UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Dissertation
Topic – Exploring Rock Paintings of
Bhimbetka

Submitted by- Dharmita Srimali

Bsc(hons) Anthropology
2nd year (4th Semester)
College roll no – 8001
Examination roll no-22025551014

Submitted to- Prof. Manoj Kumar Singh

Department of Anthropology
University of Delhi
 CERTIFICATE

I am Dharmita Srimali, student of BSc(Hons) Anthropology. I went to

fieldwork from March 15,2024 to March 20,2024 to Bhopal (Madhya

Pradesh). I had undertaken 6 days of fieldwork exploring Acheulian

rich sites and rock shelters. I am submitting a declaration stating that

this is my original work and is not plagiarized or copied from any

other source. I have referred to sources which are diligently and

appropriately cited in the references

Professor Manoj Kumar Singh Dharmita Srimali

____________________________ ____________________-

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 CONTENTS

1. Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………3

2. Topic……………………………………………………………………………..4

3. Aims and Objectives………………………………………………………… 5

4. Methodology……………………………………………………………………6

5. Introduction
 General prehistory of India ……………………………………….. 7

 General prehistory of Central India……………………………….8

 Study Area…………………………………………………………….9

 Upper Lake…………………………………………………………. 11

 Tikoda………………………………………………………………...12

 Indira Gandhi Rashthriya Manav Sanghralaya (IGRMS )……16

 Bhimbetka……………………………………………………………30

 Bhoj Temple…………………………………………………………32

 Sanchi Stupa…………………………………………………………33

 Udaygiri Caves……………………………………………………..34

6. Analysis…………………………………………………………………….....35

7. Summary………………………………………………………………………45

8. Challenges……………………………………………………………………47

9. Conclusion………………………………………………………………….. 47

10. References……………………………………………………………………48

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following individuals for their invaluable
support and guidance throughout the course of this dissertation. Prof. S.M. Patnaik, Head of
the Department of Anthropology, for his insightful supervision and continuous
encouragement.

Prof. Manoj Kumar Singh, Teacher In-charge, for his assistance and unwavering support in
facilitating the research process and Sudeshna Ma’am, for her guidance and mentorship that
significantly contributed to the development of this work.

I would like to also thanks to our lab assistant Jai Bhagwan and Pramod Sir for their support.

Special Thanks to Dr. S.B.Ota ( Retired Joint Director of ASI) and Dr.Bhuvam Vikram Singh
( Regional Director of ASI) and Prof Amitabh Pande(Director of IGRMS) who came and
join us, make our journey so wonderful and share their experiences with us. And I would like
to extend my thanks to our PhD scholars Sukanya and Aakriti for mentoring us in the field . I
would like express my gratitude towards to Suman and Niharika for constantly guiding me
throughout my research work .

I am extremely greatful to my parents and family Their belief in me has boost my spirits and
motivation high during this process.

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 TOPIC
EXPLORING ROCK PAINTINGS OF BHIMBETKA
Nestled amidst the Vindhya Range in central India, Bhimbetka's labyrinthine caves house one
of the oldest and most extensive collections of prehistoric rock art on the Indian subcontinent.
My fascination with this topic stems from a profound curiosity about humanity's earliest
creative impulses and the stories etched into stone by our ancestors.

Bhimbetka's rock shelters, discovered in 1957 by archaeologist V.S. Wakankar, have since
captivated the imagination of historians, archaeologists, and art enthusiasts alike. Dating back
to the Upper Paleolithic period, roughly 30,000 years ago, these paintings offer invaluable
insights into the daily lives, beliefs, and artistic sensibilities of ancient hunter-gatherer
communities.

One of the most compelling aspects of Bhimbetka's rock art lies in its sheer diversity.
Spanning over 700 caves and rock shelters, the site boasts a rich tapestry of motifs, ranging
from dynamic hunting scenes and mesmerizing geometric patterns to ritualistic ceremonies
and mythical creatures.

Delving into the intricacies of Bhimbetka's rock art unveils a vibrant mosaic of cultural
evolution. Over millennia, successive waves of human migration and cultural exchange have
left their indelible mark on these ancient caves. From the Mesolithic period to the Iron Age,
Bhimbetka's rock paintings reflect the shifting contours of human civilization, offering a
window into the past that is both awe-inspiring and humbling.

Beyond their aesthetic appeal, the rock paintings of Bhimbetka also pose tantalizing
questions about the socio-cultural dynamics of prehistoric societies. What rituals or
ceremonies were depicted in these images? What role did art play in shaping communal
identity and belief systems?

Moreover, my choice to explore Bhimbetka's rock paintings is driven by a desire to foster

greater appreciation for indigenous cultures and heritage preservation. In a rapidly changing
world, where modernization often threatens to overshadow ancient traditions, it is imperative
to safeguard sites like Bhimbetka as repositories of collective memory and cultural wisdom.
By shedding light on these timeless masterpieces, I hope to spark dialogue and awareness
about the importance of preserving our cultural legacy for future generation

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES-

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1. Documentation and Preservation :

- Aim: To document and preserve the rich heritage of rock paintings in Bhimbetka.

- Objectives : To conduct a comprehensive survey of the rock paintings, cataloging their

locations, themes, and conditions.

- To develop strategies for the preservation and conservation of these ancient artworks,
considering factors like weathering, vandalism, and environmental degradation.

2. Understanding Cultural Significance :

- Aim: To understand the cultural significance of the rock paintings at Bhimbetka.

- Objectives: To analyze the themes, motifs, and symbols depicted in the and interpret
their cultural meanings.

- To explore the connection between the rock paintings and the socio-cultural practices,
beliefs, and rituals of the ancient inhabitants of the region.

3. Historical Context and Chronology :

- Aim: To establish the historical context and chronology of the rock paintings in
Bhimbetka.

- Objectives: To conduct archaeological investigations to determine the age of the rock

paintings and their relation to different periods of human history.

- To compare the Bhimbetka rock art with other prehistoric and historic rock art traditions
regionally and globally, aiming to understand influences, exchanges, and unique
developments.

4. Interdisciplinary Study :

- Aim: To undertake an interdisciplinary study of the Bhimbetka rock paintings.

- Objectives:- To collaborate with experts from fields such as archaeology, anthropology,

art history, geology, and conservation science to gain diverse perspectives on the rock
paintings.

- To integrate findings from various disciplines to develop a holistic understanding of the

Bhimbetka rock art and its significance.

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5. To understand overall prehistoric signifance of Madhya Pradesh.

METHODOLOGY

EXPLORATION

1. Preparation and Planning: Before embarking on fieldwork, first I conducted a background

research on the sites, including their archaeological significance, previous studies, and local
cultural context.

Developed a detailed research plan outlining specific objectives, methods, and logistical
considerations.

2. Survey and Mapping :Begin fieldwork with a comprehensive pedestrian survey of the sites
using general photography and mapping the geographical features, topography, and
distribution of archaeological remains.

Used GPS technology and traditional mapping techniques to create accurate site maps,
recording the locations of artifacts, rock art, structures, and other features and their cultural
and symbolic signifance

3. Rock Art Recording and Interpretation: Recorded the location, orientation, dimensions,
motifs, colours, and weathering patterns of rock paintings and engravings, noting any
changes or damage over time.

Engaged with local communities and indigenous peoples to gather oral histories, traditional
knowledge, and cultural interpretations of the rock art.

4. Ethical Considerations and Conservation : Adhered to ethical standards of archaeological

practice, respecting the rights, beliefs, and cultural heritage of indigenous peoples and
descendant communities.

5. Reflection and Continual Learning : Reflected on fieldwork experiences, challenges, and

lessons learned, identifying areas for improvement and future research directions.

Conducted outreach activities such as heritage walks and promote community involvement in
their preservation and management.

