1 = a, a  B
Replacing a by 1 in a + 0 = a, we get 1 + 0 = 1.
Replacing a by 0 in a.1 = 1, we get 0.1 = 0
i.e. 1.0 = 0 (0.1 = 1.0, by commutative law)
Thus, 1 + 0 = 1 (1)
1.0 = 0 (2)
From (1) and (2), we conclude that 0 = 1/ i.e. 1/ = 0 (complement laws)
(ii) Let B be a Boolean Algebra.
Now, by identity laws, we have a.1 = 1 and a + 0 = a, a  B
Replacing a by 0 in a.1 = a, we get 0.1 = 0.
Replacing a by 1 in a + 0 = a, we get 1 + 0 = 1.
i.e. 0 + 1 = 1, (1+ 0 = 0 + 1, by commutativeled)
Thus, 0.1 = 0 (1)
0+1=1 (2)
From (1) and (2), we conclude that 0/ = 1 (complement law)
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Note : The property (ii), viz 0/ = 1 can be derived from property (i), viz 1/ = 0
by interchanging the binary operations + and . , and by interchanging 0
and 1. Here (ii) is called the dual of (i), and vice versa, i.e. (i) is the dual
of (ii) This principle is known as the principle of duality. The principle
holds good for every statement and every theorem in a Boolean Algebra.
Example 2 : Let X be a non-empty set Let P(x) be the power set of A, i.e
P(x) is the set of all subsets of x.
Let A, B  P( x ) , i.e. A  X , B  X
We define
A  B  A  B,
A. B  A  B
A/ = the complement of A.
Clearly, union is a binary operation on P(x), intersection is a binary
operation on P(x), complementation is a unary operation on P(x).
Now 1. (i) A  B  A  B  B  A  B  A
(ii) A. B  A  B  B  A  B . A ,  A, B  P ( x )
2. (i) A  ( B . C )  A  ( B  C )
 ( A  B)  ( A  C )
 ( A  B).( A  C ),  A, B, C  P( x)
(ii) A. ( B  C )  A  ( B  C )
 ( A  B)  ( A  C )
 ( A . B )  ( A. C )
3. (i) A    A    A,   P( x)
(ii) A. X  A  X  A
4. (i) A  A/  A  A/  X
(ii) A. A /  A  A /  

 ( P ( x ), , , / ) is a Boolean Algebra, where  is the zero element and X

is the unit element.
Example 3: Let B = {1, 2, 5, 10, 11, 22, 55, 110} be the set of all positive
divisiors of 110. We define
a + b = l.c.m. of a, b,
a.b = g.c.d. of a, b,

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110
a/  , a, b  B
a
We construct the composition tables for +, . , / as follow?
+ 1 2 5 10 11 22 55 110
1 1 2 5 10 11 22 55 110
2 2 2 10 10 22 22 110 110
5 5 10 5 10 55 110 55 110
10 10 10 110 10 110 110 110 110
11 11 22 110 110 11 22 55 110
22 22 22 110 110 22 22 110 110
55 55 55 110 110 55 110 55 110
110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110

. 1 2 5 10 11 22 55 110
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
5 1 1 5 5 1 1 5 5
10 1 2 5 10 1 2 5 10
11 1 1 1 1 11 11 11 11
22 1 2 1 2 11 22 11 22
55 1 1 5 5 11 11 55 55
110 1 2 5 10 11 22 55 110

/ 1 2 5 10 11 22 55 110
110 55 22 11 10 5 2 1
From the above tables, we see that + is a binary operation on B. .
is a binary operation on B, and / is a unary operation on B.
Again 1 (i) a+b = l.c.m. of a, b
= l. c. m. of b, a
= b+a, a, b  B
(ii) a, b = g.c.d. of a, b
= g.c.d. of b, a
= b.a, a, b  B

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Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

2. From the tables, we have

(i) a + (b.c) = (a+b).(a+c)
(ii) a.(b+c) = (a.b) + (a.c), a, b, c  B
3. (i) a+1 = l .c.m of a, 1
= a,  a  B
(ii) a.110 = g.c.d. of a, 110
= a,  a  B
4. (i) a+a/ = l.c.m of a, a/
110
= l.c.m. of a,
a
= 110,  a  B
(ii) a.a/ = g.c.d. of a, a/
110
= g.c.d. of a,
a
= 1,  a  B
 (B, + , . , / ) is a Boolean Algebra; where 1 is the zero element, and 110
is the unit element.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1: Let X ={1}. Show that the set P(x) = {{1},  }
is a Boolean Algebra under operations of
union, intersection, and complementation in P(x).
Q 2: Let X = {1, 2, 3}, and Let P(X) be the power set of X. Show that
P(X) is a Boolean Algebra under operations of union,
intersection, and complementation in P(X).
Q 3: Let B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 30} be the set of all positive divisors
of 30. Define
a+b = l.c.m. of a, b; a, b  B
a.b = g.c.d. of a, b
30
a/ 
a
Show that (B, +, . , / ) is a Boolean Algebra
Q 4: Let B = {1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 14, 35, 70} be the set of all positive

