SIKIRU ADETONA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY, OMU – AJOSE

IN AFFILITIATION WITH OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY,

AGO - IWOYE

GNS151: Modern Agriculture and Rural Development

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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN NIGERIA
Agriculture has played a key role in the development of human civilisation. Until the industrial
revolution, the vast majority of the human population was engaged in agriculture.
Technological development and improved techniques have steadily increased agricultural
productivity, and the widespread diffusion of these technologies during a period of time is often
called an agricultural revolution.
Since its development roughly 10,000 years ago, agriculture has expanded vastly in geographical
coverage and yields with new technologies and new improved crops integration.
Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilisers and pesticides were developed
long ago, but have made great strides in the past century.
The history of agriculture has played a major role in human history, as agricultural progress has
been a crucial factor in worldwide socio-economic change.
Wealth-building and militaristic specialisations rarely seen in hunter-gatherer cultures are
commonplace in societies which practice agriculture. So, too are arts such as epic literature and
monumental architecture, as well as codified legal systems. When farmers became capable of
producing food beyond the needs of their own families, others in their society also became free
to devote themselves to projects other than food acquisition. Historians and anthropologists
have long argued that the development of agriculture made civilisation possible. The
agricultural history of Nigeria is intertwined with its political history and this is discussed broadly
in the context of the varying constitutional frameworks, viz: Colonial, the Internal Self
Government and the Post-1960 periods, according to sectors.
Crop Production: The period of the colonial administration in Nigeria, 1861-1960, was
punctuated by rather ad hoc attention to agricultural development. During the era, considerable
emphasis was placed on research and extension services. The first notable activity of the era
was the establishment of a botanical research station in Lagos by Sir Claude McDonald in 1893.
This was followed by the acquisition of 10.4km of land in 1899 by the British Cotton Growing
Association (BCGA) at Ibadan for experimental work on cotton. The site location was named the
Moor-Plantation Experimental Area. In 1912, a Department of Agriculture was established in
each of the then Southern and Northern Nigeria but the activities of the Department were
virtually suspended between 1913 and 1921 as a result of the First World War and its
aftermath.
From the late 1930s to the mid-1940s, there were significant intensification and expansion of
research activities, and extension and training programmes of the Agricultural Developments.
Additional facilities for the training of junior staff in agriculture were provided as well as
scholarships for agricultural students at Yaba Higher College and Imperial College of Tropical
Agriculture in Trinidad. The intensification of hostilities during the Second World War (1939-
1945) led to the slowing down of activities and the call to Departments of Agriculture to play
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increasing roles in the production of food for the army and civilians in the country and the
Empire.
Production of export crops like palm produce and rubber which could not be obtained from
Malaysia as a result of Japanese war activities in South-East Asia, and such food items as sugar,
wheat, milk, eggs, vegetables, Irish potatoes and rice whose importation was prevented by
naval blockade of the high seas increased. A special production section of the Department of
Agriculture was set up to deal with the situation. On the research side, attention was devoted
largely to the possibilities of evolving permanent systems of agriculture that were capable of
replacing rotational bush-fallowing systems prevalent in the country and realising the promises
of mixed farming in the North. During this period the WAIFOR (West African Institute for Oil
Palm Research) in Benin was started and the research on cocoa was intensified at Moor
Plantation, Owena near Ondo and at Onigambari near Ibadan.
Achievements of the period include the development of ‘Alien cotton’ in the South; rice
cultivation in Sokoto, Niger, Ilorin, Abeokuta and Ondo provinces; the introduction of wheat
cultivation in the core northern parts of the Northern provinces; the expansion of the
production of such export crops as cocoa, oil palm and groundnut; development of agricultural
implements as well as the designing of farm buildings; intensification of horticultural activities;
the development of a marketing section of the Department; the extension of the Produce
Inspection Service to cover all principal export crops; investigations into the possibilities for
organised land settlement schemes; and investigations into the possibilities of irrigation in
northern Nigeria.
The period of Internal Self Government, 1951-1960, began with the regionalisation of the
Departments of Agriculture in 1951, with a Director and an Inspector-General of Agriculture in
each region. By October 1954, the post of Inspector-General of Agriculture was abolished as a
result of the creation of Departments. The Federal Department of Agricultural Research was
retained since constitutional provisions placed agricultural research on the concurrent
legislative list, while extension work remained a regional responsibility. The findings of the
Federal Research Stations were to be transmitted through Regional ministries responsible for
agriculture and natural resources.
Livestock Production: This was dominated by nomadic pastoralism in Nigeria long before the
advent of the British Colonial Administration. The immediate interest of the colonial
government in livestock was with the health and hygiene of the domesticated cattle. Thus the
Nigerian Veterinary Department was established in 1914 with its headquarters at Zaria, Kaduna
State. In 1924, a small veterinary laboratory was established in Vom, Jos for the production of
rinderpest serum. Increased field services raised the demands on the laboratory. Hence, the
production of vaccines and other biological products was added to the functions of the
laboratory. The recognition of the advantages of Vom as the centre for veterinary research and
for vaccine production, coupled with the major emphasis on the health aspects of livestock

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production, led to the transfer of the headquarters of the Nigerian Veterinary Department from
Zaria to Vom.
The role of educational advancement in agricultural development in Nigeria was given
prominence at an earlier stage. The acquisition of elementary education by farmers in the three
Regions was appreciated and it was suggested that the introduction of new areas of interest
into the farming systems, such as the production of livestock in the Southern provinces of
Nigeria, would attract more youths into the agriculture sector. A scheme was started in Katsina
province for teaching sons of farmers the best husbandry methods. Instructions were essentially
practical in nature and were centred on mixed farming. Similarly, the study of management of
livestock was introduced into the Agricultural School at Ibadan, where the Education and
Agricultural Departments cooperated to train both teachers responsible for the management of
the school farms and the agricultural assistants for the Department of Agriculture.
A Veterinary School was established at Vom in the early 1940s to train Nigerians for animal
health work. A Livestock Investigation Centre (LIC) was also set up as an auxiliary organ to the
school and laboratory. Later, an egg production unit was created to supply fertile eggs for virus
research, vaccine for both the Veterinary and Medical Departments and Poultry for research
work and vaccine testing. The Nigerian Veterinary Department played a very prominent role in
the early history of livestock development in Nigeria. The serious nature of trypanosomiasis
(sleeping sickness) in man and (‘nagana’ disease) in cattle was also of great concern to the
Colonial Administration in the West African territories, and the need to control this disease led
to the establishment of a West African Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research (WAITR) in 1947.
The main laboratory used for the study of the animal disease was sited in Vom in Jos, Plateau
State, being an ideal location since the disease vector was absent in the area.
The Western Nigeria Development Corporation (WNDC) established the Upper Ogun Ranch for
the commercial production and distribution of cattle. In the Eastern Region, South Devon cattle
were introduced at the Obudu Ranch; Friesian bulls were imported to the farm at Agege, Lagos;
the Teaching and Research Farm, University of Ibadan obtained foundation stock of cattle from
Shika. Extensive facilities were also established for research in poultry and piggery. The
administrative machinery for agricultural development and coordination was also modified.
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.1 List the two main aspects of agricultural production
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.1 i. Crop production ii. Livestock production

Later efforts at Agricultural Development in Nigeria

The post-1960 era was one of the periods of extensive planning and regional competition in
agriculture. Concentration of attention on commodity exports, the utilisation of taxation policy
by the Marketing Boards as an instrument of development finance, and the belief that food
production activities could be undertaken through private initiatives without much
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governmental intervention, became the official farm policy. Under regional independence, the
agricultural history of the nation entered a new phase which was the modification of traditional
practices in view of the incapacity of food production to meet the needs of the ever rising
population and the inability of the producers to re-invest in land.
The 1962-1968 Development Plan was Nigeria’s first national plan. Among several objectives, it
emphasised the introduction of more modern agricultural methods through farm settlements
(e.g. hydraulic hand presses for oil processing and a greatly expanded agricultural extension
service.
Some of the specialized development schemes initiated or implemented during this period
included: (i) Farm Settlement Schemes (ii) National Accelerated Food Production Programme
(NAFPP) launched in 1972. There were also a number of agricultural development intervention
experiments, notably (i) Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) launched in 1976 (ii) River Basin and
Rural Development Authorities established in 1976 (iii) Green Revolution Programme
inaugurated in 1980 and (iv) The World Bank-funded Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs).
While each of the above programmes sought to improve food production, the ADPs represented
the first practical demonstration of the integrated approach to agricultural developmrnt in
Nigeria. The experiment which started as a pilot project with World Bank funding began at
Funtua, Gusau and Gombe in 1974, moved to Ayangba and Lafia in 1977, Bida in 1979, Ilorin in
1980, Ekiti-Akoko in 1981 and Saki (Oyo-North) in 1982 as agricultural development projects.
Following the successful negotiations for multi-state agricultural development projects with the
World Bank, each State of the country and the Federal Capital, Abuja, now has one ADP. The
years since the early 1960s have also witnessed the establishment of several agricultural
research institutes and their extension research liaison services. Some of the major institutions
are:
1. Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Service (AERLS) at the Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, established in 1963
2. The International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) at Ibadan
3. The Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (I.A.R & T), Moor-Plantation, Ibadan.
4. The National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi
5. The International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA).

In-Text Questions (ITQs)

List the agricultural research institutes and their extension research liaison services established
as part of the earlier efforts in agricultural development in Nigeria.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
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1.Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Service (AERLS) at the Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, established in 1963
2. The International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) at Ibadan
3. The Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (I.A.R & T), Moor-Plantation, Ibadan.
4. The National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi
5. The International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA).

Roles of Agriculture in National Development

Agriculture has always been the main stay of the Nigerian economy. Some of the roles of
agriculture are discussed below:
1. Source of food: Food is sine qua non to human existence and it can be of plant or animal
origin. Agriculture provides food in the form of cereals, roots and tubers, fruits and vegetables,
meat, eggs, and milk etc for consumption in a fresh (natural) or processed form. A country that
is self-sufficient in food production will not need to import food and thus have resources for
further development.
2. Source of raw materials to industries: Agriculture supplies input in the form of raw materials
to most industries and thus plays a tremendous role in a country’s industrial development. The
paper, confectionaries, beverages, textiles, tyres and household-use industries all depend on
agricultural produce like pulp wood, cereal grains, cocoa, coffee, cotton, para-rubber, palm oil
etc
3. Source of national income: Prior to the discovery of petroleum in Nigeria at Oloibiri in 1957,
a lot of developmental and social infrastructure owe their origin and existence to agriculture.
The then University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) and the famous Cocoa House
building in Ibadan are classical examples of the good use of Agricultural proceeds.
4. Employment generation: Agriculture provides direct employment for farmers and indirect
employment for drivers, middlemen, processors, food vendors, etc. in Nigeria. Agriculture and
other agro-allied industries provide employment opportunities for about 60-70% of the
populace.
5. Source of foreign exchange earnings and a means of international trade: Agricultural produce,
when exported, fetch foreign currency for the country which is used in the growth of the
economy and the nation. Nigeria exports agricultural produce such as cassava, cocoa, coffee,
timber, rubber, oil palm, tea, hides and skins etc.

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 6. A tool for development: Agriculture plays a great role in the transformation of rural areas.
Influx of traders to agric producing areas helps to attract infrastructure such as good roads, pipe
borne water, schools, hospitals etc to such areas.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
What are the roles of agriculture in the development of a nation?
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Source of food for human and livestock consumption
ii. Source of raw materials to industries
iii. Source of national income
iv. Employment generation
v. Source of foreign exchange earnings and a means of international trade
vi. A tool for national development

The Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria

In spite of its tremendous contributions to national development both now and in the past,
agricultural development is besieged with many challenges some of which are outlined below:
1. Land tenure system and its attendant constraints
2. Lack of modern implements and machinery
3. High costs of inputs such as seed stocks, fertilisers, pesticides, etc.
4. Poor credit facilities and financing
5. Incidence of pests and diseases
6. Poor transportation and inadequate infrastructural facilities
7. Inadequate processing and storage facilities
8. Inadequacy of extension services
9. Inadequate marketing structures and facilities for agricultural produce which are highly
perishable
10. Instability of price policies
11. Inconsistencies in government policies on agriculture.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
i. List the major challenges encountered in the area of agricultural development in Nigeria

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 In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Land tenure system and its attendant constraints
ii. Lack of modern implements and machinery
iii. High costs of inputs such as seed stocks, fertilisers, pesticides, etc.
iv. Poor credit facilities and financing
v. Incidence of pests and diseases
vi. Poor transportation and inadequate infrastructural facilities
vii. Inadequate processing and storage facilities
viii. Inadequacy of extension services
ix. Inadequate marketing structures and facilities for agricultural produce which are highly
perishable
x. Instability of price policies
xi. Inconsistencies in government policies on agriculture.

Some Suggested Solutions for Overcoming the Challenges

1. The Land Use Act of 1978 should be enforced and properly executed to enable genuine
farmers have access to farmland
2. Local fabrication of farm implements as well as establishment of tractors and equipment
hiring units and centres should be encouraged by government to boost agricultural production.
3. Government should continue her subsidy programmes on all agricultural inputs (crop and
livestock) and ensure that these inputs get to the real farmers and not business men who will
re-sell to farmers at high prices.
4. Banks should be encouraged to make loans available to farmers at a reduced interest rate.
5. Farmers should be encouraged and supported by government to form cooperative societies.
6. Research into pests and diseases that affect agricultural crops and livestock products should
be given a boost. Government should strengthen pest and disease control units of the Federal
and State Ministries of Agriculture. Agrochemicals should also be subsidised.
7. The construction and maintenance of roads particularly rural roads should be on regular
basis. Users of infrastructures provided by government should see themselves as stakeholders
and be concerned about how such infrastructures are used and maintained.
8. Due to the perishable and seasonal nature of agricultural produce, the construction of
storage silos in production areas is advocated. The provision of processing facilities such as mills
and graters will also boost production.