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6. Literature Review- Reviewed associated literatures related to my research objectives to
have a thorough and comprehensive understanding about the areas and their prehistoric
significance

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL BACKGROUND OF PREHISTORY OF INDIA

IMAGE SOURCE - https://random-gs.blogspot.com/2011/12/some-important-

archaeological-sites-in.html
The whole of Indian subcontinent is rich in archaeological sites and remains. Robert Bruce
Foote, a British Geologist, has rightly been called as the “Father of Indian Pre -history”. It is
true to say that almost every important Pre-historic site in peninsular India vowed its
discovery to him. In 1863, Foote discovered the first Indian Paleolithic artifact from a locality
at Pallavaram, near Madras (now Chennai). During 1850s Colonel Meadows Taylor carried
out number of outstanding excavations of Megalithic graves in Hyderabad State. Professors
H. De Terra and T.T. Patterson led the Yale-Cambridge Expedition to study the glacial
sequence of Kashmir and the Punjab and to relate their findings to the Pre-historic industries
of the Punjab, Narmada and Madras. Another archaeologist who contributed greatly to our
knowledge of Indian Pre-history was Sir Aurel Stein, whose continuing expeditions led him

7
to Baluchistan and eastern Iran, the Punjab, and North West Frontier Province, no less than to
more remote regions of Central Asia. ( Dilip K. Chakrabarti 1989)

The period for which written records are available and used as a primary source in
understanding the past is historic period, and all periods proceeding this fall under prehistory.

Indian prehistory, following several models and based on the evidence of sites of different
cultural ages, has been divided into (i) Palaeolithic, (ii) Mesolithic / Microlithic, (iii)
Neolithic and (iv) Megalithic periods. The Palaeolithic period is further divided into (i)
Lower, (ii) Middle and (iii) Upper palaeolithic periods or cultures, based on stone tool
making technologies, styles and stratigraphic sequence.

GENERAL PREHISTORY OF CENTRAL INDIA

The establishment of the Stone Age sequence in central Indian Acheulian sites owes much to
the pioneering studies of De Terra and Paterson. Dr. H.D. Sankalia, one of the early scholars
to delve into this lesser-known chapter of human history, demonstrated a profound familiarity
with both Stone Age sites and the historical artifacts discovered during Alexander
Cunningham's time. Building on Sankalia's work, A.P. Khatri continued the exploration of
Stone Age sites. Under the CSIR research project in 1958, Khatri embarked on a quest to find
fossil evidence in the Narmada Valley, crucial for understanding the evolutionary trends of
Stone Age sites .Despite his efforts to establish the sequence of stone tools and stratigraphy
of sediments, Khatri couldn't unearth any hominin fossils.Further studies by A.K. Ghosh and
D. Sen focused on the lithic cultural complex of central India, employing typo-technological
analysis of stone tools and comparing them with well-dated European sites. Their aim was to
contextualize the Indian Stone Age within a global geological timescale.In the 1970s, Jerome
Jacobson's surveys in central India led to the discovery of numerous Stone Age sites, notably
in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh His discoveries along riversides, nalas, forests, and
cultivated fields spurred further exploration into understanding central Indian Acheulian
culture.

Prof. V.N. Misra's excavation at Bhimbetka in 1973, although discovered earlier by V.S.
Wakankar in 1957, revealed continuous human occupation from the Acheulian Age to the
historic period. Alongside material evidence, Bhimbetka's rock shelters featured prehistoric
paintings depicting human interactions throughout history. Despite the affinity of human

8
figures in the paintings, studies by Misra, K.A.R. Kennedy, and J.R. Lukas revealed
considerable biological diversity in skeletal remains, challenging the notion of a
homogeneous population.

Vidula Jaiswal's study of stone tools across various sites further classified them by typology,
revealing minimal technological differences despite belonging to different phases. This
highlighted the homogenous nature of Acheulian stone tools in central India. (Jose Rapheal
2018)

The excavation at Tikoda, a joint venture between Deccan College, Pune, and the
Archaeological Survey of India, conducted by Dr. S.B. Ota and Prof. Sushama Deo from
2010 onwards, provided significant insights. Notable for its abundance of cleavers, Tikoda
became the focus of the first exclusive study on cleavers in India, shedding light on various
patterns within this Acheulian tool type.

STUDY AREA

Source- Madhya Pradesh Tourism

Madhya Pradesh, often hailed as the 'heart of India,' boasts a captivating blend of profound
heritage, historical significance, and cultural richness, complemented by the untamed beauty
of its natural landscapes. Its tapestry is adorned with ancient rock shelters and caves that
ignite the flames of imagination, alongside renowned temples and monuments that narrate
tales of yore.They offer a glimpse into a world as ancient as the Stone Age, vividly
resurrecting the spirit of bygone civilizations (Pandey 2019).

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE - In M.P.’s Vindhya region rainfall is received from both
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal branch. Highest temperature has been recorded
in Ganjbasoda which is 48.70 M.P’s average temperature has been recorded as 210C. Lowest
temperature has been recorded in Shivpuri. Drought mostly occurs in winter season. For

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making M.P.’s climate tropical, the Tropic of Cancer is responsible which passes through the
middle of the state while the rains received through south-west monsoon makes it a monsoon
type climate. Based on climate, Madhya Pradesh has been divided into four parts

1. Northern Plain- It includes Bundelkhand, Central India, Rewa-Panna plateau. Due to

being away from the sea, it is hotter in the summer and cold in the winter.
2. Malwa-Plateau– It has even climate. Neither too hot in the summer nor too cold in the
winter
3. Hilly Tract of Vindhya- This region does not have extreme cold of hot and the climate
round the year is even. It includes Amarkantak, Pachmarhi etc.
4. Narmada Valley- Monsoon type climate prevails here. Hotter in the summer and
normal cold in the winter. Tropic of cancer passes nearby it.

1 FLORA AND FAUNA

As the state has a variety in its topographical feature, the state's flora and fauna varies from
place to place. In the mountain range of Satpura and Maikala, trees like Teak, Sal and
Bamboo are some of the varieties found in abundance. These also are the important
commercial variety of flora of the state.Other trees found in Madhya Pradesh are Teak,
Tinsa,Mahua,Saja,Shisham,Babul,Sandal,Khair. They are naturally grown and found in large
area of the state.
Moreover, the state has a rich store of wildlife. The state being the host of a good number of
wildlife sanctuaries, like the Kanha Wildlife Sanctuary, Shivpuri, Bandhavgarh and Rewa
have some of the rare species of wildlife of the country. The Barasingha or Swamp Deer,
Bison and the White Tiger (albinotic) are some of the wildlife found here.

1.UPPER LAKE

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1 . source- https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Showing-the-Upper-Lake-of-Bhopal-9_fig1_261070785

Bhojtal, also known as the Upper Lake, is attributed to the reign of Paramara Raja Bhoj
during his rule over Malwa. Legend has it that when Raja Bhoj suffered from a stubborn skin
ailment, conventional remedies failed to provide relief. Advised by a saint, the king embarked
on the construction of a reservoir, merging waters from 365 tributaries to cleanse himself of
the affliction. Although initially, the site near the Betwa River lacked the required number of
tributaries, a Gond Commander named Kalia revealed the existence of an invisible river,
completing the count to 365. Renamed Bhojtaal in March 2011 to honor Raja Bhoj, the lake
now features a grand statue of the king wielding a sword, adorning one corner, solidifying
Bhopal's identity as the city of lakes.
The Upper Lake, situated at 23°12'N latitude and 77°18'E longitude in Bhopal ,Madhya
Pradesh. This lake, among the oldest and largest reservoirs, acts as a primary water source for
Bhopal. Its inception dates back to the 11th century AD when Raja Bhoj of Dhar
commissioned the construction of an earthen dam on the Kolans River, earning it the title of
Bhoj Wetland. Recognizing its ecological significance, the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India, designated the Upper Lake, along with the Lower Lake
downstream, as wetlands of national importance in 1998. Subsequently, in 2002, it was
accorded Ramsar site status. Conservation efforts for the Upper Lake commenced in 1995
under the Bhoj Wetland Conservation Project, funded by the Japan Bank for International
Cooperation (JBIC), culminating in its completion in 2004 (Upadhyaya et.dl 2013).

