Plant Design For Acetaldehyde Production
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Adu GilbertPlant Design For Acetaldehyde Production
Uploaded by
Adu GilbertPLANT DESIGN FOR THE PRODUCTION OF ACETALDEHYDE FROM ACETIC
ACID
A Plant Design Project Report
Presented to the
Department of Chemical Engineering
Faculty of Mechanical and Chemical Engineering
College of Engineering
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi
By
ANDERSON, KENNETH
ASAMOAH, GILBERT ADU
BOAMAH, NANCY NYANTAKYIWAA
YORKE, ANGELA
In partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
Bachelor of Science (HONS)
Chemical Engineering
June, 2022
©
ABSTRACT
Our plant will be designed to manufacture 46,048,700 kg/year of acetaldehyde via the
hydrogenation of acetic acid over a 20% wt. palladium on iron oxide catalyst. The acetic acid
will first be produced via the Monsanto process which is the carbonylation of methanol over
a rhodium catalyst. The conversion of acetic acid in the reactor is 46% with a selectivity of
86% to acetaldehyde. Major by-products include ethanol, ethyl acetate, acetone, carbon
dioxide, ethylene, ethane and methane. Acetaldehyde is purified in a series of steps. It is first
absorbed with an acetic-acid rich solvent, then distilled to separate acetaldehyde from heavier
components. Acetaldehyde produced is of 99.6% wt. purity. Unconverted acetic acid is
purified and collected to be used in the reactor to limit the amount of feedstock required.
Ethyl acetate is produced as a by-product in the acetaldehyde distillation column and is
purified and sold. Acetone is also produced and is purified and sold. The plant will be sited
at Tema Industrial area. The actualization of the project requires an initial total capital
investment of $192,634,113. The economics analysis deem it feasible with an annual rate of
return of 70.8%, payback time of 2.5 years, turnover ratio of 11.3 and a break-even amount
of 38,220,729 kg. This renders the project economically feasible and hence recommended
for construction.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................ xii
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... xiv
CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................1
1.1 Main Objective...........................................................................................................................2
1.2 Specific Objectives ....................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................4
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................4
2.1 Aldehydes ..................................................................................................................................4
2.2 Acetaldehyde........................................................................................................................4
2.2.1 Definition, Sources and Structure .......................................................................................4
2.2.2 Uses .....................................................................................................................................5
2.2.3 Properties ............................................................................................................................6
2.2.4 Production of Acetaldehyde ................................................................................................7
2.2.5 Alternative Processes and their Disadvantages ...................................................................7
2.3 Acetic Acid ..........................................................................................................................8
2.3.1 Definition, Sources and Structure .......................................................................................8
2.3.2 Uses .....................................................................................................................................8
2.3.3 Properties ............................................................................................................................9
2.3.4 Production of Acetic Acid.................................................................................................10
2.4 Ethyl Acetate – A major by-Product ........................................................................................12
2.4.1 Uses ...................................................................................................................................13
2.4.2 Properties ..........................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER THREE ...........................................................................................................................15
3.0 PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION .........................................................................15
iii
3.1 Process Selection .....................................................................................................................15
3.2 Process Description ..................................................................................................................15
3.2.1 Production of Acetic Acid.................................................................................................15
3.2.2 Reaction Section ...............................................................................................................17
3.2.3 Purification of Acetaldehyde ............................................................................................18
3.2.4 Separation of Acetic Acid .................................................................................................19
3.2.5 Ethyl Acetate Separation...................................................................................................20
3.2.6 Acetone and Wastewater Removal ...................................................................................20
CHAPTER FOUR ..............................................................................................................................21
4.0 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE ............................................................................21
4.1 Material Balance ......................................................................................................................21
4.2 Energy Balance ........................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER FIVE ...............................................................................................................................38
5.0 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION ..........................................................................................38
CHAPTER SIX ..................................................................................................................................40
6.0 EQUIPMENT DESIGN .........................................................................................................40
6-1.0 DESIGN OF A PACKED BED REACTOR ........................................................................40
6-1.1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................40
6-1.2 Main Objective .....................................................................................................................40
6-1.3 Specific Objectives ...............................................................................................................40
6-1.4 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................41
6-1.5 Reactor Classification by mode of operation ........................................................................41
6-1.5.1. Batch Reactors ..............................................................................................................41
6-1.5.2 Continuous Flow Reactors.............................................................................................41
6-1.6 Equipment Selection and Justification..................................................................................44
6-1.7 Equipment and Process Description .....................................................................................45