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9. Regular training on advances in agricultural processing should be organized for farmers.
Government, at various levels, can encourage farmers by buying off agricultural produce during
harvest or surplus, organising storage and selling to the end users during scarcity.
10. Government should, as a matter of urgency see to the employment of qualified and
adequate number of extension officers to serve as link between farmers and researchers.
11. The marketing of agricultural goods should be properly structured such that the farmers are
no longer ‘ripped off’ by middlemen. Government should establish Agricultural Pricing and
Marketing Boards.
12. Government should ensure that all agricultural policies are well conceived and implemented
without somersault. The encouragement of private sector participation will further aid the
development of the agricultural sector.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
i. Itemise some of the suggested solutions towards overcoming the challenges of
agricultural development efforts in Nigeria
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Enforcement of the Land Use Act of 1978 and if properly executed it will enable
genuine farmers access to farmland.
ii. ii. Local fabrication of farm implements and establishment of tractor and
equipment hiring units and centers
iii. Government subsidy programmes on agricultural inputs iputs)
iv. Provision of banks loans
v. Farmers should be encouraged and supported by government to form
cooperative societies
vi. Research into pests and diseases of agricultural produce and livestock should be
encouraged
vii. The construction and maintenance of rural roads on regular basis.
viii. Construction of storage silos in production areas to keep perishable and
seasonal produce
ix. Regular training of farmers in processing encouragement of farmers by buying
off agricultural produce during harvest or surplus, organizing storage and selingl
to the end users during scarcity.
x. Employment of qualified and adequate number of extension officers to serve as
link between farmers and researchers.
xi. Establishment of Agricultural Pricing and Marketing Boards in the marketing of
agricultural goods to get rid of middlemen.
xii. Proper monitoring/implementation of agricultural policies.
Summary of Study Session
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1. Agriculture is the cultivation of land (including water and forest resources) to
produce food for man and his livestock.
2. The study of Agriculture is vast and multi-disciplinary, with each aspect of it
specifically dealing with a wide range of activities which encompasses management
of resources.
3. Agriculture is basically sub-divided into many branches, which include agronomy,
soil science, horticulture, crop protection (subdivisions of entomology, pathology,
weed science etc), farm mechanisation, plant/animal breeding and genetics,
farming systems, plant/animal nutrition, food technology, agricultural economics,
agricultural extension and rural sociology.

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Sociology of Nigeria Rural Areas.
Introduction
Sociology is the scientific study of human life, rural society and social behavior, focusing on
processes, patterns of organisation and conduct which are recurrent in society. The word rural
also refers to areas with low population density, small size, and relative isolation, where the
major economic activity is largely agricultural production. Rural settlements have between 100
and 200 households (Mundi 2006), and it refers to remote areas or places far away from the
seat of government and having very few or no infrastructural facilities. The major concern of
rural sociologists is with farmers, with agricultural occupations, and with problems of the farm
people, their ways of making a living and other occupations influencing their lives. Communities
cannot be categorized into two types but should be seen to represent various modernisation
stages on a linear scale. For example, while towns like Lagos and Ibadan may portray maximum
urban characteristics, some communities are typically rural, and between the two extremes are
found communities at different stages of modernisation.
Rural ——————————→—————————Urban Fig. 1:
The Rural-Urban Continuum
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2
At the end of this session, you would have learnt the following:
1. Factors responsible for rural-urban differences
2. Rural social institutions in Nigeria
3. Family institution and their functions
4. Education as an institution in rural Nigeria
5. Religion and belief systems in rural Nigeria
6. Rural economic institutions in Nigeria and the concept of rural development.
Distinguishing Factors Responsible for Rural-Urban Differentiation
The factors below are responsible for the general differences between rural and urban areas:
1. Size: Rural communities are usually smaller than urban communities. Size is particularly
referred to as areas actually inhabited rather than the total area of land available for use.
2. Population Density and Composition: As rural areas have larger expanse of land with
relatively small population, the population density (i.e. the number of people per unit area of
land) is rather low. This is in contrast to urban areas where a larger number of people occupy
relatively small unit areas.

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3. Occupation: Occupation in rural areas in Nigeria comprises majorly agricultural enterprises
such as crops and livestock production. Some rural people are engaged in non-agricultural
enterprises such as petty trading, arts, craft, and weaving, pottery and primary industries; only a
few take these as sole occupations. Instead they tend to combine these with farming, and a
large number of these rural dwellers are full-time farmers.
4. Social Integration: This refers to a patterned relationship of one person with another through
expressions of ideas, thoughts and actions aimed at achieving concrete goals. Social contacts
are lesser in quantity, quality and variety in rural areas.
5. In rural areas: interaction takes place at water sites, on market days, in religious worship
areas, cultural activities such as marriage and naming ceremonies, etc.. The quality and type of
interaction among the urban dwellers is much more than that of rural dwellers. However, both
the urban and rural dwellers are interdependent in the area of farm produce buying at the farm
gate and traditional services.
6. Social Stratification: This has to do with the manner in which the society ranks its members
into various social classes or hierarchy on the basis of wealth, birth, status, etc.
The differences between the social classes in urban areas and rural areas are:
i) Social classes are fewer in rural areas than in the urban areas
ii) Social classes are closer in the rural areas than they are in the urban areas iii) There is
more rigidity in caste and class principles or close systems in rural areas than in the
urban areas.
7. Social Differentiation: The rural area is made up of many relatively independent families,
communities and neighbourhoods. The rural dwellers deal with people of identifiable traits
such as other farmers of the same religious groups, cultural, social and economic level.
8. Social mobility: This is the movement of an individual from one social class or group to
another. Social mobility is rather slow in rural areas. People may move vertically from a lower
class to a higher class or from a higher class to a lower class as a result of specific achievements
through success in economic pursuits, education, political change, or job creation.
Improvement in social infrastructure is bound to be more in the urban areas than in the rural
areas. This is evident with the introduction of Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Nigeria in
1976 and free education in the South Western Nigeria. Most rural children with some acquired
level of formal education migrated to the urban areas in search of better job opportunities.
9. Social Control: The behaviour of individuals in the rural areas tends to be guided more by
the internalisation of societal norms and values. Informal means such as avoidance and gossips
are used or applied to effect control on violation while instant justice is determined in cases of
the violation of mores. Urban areas tend to depend more on formal institutions such as the
police, traffic wardens, among others, for the maintenance of law and order.

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10. Shortage or absence of social amenities and services: The rural areas are characterised by
poor communication facilities, bad roads, inadequate medical services and hospitals,
dilapidated school building and deficient educational facilities, absence of tap water but
presence of locally constructed wells and natural water supply from streams and rivers.
Transportation is generally by foot and canoe or by bicycle, motorcycle or bus for those that are
prosperous. In spite of the lack of technology and poor physical infrastructure, the rural
Nigerian societies produce and supply food and raw materials to their urban counterparts.
11. Rural land acquisition and tenure systems: Generally, in rural Nigeria, land is traditionally
vested in the linage or community. As indicated by Otite and Akali (1990), in places such as Bini
where land is vested in the community, the Oba theoretically owns and controls the use of land
on behalf of his people. In some ethnic groups such as the Yoruba and Urhobo, control of land
is vested in the lineage and managed by elders and leaders. In this, three main categories of
land could be identified; these include land for building and settlement; farm land for
agriculture and grazing: and community land for sacred places or shrines, markets and
assemblies.
12. There are increasing new trends in the land ownership structure in the rural areas of
Nigeria. This new trend is the individual ownership of land through purchase from family or
community owners. This development has led to land speculation in rural areas in Nigeria.
Hence, two main categories of land ownership now common in most rural areas in Nigeria are
ownership by indigenous groups (land jointly belonging to the same lineage and community)
and ownership by individuals (land acquired by individuals by purchase). It is noteworthy that
as a result of efforts and interventions on the part of governance on the development of rural
areas in last decades, the rural areas are becoming gradually transformed.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
List the factors that are responsible for the general differences between rural and urban areas.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
a. Size:
b. Population density and composition
c. Occupation
d. Social integration
e. Social stratification
f. Social differentiation
g. Social mobility
h. Social control

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i. Shortage or absence of social amenities and services
j. Rural land acquisition and tenures

Rural Social Institutions in Nigeria

Like any social institution, rural social institutions are the structure and apparatus guiding rural
life in Nigeria in educational, religious, economic and political issues. These institutions create
some form of relationship which constitutes the major channels through which rural societies
operate, coordinate and execute, and tend to meet certain basic needs of the rural dwellers.
These institutions include social relationship that embodies certain common values and
procedures essential for mutual coexistence of individuals within the society. It is noteworthy to
underscore that the norms within societies may change overtime in response to social needs
and aspirations. Social institutions also interrelate incredibly in their functions and adequately
serve the interest of individuals in all aspects of life and no single institution can stand
independently without due regard for others.
The major rural institutions in Nigeria include the family institution, rural school systems,
religious institution, political institution, and rural economic institution.
Family Institution
The family is defined as a kinship group linked by blood, marriage and adoption, and occupying
a common household. A household is not the same as the family. It refers to all persons
occupying the same house. These include relatives as well as guests. The family as a social group
is made up of a man, his wife or wives and children living under a common roof, interacting
with, and influencing the behaviour of one another in a more intimate manner than they do
with others who do not belong to it. As a social institution the family exhibits a common set of
values and norms. An example is incest which is considered a taboo. It forbids sexual
intercourse with blood relations thereby necessitating marriage outside the immediate family. It
involves a network of roles or social relationship such as the wife playing the role of a mother
and a home keeper. The rural family is characterised by many features such as the degree to
which members of the family show solidarity in the process of performing the various roles in
the family institution, production and consumption of goods and services, continuity, size, child
bearing and rearing, socialisation, participation in decision making in the family, marital
expectations and evaluation.
Functions of the Family
The family performs many societal functions to ensure the welfare and progress of its
members. The functions include:

 Procreation: Bearing biological offsprings

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 Care and rearing of the young offsprings particularly at infancy and years of dependence 
Education of the children

 Protection from enemies, danger and psychological isolation, provision of love and affection
to reduce tension and frustration

 Care of the aged and disabled family members

 Production and consumption of goods and services

 Moral and financial support to family members in time of joy and trouble

 Social, psychological and material support in time of bereavement, disaster or other forms or
adversities

 Socialization: The family equips the individual with the knowledge which he/she will need in
order to play his/her roles in the society.
Types of Family
i. Nuclear Family: This consists of a man, his wife and children. Marital bond is relevant
rather than blood relation.
ii. ii. Extended Family: This is usually made up of a series of nuclear families.
Marriage institution
i. Exogamy: This is the kind of marriage done outside one’s group or blood relations. This is
allowed and most common in any group within the Nigerian rural setting.
ii. Endogamy: This kind of marriage is done within some specified groups. This occurs in some
ethnic groups such as the Hausa and Fulani. Where this occurs, there are variations and
specifications. For instance, there is much preference for marriages between cross and parallel
cousins among the Hausa and Fulani, while among the Kedar people of Zaria Emirate,
marriages are allowed only for cousins of the fourth generation.
iii. Monogamy: This is the kind of marriage involving only one man and one woman are
involved, the marriage is described as monogamy.
iv. Polygamy: Where more than two people are involved in a marriage, such a marriage is
known as polygamy. Polygamy can assume different forms. One of them is the case in which
one man married to two or more women. This is called polygamy. This is mostly common
among traditional villagers and Muslims in Nigeria. The second form of polygamy is one
involving one woman and two or more men. This is known as polyandry and it is not a normal
practice in any part of the rural areas in Nigeria. However, it has been identified among very
few tribes in the world.

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 v. Levirate marriage: This is a type of marriage which involves the inheritance of a widow by
the deceased husband’s male relations. This form of marriage is based on the reasoning that a
wife is part of the possessions of the husband which are passed down the extended family line
on his demise.
Levirate marriage is a secondary form of marriage and it entails no elaborate ceremony.
Bamgbose (2002) reported that it is considered a custom among the Yoruba, Igbo, and the
Hausa-Fulani and continues to be practised in rural communities.
Increased urbanisation and education are thought to have discouraged this practice. Culturally,
most Nigerian rural groups practice patri-lineal descent, have patriarchal authority, have patri-
local rule of residence, and are generally patri-centric in outlook.
i. Patri-lineal Descent: This is a situation in which the family descent is traced through the
father. This system is most common in Nigerian rural areas. In this system, children bear the
name of their fathers and regard themselves as members of their father’s extended family.
ii. Patri-local Residence: This is a rule of residence where the wife must move from her family
of orientation to join her husband in his own family of orientation. This is most common in rural
areas in Nigeria.
iii. Patriarchal or Patri-centric Authority: This occurs where tradition, culture, and social
circumstances have vested authority and dominance in the family in the man. The authority
entails family decision making on important issues, allocation of farm plots, etc.
This is common in all rural areas of Nigeria. Other common systems of marriage in the rural
areas in Nigeria include matri-lineal descent, matri-local residence, matriarchal or matri-centric
authority, neo-local residence.
Education as an Institution in Rural Nigeria
Education is the process of transmitting and acquiring the socially approved cultural heritage of
any society from one generation to another. It is also the process by which new knowledge is
spread among members of a society. The process of socialisation or culture learning usually
starts informally in the family and then formally in schools. Education in the formal sense has
come to mean systematic training by specialists within the formal organisation of the school.
Education serves to train people for specialised role of adults and bring about social change
through modification of cultural heritage and development of new knowledge, skills, arts and
artifacts.
Types of Education in Rural Nigeria
There are various forms of educational facilities in rural Nigeria. These include:
1. Extension Education: This is an informal out-of-school education given to rural families by
experts in agriculture, home economics, health, small-scale industries among others. The aim is