1.1.1 Flora

106 species of Macrophytes (belonging to 87 genera of 46 families), which includes 14 rare

species and 208 species of Phytoplankton comprising 106 species of Chlorophyceae, 37

11
species of Cyano phyceae, 34 species of Euglenophyceae, 27 species of Bacilariophyceae and
4 species of Dinophyceae.
1.1.2 Fauna

105 species of zooplanktons, which includes (Rotifera 41, Protozoa 10, Cladocera 14,
Copepoda 5, Ostracoda 9, Coleoptera 11, and Diptera 25). There are 43 species of fish
(natural and cultured), 27 kinds of birds, 98 species of insect and more than 10 species of
reptiles and amphibians (including 5 species of tortoise).

The lake is shrinking and being polluted due to human activities in recent times. The waste
and drainage generated by nearby city of Bhopal is dumped in lake affecting its ecology.

2. TIKODA

Tikoda is an single culture open air site . It has only one culture i.e Achuelian . It is an
important prehistoric site to understand man land relationship through surface occurences.
Tikoda is a surface site This site was 1st time excavated by Jerome Jacobson , an American
Anthropologist , who has worked on Putlikarar ( group of rock shelters) and surrounding
areas and claimed that world’s largest concentration of handaxes and cleavers are found in
this particular area.

Betwa basin

Vindhyan TIKODA Tikoda is a site

Deccan Trap dominated by GOND
Putlikarar tribe .It has 8 localities
Narmada Basin vis TKD-I, TKD-II,TKD-
III, TKD IV, TKD-V,
TKD-VI, TKD-VII,TKD-VIII. All these sites are located on foothills of Narwar hillock. It is
a cleaver dominated site with a proportion of handaxe:cleaver is 1:3 (Deo et al., 2009-2010).
Vegetation comprises of dry deciduous forest. The acheulian occurrence is confined to
Laterite surface. Artifacts primarily consist of quartzite, with some crafted from sandstone.
Additionally, a few handaxes, cleavers, and scrapers have been observed made from crypto-
crystalline materials like chert and chalcedony. Quartzite and sandstone, found in the nearby
foothills as boulders, serve as locally available raw materials. The Acheulian assemblage at

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Tikoda is a "Large Flake Acheulian" which is typical of the Acheulian in India (Sharon,
2007). Jerome Jacobson , An American anthropologist, who studied microliths in Indian
context. He explored rock shelters and found microliths in Putliyar. He wrote Raisen district
as the richest district in the whole world . ASI studied the site Tikoda to document rock
paintings in 1982,83. Raw materials found are Sandstone and Quartzite. Geologically Tikoda
is situated on the foothills of Vindhyan ranges. Tikoda is close to source area . It has both
core and tool assemblage. .In Tikoda, there only making, flaking, retouching is going on and
thus have large tools . The site has Evidences of all three kinds of flakes- End flake- axis
larger than width , Side flake- width larger than the axis. Combawa flake- flake having two
bulb of percussions.

Tikoda is a surface cum buried site studied using studied by using mosaicking(gridding) ,a
method used in horizontal studying . The sites of Central India are dominated by Cleavers
because of dry deciduous forest while the sites of South India are dominated by handaxes.

Tikoda is an area surrounded by the Khandera- Narwar- Tikoda hills complex, which forms a
divide between the Newan river, a tributary of the Betwa(a tributary of Yamuna), and the
Barna river, a tributary of the Narmada. The geological composition of the region is primarily
characterized by the pre-Cambrian Vindhyan series, consisting of various shades of
sandstones and quartzite, overlaid by a weathering layer of Cretaceous volcanic
traprock basalt (Deo et al., 2009-2010).

LOCALITY 3

Due to scarcity of water , people have descended down

from the hill resulted in three level of occupation. Soil is
weathered because of which it has less sediment deposits.
The area is dominated by Precambrian sandstone and the
bedrock is exposed. It had a effemeral river system which
got its water by merging of Betwa and Narmada river
2. locality 3 of Tikoda showing exposed
bedrock and v shaped valley systems. Water gradient pattern is higher to lower. Main
source of yellow soil found here which originated from rock through rock cycle. It has been
said that during Precambrian phase , basalt had covered whole of the area. It had undergone
erosion , decomposition which finally resulted in the formation of valley and the black
sediments got trapped. The Narwar Hill sloping towards Tikoda village (southern side) has
several erosional gullies. On the western end the Tikoda Hill, bifurcates into a 'V' shaped

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valley. This V-shaped valley has preserved a thick deposit of alluvium. It has badland
topography due to rain gullies (Deo et al., 2009-2010). Presence of water body, raw material
and food resources made the researchers to speculate that Acheulian people stayed their for a
longer period of time. In the later settlement( 3rd time settlement) , the artefacts are less fresh
subjected to more tanning. Tools are found of Chalcedony and some salicious tools are also
found of basaltic origin because of deccan trap. More than 280 artefacts have been collected
from this locality (Deo et al., 2009-2010). Artefacts are found on the surface of bare
sandstone bedrock. Given the proximity to the current village, it's probable that a slight layer
of yellowish sediment may have worn away due to frequent human activity.

LOCALITY 1- Geomorphic context- no stable growth in soil , comprises of fossil rocks. It

has thin layer of yellowish sediment (40-45cm) over the sandstone bedrock . Deposition of
sediment increased on moving from locality 3 to locality 1 . Two different levels of
occupation are found.

LOCALITY 2-

Sedimentation shows long time occupation

(6m). Calcium nodules are found on the surface
which gives us the indication of arid climate.
To study this site, grid study of 679 square km
occurred through which they allocated clusters
based on similar occurences. The site shows
presence of numerous chips and roughouts. Soil has higher percentage of
3. large sized core on
thick alluvial deposit clay with more cracks . It has ferric soil with manganese pallet which
shows the contact wit

h water. Its southern slope contains a significant yellowish alluvial layer at elevation around
440m. A dense concentration of acheulian artefacts has been observed scattered across the
surface in this locality. They are exposed because of the recent erosion of a thick alluvial
deposit(Deo et al., 2009-2010).

LOCALITY 5 –

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 Geomorphic context- presence of Ferrogenous gravels which indicates
large amount of rain . Secondary laterite is present in the form of
gravels. It is not a primary site . Bedrock is of sandstone (transported
from yellow soil). It has deposition of around 2.5 to 3 m . The site has
circular Ferricretised gravel with yellow fresh clayey arrangement of
stones. Trees are also found namely of Mahua , Tendua , Bhokra . Here
crusting occurs i.e layering and artefacts are also found.

LOCALITY 4 - Both yellow and red sediment are present (ferrogenous

gravels) . Excavation is done by strip trenching method. Soil is subjected to less erosion
indicating more band activities. CaC03 encrustration increased as the area is more close to
deccan area. Has cliff deposition of 9cm. BOLAS- prepared circular tool . Site has largest
number of Bolas. Soil type is Black soil .

LOCALITY 6,7,8- Geomorphic Context - Ferricretised gravel with yellow clayey silt.
Artefacts are relatively fresh .

DAMDONGRI

Area is dominated with finished tools as core preparation take

place in site only. The area is extensively studied by Dr. S.B.
Otta. Raw material is Basaltic as the site located on deccan trap.
It has plenty of food resources . Raw material is carried from
Tikoda to Damdongri. Site has more finished tools and tools are
smaller. While coming from Tikoda , a transition is seen from
bigger bulky tools to smaller tools . Soil type is black soil and has calcerous deposits . It has
haemetitite nodules and fossilized egg shell fragments of Ostrich. Comprised of crystals
which is believed that they were brought out of curiosity. It is not a primary site as tools and
artefacts are brought here from somewhere else. Damdongri is the unique achuelian site of
Prehistory which has the recycled lithic artefacts (Ota et al.,2020)

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3.INDIRA GANDHI RASHTRIYA MANAV SANGHRALAYA [IGRMS]

1.2
Founded by Proffessor Surya Kumar Pandey . IGRMS is Asia’s largest anthropological
museum. It is a single museum where both the anthropologists and the communities work
together to maintain the beauty, art and cultural heritage of the museum. It is built on the area
of 200 acres where communities are represented in their natural environment i.e they live,
practice and represent their culture. The recreations are presented in same cultural style as
done by the community in their native place. IGRMS is one of the premier institutions in
India dedicated to anthropology and the study of human cultures. It is located in Bhopal ,
Madhya Pradesh , and serves as a museum and research center focusing on anthropology,
ethnography and archaeology. It houses an extensive collection of artefacts, specimens and
materials representing the diverse cultural heritage of India including traditional crafts,
artworks, tools , costumes, musical instruments, and more providing valuable insights inro
the lifestyles, beliefs, and practices of different communities across India. Researchers and
Anthropologists affiliated with IGRMS engage in fieldwork to study living communities and
preserve their cultural heritage. One of IGRMS’s primary objectives is to preserve and
promote India’s cultural diversity .