6-1.7.1 Equipment Description ..................................................................................................45
6-1.7.2 Process Description .......................................................................................................45
iv
6-1.8 Chemical Engineering Calculations .....................................................................................45
6-1.8.1 Volumetric flow rate ......................................................................................................46
6-1.8.2 Volume of Catalyst Bed.................................................................................................46
6-1.8.3 Weight of catalyst ..........................................................................................................47
6-1.8.4 Rate of the reaction ........................................................................................................47
6-1.8.5 Volume of the Reactor ...................................................................................................48
6-1.8.6 Residence Time .............................................................................................................48
6-1.8.7 Space Velocity ...............................................................................................................48
6-1.8.8 Length and Diameter of Reactor ....................................................................................48
6-1.8.9 Tube Diameter and Length ............................................................................................49
6-1.8.10 Number of Tubes .........................................................................................................49
6-1.9 Mechanical Engineering Calculations ..................................................................................50
6-1.9.1 Material of Construction ................................................................................................50
6-1.9.2 Design Temperature and Pressure .................................................................................51
6-1.9.3 Reactor Wall Thickness .................................................................................................52
6-1.9.4 Reactor Head Thickness ................................................................................................52
6-1.9.5 Stress Analysis ...............................................................................................................52
6-1.9.6 Dynamic Wind Pressure ................................................................................................54
6-1.9.7 Vessel Support ...............................................................................................................54
6-1.10 Mechanical Engineering Drawing ......................................................................................56
6-2.0 DESIGN OF A SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER ..............................................57
6-2.1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................57
6-2.2 Main Objective .....................................................................................................................57
6-2.3 Specific Objectives ...............................................................................................................57
6-2.4 Introduction to Heat Exchangers ..........................................................................................57
6-2.5 Equipment Selection .............................................................................................................59
6-2.5.1 Fixed Tube Sheet Exchanger .........................................................................................60
6-2.5.2 Floating head exchanger ................................................................................................60
v
6-2.5.3 U tube exchanger ...........................................................................................................61
6-2.5.4 Advantages of shell and tube heat exchanger ................................................................61
6-2.5.5 Disadvantages of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers ...................................................61
6-2.6 Equipment Justification ........................................................................................................62
6-2.7 Equipment Description .........................................................................................................62
6-2.8 Chemical Engineering Design ..............................................................................................65
6-2.8.1 Heat transfer area, A ......................................................................................................65
6-2.8.1.3 Mean temperature difference TM .............................................................................66
6-2.8.2 Heat Load, Q ..............................................................................................................69
6-2.8.3 Mean Temperature difference ....................................................................................70
6-2.8.4 Heat Transfer Area, A....................................................................................................70
Tube side heat transfer coefficient, (hi)..............................................................................................73
6-2.6.4 Shell side Calculations...................................................................................................73
6-2.8.5 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .........................................................................................78
6-2.8.6 Tube Wall Temperature .........................................................................................................79
6-2.9 Mechanical Engineering Design ...........................................................................................81
6-2.9.1 Design Temperature ..............................................................................................................81
6-2.9.2 Design Pressure .....................................................................................................................81
6-2.9.3 Material of Construction ................................................................................................82
6-2.9.4 Shell Dimensions and Orientation .................................................................................82
6-2.9.5 Weight of Cooling Water in Heat Exchanger, Wcw ...............................................................85
6-2.9.6 Selection of Heads .................................................................................................................87
Weight of Nozzles..............................................................................................................................89
6-2.9.7 Support Design ......................................................................................................................89
6-2.9.8 Stress Analysis .......................................................................................................................90
6-2.10 Mechanical Engineering Drawing..............................................................................94
6-3.0 DESIGN OF A PACKED BED ASORPTION COLUMN ..................................................95
6-3.1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................95
vi
6-3.2 Main Objective .....................................................................................................................95
6-3.3 Specific Objective.................................................................................................................95
6-3.4 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................95
6-3.5 Types of absorbers ................................................................................................................96