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Boolean Algebra Unit 14

divisors of 70. Define

a+b = l.c.m of a, b, a, b  B
a.b = g.c.d. of a, b
70
a/ 
a
Show that (B, +, . , / ) is a Boolean Algebra.
Q 5: Give an example of a Boolean Algebra with 16 elements.
Q 6: Let B = {0, a, b, 1}. Define +, . , / in B as follows.
+ 0 a b 1 . 0 a b 1 / 0 a b 1
0 0 a b 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 b a 0
a a a 1 1 a 0 a 0 a
b b 1 b 1 b 0 0 b b
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 a b 1

Show that (B, +, . , / ) is a Boolean Algebra.

Q 7: Let B = { 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20} be the set of all positive divisors of
20. Define
a+b = l.c.m. of a, b a, b  B
a.b = g.c.d. of a, b a, b  B
20
a/  , aB
a
Examine if (B, +, . , / ) is a Boolean Algebra.

14.4 BASIC LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Let (B, +, . , / ) be a Boolean Algebra. Let 0 be the zero element,

and 1 be the unit element of B.
1. Idempotent Laws.
(i) a+a = a, (ii) a.a = a,  a  B
Proof : (i) a = a+0
= a + (a.a/)
= (a+a).(a+a/), by associative law
= (a+a).1
= a+a
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i.e. a+a = a
(ii) a = a.1
= a.(a + a/)
= (a.a) + (a.a/), by associative law
= (a.a) + 0
= a.a
Note : The result (ii) is a dual of the result (i), and vice versa. The result (ii)
can be obtained from (i) by replacing + by . , . by + , 0 by 1, 1 by 0.
2. Boundedness Laws
(i) a+1 = 1, (ii) a.0 = 0,  a  B
Proof : (i) a+1 = (a+1) . 1
= (a+1).(a+a/)
= a+(1.a/), by associative law
= a+a/, (1.a/ = a/.1 = a)
=1
(ii) a.0 = (a.0) + 0
= (a.0) + (a.a/)
= a.(0+a/), by associative law
= a.a/, (0+a/ = a/+0 = a/)
=0
3. Absorption Laws
(i) a+(a.b) = a, (ii) a.(a+b) = a, a, b  B
Proof : (i) a+(a.b) = (a.1) + (a.b)
= a.(1 + b)
= a.1, (1+b = b+1 = 1, by boundedness law)
=a
(ii) a.(a+b) = (a+0).(a+b)
= a+(0.b)
= a+0, (0.b = b.0 = 0, by boundedness law)
=a
4. Associative Laws
(i) (a+b)+c = a + (b+c)
(ii) (a.b).c = a.(b.c)
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Boolean Algebra Unit 14

Proof : (i) Let L = (a+b) + c

R = a + (b+c)
Now a.L = a.((a+b)+c)
= a.(a+b) + a.c, by distributive law
= a + (a.c), by absorption law
= a, by absorption law
a . R = a.(a+(b+c))
= (a.a)+(a.(b+c)), by distributive law
= a+(a.(b+c)), by idempotent law
= a, by absorption law
 a.L = a.R
Again a/.L =a/.((a+b) + c)
= a/.(a+b) + (a/.c), by distributive law
= (a/.a) + (a/.b) + (a/.c), by distributive law
= 0 + (a/.b) + (a/.c)
= (a/.b) + (a/.c)
= a/.(b+c)
a/.R = a/.(a + (b+c))
= (a/.a) + a/.(b+c), by distributive law
= 0 + a/.(b+c)
= a/.(b+c)
 a/.L = a/.R
Now L = 1.L
= (a+a/).L
= (a.L) + (a/.L)
= (a.R) + (a/.R)
= (a+a/).R
= 1.R
=R
L=R
i. e. (a+b) + c = a+(b+c)
(ii) Let L = (a.b).c
R = a. (b.c)
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Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