16
to improve the competence and skills of the recipients. The experts involved are called
extension agents. Their functions are to change the attitude of the rural people towards
acceptance of innovation, and to impact skills and knowledge required to apply modern
technology to their agricultural practices.
2. Adult Education: This is a literacy educational programme organised for adults who had no
opportunity to acquire formal education at their earlier age. The aim is to teach rural people
how to read and write.
3. Formal education: This is the type of education offered at the primary and secondary school
levels to rural children and adolescents. At the primary school level, two main types of
education can be identified in Nigeria. These are the western type of education and the Koranic
type of education. Western Type of Primary Education: Since Nigeria was once under the
influence of the western world, almost all rural areas in Nigeria have the western type of
primary education. This is also as a result of the Federal Government Universal Free Primary
Education Scheme of 1976 and the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme of 2000.
Koranic Type of Primary Education: Koranic schools are prevalent in the Northern part of
Nigeria and in areas of the South. The school takes place in the mosques, in the private homes
of the teachers or in an open space under tree sheds. The teaching consists of learning Arabic
alphabets, reading and writing Arabic, and memorising verses of the Koran. The Western Type
of Secondary School Education: This is the intermediate step on the educational pyramid in
Nigeria. Secondary schools are located more in the rural areas in Southern Nigeria than in the
rural areas in the North. However, there are more secondary schools in the urban areas than
these are in the rural areas in Nigeria.
4. Nomadic Education: This system of education was introduced in Nigeria to afford the
children of Fulani-herders in the North and Riverine areas, dwelling in the South, the
opportunity and facilities to have some basic literacy and functional education.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
List the different types of social institutions in Nigeria.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Family institution ii. Marriage institution iii. Educational institution
Religion and Belief Systems in Rural Nigeria
Like in many parts of the developing world, religion is an important aspect of the social life of
Nigerians in both rural and urban areas. Religion is defined as consisting of institutionalized
systems of beliefs, values and symbolic practices which provide groups of men with solutions to
their question of ultimate meaning of death, difficulties, and suffering. In rural Nigeria, the
functions of religion include:

17
 i. The explanation of the unknown and irregular physical occurrences such as flood,
lightening, earthquake etc.
ii. The promotion of group solidarity as religion is a cultural possession
iii. Strengthening of moral order and promotion of social control
iv. Support for other social organization and institution such as schools, hospitals, etc.
v. Celebration of human achievement
vi. The justification of human existence by stating the nature and role of man in terms of
super-natural design

Religious beliefs and practice in Nigeria can be divided into indigenous or traditional religious
belief and the foreign religious beliefs and practices. Foreign beliefs can further be classified as
Christianity and Islam. Religion institution in rural Nigeria is served by organization and
association.
1. Christianity: Christianity was introduced during the period of colonialism, first into the
southern part of the country. Today it has spread to many other parts of the country. However,
there is a larger concentration of Christians in the south than in the northern states. Church
organization has played important roles in the lives of rural Nigerians. For instance, while most
government health facilities and schools are often located in the urban areas, most church and
mission facilities and schools are often sited in rural areas to serve the rural people.
2. Islam: The rural Muslims have small buildings utilised as mosques. Muslims are supposed to
pray five times daily. Devoted Muslims obey this regularly. Muslims pray in central mosques on
Fridays. Islamic organization has played vital roles in the lives of rural Nigerians. Like Christianity,
there are some Islamic mission facilities and schools sited in rural areas to serve the rural
people.
3. Traditional: Apart from Christianity and Islam, the rural inhabitants of the various states in
Nigeria still place much premium on the continued worship of traditional religions. They tend to
have strong faith in magical belief. Hence, the strong belief that an individual possesses magical
power that can stop or cause rain to fall. Generally, a rural Nigeria person is a strong believer in
the supernatural. The ability of traditionalist to perform spiritual healing of physical diseases, to
forestall witchcraft, and foretell the future. The rural dweller also strongly believes that man is
capable of manipulating the spirits through constant propitiatory sacrifices. Thus, sacrifices are
offered to the gods before land clearing and planting of crops and during harvest. With increase
in formal education, the influence of the traditional gods on the people has waned. This is due
to the fact that many educated children of the adherents are no more willing to worship such
gods.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
Identify the major religions and belief systems in Nigeria

18
 In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Christianity ii. Islam iii. Traditional belief system
Rural Economic Institutions in Nigeria
The economic institution in any culture is often concerned with the arrangement of
relationships between people for the sustained production, distribution and consumption of
goods and services within that culture or between it and another culture (Mbiti, 2003). As
discussed earlier, the family is the basic economic unit in any society. The greater proportion of
economic activities in the rural areas depends directly and indirectly on the exploitation of the
land in those areas. The major occupations of rural dwellers are farming, animal husbandry,
fishing, hunting, food processing and some cottage industries. However, it should be noted that
occupations in the rural areas are not only farm-oriented. Rural dwellers also engage in
secondary occupation such as saw milling, pottery, weaving, carpentry, blacksmithing, dress
making, knitting, trading, leather works, dyeing, practice of native medicine, house
construction, transport operation, etc. Agricultural activities have outshined these occupations
when compared with those in the urban areas. The Significance of Economic Institutions to
Rural Dwellers The economic institution is one of the most significant dimensions of rural life.
The institution meets the needs of the rural farmers in different ways through the provision of
credit facilities, land, labour, purchase of equipment and supplies, and marketing of farm
produce. These needs are provided in rural communities where family farms predominate. In
this situation, the initiatives of individual and family farmers are mobilised to look for these
facilities and utilize them for their farm development. The economic services mentioned above
are often performed in rural areas through established rural organisations such as:
1. Cooperative societies: Economic services are performed through the cooperative efforts of
the rural farmers;
2. Government or privately established institutions serving the rural area like rural banks, and
government parastatals; organizations such as agro-service centers where farming inputs such
as improved seeds, fertilisers, chemicals, tractor services are made available to farmers at
subsidised rates, and the marketing boards which are established by the government to
mobilise and market agricultural products;
3. Individual farmers who look for these services from other individuals and groups.

Agriculture in Nigeria can be classified as subsistence and commercial.

Agricultural production in rural areas of Nigeria is largely subsistence in nature with the
following characteristics:

19
1. Agricultural areas are relatively isolated from the economic influence of the outside world.
This may limit access to innovation and scientific knowledge, with the dwellers being satisfied
with producing at subsistence level for all members of the group rather than commercially.
2. The land in the area belongs to the community and is allotted to individuals according to their
immediate needs. These farms are small in size and are usually scattered.
3. The farmers know very little about sustainable land management, and also follow traditional
methods of farming, using simple tools.

In-Text Questions (ITQs)

Itemise some of the established rural organizations that provide economic services in the rural
areas of Nigeria.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Cooperative societies: Economic services are performed through the
cooperative efforts of the rural farmers;
ii. Government or privately established institutions serving the rural area iii.
Individual farmers who look for services among individuals and groups

The Concept of Rural Development

The concept of rural development in Nigeria lacks a common definition as different scholars
attempt to view it from different perspectives. Obinne (1991) perceived rural development as
creating and widening opportunities for individuals in the rural areas to realise their full
potentials through education, and share in taking decisions and actions which affect their lives.
Others view rural development as means for the provision of basic amenities, infrastructure,
improved agricultural productivity and extension services and employment generation for rural
dwellers. Another scholar defined rural development as the far-reaching transformation of the
social and economic structures, institutions, relationships and processes in any rural area. There
is erroneous misconception that rural development is the same as agricultural development.
However, Anriquez and Stamoulis (2007) posited that while agricultural development aims at
improving the welfare of populations through sustained improvements in the productivity of
the agricultural sector, rural development aims at the improvement of welfare of rural
populations through the sustained growth of the rural economy, which includes agriculture, but
which may not be its only component and also not necessarily the most dynamic.

Problems of Rural Development in Nigeria

1. Lack of commitment to rural development efforts

20
2. Policy-associated problems
3. Lack of systemic and coordinated implementation of programmes resulting in duplication and
dilution of efforts
4. Lack of community involvement/empowerment
5. High level of corruption
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
List the problems of rural development in Nigeria.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Lack of commitment to rural development efforts
ii. Policy associated problems
iii. Lack of systemic and coordinated implementation of programmes
resulting in duplication and dilution of efforts
iv. Lack of community involvement/empowerment
v. High level of corruption

Significance of Rural Development Effort

It is desirable to factor the development of the rural areas into a nation’s development plan
because of the following;
1. No country is completely urbanised and relative majority of people live in the rural areas. If
concerted efforts are directed towards the development of rural areas, such areas will become
transformed and make the rural dwellers become better people in the society.
2. Rural areas form the most important sector of the economy because majority of the
available land, labour, and capital are domiciled in these rural areas. Therefore, the general
nature of a country’s development is dependent on rural areas.
3. Lack of development activities characterizing the rural areas has created a great difference in
the level of development between the urban and rural areas thereby making rural-urban
migration more noticeable. With committed and planned development programmes in the rural
areas, the trend can be reduced or prevented.
4. The higher the level of advancement of the rural peoples through the development of their
areas, the greater the employment opportunities and the easier they can effectively affect the
quality of life of the rural populace.

21
5. With concerted efforts on rural development, the problem of poor access to social and
economic infrastructure and services such as access to safe drinking water supply and sanitation
will be solved.
6. Higher rate of infant mortality, malnutrition, disease prevalence and food insecurity would be
reduced and enhanced.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
List the significance of rural development efforts in Nigeria.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Rural areas form the most important sector of the economy because majority of the available
land, labour and capital are domiciled in the rural areas.
ii. Lack of development activities in the rural areas have led to rural-urban migration
iii. The higher the level of advancement of the rural people through the development of their
areas, the greater the employment opportunities
iv. With concerted efforts on rural development, the problem of poor access to social and
economic infrastructure and services are often solved.
v. The problem of infant mortality, malnutrition, disease prevalence and food insecurity are
reduced via rural area development.
Conclusion
This chapter succinctly examined Nigeria’s rural areas with respect to characterisation of rural
areas, rural urban differentiation, rural development programmes in Nigeria, rural social
institutions, and the concept of rural development. It was emphasised that improving rural
areas is a pathway to enhancing the livelihood of the rural dwellers and consequently improving
the household food security and economic development of the country. It was noted that social
institutions like the family, schools, and economy are the structures and apparatuses guiding
rural life in Nigeria, and they constitute the major channels through which rural societies
operate, coordinate, execute and meet certain basic needs of the rural dwellers. This chapter
acknowledges the fact that although farming is the major economic activity of the rural
dwellers, there are other secondary and complementary economic activities in the rural areas.
Furthermore, this chapter highlights the importance of the family, educational and economic
institutions to rural dwellers and the rural economy. Finally, the difference between rural
development and agricultural development was highlighted, and subsequently, the problems of
rural development as well as the importance of rural development efforts were also established.
Thus, understanding the social dynamics of the rural areas of Nigeria and putting concerted
efforts towards rural development will equally improve and enhance the nation’s development.
Summary of Study Session
22
 1. Rural sociology deals concisely with the study of the rural society, social processes, basic
social systems, society organisation, institutions and group dynamics.
2. The main factor that distinguishes the rural areas from the urban areas is occupational
differences in which case the Nigerian rural settings comprise mainly agricultural enterprises
while the urban settings are more of industrialised enterprises.
3. The process of socialisation or culture learning usually commences informally at the family
level and becomes concluded via formally education.
4. Religion is an important aspect of the social life of Nigerians in both rural and urban areas.
5. The agricultural sector is a major economic institution in Nigeria, which can either be
classified as subsistence and commercial.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session

Having completed this study session, you can now assess yourself by going through the
reassembled set of questions again and provide the relevant answers without checking through
the material. This will help you measure how well you have achieved the learning outcomes for
this session. You can then re-check your answers with the Notes on Self-Assessment Questions
(SAQs) at the end of the Module.

SAQ1 (Test Learning Outcomes 1) Itemise the factors that are responsible for the general
differences between rural and urban areas.
SAQ2 (Test Learning Outcomes 2) List the different types of social institutions in Nigeria.
SAQ 3 (Test Learning Outcomes 3) Identify the major religion and belief systems in Nigeria.
SAQ 4 (Test Learning Outcomes 4) Itemise some of the established rural organizations that
provide economic services in the rural areas of Nigeria.
SAQ 5 (Test Learning Outcomes 5) (a). List the problems of rural development in Nigeria. (b).
List the importance of rural development efforts in Nigeria

Cultural Practices, Agricultural and Farming Systems

23
Introduction
Modern agriculture requires knowledge and skills to enable farmers develop required qualities
and favourable attitude that will enhance benefitting from research and technology. It is quite
obvious that the standard of living of an African farmer is averagely improving. However, it is
still at the subsistence level. Modern Agriculture encompasses improved techniques in
cultivation, harvesting, processing, storage and handlings and farm mechanisation.
This Chapter will focus on cultural practices and agricultural systems in use.
At the end of this session, you would have acquired basic understanding about cultural
practices, agricultural and farming systems:
Cultural practice
Agricultural Systems
Farming Systems
Farming/Cropping Practices
Cultural Practices
These are all the activities carried out on the farm before, during and after the planting of crop
seeds, seedlings or root stocks. Hence, they are categorised into pre-planting/pre-sowing
operational practices; planting operational practices and post-planting/post-sowing operational
practices. They include site selection, land clearing, burning, stumping, farm layout and tillage
(ploughing, harrowing and ridging).