It is an open air museum and contains two segments- i)open air and ii)indoor. The museum
comprises original prehistorical rock shelters dominated by Mesolithic paintings and art
forms while some paintings of historical period are also found. The museum has a unique
cultural heritage with 25000 ethnographic materials. It is a living museum and the only
museum in India where we have visitor and artisan interaction which shows different forms

16
and styles of material culture. It has a Charkha museum where 45 Charkhas are presented
from 19 states (Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sanghralaya(Indira Gandhi Rashtriya
Manav Sanghralaya 2021). The museum is also involved in understanding grey areas where
science doesn’t reach like in collaboration with Tata Institute for Forest Research, they are
working in analysis of El Nino and El Nina. The headquarters of IGRMS is located in Bhopal
(M.P.) while a regional centre is functioning from Heritage Building Wellington House,
Mysore(Karnataka). The IGRMS has 10 open-air exhibitions namely Tribal Habitat;
Himalayan Village; Coastal Village; Desert Village; River-valley Cultures; Cosmology and
Narrative Trail; Rock Art Heritage; Traditional Technology Park; Kumhar Para- Pottery
Traditions of India; and Sacred Groves and 12 galleries in the ‘Veethi Sankul’ – the indoor
museum building in its 200 acres campus. Initially known as ‘National Museum of Man’,
this institution was converted into an autonomous organization of Government of India,
Ministry of Culture in March, 1985 and renamed as ‘ Rashtriya Manav Sanghralaya’. It was
rechristened as ‘Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sanghralya(IGRMS) , in 1993, in recignition
of the seminal contribution of Smt. Indira Gandhi towards a New Museum Movement
(IGRMS 2021).

TRIBAL ART EXHIBITION BY WOMEN (ON THE EVE OF WOMEN’S DAY)

Uraon Painting- belong to tribe called Uraon.

The painting depicts Sarai (Sal tree). People
worship this tree as legend Dharmesh. People
worship this tree by gathering collectively and
make wishes like good rainfall. It is believed
among them that the number of fruits these trees
bears depicts the amount of blessings their god would shower upon them like more fruits
would bring more rainfall. These trees are worshipped during month of ‘Phalguna’ when the
trees get laden with flowers. They distribute them among people as ‘Prasad’. Girls keep fasts
during these times to get a good partner, to bless them and their family members with good
health. These trees are believed to be sacred and thus protected by the native tribes. Both
male and female of the tribe wear a traditional thin, coarse cotton towel called ‘Gamcha’
during the event. The arrangements of the event take place at one place at a particular time
where people of the different villages come together to celebrate where they are asked to
leave nothing and carry every instrument with them to celebrate like dhol, dhamaka etc.
People celebrate and play these instruments enthusiastically so that the god become happy

17
and pour them with blessings, rainfall and happiness. The women making the painting is the
resident of Jaspur , Chhatisgarh living since the time when it was not separated from Madhya
Pradesh. She was working from last 15 days since Women’s Day. A song in Kuruk language
is sung during the event named “Make naana”.

Saila Dance- Celebrated during Magh and

ends in Diwali . People in this festival make
Khichdi as Prasad. Both Male and female wear
Kalki (peacock feather) over their head. Males
have Jhali in hand and females have handkerchief . Colour used in the painting is Acrylic.
Border is made by Chhui Mitti and the white background is daubed with cow dung. This
dance is popular among people of Sarguja and Chhindwara of Chhatisgarh. It is performed
after the season for harvest is over . Dancers forms a circle while dancing and sync their steps
with one another. At the end of the dance, the dancers are given paddy by the villagers and
they celebrate by eating and drinking together.

Dhigna Pianting- belong to Gond tribe from

Dhindauri village. Painting depicting a
‘Gaushala’(cowshed) where the two men in the
centre seeing the horoscope of the bride and
groom through paddy (‘dhaan’) called “Bhiti
Chitra”.

KUMHARAPARA

The Kumharapara open-air exhibition is dedicated to

India's pottery communities, aiming to offer a glimpse
into their ethnographic heritage and showcase their
innovative creations. This initiative was conceived to
offer a platform for these communities to share their
culture and pass down indigenous knowledge to the wider public.

18
ROCK ART EVIDENCES

PREHISTORIC CAVES– Open Air Exhibition

The site was excavated by GL Bodum from Deccan

College in 2001 , 2002 . Upper Paleaolithic ,
Mesolithic, Neolithic and few Historical tools and
paintings are also found as it is believed that in
Historical times, the soldiers used to take shelters
here to save themselves from the intruders.
4.walking man

WHY THESE PAINTINGS ARE DRAWN ?

Archaeologists says that due to availability of food resources openly. These paintings are
drawn due to sort of Leisure. Leisure follows ecology , the animals found in a area are
available to them , they started killing and storing them.

MICROLITHS

19
Raw material – flint

Crescent

VEETHI SANKUL

Birhors are divided into two groups: the nomadic

Uthlus and the settled Jaghi. Their settlements,
whether permanent or temporary, are called Tandas,
comprising conical huts with roofs made of Tendu
leaves. Uthlu Birhors refrain from any agricultural
activities and rely entirely on gathering forest
5.birhor hut
produce for sustenance. They occasionally employ
small basket traps for hunting. Their forest foraging includes collecting edible roots, fruits,
honey, and barks of creepers/trees for crafting ropes and baskets (IGRMS 2021).

The Rabaris, once nomadic, roamed vast distances in pursuit

of grazing lands for their livestock. Nowadays, they have
adopted a mixed economy, combining subsistence agriculture
with animal husbandry. In addition to tending to their herds,
the women of the community showcase their skills through
6.A relief artwork adorned with stunning embroidery, applique, and wall relief, following
mirrors, utilized as storage space within
the Rabari House. their traditional styles and adorning them with mirrors for
embellishment (IGRMS 2021)

The Dewars, a subset of the Gond tribe hailing from

Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, historically led a

7.the nomadic dewar

20
nomadic lifestyle. They served as minstrels, singers, entertainers, and tattoo artists for their
Gond patrons (IGRMS 2021).

8.mandwa relief work

The relief showing depiction of the popular
Bhagoria Mela of Jhabua,MP celebrated during Holi festival. The fare starts a week before
Holi. Men and Women often come for choosing the partners and for love affairs. The relief
serves as a blessing for the marital prosperity of newlyweds, crafted by elderly male and
female family members on the entrance's front wall. However, within the community's place
of worship, it's skillfully fashioned by the village's master artist or the village head,
preserving their traditional artistry (IGRMS 2021).

The Bhil and Rathwa communities showcase their

artistic and imaginative prowess through their
renowned Pithora Paintings. These artworks are
regarded as akin to scripts, recounting creation myths
through the divine writings of their god Pithora,
brought to life by human hands(IGRMS 2021). The
9.pithora painting
specialized identification of the painting includes the
positions of sun and moon where the sun is always drawn on left side of the painting and the
moon always drawn on the right side.

The painting depicting a marriage mandap of the

Rathwa community with decorated Jhapi packed in
‘Aata lep’(dough). The basket depicts the
‘Sringarpeti’(makeup box) of the bride.