Now a + L = a + ((a.b).c)
= (a + (a.b)).(a+c), by distributive law
= a.(a+c), by absorption law
= a, by absorption law
a + R = a +(a.(b.c))
= (a+a).(a+(b.c)), by distributive law
= a.(a+(b.c)), by idempotent law
= a, by absorption law
 a + L = a+R
Again a/+L = a/ + (a.b).c)
= (a/ + (a.b)).(a/+c), by distributive law
= ((a/+a).(a/+b)).(a/+c), by distributive law
= 1.(a/+b).(a/+c)
= (a/+b).(a/+c)
= a/ + (b.c)
a/ + R = a/ +(a.(b.c))
= (a/+a).(a/ + (b.c)), by distributive law
= 1.(a/ + (b.c))
= a/ + (b.c)
 a / + L = a/ + R
Now L=0+L
= (a.a/) + L
= (a+L).(a/+L)
= (a+R).(a/+R)
= (a.a/) + R
=0+R
=R
L=R
i.e. (a.b).c = a.(b.c)

  a
5. Involution Law : a /
/

Proof : By definition of complement, we have

a+a/ =1, and a.a/ = 0

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Boolean Algebra Unit 14

i. e. a/+a = 1, and a/.a = 0, by commutative law

 by uniquences of complement, a is the complement of a/, i. c., (a/)/ = a.
6. De Morgan’s Laws
(i) (a+b)/ = a/.b/, (ii) (a.b)/ = a/+b/
Proof : (i) (a+b) + (a/.b/) = b+a + (a/.b/), by commutative law
= b +(a+a/).(a+b/), by distributive law
= b+1.(a+b/)
= b + (a+b/)
= b + (b/+a), by commutative law
= (b+b/) +a, by associative law
= 1+a
= 1, by boundedness law
(a + b).(a/.b/) = ((a+b).a/).b/, by associative law
= ((a.a/) + (b.a/)).b/, by distributive law
= (0 + (b.a/)).b/
= (b.a/).b/
= b.(a/.b/), by associative law
= b.(b/.a/), by commutative law
= (b.b/).a/, by associative law
= 0.a/
=0
Thus, we see that a/.b/ is the complement of a+b,
i. e. (a+b) / = a/.b/
[ Augustus De Morgan (1806 – 1871) was a famous mathematician.
He was born in Madurai, India]
Corollary (i) a+b = (a/.b/)/ , (ii) a.b = (a/+b/)/
Proof : (i) (a/.b/)/ = (a/)/+(b/)/, by De morgan’s law
= a+b, by involution law
(ii) (a/+b/) = (a/)/.(b/)/, by De morgan’s law
= a.b, by involution law
7. (i) If b+a = c+a, and b+a/ = c+a/, then b = c.
(ii) If b.a = c.a, and b.a/ = c.a/, then b = c.
Proof : (i) b = b+0
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Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

= b + (a.a/)
= (b+a).(b+a/), by distributive law
= (c+a).(c+a/), (given)
= c+(a.a/), by distributive law
= c+0
= c.
(ii) b = b.1
= b.(a+a/)
= (b.a) + (b.a/), by distributive law
= (c.a) + (c.a/), given
= c.(a + a/)
= c.1
=c
8. (i) a+b/ = 1 if and only if a+b = a
(ii) a.b/ = 0 if and only if a.b = a
Proof : (i) Let a+b/ = 1
Now a + b = (a+b) . 1
= (a+b).(a+b/), given
= (a+(b.b/), by distributive law
= a+0
=a
Conversely, Let a+b = a
Now a+b/ = 1.(a+b/)
= (a+a/).(a+b/)
= a+(a/.b/), by distributive law
= a+(a+b)/, by De morgan’s law
= a+a/, given
= 1.
(ii) Let a.b/ = 0
Now a.b = a.b + 0
= a.b+a.b/, given
= a.(b+b/), by distributive law
=a.1
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Boolean Algebra Unit 14