Pre-Planting Operations
i. Choice of site/Site selection: This is guided by
a. Topography (Nature of land): This is whether the land is hilly, sloped or flat. A fairly flat land
should be chosen to reduce the cost of land preparation and erosion control problem.
b. Soil type: This is whether the soil is clayey, gravelly, sandy or loamy etc. This is very important
because the soil is the medium for plant growth and poor or unfertile soil will produce poor
yield.
c. Availability of farm inputs (labour and planting materials): The issues of transporting farm
produce for sale as well as the availability of planting materials and labour should guide the
choice of site for agricultural production.
ii. Land Clearing: The nature of the vegetation determines the equipment or tools to be used.
The farm site can be cleared by means of hand tools such as the use of cutlass, axe etc or

24
mechanical equipment such as bulldozer. In the forest zones, cutlass may be required to cut
down the underbrush while the bigger trees are either pruned or cut down with a cutlass or an
axe. Some trees may equally be left to provide shade. Limited clearing is needed in the
savannah.
iii. Burning: Materials cut down are generally cleared in the tropics by burning which produces
ash. Ash contains lime and potassium which make the soil alkaline and this leads to increased
nitrification and availability of cations.
iv. Stumping: This is the removal of tree stumps and roots from the soil or farm land area. It is a
labour intensive operation usually practised in school farms, corporate farms and government
farms but always avoided in small scale private farms.
v. Farm Layout: This is the act of dividing the farm land into sections. It can also be referred to
as plotting. It relies on the report of the soil survey which shows the topography, soil types,
fertility status, soil and water conservation method to be used on the land. The location of the
farm stead is also indicated. The 3-4-5 method is used to lay out the farm land into rectangular
plots, blocks or fields. The most fertile areas are used for crops and pastures while non fertile
areas are used for farm stead development.
vi. Tillage/Tilling: The land operations follow immediately after the land is cleared, stumped
and laid out. It involves opening up of the soil for seed planting and this can be done with
simple farm tools like hoes or the Indian hoe in a small-scale farm, or mechanically by using
tractor-driven mould board plough or disc harrow in largescale farms.
a. Ploughing: This is the turning of the soil upside down; the plough cuts and inverts large lump
of soil. It can be done with a hoe, a spade or a tractor-driven disc plough.
b. Harrowing: This is the pulverisation of the soil i.e. the further breakdown of the large lumps
of soil cut by the plough into smaller pieces. After harrowing, it may be possible to grow crops
that do not require seed beds or ridges.
c. Ridging: This is the last stage in land preparation for planting of seeds or seedlings. Ridging is
done across the slope to prevent soil being washed away by erosion. It can be done using hoes
or tractor-driven disc ridgers or mould board ridgers. Animals can be used to drag ridger for
ridge making.
Planting Operations: These are activities carried out by the farmer after land preparation. They
are what the farmer should do or ought to be aware of while the seeds, seedlings, planting
materials are being put into the soil.
i. Planting date
ii. Spacing/Planting distances
iii. Seed rate

25
iv. Planting depth
v. Mulching/Capping
vi. Nursery establishment
vii. Transplanting.
Post-Planting Operations: These are activities carried out on the farm after planting has been
done. These include:
i. Thinning
ii. Supplying
iii. Mulching
iv. Manure/Fertiliser application
v. Watering/Irrigation
vi. Weeding/Weed control
vii. Pest/Disease control
viii. Harvesting
ix. Farm level processing
x. Storage.
In-Text Question (ITQs)
Name any two of the activities carried out as part of the pre-planting-operations cultural
practices in crop production?
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Choice of site/Site selection ii. Land clearing

Agricultural Systems
These are the ways or methods by which a group of people or a particular society, according to
its customs and beliefs, carry out agricultural production (crops, livestock, fishery, snailery, agro-
forestry, etc.) in order to supply human needs and improve their living standards. Generally, in
Africa, farming systems and agricultural practices are inseparable as they are characterised by
small farm size, scattered farm holdings, low technical knowledge and skills, the use of crude
implements/tools, dependence on the family unit as labour force, low yield and consequently
low economic returns for the farmer. Determining factors on the adoption of a particular system

26
include customs, social and economic class, total land area available for farming, farmers’
personal crop interest, size of their families, land tenure systems and the environment.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
Define the term ‘agricultural systems’?
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
They are the methods by which a group of people carry out agricultural production (crops,
livestock, fishery, snailery, agro-forestry, etc.), according to its customs and beliefs, in order to
supply human needs and improve their living standards.
Farming Systems
Many types of farming systems exist all over the world, some of the main systems include: 1.
Arable farming 2. Mixed farming 3. Livestock/Pastoral farming
1. Arable Farming This is a system of food crop production such as cereals, legumes, root and
tubers. This system is usually practised in places with quite a large proportion of suitable land
for farming and where rainfall is sufficient to support crop growth. In West Africa, there are
more arable farmers than there are livestock farmers. Arable farming also involves the
production of grasses for animals and can be practised in areas of low rainfall provided it is
supported with irrigation.
2. Mixed Farming This is the integration of both crop and animal production into the same farm
area. It is a system that guarantees the farmer a regular income throughout the year as the
farmer can operate very economically (i.e. feeding the animals - cattle, pigs, chicken with farm
crops/products, especially at times when such crops are attracting low prices in the market) and
the animals in turn convert these plant products to high quality animal proteins needed by man
(meat, milk and eggs). More importantly, the faeces and urine of the animals can be used as rich
fertilisers or farmyard manure for the crop to produce more (higher yield). Mixed farming is
practised more extensively in the northern region of the country. It also offers job opportunities
for many people and provides efficient utilisation of farm labour as it permits division of labour
on the farm.
3. Livestock/Pastoral Farming This system is concerned with the production of animals in which
farmers keep grazing livestock like cattle, sheep or goats alone and also includes raising animals
such as poultry birds, pigs, rabbits etc. In this practice, forage and pastures are grown primarily
for animals which may be allowed to graze freely on them or the forage may be cut and
processed into hay or silage before being fed to the animals. The pasture is either sown with
grasses or legumes or a mixture of grasses and legumes. The natural grass lands in the savannah
areas support this system. Pastoral farming is essentially about cattle rearing. There are three
types of Pastoral farming.
These are
27
i. Nomadic farming
ii. Ley farming
iii. Ranching

Nomadic farming: This is the movement of animals from one place to another by the farmer in
search of food. This practice is common with the Fulani cattle rearers/herdsmen. The system is
adapted for the vast dry regions where rainfall is insufficient to produce crops but just enough
to produce natural pasture such as the savannah grasslands. The cattle rearers known as the
‘Nomad’ moves from one locality to another to take advantage of occasional rain and the
grasses that spring up in its wake. During the dry season, the animals are moved along river
areas where the grasses are green, and towards the southern parts of the country. Ley farming:
It is the system of combining pasture with crop production in alternation. It is always practised
where the pasture is of good nutritional and morphological qualities that will fit into a crop
rotational system. Hence, it is sometimes referred to as ‘rotation pasture’. The system requires
that the farmer possesses the technical know-how both in land and livestock management to
operate the system successfully. After an arable crop (e.g. cereal) is harvested, the farm land is
put to pasture (mixture of grasses and legumes) and grazed by livestock for one or more
seasons before it is again put to the cultivation of crops. The system requires fenced fields
supplied with watering points for the livestock. Ranching: This is a system of intensive livestock
production which is an improved development of the nomadic type of farming. Here, the
animals are kept on a large but enclosed expanse of land which may be under natural
vegetation or planted with pasture. The animals are allowed to roam and graze freely on the
ranch; supplements can be given to the animals for additional vitamins and minerals. Other
agricultural systems being adopted in recent time are fish farming, snail farming and terrace
farming (found in hilly areas of the Benue, Plateau, and North Eastern States).

In-Text Questions (ITQs)

List the activities that form part of ‘agricultural farming systems’?

In-Text Answers (ITAs)

i. Arable farming
ii. Mixed farming iii. Livestock/Pastoral farming
Farming/Cropping Practices

28
These are actions dictated by existing environment, land availability, soil fertility, social and
economic status put into practice to actualise the goals of the farmer over time and have thus
been accepted largely as agricultural farming systems.
They include:
1. Shifting cultivation
2. Continuous cropping under which we have mono-cropping, mixed-cropping, intercropping,
inter-planting and monoculture.
3. Crop rotation.
1 Shifting Cultivation
This is an old practice classified as hoe and cutlass farming. It is always practised in
localities/regions/areas where the population is sparse and there is plenty of land which can be
left to fallow for many years. Shifting cultivation is the practice of putting a piece of farm land to
crop production for one to three seasons after which the land is left to rest for some years (5-
10years). During this time, the soil fertility is restored through decayed leaves and plant parts.
The practice is determined by the ratio between the length of the time the soil will sustain
cultivation with satisfactory results and the period required for restoration of the soil fertility
Advantages
i. It helps to check the spread of diseases and insect pests.
ii. It helps to restore soil fertility.
Disadvantages
i. It requires a lot of land which may not be available to the farmer as a result of
population pressure on land.
ii. A lot of money, time and energy are wasted in clearing a new land at intervals.
iii. The practice makes it impossible to keep pace with the increasing population and
subsequent increase in food requirements.

1. Continuous Cropping
It is usually practised in densely-populated areas where there is scarcity of land. It
involves putting a piece of farmland to cultivation year-in, year-out without a rest
period. The crops planted may either be annual or perennial.
Advantages
i. It can be well organised in a crop rotation systems

29
ii. It encourages the use of fertilizers or inorganic manure to improve the soil fertility.
Disadvantages
i. It often leads to depletion of soil fertility.
ii. It can also cause soil erosion.
iii. Low productivity sets in after sometimes due to over-use of the farmland.
2. Mono-cropping
It is a practice whereby only one crop type is grown on a piece of farm land for a
growing season and another type grown the following season. It can also be referred to
as ‘sole cropping’.
Advantages
i. The farmer can become an expert in the production of that one crop type although it
is a risky practice.
ii. It is easy to practise farm mechanisation as it encourages large scale production.
Disadvantages
i. It encourages outbreak of pests and diseases.
ii. Farmers will be exposed to the danger of poor harvest in case of adverse climatic
conditions as well as low soil fertility.
3. Monoculture
It is the growing of the same crop type on the same piece of land from year to year. It
may apply both to either annual crops (yams, cassava, maize, etc.) or perennial crops
(cocoa, rubber, oil palm, etc.).
Advantages
i. Rice and sugar cane as well as tree crops are successfully grown in monoculture in
many parts of the tropics.
ii. It encourages specialisation in certain crops that could lead to better production
both in quality and quantity.
iii. The farmer is encouraged to purchase the complete set of implement necessary for
a single farm enterprise operation instead of buying complete sets of implement for a
whole range of agricultural operations.
Disadvantages

30
i. It is not a good practice for dry land annual crops ii. Depletion of same nutrients
continually from the same depth by plants will lead to diminishing returns. iii. It may
lead to soil exhaustion and destruction of soil structure and consequently soil erosion.
iv. It exposes the farmer to a great risk in the case of adverse climatic conditions or an
invasion of pests and diseases.
4. Mixed Cropping
This is the cultivation of two or more types of crops on the same piece of land at the
same time. It is the direct opposite of mono-cropping or sole cropping. Mixed cropping
is not organised with the help of a formal principle but based on the best possible
adaptation to the natural conditions. Yams and guinea corn; yams and okra and pepper;
maize and cassava and cowpea; cocoa and bananas can be planted under the practice.
Advantages
i. It effectively uses the available soil nutrients during the growing season.
ii. It discourages the spread of pests and diseases.
iii. Mutual benefits are derivable from the crops combination.
iv. Adequate soil cover is provided
Disadvantages
i. It does not suit the use of farm machines and equipment.
ii. Young crop plants may be trampled underfoot during the harvesting of older crop
plants. iii. If not wisely carried out, it will lead to excessive and harmful competition
among crops, the result of which is low yield.
5. Inter-Cropping ‘
This is the planting of fast growing and fast maturing crops between slow growing and
slow maturing crops such that the fast growing crop planted after the first crop is
harvested first e.g. A farmer may plant yams or cassava and later plant ground nut or
maize between the yams or cassava respectively. He then harvests the groundnut or
maize while the yam or cassava crop continues to grow.
Advantages
i. It allows full engagement of labor and distribution over a longer period
ii. Risk of crop failure is distributed because two crops are planted as against one in
moncropping

31
iii. The practice helps to check weeds, protects soil against evaporation by sunlight and
prevents erosion and helps to minimize storage losses.
6. Inter-Planting
It involves the planting of two or more crops on the same piece of farmland during the
same season, but here the first crop to be planted is harvested first and the second crop
is harvested later e.g. maize and cassava can be inter-planted (maize planted in March
and Cassava in June). The maize will be harvested in June/July while the cassava
continues to grow until it is harvested at a later date.
7. Crop Rotation
This is the practice in which the same piece of farmland is kept under cultivation every
year in such a way that the crops grown are sequentially arranged that deep rooted
crops for instance, do not follow each other to avoid depletion of soil fertility. In
modern agriculture, one simple solution to the problem of poor crop yield which is
characteristic of peasant agriculture is to practise crop rotation. This practice is different
from country to country and even varies within a country because climatic conditions
affect the type and range of crops which can be grown in an area. In any crop rotation
course, it is usually desirable to include at least one leguminous crop. In this practice,
there is also a short fallow period when no economic crop is grown. During this period,
the idea is to grow ‘mucuna’ or any other leguminous crop that can help build up the
soil by replenishing its lost nutrients.
The principle of crop rotation can be illustrated by a four-year crop rotation as follows:

1st Year Yam Groundnut Cassava Maize

2nd Year Groundnut Cassava Maize Yam
3rd Year Cassava Maize Yam Groundnut
4th Year Maize Yam Groundnu Cassava

The practice has so many advantages:

i. Land can be used for a time to produce crops without becoming barren.
ii. Incidence of pests and diseases is greatly reduced. Hence, it provides a good
measure/method of controlling pests and diseases.
iii. Crop yield can be maintained at a high level on the same piece of land for many
years without rearranging the farmland.
iv. It is very simple and cheap to practise.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)

32
List the activities that form part of cropping practices. In-Text
Answers (ITAs)
i. Shifting cultivation
ii. Continous cropping
iii. Mono-cropping
iv. Mixed farming
v. Inter-planting
vi. Inter-cropping
vii. Crop rotation
Conclusion
Cultural practices allow the practicing farmer to plan and implement his farming
activities under the best climatic, environmental and agronomic conditions while
farming systems enable him to run his farm enterprise by practising the most
economically efficient systems of production.
The technical information gathered under this study session is important for the learner
to engage in profitable farm enterprises and be self-employed in the future.
Summary of Study Session
1. Cultural practices are all the activities carried out on the farm before, during and
after planting of crop seeds, seedlings or root stocks.
2. Agricultural systems are the ways or methods by which a group of people carry out
agricultural production according to its customs and beliefs, in order to meet their
common needs and improve on their living standard.
3. Modern-day agricultural practices give room for the joint cultivation of crops and
rearing of livestock simultaneously with the aim of maximising the net gains, or
minimising the overall production costs to the farmer.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session
Having completed this study session, you can now assess yourself by going through the
reassembled set of questions again and provide the relevant answers without checking
through the material. This will help you measure how well you have achieved the
learning outcomes for this session. You can then re-check your answers with the ‘Notes
on Self-Assessment Questions’ (SAQs) at the end of the Module.