10. MARRIAGE MANDWA OF THE RATHWAS

21
11.Pabuji shrine

The Pabuji Shrine holds great significance for the Garasia tribe of Rajasthan, serving as a
sacred site dedicated to the deity Pabuji. The deity is worshipped in the form of a stone idol
nestled beneath the shelter of a tree. Various terracotta objects, including horses, elephants,
camels, and tigers, are offered as tokens of reverence to appease the deity and honour his
divine presence (IGRMS 2021).

The wall paintings, known locally as Iddital, are created to

commemorate rituals marking various occasions(IGRMS
2021). Crafted with the intention of seeking blessings from
ancestral spirits, these paintings are believed to ensure
good health and economic prosperity.

12. saora community

13.Clothes of bhil tribe(male). Area- Kutch,Gujarat

22
Jagua Tribe’s Juari (horizontal) and Bokhari (vertical) to break big soil particles into small
pieces.

Burial horses and men to protect deceased

IDOLS OF RELIGIOUS HERITAGE

Sikmandal of11th century AD Jain Tirthankara of 12th to 13th century AD

23
A LOOK ON PREHISTORY

Painting of Precambrian period showing honey collection

Walking man of prehistoric period Prehistoric painting showing dancing scene

Wooden Fossil Palaeolithic panel prepared by Dr Manoj and DK Bhattacharya

TRIBAL HABITAT

NAGAS

24
Naga hut Meeting point of Nagas Group bed of Naga

For storage of things Naga Tribe For cooking and heating

Kitchen of Nagas Gate of Nagas

NAGA MORUNG

25
Mithun, the most important animal among Nagas

The concept of soul holds a significant place among Nagas and also the
concept of power. Beheading more number of men and bringing them to
home denotes more power and bringing more souls to their house.

14. Naga man

wearing hornbill
feathers

NAGA HOUSE MITHUN, horns wore by men Announcement drum

There are sixteen officially recognized Naga tribes in the state of

Nagaland, a hilly North Eastern part of India. There are several
other Naga tribes outside Nagaland - in Assam, Manipur,
Arunachal Pradesh and Burma (Myanmar). Each Naga tribe have
their similarities but also distinction in their attires, traditional
habits, food and even they way they build their homes. It's amazing
15. Granary storage of Nagas
how much diversity there is in this small group of ethnic people -
the Nagas. There are sixteen officially recognized Naga tribes in the state of Nagaland, a hilly
North Eastern part of India. There are several other Naga tribes outside Nagaland - in Assam,
Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Burma (Myanmar). Each Naga tribe have their similarities

26
but also distinction in their attires, traditional habits, food and even they way they build their
homes. It's amazing how much diversity there is in this small group of ethnic people - the
Nagas. There are sixteen officially recognized Naga tribes in the state of Nagaland, a hilly
North Eastern part of India. There are several other Naga tribes outside Nagaland - in Assam,
Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Burma (Myanmar). Each Naga tribe have their similarities
but also distinction in their attires, traditional habits, food and even they way they build their
homes. It's amazing how much diversity there is in this small group of ethnic people - the
Nagas.

SANTAL HOUSE (District Dumka, Jharkhand)

Santal is the third largest tribal community of India. They are distributed in states of Bihar,
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa and Tripura. Santal call themselves ‘Hor means man’. Their
highest concentration is found in Rajmahal, Dumka, Singhbhum Dhiga districts of Bihar.
Their main occupation is settled agriculture but hunting , gathering are also traditionally
practiced by Santal people.

The Santal village consists of a struggling street with houses on either side. The houses are
built in several ways .Walls are made by fixing thin poles, tying them with cross sampling
twigs, finishing them with plaster of clay and cow dung and lastly glazing with white clay.
The roof is two sloped and made with rafter of Salwood, thatched with jungle grass. Inside
every dwelling there is a low wall used to divide the house into small compartment named
Bhitars where the ancestars are worshipped. In front of the house there is a verandah. The
floor of the house is raised above the ground. Inside the house they keep the paddy in straw
bundles. The fireplace is made of clay having two or more opening. They put their Dheki to
the right side of the house. Cattle are kept in a separate cattle shed. Pig sty is situated at one
side and it has one door to the village street. In every house there are two rooms , one called
Bhitriora used for sleeping purpose and keeping vegetables. The outest room is called Dhaba
which is used for guests and also as kitchen . They never allow the outsiders to enter the inner
room. Santal have a rich artistic tradition. They create figures of birds, flowers, animals, tree
and forms of human beings in hunting and dancing postures to decorate the walls of their
dwellings. They use black, red and white natural colours for these paintings.

27
Rice storage Bird keeping fishing purpose

Rice storage removing husk from rice Storage of cattle

Entrances of the room are small so that people bow down their head
while passing as mark of respect

16.bedroom

28
slope of terrace made by wooden logs ‘peedhi’ Tulsi

DUSSEHRA CHARIOT OF BASTAR

In different regions of India, Dussehra commemorates the triumph of

either god "Rama" or the goddess "Shakti" over malevolent forces.
However, in Bastar, Chhattisgarh, it is observed to honor the supreme
goddess "Danteshwari Mai" from the local pantheon. This display
showcases a chariot associated with the Dussehra festival in
Bastar, Chhattisgarh (IGRMS 2021).

WARLI ART OF MAHARASTRA

29
 BHIMBETKA

Bhimbetka is one of the richest and oldest site of prehistoric significance which was declared
as World Heritage Site by UNESCO at 9th July,2003 and it is the only prehistoric site to
achieve this global recognition. This site was discovered by VS Wakankar in 1957 and for
this he got Padmashree . The site shows evidences of human habitation starting from
Prehistory upto the Historical period. The site has been excavated by VS Wakankar, VN
Mishra and SK Bajpayee. Bhimbetka is a collection of 1000 rock shelters and among 500 -
600 of them have prehistorical paintings.

Unlike the rock sites of Southern India which is dominated by Bruising , the rock art sites of
Central India as in Madhya Pradesh is dominated by paintings from lower paleolithic to
historical period. Many of these paintings have partially faded because of the destruction
action of natural and human agencies. The majority of rock paintings display a preference for
various shades of red, ranging from deep violet to yellowish brick red. This red pigment was
typically sourced from red Haematite nodules, known as geru, which contain iron oxide
found in lateritic formations. The second most commonly used color was white, likely
acquired from either calcium carbonate nodules (kankar) or kaolin clay deposits. The
majority of rock paintings display a preference for various shades of red, ranging from deep
violet to yellowish brick red. This red pigment was typically sourced from red Haematite
nodules, known as geru, which contain iron oxide found in lateritic formations. The second
most commonly used colour was white, likely acquired from either calcium carbonate
nodules (kankar) or kaolin clay deposits.

Bhimbetka has revealed not only the types of tools made and used by man during Late
Pleistocene and early Holocene period but also provide a good deal of information regarding
the art. Having numerous rock paintings , the site cover period of 10,000 years. However, it
has been said that the oldest human community that settled in these caves lived around
100,000 years ago during the Lower Paleolithic or Old Stone Age.

Bhimbetka symbolizes the blending of antiquity, art and environment. This contiguous area
preserves all the phases of earliest of man. On which some are visible on the surface in the
form of paintings from Mesolithic to Medieval era and are some are hidden in undisturbed
layers from Palaeolithic to Historic period as evidenced by archaeological surveys.

The name Bhimbetka is taken from the Bhima, one of the Pandava from the Mythical story
named Mahabharata. It is called as Sitting place of Bhima. The white lines seen on the

30
shelters shows the presence of water currents some 250 to 300 crore years ago , most
probably The Narmada river was flowing in these caves. The geometric patterns in paintings
of Bhimbetka is said to be the birthplace of Warli Art in Gujarat and Maharastra.