=a
Conversely, let a.b = a
Now a.b/ = 0 + a.b/
= (a.a/) + (a.b/)
= a.(a/+b/), by distributive law
= a.(a.b)/, by De Mergan’s law
= a.a/, given
= 0.
9. (i) a+(a/.b) = a+b
(ii) a.(a/+b) = a.b
Proof : (i) a+(a/.b) = (a+a/).(a+b), by distributive law
= 1.(a+b)
= a+b
(ii) a.(a/+b) = (a.a/) + (a.b)
= 0 + (a.b)
= a.b
Example 4: Let B be a Boolean Algebra.
Let a, b  B. Show that
a.(a.b)/= a.b/
Solution : a.(a.b)/
= a.(a/+b/), by De Morgan’s law
= (a.a/) + (a.b/)
= 0 + (a.b/)
= a.b/
Example 5: Let B be a Boolean Algebra, and a, b, c  B. Show that
(a+b).(b+c).(c+a) = a.b + b.c + c.a
Solution : (a+b).(b+c).(c+a)
= (a+b).(b.c + b.a + c.c + c.a)
= (a+b).(b.c + b.a + c + c.a)
= a.(b.c) + a.(b.a) + a.c + a.(c.a)+ b.(b.c) + b.(b.a) + b.c + b.(c.a)
= a.b.c.+ a.(a.b) + a.c + a.(a.c) + (b.b).c + (b.b).a + b.c + a.b.c
= (a.b.c + a.b.c) + (a.a).b + a.c + (a.a).c + b.c + b.a + b.c)
= a.b.c + a.b + a.c + a.c + b.c + b.a + b.c
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Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

= a.b.c + (a.b + a.b) + (a.c + a.c) + (b.c + b.c)

= a.b.c + a.b + a.c + b.c
= a.b. (c+1) + a.c + b.c
= a.b.1 + c.a + b.c
= a.b + b.c + c.a
Example 6 : Let B be a Boolean Algebra, and a, b  B Prove that a+b = 0
if and only if a = 0 and b = 0 Write the dual of the above proposition and
prove it
Solution : Let a = 0, and b = 0
 a+b = 0+0
=0
Converselt, Let a+b = 0
Now a = a+0
= a+(b.b/)
= (a+b).(a+b/), by distributive law
= 0.(a+b/), given
=0
b = b+0
= b + (a.a/)
= (b+a).(b+a/)
= (a+b).(b+a/)
= 0.(b+a/)
=0
2nd Part
Dual of the above proposition is a.b = 1  a = 1, and b = 1
If a = 1, b = 1,
a.b = 1.1 = 1
Conversely, Let a.b = 1
Now a = a.1
= a.(b+b/)
= (a.b) + (a.b/)
= 1 + (a.b/)
=1
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Boolean Algebra Unit 14

b = b.1
= b.(a+a/)
= (b.a) + (b.a/)
= (a.b) + (b.a/)
= 1 + (b.a/)
=1
Example 7 : Let B be a Boolean Algebra and a, b, c  B. Prove that the
following expressions are equal.
(i) (a+b).(a/+c).(b+c)
(ii) a.c + a/.b + b.c
(iii) (a+b).(a/+c)
(iv) a.c + a/.b
Solution : (a+b).(a/+c).(b+c)
= (a+b).(a/.b + a/.c + c.b + c.c)
= (a+b).(a/.b + a/.c + c.b + c)
= a.a/.b + a.a/.c + a.c.b + a.c + b.a/.b + b.a/.c + b.c.b + b.c
= 0.b + 0.c + a.c.b + a.c + b.a/ + b.a/.c + b.c + b.c
= b.c.(a + a/) + a.c + b.c + b.a/
= b.c.1 + a.c + b.c + a/.b
= b.c + a.c + b.c + a/.b
= a.c + a/.b + b.c (1)
Again, (a+b).(a/+c)
= a.a/ + a.c + b.a/ + b.c
= 0 + a.c + a/.b + b.c
= a.c + a/.b + b.c (2)
Again, a.c + a/.b + b.c
= a.c + a/.b + 1.b.c
= a.c + a/.b + (a+a/).b.c
= a.c + a/.b + a.b.c + a/.b.c
= ((a.c) + (a.c).b) + ((a/.b) + (a/.b).c)
= a.c + a/.b, by absortion law (3)
From (1), (2) and (3), we conclude that
(a+b).((a/+c).(b+c)
Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2) 217
Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

= a.c + a/.b + b.c

= (a+b).(a/+c)
= a.c + a/.b

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 8: Prove that there cannot be a Boolean
Algebra with 3 elements.
Q 9: Let B be a Boolean Algebra, and let a, b, c  B. If a+c=a, b+c=b,
show that (a.b) + c = a.b
Q 10: Let B be a Boolean Algebra. Let a, b  B. Show that a+(a+b)/
= a+b/.
Q 11: Let B be a Boolean Algebra, and let a, b  B. Prove that the
following properties are equivalent
(i) a+b=a, (ii) a+b/=1, (iii) a.b=b
Write the dual of the above proposition and prove it.
Q 12: Let B be a Boolean Algebra, and let a, b, c  B. Show that
[(abc+a/b/)/ + bc]/ = a/b/
[Here abc means a.b.c]