33
 SAQ 1 (Test Learning Outcomes 1) Mention some of the activities carried out as part of
the cultural practices in crop production?
SAQ 2 (Test Learning Outcomes 2) What do you understand by the term ‘agricultural
systems’?
SAQ 3 (Test Learning Outcomes 3) Highlight some of the activities that form part of the
agricultural farming systems in Nigeria as a nation.
SAQ 4 (Test Learning Outcomes 4) List some of the activities that form part of the
cropping practices in Nigeria as a Nation.

34
 Livestock Management
Introduction
Climate to a great extent, influences livestock husbandry. Tropical areas with varied
temperature, rainfall, humidity, etc. based on location have different rates of
grass/pasture growth, disease vector occurrence and heat stress, which directly or
indirectly affect livestock performance and their well-being. Animal productivity is often
adversely affected by stress and discomfort. High ambient temperature reduces feed
intake, increases water intake and in the long-run reduced growth rate. Animals that
have sweat glands dissipate excessive heat through sweat. Those that cannot pant and
the others augment evaporation from the lungs with evaporation from a protruding
tongue. The type of house provided for the animals often influences environmental
conditions. Indigenous animals are better adapted than exotic ones though the latter
are better producers due to long time selection. Exotic animals avoid excessive heat
load by grazing in the cool of the day. High temperature also reduces efficiency of feed
utilisation.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session
At the end of this session, you would have acquired more knowledge in the following
areas:
1 Livestock Management System
2 Principles of Livestock Management
1. Livestock Management System
Livestock management in the tropics can be categorised under three broad headings,
namely; extensive, semi-intensive and intensive system.
The types of animal involved and their utility determines how the stock is kept. Housing
in livestock farming is dependent on the climatic situation, types of management
system and availability/cost of local raw materials. Tropical areas require open-sided
houses to reduce heat stress.
Intensive management system: often involves provision of houses which are often
permanent. Durable materials last longer and are easily cleaned, they may be expensive
but they are recommended for use due to their durability. Reproduction is affected by
temperature, humidity and length of day light. High temperature reduces fertility,
increases incidences of abnormality in oogenesis and spermatogenesis and embryonic
mortality.
The extensive system: This is commonly used by the peasant or subsistent producers or
by migratory or sedentary herdsmen (often the nomads and transhumance). In

35
subsistence production, a few animals are kept mainly to meet domestic need for meat,
milk and eggs by the producers and their families. Surpluses are sold. These producers
feed their stock haphazardly and management practices are generally poor. Pastures
are never established. Animals graze or browse along the road sides or on stubbles or
they are tethered and fed with cut forage. They may receive some by-products
concentrates. The producers are never specialists. Houses are often not constructed for
the animals. Lands used for extensive rearing of goats are often those that are not of
immediate agricultural use and/or those that are too difficult or costly to fence.
Minimum amount is expended on labour, feeding and other expenses.
Extensive management system will not thrive where there is too much rain or adverse
weather conditions, and where there are many predators and little grazing or browsing
opportunities. Extensive grazing is common in areas with common and/or marginal land
and where family labour (women children) is available.
Semi-intensive system: This is in between extensive and intensive management system.
In this system, animals are provided with sheds/pens during adverse weather
conditions and during the night. Likewise, feeds are supplemented or animals are kept
on domestic and industrial waste. Limited grazing or stall feeding is practiced,
depending on the availability of time, labour and feeds. Animals are rarely fed
concentrates. Disease outbreak is minimal when compared with intensive
management. Animal population is always small.
Intensive system: This is the ‘zero grazing’ method in which animals are denied access
to pasture (stall feeding) or where there is intensive use of cultivated forage. It is the
stocking rate that determines performance. Zero grazing requires high labour and
capital investment. It is practised where land is limited but where there exists abundant
supplies of crop residues and agro-industrial by-products. The quality of feed is of
greater importance in intensive system. It affects productivity, and a larger proportion
of the cost of maintenance of intensively-kept animal is involved in feeding the animals.
It is a system which favours those situations where land is limited but sources of
concentrate and supplement are available. High capital investment of the system has
not encouraged its wide use in the tropics. Furthermore, high stocking density leads to
closer contact among the birds with a greater risk of disease spreading very fast within
the stock. This increase maintenance cost in terms of medication. If proper medication
is not applied, many animals may be lost to disease outbreak. For ruminants, pasture
that is supplemented with concentrate feed will suffice. Non ruminants must be fed
with well-balanced rations in form of meals, depending on utility and productivity. The
use of non-conventional feed stuffs to feed animals will help reduce cost of feeding.
Animals kept intensively must be managed routinely to reduce vice habits, hazards due
to injury and over-fatness. Management practices like debeaking of birds and dehorning
exercise are part of the routine practices. Furthermore, animals are vaccinated against

36
endemic diseases, dewormed, have their teeth clipped (in pigs) and docked (for sheep),
castrated (for males not needed for mating), dipped against ecto-parasites, etc.
Animals’ houses must be cleaned and disinfected regularly to reduce or eliminate the
spread of diseases.
1 Housing
The provision of houses for livestock is supposed to prevent them from environmental
hazards and to make them comfortable. Most houses create problems because basic
requisites are not considered when they are constructed. At times, expensive buildings
are provided because the farmer can afford it and not for the good health and
comfortability of the animals. Generally, cheap, temporary buildings from local
materials are preferable to permanent building, especially when livestock size is small.
These are often open sided, thus, aiding ventilation. Due to their temporary nature,
they have short life span and are destroyed before there is a major buildup of disease
organisms. With intensification of livestock, the materials needed tend to be costlier
and modern.
Larger number of animals is often confined to small spaces and this often introduces
challenge and risk. To avoid problems, environmental conditions must be controlled by
suitable housing so as to protect the animals from inclement health conditions or else,
productivity will be impaired.
Modern materials to be used ought to be cheap, disposable and well designed.
Impervious concrete floors and lower walls are readily cleaned and disinfected farm
building should be properly located, constructed, spaced out and grouped.
Special attention should be given to the economy of their initial cost, maintenance as
well as the health and comfort of the animals. The houses should lead to efficient
management so as to reduce labour to the minimum.
A farm site should be near a market to reduce cost of transportation, water source
should be close. The topography should be even to reduce cost of preparation and
building. The soil should be porous and the slope should be gentle to aid drainage. The
land area should be larger enough.
The farm stead should be located in a way to enhance maximum sun exposure in the
North and minimum sun exposure in the South. The areas should be protected from
strong prevailing winds. Availability of trees will aid wind breaks. The road to the farm
should be an all-weather road. Reliable supply of power/electricity help. Once a site is
selected, the plans and design of the house must be done. The building should be
centrally sited and easily accessible. Adequate space should be given to the animals.

37
Overcrowding aids the outbreak of diseases. Adherence to minimum space standard
ensures that animals are free to rise, lie down, walk, feed and turn around. Good
ventilation enables animals to regulate their body temperature, reduces the buildup of
microorganisms and ensures the removal of toxic gases. It also reduces humidity by the
removal of moisture thus making the environment less favourable to the survival of
infectious organisms.
The house should be well lighted. This enhances feeding and observation of animals in
order to detect diseased ones. Although cheap materials are advocated, roofing
materials of choice must be such that exhibit good insulation in order to reduce heat
stress. The floors should be easy to clean, impermeable and should allow easy
movement of stocks without being slippery. Rough surfaces should be avoided where
possible.
Concrete or paved surface (with cement), slated and rammed floors are the common
types. The floor should slope towards the drains.
Types of Animals’ Houses: The method of husbandry, the type of climate, availability of
raw materials and the economic stand of the farmers are some of the factors that
determine the design of buildings. However, housing types could be the conventional
barn types, loose housing or the windowless types.
The first two is common in the tropics.
Windowless houses are constructed in the temperate regions.
Conventional barns (Stanchion barns): In this type of house, animals are managed on
raised platforms, and they are held at the necks by chains or Stanchion. The barns are
roofed and the walls are complete. Windows and or ventilators are placed in
appropriate places. These make the animals to be less exposed to harsh climatic
conditions. Although animals kept in barns tend to be cleaner and less affected by
diseases, the air tends to be humid and the floor becomes damp in humid areas. Loose
Housing: In this type of housing system, animals are kept loose in open paddock or
pasture throughout the day and night, except at milking time. Shelter is provided along
one side under which animals can retire in adverse periods (of rains, heat or cold). A
common watering tank is provided and fodder is fed to the animals. Milking is done in
separate barns and concentrates are fed during milking. It is ideal to store day fodder in
the sheltered area where animals are allowed a limited access through a moveable
fence (self-feeding) the open paddock is enclosed by means of half walls or wooden or
plain wire fence of convenient height. Loose houses are cheaper to construct, easier to
expand and flexible in utility. Feeding and management of stock is easier in loose house
because of common feeding and watching arrangements. Also, animals are more
comfortable as they move about freely.

38
Free ranges: livestock are left free in a large estate extending to thousands of square
meters. It is usually a natural or cultivated pasture land with watering points and shelter
located at convenient places. It is commonly used for sheep and beef cattle that are
handled daily. These ranches are common in South America. Regardless of housing floor
space requirement is dependent on types of animals, size and age. Animal pens should
not be too large so as to facilitate efficient feeding end management, and to prevent
the aggressiveness of stronger animals towards the weak ones. Care should be taken to
ensure correct dimensions of manger and water troughs so that free access to these is
permitted. Houses are made available in intensive or large scale production.
Subsistence farmers hardly house animals. Where they do, make shift houses or shades
are used.
Animal nutrition
Animal nutrition involves provision of well balanced ration in the right quantity
according to body and productive requirements, and according to animal’s ability to
digest and utilise the feed provided. The components of food include water,
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, minerals and vitamins. Quality and quantity of feed
provided are determined by the system of management practised.
Water is needed for metabolic processes. It is the main constituent of all body fluids
and it is essential for the transport of nutrients. It has no energy contributory potential.
It is provided mainly through drinking or from food and it is occasionally manufactured
form fat oxidation in the bodies of animals.
Proteins are complex organic compounds made up of amino acids which can be
essential or non essential. Essential types must be included in the food. Proteins from
animal source have higher biological value than plant protein. Proteins are the main
components needed for growth. Energy can also be obtained from it. Ruminant
animals’ need of amino acid is not as critical as that of non- ruminant animals.
Carbohydrates (sugars, non sugars, and lignin) are the main sources of energy for
animals. Nonruminant animals cannot efficiently utilise many of the non-sugar
substances in the foods, while ruminant animals, on the other hand, have bacteria and
protozoa in their digestive tracts to aid digestion and utilisation of non-sugars. In the
case of ruminant animals, the end products of digested food substances are volatile
fatty acids, but for non-ruminant animals, simple sugar are the end products of
carbohydrate digestion.
Lipids (fat and oil) provide twice the energy available in carbohydrates. They are
carriers of vitamins A,D,E, and K. They are broken down into three types of fatty acids
(Linoleic, Linolenic and Arachidonic ) which are essential building blocks for most
domestic animals. Minerals (macro and micro elements depending on the quantity
needed) are essential for metabolism. Deficiency often results in malformation or
39
deficiency symptoms such as retarded growth, anaemia, etc. Macro-minerals such as
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium chlorine, sulphur and magnesium form
constituents of the skeleton, blood and soft tissues.
Vitaimins (water soluble i.e. B complex and C, and fat soluble i.e. A, D, E, and K) are
essential food substances required in small quantities. Deficiency often causes clinical
symptoms. These food components are found in common feeds and fodders in different
quantities. Pasture grasses contain more of carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals while
legumes have high level of protein. Oil seeds are rich in lipids.
Roughages contain higher proportion of crude fibre or nondigestible materials.
Concentrates have low moisture and fibre and are more digestible.
Breeding is the mating of selected male and female animals of superior attributes and
with high potentialities for desirable traits. Healthy normal ova and progenies are often
of better productive ability. Healthy normal ova and spermatozoa will fuse, divide and
develop before parturition of well grown young ones.
Good environmental condition for copulation, fertilisation, pregnancy nurture, and
growth result in viable progeny. Heat cycle management and observation are essential
in intensive livestock management. Selection is practised to separate good producers
from bad or poor producers. It improves the average level of production as a result of
the selection of genetically good animals. Mating systems used are often based on
familial relationship in the breeding of closely-related animals. Out-breeding involves
mating of animals less-related than the average of the population they are drawn from.
In-breeding increases the level of homozygosity while heterozygosity is increased by
out-breeding (e.g. cross breeding).
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
Mention the three (3) different methods of raising livestock
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Intensive method ii. Semi-intensive method iii. Extensive method
Principles of Livestock Management
In any part of the world, livestock husbandry is affected by the environment. The
environment includes factors such as the climate, housing feeding and nutrition, among
others. In the tropics the climate is not uniform but varies with latitude, altitude,
topography, distribution of land and water, ocean currents, drainage and vegetation.
However, daily and seasonal temperature variability is relatively small and, day length is
also fairly constant all year round. Hence, the degree of cloud cover determines the
total hours of sunshine and total solar radiation.

40
 The effect of climate on livestock is either directly on the animals or on the animals’
environment. Temperature, humidity, precipitation and solar radiation are the
important variables of climate that affect animals. Photoperiod (duration of light)
influenced reproduction and some biological functions of some species of livestock.
Acclimatisation, the complex processes by which an animal adjusts itself to the
environmental condition in which it lives, determines productivity. Ability of an animal
to adjust itself to average environmental conditions as well as extremes of climate is
termed adaptability. There is a considerable variation in adaptability between individual
species and between individuals within the same species. Animal adaptability is partly
determined genetically and partly by its environment such as feeding, housing and
management techniques, among others. Well adapted animals exhibit minimum loss in
body weight and health, high reproductive efficiency, disease resistance and longevity,
and low mortality when exposed to stress.
Constant exposure to high temperature results in a rise in rectal temperature in
animals. It causes a decline in feed intake, increase in water intake, decrease in milk
production, change in milk composition, reduction in growth rate and loss in body
weight. Animals dissipate heat by sweating. Those that lack sweat glands (e.g. poultry)
accomplish evaporative cooling by panting as well as through their extensive air sac
system.
In humid zones of the tropics high humidity depresses evaporative heat loss; hence,
heat load on the animal is increased. High humidity combines with high temperature to
cause depressed feed intake and consequently reduce production.
Solar radiation causes sun burn, sink cancer and increase in heat load on the animals. It
therefore affects growth, production and reproduction. Animals with light coat and
glossy textured coat are less affected by solar radiation than those with dark, sparse
and coarse hair coat.
Day length affects reproduction in animals because photo-periodism control initiation
of the breeding cycles in some domestic animals e.g. sheep and buffaloes. The
conception rates in buffaloes tend to be higher during the short day length season.
Climate affects the growth of the vegetation which the animals eat. The quality and
quantity of feed available to the animals is determined by climate. Precipitation affects
plant growth; reduced or low precipitation limits plant growth drastically e.g. in semi
arid regions.
Plant growth is rapid after the rains, the grass are lush and succulent. During the rainy
season, tropical plants mature earlier and this situation creates the need for animals to
digest coarser fodders which may add to their heat load. The succulent plants, on the
other hand, contain less dry matter.