BHOJ TEMPLE

Every ancient Hindu temple serves as a living repository of knowledge, showcasing the
societal, scientific, artistic, and engineering achievements of the past through inscriptions and
engravings on its walls. The Bhojeshwar Temple, located in Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh, India,
dedicated to Lord Shiva, epitomizes this concept as a captivating living museum with
enigmatic mysteries surrounding it. Constructed during the 11th century under the patronage
of King Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty, the temple stands as a testament to his support for
arts, literature, and sciences. Its remarkable feature includes a colossal Shivling made from a
single stone, measuring 18 feet in length and 7.5 feet in diameter. Notably, the Bhojeshwar
Temple displays unique architectural elements, such as its domed roof, which predates the
Islamic influence in India, suggesting early dome construction practices in the region. The

31
temple's entrance boasts the largest door among Hindu structures, while four towering pillars,
each 40 feet tall, support the incomplete sanctuary roof.

Additionally, the temple's back slope facilitated the transportation of massive stones during
its construction, showcasing advanced engineering techniques of that era. Despite its
grandeur, the temple's construction abruptly ceased, possibly due to natural disasters,
resource shortages, or conflicts.

The temple's peculiarities, including the absence of a mandapa and the rectilinear roof instead
of the conventional curvilinear shikhara, have led scholars like Shri Krishna Deva to
speculate that it might have served as a funerary monument, perhaps built by King Bhoja in
honor of his father or uncle.

Despite the mysteries surrounding its incomplete state and the reasons for its abandonment,
the Bhojeshwar Temple continues to intrigue scholars and visitors alike, offering insights into
ancient Indian civilization, architecture, and religious practices (Dokras 2022).

SANCHI STUPA AND UDAYGIRI CAVES

The Sanchi Stupa, a renowned Buddhist complex, stands proudly atop a hill in Sanchi town,
Madhya Pradesh, India, about 46 km northeast of Bhopal, the state capital. Its origins trace
back to the visionary Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty in the 3rd century B.C.E., who
initiated the construction of stupas to enshrine the remains of Gautama Buddha. This
monumental hemispherical dome, towering 54 ft. high, houses a central chamber
safeguarding Buddha's relics. Queen Devi, Ashoka's wife, and their daughter Vidisha
oversaw the construction, while an inscribed sandstone pillar, bearing Ashoka's edicts, stands
nearby. Pushyamitra Sunga, a general of the Mauryan empire, established the Shunga dynasty
in 185 BCE after overthrowing the last Mauryan Emperor, Brihadratha Mauryan. During this

32
period, it's believed the stupa faced destruction, only to be reconstructed later by Agnimitra,
Pushyamitra's son. Under the Shunga dynasty's rule, the stupa expanded significantly,
doubling its original size. A flattened stone dome, adorned with three umbrella-like structures
symbolizing Dharma, now crowns the edifice, accessible via a double staircase. Despite a
long history spanning over three millennia, Sanchi Stupa lay forgotten from the 14th century
until its rediscovery in 1818 by General Taylor. Adorned with Ashoka's inscriptions and
Gupta period Shankha Lipi, the stupa also boasts numerous Brahmi inscriptions. Notably,
though Buddha never visited this site, it houses the famous Ashoka pillar adorned with four
lions, constructed in a Greco-Buddhist style. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
1989, Sanchi Stupa's architectural marvels include four intricately carved gateways and a
surrounding balustrade, showcasing exquisite sculptural artistry and technical prowess.Atop
the Sanchi hill rise three main stupas, with the central one towering about 100m above the
plain. Initially, a simple brick structure enshrined Buddha's relics, crowned with a Chhatra,
symbolizing honour and protection. The stupa's evolution saw the addition of four ornate
gateways during the 1st century B.C., crafted with meticulous detail, possibly based on
earlier wooden models (Singh, Srivastava 2023).

UDAYGIRI CAVES

The Udayagiri Caves, famously known as the Sunrise Caves, stand as a testament to the
architectural and artistic prowess of the Gupta Empire, dating back to that illustrious period.

33
This complex comprises 20 intricately carved rock-cut temples nestled within the sandstone
hills, commanding a majestic view of the city below.

Each cave, meticulously chiseled into the rock, is dedicated to various Hindu deities,
showcasing a harmonious blend of Gupta and post-Gupta architectural styles. Among them,
Cave 5, also referred to as the Rani Gumpha or Queen's Cave, stands out with its exquisite
adornments, featuring intricate carvings of revered Hindu figures such as Lord Shiva and
Parvati.

Another remarkable cave is Cave 4, known as the Bada Gumpha or Great Cave, devoted to
Lord Vishnu. Here, visitors are greeted by a magnificent sculpture depicting Vishnu in his
Varaha incarnation as a boar. The Udayagiri Caves not only serve as a testament to Hinduism
but also reflect the influence of Jainism and Buddhism (Times Of India 2023) .

The Jaina Caves, notably Cave 19, boast exquisite sculptures and inscriptions, offering a
glimpse into the rich Jain heritage. Meanwhile, the Buddhist Caves, though fewer in number,
provide valuable insights into the region's religious diversity, albeit in a more modest manner
compared to their Hindu and Jain counterparts

ANALYSIS….

Rock art stands as the most extensive evidence we have of humanity's artistic, cognitive, and
cultural origins, spanning across numerous countries and serving as a nearly universal mode
of human expression and communication since the earliest days of civilization. India,
alongside Australia and South Africa, boasts one of the world's largest concentrations of this
invaluable heritage. Spread across diverse climatic regions, Indian rock art encompasses a
vast temporal range from the Palaeolithic era to the historic period, offering insights into the
evolving social dynamics of human societies. Its thematic and stylistic diversity is
remarkable, rendering it a truly magnificent and, in many aspects, unparalleled cultural
treasure of global significance, representing a vital heritage of humanity (Sonawane,2002).

Bhimbetka is one of the richest and oldest site of prehistoric significance which was declared
as World Heritage Site by UNESCO at 9th July,2003 and it is the only prehistoric site to
achieve this global recognition. This site was discovered by VS Wakankar in 1957 and for
this he got Padmashree . The site shows evidences of human habitation starting from
Prehistory upto the Historical period. The site has been excavated by VS Wakankar, VN

34
Mishra and SK Bajpayee. Bhimbetka is a collection of 1000 rock shelters and among 500 -
600 of them have prehistorical paintings.

Unlike the rock sites of Southern India which is dominated by Bruising , the rock art sites of
Central India as in Madhya Pradesh is dominated by paintings from lower paleolithic to
historical period. Many of these paintings have partially faded because of the destructive
action of natural and human agencies. The majority of rock paintings display a preference for
various shades of red, ranging from deep violet to yellowish brick red. This red pigment was
typically sourced from red Haematite nodules, known as geru, which contain iron oxide
found in lateritic formations. The second most commonly used color was white, likely
acquired from either calcium carbonate nodules (kankar) or kaolin clay deposits. The
majority of rock paintings display a preference for various shades of red, ranging from deep
violet to yellowish brick red(Sonawane,2002). The binding mediums used in the paintings
were water, animal fat and plant gums.

Bhimbetka has revealed not only the types of tools made and used by man during Late
Pleistocene and early Holocene period but also provide a good deal of information regarding
the art. Having numerous rock paintings , the site cover period of 10,000 years. However, it
has been said that the oldest human community that settled in these caves lived around
100,000 years ago during the Lower Paleolithic or Old Stone Age.

Bhimbetka symbolizes the blending of antiquity, art and environment. This contiguous area
preserves all the phases of earliest of man. On which some are visible on the surface in the
form of paintings from Mesolithic to Medieval era and are some are hidden in undisturbed
layers from Palaeolithic to Historic period as evidenced by archaeological surveys.

These caves also have a rich Buddhist past and they were home to Buddhist monks from 2nd
century BC to 1st century AD. The Brahmi inscriptions on the rock paintings of Bhimbetka
can be dated back to 2nd century BC.

The name Bhimbetka is taken from the Bhima, one of the Pandava from the Mythical story
named Mahabharata. It is called as Sitting place of Bhima. The white lines seen on the
shelters shows the presence of water currents some 250 to 300 crore years ago , most
probably The Narmada river was flowing in these caves. The geometric patterns in paintings
of Bhimbetka is said to be the birthplace of Warli Art in Gujarat and Maharastra. The area
remained occupied till the 19th century AD upto the Gond Period.