14.5 BOOLEAN EXPRESSION

Let us consider the Boolean Algebra B={0, 1}, where +, . , and / are
defined by
+ 0 1 . 0 1 / 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1
A literal symbol that is used to represent an element of B is called a
Boolean variable. Thus, if x denotes a Boolean variable, then x will have the
value 0 or 1. If x is a Boolean variable, x/ is also a Boolean variable.
Let x, y be two Boolean variables. The values of x, y may be given by
the following table.

x y

218 Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2)

Boolean Algebra Unit 14

1 1
1 0
0 1
0 0

Let x, y, z be three Boolean variables. The values of x, y, z may be

given by the following table.
x y z
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
By a Boolean expression, we mean an expression that is construted
by a finite set of symbols, each representing a Boolean variable, by applying
the binary operations +, and . , and the unary operation /. Thus. x.y + x/ is
a Boolean expression of two variables. Similarly x.y+y.z+z.x is a Boolean
expression of three variables.
We note that 0 and 1 are Boolean expressions. Any variable is a
Boolean expression.
Corresponding to a Boolean expression, we can construct a table
known as the truth table (or the assignment table or the value table).
We construct a truth table for the Boolean expression xy+x/ (By xy
we mean x.y).
x y xy x/ xy+x/
1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
Two Boolean expressions of variables x1, x2, . . . ., xn are said to be
Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2) 219
Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

equal if they assume the same values for every assignment of values 0, 1
to the variables x1, x2, . . . ., xn.
The equality of two Boolean expressions is denoted by “ = ”.
Example 8: Construct the truth table for the Boolean expression xy + xz of
the variables x, y, z.
Solution :
x y z xy xz xy+xz
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
Example 9: Construct the truth table for the Boolean expression xy+x/y
+xy/+x/y/ of the variables x, y.
Solution :
x y x/ y/ xy x/y xy/ x/y/ xy+x/y+xy/+x/y/
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

Example 10: Prove that the Boolean expressions (xy+x)/ and (x/+y/)x/ are
equal.
Solution :
x y xy xy+x (xy+x)/
1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1
Again,

220 Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2)

Boolean Algebra Unit 14

x y x/ y/ x/+y/ (x/ +y/ )x/

1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
Looking at the last column of the above two tables, we conclude that
(xy+x)/ = (x/+y/)x/.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 13: Let f(x, y, z) = xy + z/ be a Boolean
expression of three variables x, y, z. Find
the values of f(1, 1, 0), f(0, 1, 1), f(0, 1, 0),
f(1, 1, 1), f(0, 0, 0).
Q 14: Construct truth tables for the following Boolean expressions.
(i) x + yx/ (ii) x(x+y/)
(iii) xy + yz + zx (iv) xy/ + x(y/+z)
Q 15: Examine if the following Boolean expressions are equal
(i) (x+y)/, x/y/
(ii) (xy)/, x/ + y/
(iii) x(y+z), xy+xz
(iv) xz + (x/+y/)/, x(y+z)

14.6 LET US SUM UP

 Let B be a non-empty set equipped with two binary operations + and .

, a unary operation /, and two distinct elements 0 and 1. Then B is
called a Boolean Algebra if the following conditions are satisfied.
1. (i) a+b = b+a, (ii) a.b = b.a,  a, b  B
2. (i) a+ (b.c) = (a+b).(a+c)
(ii) a.(b+c) = (a.b)+(a.c),  a, b, c  B
3. (i) a+0 = a, (ii) a.1 = 1,  a  B
Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2) 221
Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

(ii) a+a/ = 1, (ii) a.a/ = 0,  a  B

0 is called the zero element.
1 ia called the unit element.
a/ is the complement of a.
 In a Boolean Algebra, zero element is unique.
 In a Boolean Algebra, unit element is unique.
 In a Boolean Algebra, complement of each element is unique.
 In a Boolean Algebra B, 1/ = 0, 0/ = 1.
 Every statement and every theorem in a Boolean Algebra remains
valid if the binary operations + and . , and the zero element 0 and the
unit element 1 are interchanged. This principle is known as the
principle of duality.
 In a Boolean Algebra B,
1. (i) a+a = a, (ii) a.a = a,  a  B
2. (i) a+1 = 1, (ii) a.0 = 0
3. (i) a+(a.b) = a, (ii) a. (a+b) = a
4. (i) (a+b)+c = a+(b+c)
(ii) (a.b).c = a.(b.c),
5. (a/)/ = a
6. (i) (a+b)/ = a/.b/, (ii) (a.b)/ = a/+b/
7. (i) If b+a=c+a, and b+a/ = c+a/, then b=c
(ii) If b.a. = c.a, and b.a/ = c.a/, then b=c
8. (i) a+b/=1 if and only if a+b = a
(ii) a.b/ = 0 if and only if a.b = a
9. (i) a+(a/.b) = a+b
(ii) a.(a/+b) = a.b
 A literal symbol that is used to represent an element of the Boolean
Algebra B = {0, 1} is called a Boolean variable. In B, +, . , / are defined
by
+ 0 1 . 0 1 / 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1
 By a Boolean expression, we mean an expression that is constructed
by a finite set of symbols, each representing a Boolean variable, by
222 Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2)
Boolean Algebra Unit 14