41
 High temperature and high humidity provide a favourable breeding environment for
external and internal parasites, fungi and bacteria. In so far as the type of vegetation in
a region influences the incidence of insect vectors of diseases, climate has quite
dramatic indirect effect on animal production. In some part of tropical Africa where
rainfall is sufficiently high to support a dense growth of vegetation, especially when
other factors are favourable, the high incidence of tsetse fly (Glossina spp) makes some
form of livestock production difficult.
The type of disease vectors dictate the type and cost of houses for the protection of the
animals.
The length of daytime grazing of cattle varies according to the degree of climatic stress,
the breed and type of cattle utilised, and the quantity and quality of the pasture
available. The Bostaurus type of cattle are grazed for shorter time in the day while night
grazing is encouraged.
Generally, domestic animals have been subjected to conditions that the wild type do
not experience. This artificial condition of life demands that these animals must be
carefully selected, carefully fed on liberal, nutritious and well balanced rations, and
properly housed in spacious, comfortable, well ventilated pens/shed. It is only when
comfortable conditions are provided that productivity can increase. Most domestic
animals have been selectively bred by man to ensure improvement in their productive
capacity. For example, dairy animals have been selected to produce above their natural
capacity. The excess milk produced has become an essential part of human nutrition.
Likewise, pullet birds have been selectively bred for production of high number of eggs.
Breeding is the mating of selected male and female animals of superior genetic merit
and known potentialities for desirable quantities. The progenies of such mating have
better productivity. Culling or weeding is another livestock management practice that
ensures improvement. Through the culling exercise unhealthy, uneconomic, and low
productive animals are eliminated from the herd thus ensuring that they do not
reproduce inferior progeny or lower the profit of the farmer through their low
productivity.
Feeding of well-balanced rations in the correct quantity in accordance to the animal’s
body requirement and productivity ensures high performance. Overfeeding is wasteful
while under feeding is deficient. It lowers productivity and must thus must thus be
avoided.
Day-to-day management of animals in terms of sanitation, hygiene, disease control,
housing and health care are also important for an efficient livestock industry.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
What activities are usually considered as part of livestock management principles?
42
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Livestock acclimatisation ii. Temperature iii. Humidity
Conclusion
Livestock management, to a very large extent determines the performance and
productivity of domesticated/economic animals. Farm animals need to adjust
themselves to the condition of the environment in which they live in order to enhance
their performance and productivity. This required ability to conform to the average
environmental conditions varies among various farm animals depending on their
breeds, traits, nativity, the selection procedures they were subjected to, as well as their
types and the purposes for which they were kept.
Summary of Study Session
1. The climatic condition of farm animals is a major influencer and determinant of their
performance and productivity.
2. Different locations in the tropics have varying temperature, rainfall, and humidity
which subsequently determine the rate of grass/pasture growth, disease vector
occurrence, heat stress, as well as disease vector occurrence, as well as heat stress
which directly or indirectly affect livestock performance and well-being.
3. High ambient temperature reduces feed intake, efficiency of feed utilisation,
increases water intake and reduces livestock growth rate, all of which eventually force
down the economic performance and productivity of farm animals.
4. In terms of adaptability, indigenous animals perform better than exotic breeds due
to their genetic make-up and their selection processes.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session
Having completed this study session, you can now assess yourself by going through the
reassembled set of questions again and provide the relevant answers without checking
through the material. This will help you measure how well you have achieved the
learning outcomes for this session. You can then re-check your answers with the Notes
on Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) at the end of the Module.
SAQ 1 (Test Learning Outcomes ) Mention the three (3) different methods of raising
livestock. SAQ (Test Learning Outcomes ) Highlight the activities that are usually
considered as part of livestock management principles.

43
 Agricultural Extension and Teaching Methods
Introduction Extension encompasses all the efforts made to relate education to the
needs of human life and the application of science to bring educational services to the
less informed farmers. Extension Agents (EAs) are employed to deliver information in
improved technologies to farmers.
The concept of extension is based on the following basic premises/assumptions,
namely:
i). people have unlimited potential for personal growth and development;
ii). development may take place at any stage of their lives, with appropriate learning
opportunities;
iii). adults are only motivated to learn by the need for increased productivity/living
standards; iv). learning must be continuous to meet up with changing needs and
production technologies; and,
v). people acquire knowledge and skills to make optimal choices for individual and
social benefits.
The essence of extension work is that, as an educational process, involves
i). working with rural people along the lines of their immediate and felt needs/interest;
ii). conducting worthwhile activities in the spirit of cooperation and mutual respect
between extension workers and the rural people; and,
iii). utilizing supporting activities to bring extension work and extension staff up to date
through various developmental means.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session
At the end of this session, you would have learnt the following subject matter:
1 Objectives of extension
2 Main principles of extension
3 Problems of agricultural extension in Nigeria
4 Extension teaching methods
5 Mass media as an agricultural extension method
6 Teaching-learning interaction.
1 Objectives of Agricultural Extension Services

44
 Objectives are expression of the ends towards which one’s efforts are directed. The
fundamental objective of extension is to develop rural people economically, socially and
culturally by means of education.
More specifically, the objectives of extension are:
i. To assist people to discover and analyse their problems and identify the felt needs
ii. To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups to solve
their problems
iii. To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance in a way
people would be able to understand and use
iv. To assist people in mobilising and utilising the resources which they have and which
they need from outside v. To collect and transmit feedback information for solving
management problems.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
List any two (2) reasons for promoting agricultural extension services in Nigeria
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. To assist people to discover and analyze their problems and identify the felt
needs.
ii. To develop leadership among people and help them in organizing groups to
solve their problems.
iii. To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance in a
way people would be able to understand and use
iv. To assist people in mobilising and utilising the resources which they have and
which they need from outside
v. To collect and transmit feedback information for solving management
problems.

Main Principles of Extension

Extension work is directed at changing people’s way of doing things in a specific predetermined
way believed to be desirable for individuals and the entire society. There are certain basic
principles guiding the conduct of extension work, which may differ with respect to the
community in which extension work is carried out. Extension principles have been defined as
guidelines for the conduct of extension and these principles are the bedrocks upon which
extension work rests.
The principles are:
45
1. Principle of Cultural Difference: Culture simply means social heritage. There is cultural
difference between the extension agents and the farmers. Differences exist between groups of
farmers also. The differences may be in their habits, customs, values, attitudes and ways of life.
For extension work to be successful, it must be carried out in harmony with the cultural pattern
of the people.
2. Grassroots principle: Extension programmes should start with local groups, local situations
and local problems. It must fit into the local conditions. Extension work should start with where
people are and what they have. Change should start from the existing situation.
3. Principle of Indigenous Knowledge: People everywhere have indigenous knowledge systems
which they have developed through generations of work experience and problem solving in
their own specific situations. The indigenous knowledge systems encompass all aspects of life
and people consider it essential for their survival. Instead of ignoring the indigenous knowledge
systems as outdated, extension agents should try to understand them and their ramifications in
the life of the people, before proceeding to recommend something new to them.
4. Principle of Interests and Needs: People’s interests and people’s needs are the starting points
of extension work. Identifying the real needs and interests of the people is a challenging task.
Extension agents should not pass on their own needs and interests as those of the people.
Extension work shall be successful only when it is based on the interests and needs of the
people as they see them.
5. Principle of Learning by Doing: Learning remains far from perfect, unless people get involved
in actually doing the work. Learning by doing is most effective in changing people’s behaviour.
This develops confidence as it involves maximum number of sensory organs. People should
learn what to do, why they do what they do, how to do it, and with what results.
6. Principle of Participation: Most people in the village community should willingly cooperate
and participate in identifying their problems, planning projects for solving the problems and
implementing the projects to get the desired results. It has been the experience of many
countries that people become dynamic if they take decisions concerning their own affairs,
exercise responsibility for, and are helped to carry out projects in their own areas. The
participation of the people is of fundamental importance for the success of an extension
programme. People must share in developing and implementing the programme and accept
that it is their own programme.
7. Family Principle: The family is the primary unit of the society. The target for extension work
should, therefore, be the family. This implies that, the family, as a whole, is developed
economically and socially. It is not only the farmer that must be developed, the women and the
youths in the farm area are also to be involved in extension programmes.
8. Principle of Leadership: Identifying different types of leaders and working through them is
essential in extension programmes. Local leaders are the custodians of local thought and

46
actions. The involvement of local leaders and legitimisation by them are essential for the
success of a programme. Leadership traits are to be developed in the people so that they of
their own shall seek change from less desirable to more desirable situations. The leaders may be
trained and developed to act as agents of change in the villages.
9. Principle of Adaptability: Extension work and extension teaching methods must be flexible
and adapted to suit the local conditions. This is necessary because people and their situations,
their resources and constraints vary from place to place and from time to time.
10. Principle of Satisfaction: The end product of extension work should produce satisfying
results for the people. Satisfying results reinforce learning and motivate people to seek further
improvement.
11. Principle of Evaluation: Evaluation prevents stagnation. There should be a continuous
builtin method of finding out the extent to which the results obtained are in agreement with
the objectives fixed earlier. Evaluation should indicate the gaps and steps to be taken for further
improvement.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
List some of the basic principles of extension services.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Principle of cultural difference ii. Grassroots principle iii. Principle of indigenous knowledge iv.
Principle of interests and needs v. Principle of learning by doing vi. Principle of participation vii.
Family principle viii. Principle of leadership ix. Principle of adaptability x. Principle of satisfaction
xi. Principle of Evaluation.
Problems of Agricultural Extension in Nigeria
Oladoja (2006) opined that the tragic weakening of the agricultural extension system in Nigeria
is caused by underfunding, neglect and mismanagement by the former military government
combined with the ineffective and expensive World Bank Training and Visit system, which has
resulted in a situation in which it is difficult for agriculture to prosper in the country. He further
asserted that Nigeria is seriously handicapped without an effective extension system.
However, the problems facing agricultural extension system in Nigeria can be analysed as
follows:
i. Problems of focus: It is not clearly defined whether the focus of agricultural extension
in Nigeria is on men, women, children and the aged.
ii. Policy making: The organizational structure of agricultural extension shows that the
administrative system is pivoted on a top-down approach (i.e. bureaucratic) rather than
a bottom-up approach (i.e. participatory).

47
iii. Problem of enactment: The extension system is yet to be backed by law in Nigeria.
There is no clear policy guideline on extension programme planning
iv. Problems of Responsibility: Before the advent of the Agricultural Development
Programme (ADP), extension used to be the responsibility of the Federal Ministry of
Agriculture. With the introduction of the Training and Visit system (T&V system) by
ADPs, the responsibility has now become that of the state. The State Ministry of
Agriculture has now drawn up policies on extension. But how relevant are the policies
drawn up by the government for agricultural extension development in Nigeria? There is
no specific policy statement on extension in Nigeria. The implementation of a policy on
agricultural production is always faulty. More so, those who are saddled with the
responsibility of implementing the various policies on agricultural extension are not
living up to expectation.
v. Political problem: Extension programme requires professional leadership for
effectiveness but as a result of political influence, any agriculturist is regarded as an
extensionist and so, can be appointed to lead where an extension specialist is supposed
to be. Little attention is paid to extension by the people in power who do not regard
agricultural extension as a tool for the nation's development. Different people in Nigeria
perceive extension programmes differently.
vi. Inadequate Funding of Extension: There is an erratic release of fund to all agricultural
extension units. Initially the funding of ADP's in Nigeria was tripartite approach involving
the World Bank’s financial assistance. Poor funding leads to poor pattern of
communication. It also affects the span of control and the unity of command in Training
and visit system.
vii. Inadequate Input Supply: Farm inputs such as fertilizer, agro chemicals, improved seeds
etc, are not affordable for the farmers to buy and are not also readily available. Poor
quality of agro-chemical services from unnecessary delay in clearing and distribution of
chemicals to the appropriate quarters for marketing. Extension workers cannot
recommend the input that is not readily available to farmers.
viii. Linkage between Extension and Research: There is a weak linkage between farmers,
extension and research in Nigeria. The available techniques are not usually suitable and
adaptable to the country's environment. Developing an appropriate technology requires
a participatory approach
ix. Problem of Selfish Interest and Greed: This concerned the extension administrators
including the supervisors, and the extension managers. They attend seminars,
workshops and conferences themselves, but deny the real extension workers the
opportunity to participate in the training programme. Also, funds are not released as
and when due.
x. Problem of Extension Staff-Farmer Ratio. In Nigeria, there is no agricultural radio or
rural radio for information dissemination. Therefore, the extension agents (EA) transmit
information to his farmers through personal contact. As a result of understaffing,
extension agent to farm family ratio is as large as 1:2500, or 1:30 or more. In Canada, it

48
 is 1:110 while in Denmark, the ratio of Extension Agent to farm family is 1:325 (Axinn,
1988).
xi. Welfare and Motivation of Workers: These are at zero level, the extension workers are
not encouraged to develop themselves, there is no provision for in services or on-the-
job training. The extension staff was active and efficient when the ADP's was funded by
the GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Page 176 of 251 World Bank, but
now the moral of staff has been dampened following the withdrawal of the World Bank.
xii. Poor Staffing: In Nigeria, government does not take cognisance of the employment of
professionally competent staff as extension workers.
xiii. Lack of Programmed Evaluation: - Most agricultural extension programmes are not
evaluated based on the set objectives.