6-3.5.1 Packed bed Absorption Column ....................................................................................97
6-3.5.2 Plate or Tray Tower .......................................................................................................98
6-3.5.3 Venturi cleaning tower ..................................................................................................98
6-3.5.4 Spray chamber ...............................................................................................................99
6-3.6 Equipment Description .........................................................................................................99
6-3.6.1 Equipment Selection ....................................................................................................100
6-3.6.2 Parts of Absorption Column ........................................................................................101
6-3.6.3 Types of Packings ........................................................................................................102
6-3.7 Equipment Justification ......................................................................................................103
6-3.7.1 Selection of Packing Material ......................................................................................103
6-3.8 Chemical Engineering Design ............................................................................................103
6-3.8.1 Material Balance ..........................................................................................................104
6-3.8.2 MOLAR MASS OF INLET GAS ...............................................................................104
6-3.8.3 DENSITY OF GAS FEED ..........................................................................................105
6-3.8.4 Entering Gas ................................................................................................................105
6-3.8.5 Entering Liquid ............................................................................................................106
6-3.8.6 LIQUID-GAS RATIO (MINIMUM &ACTUAL) ......................................................107
6-3.8.7 ABSORPTION FACTOR, AF ....................................................................................107
6-3.8.8 NUMBER OF GAS PHASE TRANSFER UNITS .....................................................108
6-3.8.9 MAXIMUM VAPOUR FLOW RATE........................................................................108
6-3.8.10 PRESSURE DROP CORRELATION FOR PACKED COLUMN ...........................108
6-3.8.11 AREA OF ABSORBER ............................................................................................109
6-3.8.11 HEIGHT OF COLUMN ............................................................................................109
6-3.9 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN ......................................................................111
vii
6-3.9.1 Material of Construction ..............................................................................................112
6-3.9.2 Selection of Material....................................................................................................112
6-3.9.3 Design Pressure ...........................................................................................................113
6-3.9.4 Design Temperature.....................................................................................................113
6-3.9.5 Minimum Practical Wall Thickness ............................................................................114
6-3.9.6 Column Head Design ...................................................................................................114
6-3.9.7 Design Stress ...............................................................................................................115
6-3.9.8 Weight of Vessel..........................................................................................................115
6-3.9.9 Weight of Ceramic Intalox Saddles .............................................................................116
6-3.9.10 Total Weight of Column ............................................................................................116
6-3.9.11 Dead Weight Stress....................................................................................................116
6-3.9.12 Wind Loading ............................................................................................................117
6-3.9.13 Skirt Support ..............................................................................................................118
6-3.9.14 Weight on Skirt ..........................................................................................................118
6-3.9.15 Stress analysis on skirt ...............................................................................................119
6-3.9.16 Bending stress on Skirt ..............................................................................................119
6-3.8.17 Dead Weight Stress on Skirt ......................................................................................120
6-3.10 Mechanical Engineering Drawing ....................................................................................122
6-4.0 DESIGN OF A DISTILLATION COLUMN .....................................................................123
6-4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................123
6-4.2 Problem Statement ..............................................................................................................123
6-4.3 Main Objective ...................................................................................................................124
6-4.4 Specific Objectives ......................................................................................................124
6-4.5 Equipment Justification................................................................................................124
6-4.6 Literature Review.........................................................................................................125
6-4.6.1 Types of Distillation Columns .....................................................................................125
6-4.6.2 Mode of Operation of Distillation Column..................................................................130
6-4.7 Chemical Engineering Design .....................................................................................131
viii
6-4.7.1 Material Balance ..........................................................................................................131
6-4.7.2 Relative Volatility ....................................................................................................133
6-4.7.3 Minimum Reflux Ratio ................................................................................................136
6-4.7.4 Actual Reflux Ratio .....................................................................................................136
6-4.7.5 Minimum Number of Total Trays in a Column ...........................................................136
6-4.7.6 Theoretical Number of Stages .....................................................................................137
6-4.7.7 Feed Tray Location ..................................................................................................137
6-4.7.8 Column Efficiency ...................................................................................................139
6-4.7.9 Actual Number of Trays ..............................................................................................139
6-4.7.9 Liquid and Vapour Flowrate ....................................................................................141
6-4.7.10 Relative Molecular Weight ........................................................................................142
6-4.7.11 Determining Vapour and Liquid Densities ..........................................................143
6-4.7.12 Flooding Vapour Velocity .........................................................................................146