applying the binary operations + and . , and the unary operation /.

 0 and 1 are Boolean expressions.
 Any variable is a Boolean expression.
 Two Boolean expressions of variables x1, x2, . . . . ., xn are said to be
equal if they assume the same values for every assignment of values
0, 1 to the variables x1, x2, . . . . , xn.
The equality of two Boolean expressions is denoted by “ = ”.

14.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Here x = {1}

P(x) = {{1},  }
 {1}   {1}   /
{1} {1} {1} {1} {1}  {1} 
 {1}      {1}
From the tables, we see that  is a binary operation on P(x),  is a
binary operation on P(x), / is a unary operation on P(x).
Now, 1. (i) A  B  B  A
(ii) A  B  B  A,  A, B  P( x)
2. (i) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  ( A  C )
(ii) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  ( A  C ),  A, B, C  P( x)
3. (i) A    A
(ii) A  {1}  {1},  A  P( x)
4. (i) A  A /  {1}
(ii) A  A /   ,  A  P ( x )
 ( P( x), , , / ) is a Boolean Algebra, where  is the zero element
and {1} is the unit element.
Ans to Q No 2: Left as an exercise.
Ans to Q No 3: We construct the composition tables for +, . , / as follows.

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Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

+ 1 2 3 5 6 10 15 30
1 1 2 3 5 6 10 15 30
2 2 2 6 10 6 10 30 30
3 3 6 3 15 6 30 15 30
5 5 10 15 5 30 10 15 30
6 6 6 6 30 6 30 30 30
10 10 10 30 10 30 10 30 30
15 15 30 15 15 30 30 15 30
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

. 1 2 3 5 6 10 15 30
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2
3 1 1 3 1 3 1 3 3
5 1 1 1 5 1 5 5 5
6 1 2 3 1 6 2 3 6
10 1 2 1 5 3 5 15 15
15 1 1 3 5 3 5 15 15
30 1 2 3 5 3 10 15 30

/ 1 2 3 5 6 10 15 30
30 15 10 6 5 3 2 1
From the above tables, we see that + is a binary operation on B, . is
a binary operation on B, and / is a unary operation on B.
Again, 1. (i) a+b = l.c.m of a, b
= l.c.m of b, a
= b+a,  a, b  B
(ii) a.b = g.c.d of a, b
= g.c.d of b, a
= b.a,  a, b  B
2. From the tables, we have
(i) a+(b.c) = (a+b).(a+c)
(ii) a.(b+c) = (a.b)+(a.c),  a, b, c  B

224 Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2)

Boolean Algebra Unit 14

3. (i) a+1 = l.c.m of a, 1 = a,  a  B

(ii) a. 30 = g.c.d of a, 30 = 1,  a  B
4. (i) a+a/ = l.c.m of a, a/
30
= l.c.m of a,
a
= 30
(ii) a.a/ = g.c.d of a, a/
30
= g.c.d of a,
a
=1
 (B, +, . , /) is a a Boolean Algebra, where 1 is the zero element,
and 30 is the unit element.
Ans to Q No 4: Left as an exercise.
Ans to Q No 5: Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Then the power set P(x) of x contains 24 i.e. 16 elements.
The set P(x) is a Boolean Algebra under operations of union,
intersection, and complementation in P(x).
Ans to Q No 6: Here B = {0, a, b, 1}
+, . , / are defined in B as follows
+ 0 a b 1 . 0 a b 1 / 0 a b 1
0 0 a b 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 b a 0
a a a 1 1 a 0 a 0 a
b b 1 b 1 b 0 0 b b
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 a b 1
From the tables, we see that + is a binary operation on B, . is a binary
operation on B, / is a unary operation on B.
Now,
1. (i) + is commutative on B.
(ii) . is commutative on B.
2. (i) + is distributive over . in B
(ii) . is distributive over + in B
3. (i) a+0 = a
(ii) a.1 = 1,  a  B