In-Text Questions (ITQs)

Enumerate any four (4) of the major problems limiting the effectiveness of agricultural
extension services in Nigeria.

In-Text Answers (ITAs)

i. Difficulty in identifying the object/focus f extension services
ii. Problem of policy making and implementation
iii. Problem of policy enactment iv. Problems of responsibility
iv. Political problem
v. Inadequate funding of extension activities and programmes
vi. Inadequate input supply
vii. Inadequate linkage between extension and research
viii. Problem of selfish interest and greed on the part of extension administrators
ix. Shortfall in the prescribed extension staff-farmer ratio
x. Inadequacy of welfare and motivation of workers
xi. Poor staffing capacity xiii. Lack of programmed evaluation

Extension Teaching Methods

Extension teaching methods are the special tools used by the extension workers to stir up in
farmers, the desire to change. The success of the extension worker as a teacher depends, to a
large extent, on his skills in selecting and using properly, the various methods either singly or in
combination with each other. Many factors influence the choice of extension methods.
Therefore, the extension workers must consider the following before making any choice: i.
Nature of the subject matter, its complexity and whether any selection of the farmers has
already adopted the practice ii. Amount of time the extension worker intends to devote to the
method and how much time he thinks the farmers can be expected to devote iii. Proper
reinforcement by ensuring adequate relationship of selected method(s) with the generally

49
acceptable extension methods before embarking on the execution of extension programmes.
The methods are:
i. Individual contact extension teaching method ii.
ii. Group contact extension teaching methods
iii. Mass media extension teaching methods
iv. Emerging extension teaching method.

1. Individual Contact Methods

Individual contact method allows extension workers and the farmer to interact on one-to-one
and face-to-face basis. These could be farm visit, home visit, office calls and inquiry, informal
contact, model farm, and field flag.
(a) Farm and Home Visit
The extension worker meets with individual farmer on his farm and in his home in order to:
i. Establish contact with men and women farmers and with others within the farmer’s
household ii. Become aware of the practices and problems that exist in the farm and in the
farmer’s household iii. Provide information and assistance in terms of advice on input
procurement, sourcing of credit and provision of additional information/explanation on
knowledge and skill taught previously; and, iv. Provide rescue operation for the farmer in case of
farm accident. Planning and Preparation for Farm and Home Visits Before the visit i. The
extension worker must obtain or prepare the map of the community in which each family lives
or works
ii. The extension worker must prepare and maintain a visitation record containing the data of
visit on each client, purpose of the visit, and activities of the visit. When planning a follow up
visit to a client, the visitation record must be reviewed to refresh the memory.
iii. The extension worker must maintain a calendar of activity which should state what activities
to be carried out, where and when, with regards to the approved educational activities.
Conducting the visit
The extension worker must carry out the following activities during the actual conduct of the
visit: He must:
i. Greet the farmer and members of the family upon entering the farm or home.
ii. Accept hospitality offered according to local custom and spend some time talking with
the farmer and his family members to be acquainted with their situation.
iii. Observe the conditions and activities of the farm operations.

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iv. Discuss all observations with the farmer and be factual, if it necessary, in suggesting
changes.
v. Offer solutions by discussing what should be done and what changes to be made.
vi. Respect the client's privacy and do not discuss the family’s issues with others.
Follow-up visit
The extension worker must:
i. Review visitation record; make notes and record location on map
ii. Prepare any additional information promised to the farmer
iii. Fulfill all his promised to be able to build and maintain trust and credibility
iv. In a situation whereby the issue of concern would benefit the other clients, the first farmer
must be notified or carried along in the crusade geared towards solving the identified problems.

(b) Office Calls and Inquiries

This method enables the farmer to make personal visits to the extension office to seek
information, assistance and clarification on agricultural news heard, emerging situations on the
farm, procurement of input, feedback on previous learning experiences, and other farm
supporting facilities. To encourage office calls and inquires by the farmers, which would
facilitate strong relationship and extension values, the extension worker must:

 Establish the extension office in a government location;

 Keep regular office hours so that the farmers will know when he or she will be available;

 Keep visitors register or book so that clients may keep records of their visit and enquiries
should the extension worker be out of office within the scheduled office hour;

 Keep the office neat, orderly and attractive;

 Maintain an up-to-date bulletin board and have information material readily available; and

 Put the visitor at ease, especially if the individual appears to be shy in the new environment.
Advantages of Individual Contact Methods
The individual contact method provides the farmer with the opportunity to know the extension
worker better and build personal bond with the community people.

 It enables the extension worker to know individual farmers better, what and how they think,
what their needs are, how they carry out their day-to-day activities and their cultural activities.

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  The credibility and integrity of the extension workers and their organization are initiated and
nurtured.  Individual contact methods have been found highly effective among the illiterate
clientele who had not been and cannot be exposed to other methods than face-to-face
interaction.
Disadvantages

 It is relatively costlier than meeting the farmer in a group

 It is time-consuming in terms of the number of farmers to be reached per time or duration

(one farmer at a time)

 The number of farmers or clientele to be reached and served by an extension worker is

limited.

2 Group Contact Methods

Group contact method involves face-to-face interaction between the extension worker and a
group of farmer at the same time and place. This is mostly when and where time and staff at
the disposal of the extension worker are limited and when farmers are to be persuaded to try
new farm practice. The method also works better on the principle that a group decision is better
than individual decision. This means that there is a ‘collective resolve’ to embark on new
practice. Some of the group methods are identified as follows: method demonstration, result
demonstration, field days, field trips, group meeting and discussion, etc.
(a) Method Demonstration
Method demonstration is employed to show that teaching or learning experience can be
imparted step-by-step for the purpose of teaching new skills (new techniques) and practical
knowledge to the farmer. The example of how to use a new farm tool, how to spray herbicide, a
new planting technique of crop to prevent erosion or how to prepare fermented slurry from
maize grain can be demonstrated. For the method to be effective, it must be properly planned
through adequate preparation.
1. Planning the Demonstration:
The extension worker must do the following:

 Identify the problem to be solved preferably with the local clientele

 Identify the skill to be taught; that is, decide what skill to use focusing on the problem and
educational objectives to be attained

 Gather information about the skill and study thoroughly

52
 Identify the method that will break down into teachable segments GNS105: Modern
Agriculture

 Involve the clientele in the planning and presentation of the demonstration by seeking the
people's advice and assistance in the provision of information such that local interest and level
of adoption is increased

 Assemble material required to conduct the demonstration, that is, everything a farmer would
need to apply the practice on his farm

 Plan the presentation step by step including an introduction and summary

 Rehearse the presentation until it can be given with confidence

2. Holding the Demonstration:
Schedule the demonstration for the most convenient time and place for the clients and be
gender-compliant

 Group the audience so that everyone can see and hear the demonstration clearly.

 Introduce the demonstration by explaining why the new practice is important and what will
take place at the gathering.

 Ask for assistance from the audience to help in demonstrating the various difficult steps.

 Encourage members of the audience to attempt the new method during the meeting. If time
allows, each individual should be given the opportunity to practice the skill.

 Summarise the important skills and the steps, and list the equipment needed.

 Distribute visual aids showing each step if available

3. Follow-up

 Evaluate the demonstration carefully noting where the strength and weaknesses appeared.

 Visit those clients who indicated interest in the demonstration.

(b) Result Demonstration
Result demonstration is employed when an extension worker wants to prove to or persuade
people that a new idea is better than the existing farming practice or idea in terms of relative
advantage, yield and better increase in income. It is used purposely to:

 Demonstrate the superiority of new idea or farming practices over the existing ones

 Persuade extension clientele to try the new practice

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 Set up a long-term teaching situation An example of result demonstration would be a
comparison of two maize crops, one with fertiliser application and the other one without using
fertilizer on a Small-Plot Adoption Technique (SPAT) or 10m x 10m plot at the corner of the
farmer's farm. Result demonstration is costly in terms of time but highly effective, if successful.
It therefore needs careful planning and preparation.
1. Planning Result Demonstration

 Identify the problem to be solved by the demonstration.

 Decide upon the objectives to be accomplished.

 Gather complete information about the purposed practice and study it thoroughly.

 Seek the assistance of the clientele in planning and carrying out the demonstration.

 Ensure the endorsement and legitimisation of the demonstration by the local leaders in order
to reinforce the efforts.

 Seek the recommendation of the leaders about good and possible host farmers.

 Develop a complete plan of work clearly delineating each individual step and slowing who has
responsibly demonstrated plots that are centrally located and are close to the road so that
people can easily visit the site

 Visit the local farmer and work with him or her to make sure that he or she understands the
purpose of the demonstration and how it will be implemented
2. Executing the demonstration

 Ask local leaders to co-operate in encouraging people to attend the start of the demonstration

 Use the demonstration site for meetings and hours during the time of the demonstration.

 Encourage the host farmer to describe the entire process of each visit and meeting.

 Keep records of all events so that the results, at harvest, may be compared.

 Data from the records could also be used as subject of discussion at other meetings.

 Publicise the demonstration through the best means available to the target audience and the
general public. This could be newspaper, radio, informal contact at market days and meetings,
etc.
3. Evaluating the Demonstration
Evaluate the process and result of the demonstration for future use. The host farmers and
others should carry out the evaluation with the assistance of the extension agent. The farmers

54
should be assisted to draw implications, and also provide follow-up information and further
training of interested clientele.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
(a). Enumerate the four (4) common extension teaching methods known to you
(b). Identify the three (3) basic steps involved in the result demonstration method
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
(a). The four (4) common extension teaching methods are:
i. Individual contact extension teaching method
ii. Group contact extension teaching methods
iii. Mass media extension teaching methods iv. Emerging extension teaching method
(b). The three (3) basic steps involved in the result demonstration method are:
i. Planning for the demonstration
ii. Executing the demonstration
iii. Evaluating the demonstration

Mass Media as an Extension Method

The utilisation of mass media methods enables extension educators to enhance their teaching
efficiency. News articles, radio, television, publications, newsletters and the Internet provide
useful tools to reinforce educational content delivered in individual and group educational
settings. Using the mass media makes it possible to disseminate educational content to a large
number of, and a more diverse clientele. The impacts of educational meetings is limited to
those in attendance but a well-written news article providing a solution to a problem will be
read by a large number of people.
(a) Radio
The radio is an accessible form of mass media. Radio stations’ target audiences vary according
to language, age, and income demographics, making it easier for extension educators to reach
selected audiences. Technology has increased the efficiency of the radio in reaching large
number of people, through computer networks and satellite links. Specifically, radio
broadcasting is a great method of disseminating emergency or emerging information to the
local clientele due to the presence of radios in almost every home and vehicle. Extension
educators can utilise the radio to disseminate information on healthy diets; inform the public

55
regarding the activities of extension service, publicise meetings, tours, field days, workshops,
and other scheduled activities; and teach improved production practices.
(b) Television
Television is a popular teaching tool for some extension educators, especially in urban areas.
This method is more personal than the radio, since the audience can both see and hear the
extension educator. In utilising the television as a medium of news dissemination, extension
educators can provide a ‘how to’ lesson and reach an audience many times larger than could be
reached in meetings. An example might be to provide a demonstration related to preparing a
healthy meal.
(c) Publications
Extension publications have long been a staple in educational tools available to extension
educators. They typically focus on a specific topic and are made up of scientific information and
real-world application suggestions for the public. Extension publications play an important role
in current mass communication efforts and have many formats including bulletins and fact
sheets. Publications strengthen and reinforce the news article, radio show, television broadcast,
guides, pamphlets, brochures, newsletters and other forms of printed material. They are
distributed in connection with office calls, farm or home visits, phone calls and extension
educational meetings. They can be distributed electronically via email to address specific
subject matters or topics. Currently, the electronic format of publications allows Extension
educators to provide the most current information quickly.
(d) Newsletters
Newsletters can be utilised to stimulate interest in a subject, heighten awareness of an issue,
provide timely subject matter information, announce meetings, etc. However, this educational
method can be very dynamic if coupled with other educational methods to underpin
educational content. With the use of electronic publishing software, today’s newsletters can be
made very attractive and appealing to the reader. These newsletters can be the traditional
paper mail-out version or can be electronically distributed, which is a more common means of
distribution.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
Enumerate the common mass information media used in the extension services in Nigeria.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Radio ii. Television iii. Print media e.g, newsletter, publications, etc iv. Internet services

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Teaching-Learning Interaction
One way or another, every human being is a teacher. All of us operate within a frame of
reference and we decide what we will say or teach and what we will not say or teach. Both the
teacher and the learner have internal filter which they both go through in order to decide what
to teach and learn. Outside influence also plays a significant role in determining what to teach
or learn. This interactive process is a continuous exercise which promotes effective
teachinglearning process. A teaching and learning transaction takes place in the context of
reciprocal relationships. It is a relatively discrete event in which one person transmits a
message intended to have an impact on another which frequently generate two types of
climates. These two climates are supportive and defensive climates.
Conclusion
In this chapter efforts had been made to identify and discuss the basic concept, objectives,
principles and philosophy of agricultural extension that will ensure the success of extension
work which is a necessary pre-requisite for sustainable agricultural development. Extension
teaching methods are avenues through which extension clientele are reached with improved
farm practices to empower them for improved output level and standard of living. Each of the
methods is effective if used properly but none is sufficient and adequate to deal with all
extension situations. Supportive Climate Each method is selected and used singly or in
combination with other methods based on its appropriateness depending on the learning
experience in focus, level of adoption where the clientele knowledge and skill levels of the
extension worker are compatible. The extension worker must be skillful in the use of the
extension methods in order to meet the desired objectives.
Summary of Study Session
1. The whole essence of extension services is to convey educational information to meet the
economic needs of man with the aim of achieving the goal of an improved welfare status and a
better society/economic environment for man.
2. Agricultural extension, by implication, is a form of ‘out of school’ system of education for
teaching members of the farm family how to raise their standard of living by their own efforts,
and using their own resources by providing their own scientific knowledge to solve their own
problem.
3. Extension services assist farmers and their family members to productively engage in farm
production, and to teach/aid them to adopt improved practices in production, management,
conservation and marketing.
4. The services of extension are worthwhile to the adult members of the farm family only when
the acquired knowledge and skills provide opportunities for practical application, and for
increased productivity and improved standards of living.

