Welding of a metal using one process may show poor weldability (like Al welding with SMA

welding process) and good weldability when the same metal is welded with some other
welding process (Al welding with TIG/MIG).

Therefore, weldability of a metal is considered as a relative term.

Weldability of steels
Effect of Phases on Mechanical Properties
It is important to note that every phase or phase mixture has its own mechanical
properties. Some of the phases are very soft (ferrite) and some are extremely
hard (cementite). Therefore, variation in proportions / relative amounts of these
phases will affect the mechanical properties of steel as a whole.
Increase in carbon content in steel linearly increases proportion of pearlite but at the
cost of ferrite. Since ferrite is of low strength, soft and ductile while pearlite is hard,
strong and of poor ductility and toughness, increase in percentage of
pearlite increases strength, hardness and reduces the ductility and toughness of
steel as a whole.
Cementite appears as an individual phase only above eutectoid composition (steel having
carbon > 0.8%). It tends to form a network along the grain boundary of pearlite
depending upon carbon content. Complete isolation of pearlite colonies with the
cementite (as a result of continuous network of cementite) decreases tensile strength and
ductility because mechanical properties of the alloy / steel to a large extent depend upon
the properties of phase which is continuous in alloy. Increase in the carbon content above
the eutectoid compositions (0.8% C) therefore reduces the strength and ductility because
in hypereutectoid steel, network of cementite is formed along the grain boundaries of
pearlite and cementite has very low tensile strength (3.0MPa).
Recall from the materials science course, the idea behind TTT diagram.
The above diagram (Diagram on left) shows the transformation of austenite phase at
constant temperature into various phases as a function of time (Fig. 37.2).
Therefore, it is also known as isothermal transformation diagram. Transformation
of austenite into various phases such as pearlite, bainite and martensite depends
on the transformation temperature.

Time needed to start the transformation of austenite into pearlite or bainite is called
incubation period which is initially low at lower transformation temperature and then
increases as transformation temperature increases. TTT Diagram for eutectoid C- steel
has C shape due to variation in time needed to start and end the transformation of
austenite at different transformation temperature. This curve has a nose at about
550C. Transformation of austenite into pearlite takes place on exposure at any
constant temperature above the nose.

It is observed that higher the transformation temperature more is the time required for
starting and completing the transformation. Transformation of austenite into pearlite or
bainite occurs by nucleation and growth process. Hence, at high temperature high
growth rate, low nucleation rate coupled with longer transformation time results in
coarse pearlitic structure whereas at low transformation temperatures fine pearlitic
structure is produced because of low growth rate, high nucleation rate and short
transformation time. High transformation temperature lowers the strength and
hardness of steel owing to the coarse pearlitic structure.
TTT diagram superimposed with different cooling curves (Diagram on right)
Transformation of austenite at a temperature below the nose of the curve
results in bainitic structure. Bainite is a very fine intimate mixture of ferrite and
cementite like pearlite. However, pearlite is a mixture of lamellar ferrite and
cementite. That is why bainite offers much better strength, hardness and
toughness than the pearlite. Degree of fineness of bainite also increases with the
reduction in transformation temperature like pearlitic transformation. Bainite
formed at high temperature is called feathery bainite while that formed at low
temperature near the Ms temperature is called acicular bainite.
Transformation of austenite at a temperature below the Ms temperature results in
hard and brittle phase called martensite structure. Martensite is a supersaturated solid
solution of carbon in iron having body centered tetragonal (B.C.T) structure. This
austenite to martensite transformation is athermal transformation as it takes place by
diffusion-less process. Rapid quenching/cooling from austenitic temperature to a
temperature below the ‘Ms’ prevents any kind of atomic diffusion. Therefore, carbon
atoms, which are easily accommodated within FCC unit cell (in austenite) at high
temperature should be rejected at low temperature because of reduction in solid
solubility. But at such a low temperature (below ‘Ms’) diffusion is prevented and that
leads to formation of supersaturated solid solution of carbon in iron having BCC
structure. This supersaturation of carbon in iron (BCC) causes the distortion of the
BCC lattice structure and makes it BCT by increasing the c/a ratio more than 1.
Degree of distortion is measured in terms of c/a ratio. This ratio depends up on the
carbon content. Increase in carbon content up to 0.8%, increases the c/a ratio. The
c/a ratio can be directly related with the increase in hardness.
A modification of TTT to show the transformation occurring not during and Isothermal
hold in TTT, but how transformation occurs during the continuous cooling process (which is the
real case in practical applications)
High carbon equivalent lowers the critical cooling rate hence less drastic
cooling is required for hardening. In general, presence of all alloying elements
(except Co) shifts the nose of CCT diagram towards right (conversely increases
the incubation period to begin transformation) which in turn reduces the critical
cooling rate and increases hardenability. Reduction in carbon content increases
the critical cooling rate and makes hardening of steel more difficult.
 Weldability of steel and composition

Depends on (a)cleanliness of weld metal and (b) properties of HAZ.

Cleanliness of weld metal is related with presence of

inclusion in the form of slag or gases whereas HAZ properties are primarily
controlled by hardenability of the steel.

Proper shielding of arc zone and degassing

of molten weld metal can be used to control first factor. Proper shielding can be
done by inactive gases released by combustion of electrode coatings in SMA or inert
gases (Ar, He, Co2) in case of TIG, MIG welding

Hardenability of steel is primarily

governed by the composition. All the factors increasing the hardenability adversely
affect the weldability because steel becomes more hard, brittle and sensitive to
fracture/cracking, therefore it needs extra care. So, more the precautions should be
taken to produce a sound weld join
Addition of all alloying elements (C, Mn, Ni, W, Cr etc.) except cobalt increases the
hardenability which in turn decreases the weldability.

To find the combined effect of

alloying elements on hardenability/weldability, carbon equivalent (CE) is determined.
The most of the carbon equivalent (CE) equations used to evaluate weldability
depends type of steel i.e. alloy steel or carbon steel.
Cracking of metal increases the volume which in turn reduces the pressure. Due to
continuous diffusion of hydrogen toward the cavities after some time again as
pressure exceeds the fracture stress, and crack propagates further. This process of
building up on pressure and propagation of cracks is repeated until compete fracture
takes place without external load. Since this type cracking and fracture takes place
after some time of welding hence it is called delayed cracking. Delay for complete
fracture depends on the following factors:

Since this type cracking and fracture takes place

after some time of welding hence it is called delayed cracking. Delay for complete
fracture depends on the following factors:
• Hardenability of steel
• Amount of hydrogen dissolved in atomic state
• Magnitude of residual tensile stress
In general,
Aluminium is considered to be of comparatively lower weldability than steels due to various
reasons a) high affinity of aluminium towards atmospheric gases, b) high thermal expansion
coefficient, c) high thermal and electrical conductivity, d) poor rigidity and e) high solidification
temperature range.

The extent of undesirable affect of above

characteristics on performance of the weld joints is generally reduced using two approaches a)
effective protection of the weld pool contamination from atmospheric gases using proper
shielding method and b) reducing influence of weld thermal cycling using higher energy density
welding processes.

Former approach mainly deals with using various environments (vacuum,

Ar, He, or their mixtures with hydrogen and oxygen) to shield the weld pool from ambient
gases while later one has led to the development of newer welding processes such as laser,
pulse variants of TIG and MIG, friction stir welding etc.
 Typical welding problems in aluminum
alloys

Porosity
a) hydrogen induced porosity and b) inter
dendritic
shrinkage porosity
Inclusion
Solidification cracking