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Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

4. (i) a+a/ = 1
(ii) a.a/ = 0,  a  B
 (B, +, . , /) is a Boolean Algebra, where 0 is the zero element, and 1
is the unit element.
Ans to Q No 7: Here B = {1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20} is the set of all positive divisors
of 20.
We construct the composition tables as follows.
+ 1 2 4 5 10 20 . 1 2 4 5 10 20
1 1 2 4 5 10 20 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 4 10 10 20 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
4 4 4 4 20 20 20 4 1 2 4 1 2 4
5 5 10 20 5 10 20 5 1 1 1 5 5 5
10 10 10 20 10 10 20 10 1 2 2 5 10 10
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 1 2 4 5 10 20

/ 1 2 4 5 10 20
20 10 5 4 2 1
From the tables, we see that + is a binary operation on B, . is a
binary operation on B, / is a unary operation on B.
Now, 1 (i) a+b = l.c.m of a, b
= l.c.m of b, a
= b+a
(ii) a.b = g.c.d of a, b
= g.c.d of b, a
= b.a
2. From the tables, we have
(i) a+(b.c) = (a+b), (a+c)
(ii) a.(b+c) = (a.b) + (a.c),  a, b, c  B
3. (i) a+1 = l.c.m of a, 1=a
(ii) a.20 = g.c.d of a, 20
= a,  a  B
The conditions 4 (i), and 4 (ii) are not satisfied. For
10+10/ = l.c.m of 10, 10/
226 Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2)
Boolean Algebra Unit 14

= l.c.m of 10, 2=10

 B is not a Boolean Algebra.
Note : We state the following theorem without proof.
Let n > 1 be a natural number. Let B be the set of all positive divisors
of n. We define +, . , / in B as follows.
a+b = l.c.m of a, b
a.b = g.c.d of a, b
n
a/ =
a
Then B is a Boolean Algebra if and only n is not divisible by any
square intager.
In the above example, n = 20 and 20 is divisible by 4, which is a
square integer.
Ans to Q No 8: If possible, let B be a Boolean Algebra with 3 elements.
Let B {0, 1, a}, where a  0, a  1
We know that 0/ = 1, 1/ = 0
 a/ = a
Now a = a.a
= a.a/
= 0, which is a contradition
 there cannot be a Boolean Algebra with 3 elements.
Ans to Q No 9: (a.b) + c = c+(a.b), by commutative law
= (c+a).(c+b), by distributive law
= (a+c). (b+c), by commutative law
= a.b, (given)
Ans to Q No 10: a+(a+b)/ = a+(a/.b/)
= (a+a/).(a+b/)
= 1. (a+b/)
= a+b/
Ans to Q No 11: First we prove that (i)  (ii)
We have a+b = a
 a+b/ = 1. (a+b/)
= (a+a/).(a+b/)

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Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

= a+(a/.b/)
= a+(a+b)/
= a+a/
=1
Next we prove that (ii)  (iii)
We have a+b/ = 1
 a+b = (a+b).1
= (a+b).(a+b/)
= a+(b.b/)
= a+0
=a
Now a.b = (a+b).b
= b.(a+b)
= b. (b+a)
= b, by absorption law
Next we prove that (iii)  (i)
We have a.b = b
Now a+b = a+ (a.b)
= a, by absorption law
Thus, we see that the properties (i), (ii), and (iii) are equivalent.
2nd Part : The dual of the above proposition is
(i) a.b = a, (ii) a.b/ = 0, (iii) a+b = b
It can be proved by replacing . by + , + by . , 1 by 0, and 0 by 1 in the
first part.
Ans to Q No 12: [(abc+a/b/)/ + bc]/
= (abc+a/b/) (b/+c/), by De Mergan’s law
= abc b/ + abc c/ + a/b/b/+a/b/c/
= ac 0 + ab 0 + a/b/ + a/b/c/, [bb/=0, cc/ = 0, b/b/=b/]
= a/b/ + a/b/c/
= a/b/ l + a/b/c/
= a/b/ (1+c/)
= a /b/, 1+c/=1
Ans to Q No 13: f(x, y, z) = xy+z/
228 Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2)
Boolean Algebra Unit 14

 f(1, 1, 0) = 1.1 + 0/
= 1+1
=1
f(0, 1, 1) = 0.1 + 1/
=0+0
=0
f(0, 1, 0) = 0.1 + 0/
= 0+1
=1
f(1, 1, 1) = 1.1.+1/
= 1+0
=1
f(0, 0, 0) = 0.0 + 0/
= 0+1
=1
Ans to Q No 14:
(i) x y x/ yx/ x+yx/
1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 0