57
5. Agricultural extension therefore involves working with the rural people along the lines of
their immediate and felt needs and interest to make a living for them, and to enhance their
socio-economic well-being, and improve on their physical surroundings.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session
Having completed this study session, you can now assess yourself by going through the
reassembled set of questions again and provide the relevant answers without checking through
the material. This will help you measure how well you have achieved the learning outcomes for
this session. You can then re-check your answers with the Notes on Self-Assessment Questions
(SAQs) at the end of the Module.
SAQ 1 (Test Learning Outcomes 1) What are the objectives of agricultural extension services?
SAQ 2 (Test Learning Outcomes 2) Highlight the main principles of extension services
SAQ 3 (Test Learning Outcomes 3) Enumerate the major problems limiting the effectiveness of
agricultural extension services in Nigeria.
SAQ 4 (Test Learning Outcomes 4)
(a). Enumerate the various extension teaching methods known to you
(b). Identify the three (3) basic steps involved in the result demonstration method
SAQ 9 (Test Learning Outcomes 9.) List the common mass information media used in the
extension services in Nigeria

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 Agricultural Mechanization
Introduction
Agricultural mechanisation is defined as the use of tools, implements, and machines for
agricultural land development, crop production, harvesting, preparation for storage, storage,
and on-farm processing. It is also the application of engineering principles and technology in
agricultural production, storage, and processing on the farm.
Agricultural mechanisation includes three main power sources.
These are human, animal, and mechanical.
The objectives of mechanisation include the following:
1. To encourage better management of farm enterprises.
2. To enhance timeliness and increase profitability in farm operations.
3. To provide good finishes for manually unattainable farm operations.
4. To reduce boredom in farming operations.
5. To make processing and preservation of farm produce easier, thereby reducing wastages.
6. To foster co-operation among farmers and therefore increase farmers' income.
7. To ensure reduction in drudgery in farm operations.
8. To achieve a reduction of labour requirements and enhance agricultural production through
higher rates of work output.
9. To ensure promotion of agro-allied industrial establishment.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session

At the end of this session, you would have learnt more about:
1. Constraints to agricultural mechanisation in Nigeria
2. Agricultural processing
3. Farm machinery and their characteristics
4. Soil tillage and tillage machinery.

1. Constraints to Agricultural Mechanization in Nigeria

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1. Land tenure system: The communal land tenure system prevents the cultivation of large farm
which is suitable for mechanization.
2. Scattered farm holdings: The use of small but scattered farm holdings is also not conducive
or economical for mechanisation, especially in West Africa.
3. Financial constraints: Most farmers, especially in West Africa, are very poor and cannot
afford the cost of tractors and farm implements.
4. Inadequate facilities: The facilities or machinery for fabricating and repairing farm
implements are grossly insufficient where they are available.
5. Bad topography: The topography of most West African landscapes is too rough and
unconducive for farm mechanisation.
6. Different soil types: Soil types are extremely varied and the machines to use on them have
not been developed locally. Nigeria, for instance, still depends on imported machinery which is
not too suitable for our soil.
7. Inadequate spare parts: Availability of spare parts is a major problem as these parts are still
being imported.
8. Inadequate technical manpower: Available technical manpower to operate or service the
implements and machines is not adequate.
9. Problems of stumps and logs: During clearing, heavy stumps and logs are usually left behind,
and they constitute additional problems in mechanisation.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
List any two of the constraints to agricultural mechanisation in Nigeria.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Land tenure system
ii. Scattered farm holdings
iii. Financial constraints
iv. Inadequate facilities
v. Bad topography
vi. Different soil types
vii. Inadequate spare parts
viii. Inadequate technical manpower

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ix. Problems of stumps and logs

Agricultural Processing
Agricultural processing is defined as an activity that is performed to maintain or improve the
quality or to change the form or characteristics of an agricultural product in order to add value
to agricultural materials after their production.
The sequential processing operations are classified as:
1. Cleaning, grading, and sorting
2. Drying and dehydration
3. Milling and size reduction
4. Handling, packaging, and transportation
5. Agricultural waste and by-products utilization
1. Cleaning, grading, and sorting: Cleaning means the removal of foreign or dissimilar materials
from the agricultural products, which is achieved by washing, screening, handpicking, and air
picking. Grading is the classification of cleaning products based on commercial values, usage or
quality. Sorting is the separation of cleaned products into various quality fractions based on
size, shape, colour, etc.
2. Drying and dehydration: Drying refers to the removal of moisture from agricultural products
to predetermined moisture content level while dehydration means the removal of moisture to
very low levels usually bone-dry conditions.
3. Milling and size reduction: This is the grinding of agricultural produce to reduce the bulkiness
of the produce.
4. Handling, packaging, and transportation: The performance of any processing activity is often
affected by the efficiency of the movement of material from one-unit operation to another.
Optimisation and movement of material in a processing plant are essential to reduce the cost of
operation to maximise profit and also for easy transportation.
5. Agricultural waste and by-products utilisation: Research shows that 80% of the energy
required for cooking is obtained mainly from wood, crop residue, and cow dung. Nearly 50 % of
the energy used in rural areas can be saved by using improved cooking stoves and furnaces.
Cow dung and other mass can be used for the generation of biogas.

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In-Text Questions (ITQs)
List the serial activities that are carried out during agricultural processing operations.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Cleaning, grading, and sorting
ii. Drying and dehydration
iii. Milling and size reduction
iv. Handling, packaging, and transportation
v. Agricultural waste and by-products utilization.

Farm Machinery and their Characteristics

A good agricultural engineer must be able to differentiate between agriculture and other
industries. He should also recognise that agricultural engineering is the engineering discipline
that applies engineering science and technology to agricultural production and processing.
The farm machinery engineer needs to be familiar with the basic principles and practices in
agriculture. This is because cultural practices may need to be reviewed, or new crop varieties
developed, to make the mechanisation of a particular operation feasible or to increase the
effectiveness of a machine. There may be a need to revise the processing equipment and
standards to accommodate mechanically-harvested crops.
General Requirements of a Functioning Farm Machine
The following are the requirements of functioning farm machinery:
1. It must permit the widest manufacturing tolerances that are consistent with good
performance.
2. It must perform satisfactorily over wide ranges in a considerable number of variables
3. It must be operated where the temperature is well above 40oC or where it is below freezing
and must be subjected to rain, snow, and sleet.
4. It must utilise the lowest-cost materials that are available and satisfactory for the job
5. Instead of resting on a solid factory floor or moving over a smooth road, it must operate over
uneven terrain through dust, stones, mud, and sand.
6. It must be designed to handle wide variations in crop and soil conditions.

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7. It must be subject to stringent economic limitations.
8. The cost of manufacturing the machine must be kept to an absolute minimum so that the
limited amount of operation will not put the cost per hour into a prohibitive range.
9. Farm machinery designs must be as simple as possible.

Types of Farm Implements

1. Trailed: It is also referred to as pull-type. This is because it is pulled and guided from a single
hitch point and is never completely supported by the tractor. This complete unit is hitched by
the drawbar of the tractor.
2. Semi-mounted implement: These are more compact and more maneuverable than pull type.
They are attached to the tractor at a horizontal hinge axis that is partially supported by the
tractor during transportation.
3. Mounted implement: These are termed as direct mounted, tractor mounted or tractor
carried ploughs. It is attached to the tractor through a hitch linkage in such a manner that is
completely supported by the tractor when in its raised position. Increased size of mounted type
ploughs causes tractor instability during transport.
4. Self-propelled machine: In this type of implement, the propelling power unit is an integral
part of the implement.

Tractors
A tractor is a self-propelled power unit that has wheels or tracks that are used to operate both
machines and agricultural implements. The power required by tractors in driving the
implements is derived from the power take-off shaft (PTO) or the belt pulley of the tractor.
Classification of tractor
Tractors can be classified based on the following features:
1. Engine capacity
2. Structural design
There are three types of tractor engine capacity, namely:
1. Large tractor (50 HP)
2. Medium tractor (between 25 and 50 HP)
3. Small tractor (25 HP).

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The structural design classification
1. Wheel tractor
2. Walking tractor (power tiller)
3. Crawler tractor (chain type) –
Wheel tractor: The four-wheel tractors are the most popular and are used in the world.
- Walking tractor/power tiller: This type of tractor is a walking type tractor. This tractor is
usually fitted with two wheels only.
- Crawler tractor/Chain type: This is also called track-type tractor or chain type tractor. In such
tractors, there is an endless chain or track in place of pneumatic wheels. The engine of a tractor
may be powered by diesel or petrol fuel, depending on the ignition system of the engine.
The differences between the diesel engine and the petrol engine are as follows:
a. The diesel engine generates great pressure while the petrol engine generates lower
pressure.
b. Air alone is compressed in the combustion chamber of the petrol engine
c. Diesel engines do not require spark plugs like the petrol engines.

How to Operate a Tractor

i. Apply the hand brake.
ii. Put gear level in neutral.
iii. Open the throttle slightly.
iv. Switch on ignition.
v. Press the starter until the engine fires and runs on its own.
vi. Disengage clutch by pressing the clutch down.
vii. Select a suitable gear.
viii. Slowly release pressure on the clutch pedal and it moves slowly forward or backward.
ix. Open the throttle further to the required engine speed.
x. Place both feet on the footrest.
xi. Steer it in the required direction.

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Routine services and maintenance of a tractor
i. Check the battery of the tractor and the tractor and top the electrolyte (if necessary)
ii. Check the fuel level
iii. Check the cooling system (Radiator)
iv. Check the gear and the differential oil
v. Check the engine oil
vi. Check the tyres whether there is enough pressure
vii. Check bolts, nuts and pins
viii. Check the greasing points.

In-Text Questions (ITQs)

List any two of the general requirements of a functional farm machine
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. It must permit the widest manufacturing tolerances that are consistent with good
performance.
ii. It must perform satisfactorily over wide ranges in a considerable number of variables
iii. It must be operated where the temperature is well above 40oC or where it is below freezing
and must be subjected to rain, snow, and sleet.
iv. It must utilise the lowest-cost materials that are available and satisfactory for the job
v. Instead of resting on a solid factory floor or moving over a smooth road, it must operate over
uneven terrain through dust, stones, mud, and sand.
vi. It must be designed to handle wide variations in crop and soil conditions. vii. It must be
subject to stringent economic limitations.
viii. The cost of manufacturing the machine must be kept to an absolute minimum so that the
limited amount of operation will not put the cost per hour into a prohibitive range.
ix. Farm machinery designs must be as simple as possible.

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Soil Tillage and Tillage Machinery
Tillage can be defined as the mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favourable conditions
for crop production. It is also the agricultural preparation of soil by mechanical agitation of
various types, such as digging, stirring, and overturning the soil
The objectives of tillage systems are listed below:
1. To obtain deep seedbeds that will be suitable to cultivate different crops.
2. To manage plant residues
3. To destroy and remove unwanted plants
4. To provide a desirable soil structure for a seedbed or a root bed
5. To aerate the soil for proper growth of crops
6. To increase the water-absorbing capacity of the soil
7. To destroy the insect pests and their breeding places
8. To reduce soil erosion
9. To accomplish segregation, which involves the movement of soil from one layer to another,
the removal of rocks and other foreign objects, or root harvesting
10. To incorporate soil amendments and (or) mix fertilisers with the soil.

Tillage Methods
Tillage operation is classified into primary and secondary tillage operations.
Tillage machinery performs such operations as ploughing, harrowing, ridging and
weeding/slashing.
i. A primary tillage operation constitutes the initial, major soil working operation. It is normally
designed to reduce soil strength, cover plant materials and rearrange aggregates. Examples
include plow (disc or mouldboard type) and rotary cultivator
ii. A secondary tillage operation is intended to create refined soil conditions following primary
tillage. Examples include disc harrow, tine cultivator, tine harrow, ridgers, and weeders.
Types of Tillage systems

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 1. Minimum Tillage System: This is also referred to as zero-tillage. This refers to the planting of
the stubble of the previous crop without disturbing the soil in any way except that which is
necessary to place the seed at the desired depth.
The major objectives of the minimum tillage system are:
a. To reduce mechanical-energy and labour requirements
b. To achieve moisture and reduce soil erosion
c. To perform only the operations necessary to optimise the soil conditions for each type of
area within the field
d. To minimise the number of trips over the field.
2. Conventional tillage system: This principle is based on soil inversion to improve the soil tilt,
followed by various operations for the preparation of the seedbed.
3. Traditional Tillage: This refers to the method of seedbed preparation whereby hoes are used
with various conventional tillage equipment left out of use. The purpose is to reduce power,
and machinery, decrease soil compaction, and minimise soil erosion by water and wind. The
ridges are wide to conserve water by reducing run-off. It involves cutting the roots of weeds
and other plants and leaving the crop residue on the surface or mixed into the top few
centimeters of soil.
In-Text Questions (ITQs)
Mention the different forms of minimum tillage systems known to you.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
i. Minimum tillage system (or zero-tillage)
ii. Conventional tillage system
iii. Traditional tillage system GNS105:
Summary of Study Session
1. Agricultural mechanisation is the application of engineering principles and technology in
agricultural production, storage, and processing on the farm.
2. It encompasses the use of tools, implements, and machines for agricultural land
development, crop production, harvesting, storage, and on-farm processing.
3. It is the deployment of the human, animal, and mechanical sources of power to carry out all
the essential farming activities.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session

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 Having completed this study session, you can now assess yourself by going through the
reassembled set of questions again and provide the relevant answers without checking through
the material. This will help you measure how well you have achieved the learning outcomes for
this session.
You can then re-check your answers with the Notes on Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) at
the end of the Module.
SAQ 1 (Test Learning Outcomes 5.1) List the major constraints to agricultural mechanisation in
Nigeria. SAQ 2 (Test Learning Outcomes 5.2) Mention the serial activities that are carried out
during agricultural processing operations.
SAQ 3 (Test Learning Outcomes 5.3) i. List the general requirements of a functional farm
machine.
ii. Mention the four (4) different types of farm implements.
SAQ.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 5.4) a. Mention the two (2) types of tillage operations
b. Mention the different forms of minimum tillage systems known to you

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