35
Bhimbetka is one of the first site where pigments have been dated directly to determine the
age of the paintings. The paintings have also been dated by spectrometry , a non invasive
method. In many instances, dating is done with the use of water.

Clan members have painted these caves with events of

their everyday life and the animals around them on which
their hunter gatherer community depended.

EXPLORING ROCK ART OF BHIMBETKA

Before reaching the Auditorium cave , there is Rock shelter 1 which contains the paintings of
Historic Period and after passing the Auditorium cave , there is another cave called Zoo
where one finds paintings of various animals on rock.

ROCK SHELTER 1

Painting of the Historical period depicting two elephants

with the smaller elephant is driven by man holding a spear
in his hand and sword in his waist. Indicating the historical
period is filled with the scenes of war where the animals
like horses and elephants were assumed of having
significance

CAVE III F 24 [Auditorium Cave]

Auditorium cave is the central site of Bhimbetka located 40 km south of Bhopal. Auditorium
cave has substantial middle paleaolithic occupational layers . These are cemented by Calcite
deposition which prevents it from any postdepositional in the strata present below. Perhaps it
is the site where the clan members gather together for a meeting

36
Cupules, the cup shaped depressions present in chief rock of Auditorium cave. They are
believed to be created by prehistoric people, possibly for rituals, ceremonies, communication
or symbolic purposes, however their exact meaning is not fully understood. Their
stratigraphic position within the habitation deposit suggests that they were made during
Acheulian. They are one of the earliest expressions of creativity of man. They are considered
as the oldest known rock art in the world (Bednarik 1994: 358-57a; Bednarik et.al.
1991:34)

ROCK PAINTINGS

Rock paintings indeed offer a fascinating glimpse into the lives and cultures of prehistoric
humans. They're like windows to our ancient past, showcasing not only the fauna of the time
but also the daily activities and beliefs of our ancestors. It's incredible how these artworks
have endured through millennia, preserving stories and traditions for us to study and admire.

Rock art showing paintings of animals painted around their handprint including
peacock ,tigers, deer , bulls and other wildlife dated around 5000 BC. These animals are
drawn in naturalistic style and suggests that these paintings belong to Mesolithic period .
There is also a depiction of child hand who lived some 10,000 years ago which is believed to
be one of the member of family who has made the painting. These paintings are made with
the iron oxide pigment called geru mixed with herbs ,painted with brushes made of branches
of trees. Age of the paintings are identified by Carbon 14 radiometric technique. The clan
members would have painted the caves with events of their everyday life and animals around
them on which their hunter gatherer community depended.

Trench excavated by VS Wakankar where he discovered

a gap below Acheulian , pebbles and other tools seemed

37
to be older than lower palaeolithic . A human skeleton of height around 5.5 feet had also been
recovered from the trench. Dated 6000 years by carbon testing. The bones not yet dissolved
as the prehistoric people didn’t used salt in their diet.

Not cupules but occurred naturally

Zoo Rock (Cave- Zoo)

There are 453 figures painted on this caves which includes 252 animals of 16 different
species painted on its wall. Earliest paintings depict animals. Paintings of later age show the
hunting scenes. These paintings of the Mesolithic period shift to scenes of war during the
historical period.It can be inferred through these paintings that people didn’t know how to
show body like many animals are shown with 2 horns instead of one. Moreover, they were
also not able to show the profile of humans correctly.Mesolithic paintings can be well
differentiated as they are decorated, geometric pattern paintings showing scenes of
animals.The orientation of paintings towards left indicates their migration at particular period
and movement towards the left side. These paintings depict the contemporary life styles of
prehistoric people.

The painting probably depicting scene of

war of Historical period. The painting shows
a royal procession in the lower portion of the
shelter. The horsemen and warriors are
shown with long hair and headdresses. They
are having bows, arrows, swords and shields.
This is the last painting in Zoorock. One animal is lying over the other which are segregated
by the use of tracing method . The layer lower than the other layer is older than the latter.
The more distinction in styles over the layers depict more differences in culture . However
exact dating of these paintings has not been obtained.

38
 Painting depicts a Shaman watching over the
different activities going on in the life of our
ancestors painted over the last 10,000 years.
Dated 10,000 years BC , animals including
spotted dear, monkey, elephant, swamp
dear(bara singha) and the butchered animals
with ribs are shown . Pigment used in these
paintings is Calcium Carbonate derived from leaching process

Rock painting of a Elephant of Historical period

Prehistoric people walking with persecuted

animals

Painting made on hard rocks depicting good knowledge of

Prehistoric man about geological processes.

Lichens , the pollution indicators indicates that the environment is

pollution free which prevents the paintings and the rocks to get eroded.
Lichonometry is the relative dating method where the different colours
like yellow and green showing different rates of growth are recorded to
determine how old lichens are thereby determining the age of rock.

Painting of medieval (historical) period showing horse . It is

the painting of a Ashwamegha Horse during the period of
king Chandragupta Vikramaditya when the king used to
39
perform the ‘Rajsuya Yagya’in around 3rd or 4th century AD . On its left side, there is a
painting of flower pot with flowers.

Painting of a tree resembling that of Black Plum(‘jamun’) with two

animals lying over it. Tree depicts the presence of water in the
cave .

Men falling from the hill

Men carrying animals after hunting

About rock shelter no.12- This shelter has paintings of different types of animals like buffalo
and Nilgais. Very interesting painting of four man falling from an elevated cliff has been
depicted.

40
 This is a painting of a giant mythical animal chasing a
human painted on the upper surface of the rock shelter.
Showing prehistoric belief in Totemism as people of
prehistoric times were closely associated with nature . The
bore might be a punisher for people who did wrong.
18.Mythical Bore charging a man
About Rock Shelter no.15 – It is an unusual shelter with
mushroom shaped giant rock ,is famous for a large silhouetted figure of a bore like animal
which is painted at a height of 9.85 metres from the ground and is known as Boar Rock. The
animal depicted with two crescent horns , a massive snout with mustaches and bristles on the
back , unusually large with composite features, is critically mythical. Near its snout is the
figure of a fleeing man and in front of him that of a crab. No superimposition over the
painting depicts some sort of belief in Totemism.

Group Dance painting. A man in the top playing the

instrument with his hands and others are dancing. On its
top left male and females couples are shown.They
probably used organic matter and binders in making these
paintings. The dancing scenes shows some type of
ritualistic behaviour where people come together and celebrate a ritual by dancing and
playing instruments.

Painting of a Bison.Major part of paintings dominated by

animals where were being hunted during those times.

Historic painting showing scene of war where it

is assumed that the man riding in a decorated
horse or the chariot is King Ashoka with his
group and above it three men are shown who
are collectively hunting a animal .

41
Once published fake as a Deccan fossil, later after getting evidence of wax ,claimed that it is
a beehive like structure dated 550 mn years ago

UPPER PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD-

Wakankar believed, that some of the early depictions in rock paintings of green coloured S
shaped dancing human figures do belong to the Upper Palaeolithic phase of Indian prehistory
as seen in rock shelters (III F28) at Bhimbetka. Moreover, Ostrich egg shells found at
rockshelter III A 28 recovered from the stratified archaeological deposits of Upper
Palaeolithic period. The paintings of Upper Palaeolithic period are divided into two
categories, first is the non figurative or non iconic and second is the figurative or iconic.
Thus, rock paintings representing purely geometric patterns and art forms and succeeding
figurative or iconic depictions in red or green, animated human and animal figures are
considered as the earliest depictions belonging to the Upper Palaeolithic
period(Sonawane,2002).

MESOLITHIC PERIOD-

The extensive range of rock art from the Mesolithic era displays a rich array of descriptive
elements. Despite being widespread across India, it exhibits a surprising consistency in both
style and content. Notably, there is a distinct contrast in the depiction of humans and animals:
while animals are rendered with naturalistic detail, humans are often portrayed as simplistic
stick figures or adorned with elaborate headgear and masks. This difference is particularly
evident in hunting scenes.