(ii) x y y/ x+y/ x(x+y/)/

1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0

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Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

(iii) x y z xy yz zx xy+yz+zx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(iv) Left as an exercise
Ans to Q No 15:
(i) x y x+y (x+y)/ x/ y/ x/y/
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 1

From column 4 and column 7, we conclude that (x+y)/ = x/y/

(ii) Left as an exercise.
(iii) Left as an exercise.
(iv)

x y z xz x/ y/ x/+y/ (x/+y/)/ xz+(x/+y/)/ y+z x(y+z)

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

From column 9 and column 11, we conclude that

xz + (x/+y/)/ = x(y+z)

230 Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2)

Boolean Algebra Unit 14

14.8 FURTHER READINGS

1) Sen, M. K, Chakraborty B. C. : Introduction to Discrete Mathematies

(2010), Books and Allied (P) Ltd, Kolkata 700010.
2) Dasgupta Asok : Abstract and Linea Algebra (2014), Asoke Prakasan,
Kolkata 700007.

14.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

Q 1: Let X = {1, 2}. Let P (x) be the power set of X. Show that the set P(x) is
a Boolean Algebra under union, intersection, and complementation in
P(x).
Q 2: Let B = {1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 34, 85, 170} be the set of all positive divisors of
170. Define +, . , / in B as follows.
a+b = l.c.m of a, b
a.b = g.c.d of a, b
170
a/ =
a
Examine if (B, +, . , /) is a Boolean Algebra.
Q 3: Let B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24} be the set of all positive divisors of 24.
Define +, . , / in B as follows.
a+b = l.c.m of a, b
a.b = g.c.d of a, b
24
a/ =
a
Examine if (B, +, . , /) is a Boolean Algebra.
Q 4: Let (B, +, . , /) be a Boolean Algebra, and let a, b  B. Express the
following in simplied form
(i) (a+b).(a/+b/).(a/+b).(a+b/)
(ii) (a.b)+(a/.b)+(a.b/)+(a/.b/)

Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2) 231

Unit 14 Boolean Algebra

Q 5: Let (b, +, . , /) be a Boolean Algebra, and let a, b, c, d  B. Prove that

a.c + b.d = (a+b).(b+c).(c+d).(d+a)
Q 6: Give an example of a Boolean Algebra that has infinite number of
elements.
Q 7: Let (B, +, . , /) be a Boolean Algebra, and let a, b, c  B. Prove that
(a+b/).(b+c/).(c+a/)=(a/+b).(b/+c).(c/+a)
Q 8: Let f(x, y, z) = x.y.z + x.y/.z + x/.y.x + x/.y/.z/ be a Boolean expression of
three variables x, y, z. Find the values of f(1, 1, 1), f(1, 1, 0), f(1, 0, 1),
f(0, 1, 1), f(0, 0, 0).
Q 9: Construct truth tables for the following Boolean expressions
(i) xy+x(x+y) (ii) x/y+xy/+x(x+y/) (iii) xyz+xy/z+x/yz+xyz/
Q 10: Examine if the following Boolean expressions are equal
(i) (x+y+z)/ , x/y/z/
(ii) (xyz)/, x/+y/+z/
(iii) x.(x+y), x
(iv) (x+y)z/, xz/+yz/

*** ***** ***

232 Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2)

Boolean Algebra Unit 14

PEFERENCES

 Fraleigh, John B : A First in Abstract Algebra (First Indian Reprit,

2003, Person Education (Singapore) Pvt. Ltd., Indian Delhi 110,
092.

 Mapa, S. K. : Higher Algebra (Abstract and Linear) (1994), Ashok

Prakashan, Calcutta 700 007.

 Khanna, V. K. and Bhambri, S. K. : A Course in Abstract Algebra

(2006), Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi 110 014.

 Singh, Surajeet and Zameeruddin, Qazi Modern Algebra (2006,

Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi 110 014.

 Tamuli B. K. : Contemporary Algebra (1977), New Book Stall,

Guwahati- 781 001.

 Pundir S . K. : Advance Abstract Algebra, Krishna Prakashan

Media (P) Ltd, Meerut 250 001

 Sharma, J. K. : Discrete Mathematics, Macmillian Publishing

India Ltd., New Delhi- 110002

Abstract Algebra and Discrete Mathematics (Block-2) 233