In contrast to the slender male figures, female figures are consistently depicted with a static,
square-shaped body, allowing ample space for decorative patterns. Intricate designs like
spirals or honeycombs are frequently observed in these paintings, showcasing continuity with
earlier artistic traditions. Moreover, there is a seamless integration of body patterns and "X-
ray depictions" within single compositions.

Mesolithic rock art provides intricate insights into various activities, meticulously recording
details to convey intended messages. Hunting scenes, prevalent during this period, depict a
diverse array of game being pursued with spears and arrows adorned with microliths.
Detailed depictions extend to various trapping techniques, transportation of kills, butchering
practices, and subsistence activities such as fishing and foraging for fruits and honey.

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Beyond hunting, the paintings also portray scenes of communal activities such as dancing,
singing, and feasting within sheltered structures. Additionally, a significant portion of the
artwork explores themes of religion or spirituality, featuring mythical narratives of divine
creatures pursuing human figures or illustrating rituals and healing practices. Particularly
poignant are scenes depicting mourning rituals, such as the burial of a child, evoking a sense
of emotional depth and human experience (Sonawane,2002).

The animals and human figures are generally drawn in profile . Greater details are shown in
the depiction of animal figures than in the human figures which are almost always shown in a
stick shaped form.

Additionally, the presence of burial pits in Bhimbetka conveys the practice of burying dead
bodies portraying the advancement in culture where the dead body is usually placed in
extended position with head facing towards east. Mesolithic people also believes in some sort
of life after death as the dead body is buried along with its belongings in the form of grave
goods like stones , bone tools , rubbers and antlers as the main occupation of the people of
those times was hunting and gathering.

HISTORIC PERIOD-

Rock Art of Historic period is characterized by presence of Brahmi, Nagari and Sankha scrips
besides depiction of religious items and symbols of various religious faiths. Aside from
explicit religious or ritual depictions, the rock art from the Historic period prominently
showcases richly adorned horses and elephants, frequently accompanied by riders, portraying
scenes of battle. These scenes typically depict soldiers actively engaged in combat, wielding
a variety of metal weaponry including spears, swords, shields, daggers, and occasionally
bows and arrows. Occasionally, the artwork features soldiers clad in armor for added
protection.

During the Historic period, rock paintings are distinguished by the inclusion of inscriptions
alongside painted compositions. These inscriptions often feature Brahmi and Shanka writings
alongside depictions of religious icons and symbols from Brahmanical and Buddhist
traditions. Additionally, scenes of warfare, processions featuring horse and elephant riders
armed with swords and shields, as well as mythological and contemporary narratives, are
commonly depicted. There is also a notable preference for the use of white colour in later
paintings of this period. The periodization of Indian rock paintings is thus supported by a

43
chronological framework based on the observation of overlapping rock pictures belonging to
different stylistic groups(Sonawane,2002).

On analyzing the paintings , it is clear that the animals dominated in the paintings of cave
dwellers as animals are the most important part of prehistoric man’s environment and life.
The purpose why the cave dwellers have drawn such paintings seems to be associated with
leisure. As prehistoric people being directly connected to the environment, food resources
were available directly, thus to spent their time they would have drawn these paintings to
show their contemporary lifestyles and also of their beliefs and rituals as can be inferred from
the paintings showing group dancing which reflects some sort of celebration and also the
giant non- superimposed painting of a bore depicting their believe in Totemism. Overall we
see that these paintings ranging from lower palaeolithic to historic period show scenes of man
hunting , domesticating the animals and scenes of battles and ritualistic beliefs . However the
immaterial part or emotional side of human life have not portraid well in these paintings ,
like the bond of love and care.

SUMMARY
Madhya Pradesh, often revered as the 'heart of India,' presents a captivating fusion of deep-
rooted heritage, historical eminence, and cultural opulence, harmonized by the pristine allure
of its natural vistas. Encompassing lush wildlife reserves and verdant forests, the state casts a
serene spell upon all who traverse its expanse. Its fabric is adorned with ancient rock shelters
and caves that ignite imaginations, alongside revered temples and monuments that recount
tales of antiquity.

Tikoda, a singular culture open-air site, is pivotal in understanding the intricate relationship
between humans and their environment through surface occurrences. It stands out as a surface
site, reflecting a prevalent context in Indian archaeology, where approximately 99 percent of
sites are surface-based, contrasting with only 1 percent in buried contexts. This site gained
prominence through excavations by Jerome Jacobson, an American Anthropologist, who
focused on the Putlikarar group of rock shelters and its vicinity, asserting the presence of the
world's largest concentration of handaxes and cleavers in this area.
44
Damdongri, characterized by a dominance of finished tools and core preparation activities
on-site, has been extensively studied by Dr. S.B. Otta. Located on the Deccan trap, it
predominantly features Basaltic raw materials and abundant food resources. Noteworthy is
the transition observed from larger, bulkier tools to smaller ones while moving from Tikoda
to Damdongri. The site's soil composition of black soil with calcareous deposits, alongside
the presence of hematite nodules and fossilized eggshell fragments of ostriches, adds to its
unique allure. Notably, the crystals found here are believed to have been brought out of
curiosity. Damdongri, although not a primary site, showcases recycled lithic artifacts,
distinguishing it as a unique Acheulian site in prehistory.

The Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya (IGRMS), hailed as Asia's largest
anthropological museum, stands as a testament to collaborative efforts between
anthropologists and communities to preserve and celebrate cultural heritage. Spanning an
expansive 200-acre area, the museum encapsulates the essence of diverse communities within
their natural environments, showcasing their lifestyles, traditions, and arts in authentic
settings. It stands as a museum by the community, for the community, presenting recreations
true to the cultural ethos of each represented group.

Bhimbetka, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since July 9, 2003, and discovered by V.S.
Wakankar in 1957, holds significant prehistoric importance. It harbors evidence of human
habitation spanning from prehistory to the historical period, with around 500-600 of its 1000
rock shelters adorned with prehistoric paintings. Unlike southern Indian rock sites dominated
by engravings, central Indian sites like Bhimbetka boast paintings from the Lower Paleolithic
to the historical era. However, many paintings have suffered partial fading due to natural and
human interventions. The predominant use of red pigments sourced from hematite nodules
and white pigments from calcium carbonate nodules or kaolin clay deposits characterizes
Bhimbetka's rock art.

Sanchi Stupa, perched majestically atop a hill in Sanchi town, traces its origins to Emperor
Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty in the 3rd century B.C.E. Constructed to enshrine the relics of
Gautama Buddha, this monumental hemispherical dome, towering 54 feet high, bears
testament to ancient architectural prowess and Buddhist reverence. Overseen by Queen Devi
and Princess Vidisha, its significance is further underscored by an inscribed sandstone pillar
bearing Ashoka's edicts nearby.

45
 CHALLENGES-

 Processing and interpreting the collected data accurately and effectively.

 Compiling and organizing vast amounts of information into a coherent and readable
format.
 Presenting findings in a way that respects the cultural context of the research area and
its inhabitants.
 Ensuring the report is written clearly and concisely, especially for an audience that
may not be familiar with the subject matter.
 Subjecting the report to peer review to ensure its accuracy and credibility.
 Managing time effectively to complete the report within the specified timeframe.

CONCLUSION-

The prehistoric sites in Bhimbetka, including Tikoda, IGRMS, and the iconic Bhimbetka rock
shelters, alongside treasures like the Sanchi Stupa, hold immense significance in our
understanding of human history, culture, and art. These sites offer a unique glimpse into the
lives of our ancient ancestors and the evolution of human civilization.

The rock paintings of Bhimbetka, dating back thousands of years, are not just artistic
expressions but invaluable historical records. They depict scenes of daily life, rituals, hunting
expeditions, and the diverse fauna of the region, providing insights into the social, cultural,
and environmental dynamics of prehistoric times.

46
Moreover, these sites serve as vital repositories of knowledge for archaeologists,
anthropologists, historians, and art enthusiasts, enabling them to piece together the puzzle of
our past and shed light on the origins of human creativity and symbolism.

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