6-4.7.13 Diameter of the Column ............................................................................................151
6-4.7.14 Actual Height of Column...........................................................................................151
6-4.7.15 Plate Design ...............................................................................................................152
6-4.8Mechanical Engineering Design ..........................................................................................158
6-4.8.1 Main geometry of the vessel ........................................................................................158
6-4.8.2 Design Pressure ...........................................................................................................158
6-4.8.3 Design Temperature.....................................................................................................159
6-4.8.4 Wall Thickness ............................................................................................................160
6-4.8.5 Weight of Vessel, Wv ...............................................................................................160
6-4.8.6 Weight of Plates .......................................................................................................160
6-4.8.7 Choice of Closure ........................................................................................................161
6-4.8.7 Weight of Insulation.................................................................................................161
6-4.8.9 Wind Loading, FW .......................................................................................................162
6-4.8.10 Bending Moment, Mx................................................................................................162
6.4.8.11 Design Stress ........................................................................................................162
ix
6-4.8.12 Column Support .........................................................................................................164
6-4.8.13 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Design ...........................................................................167
6-4.9 Mechanical Engineering Drawing ......................................................................................171
CHAPTER SEVEN .........................................................................................................................172
7.0 PLANT LOCATION ...........................................................................................................172
7.1.1Primary Factors ................................................................................................................172
7.1.2 Secondary Factors ....................................................................................................174
CHAPTER EIGHT ..........................................................................................................................175
8.0 SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL ..........................................................................175
8.1 Introduction to Safety ............................................................................................................175
8.2 Types of Hazards ...................................................................................................................175
8.2.1 Chemical Hazards ...........................................................................................................176
8.2.2 Fire and Explosions Hazards...........................................................................................176
8.2.3 Physical Hazards .............................................................................................................178
8.2.4 Electrical Hazards ...........................................................................................................178
8.2.5 Leakages .........................................................................................................................179
8.2.6 Equipment Failure ...........................................................................................................179
8.3 Pollution .................................................................................................................................183
8.3.1 Atmospheric emissions ...................................................................................................183
8.3.2 Wastewater generation ....................................................................................................183
8.3.3 Noise pollution ................................................................................................................183
CHAPTER NINE .............................................................................................................................185
9.0 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION ........................................................185
9.1 Process Control ......................................................................................................................185
9.1.1 Importance of Process Control ........................................................................................185
9.2 Instrumentation ......................................................................................................................185
9.3 Process Variables Control System .........................................................................................186
9.3.1 Temperature control system ............................................................................................186
x
9.3.2 Pressure Control system ..................................................................................................186
9.3.3 Level control system .......................................................................................................187
9.3.4 Flow control system ........................................................................................................187
9.3.5 Composition Control system ...........................................................................................188
9.4 Alarms and Safety trips ..........................................................................................................188
CHAPTER TEN...............................................................................................................................191
10.0 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS........................................................................................................191
10.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................191
10.2 Total Capital Investment ......................................................................................................192
10.2.1 Fixed Capital Investment ..............................................................................................192
10.2.2 Working Capital ............................................................................................................196
10.3 Total Product Cost ...............................................................................................................196
10.3.1 Manufacturing Cost.......................................................................................................196
10.3.2 General Expenses ..........................................................................................................200
10.4 Profitability Analysis ...........................................................................................................201
10.4.1 Annual Cashflow...........................................................................................................201
10.4.2 Breakeven Point ............................................................................................................202
10.4.3 Turnover Ratio (TOR) ..................................................................................................203
10.4.4 Rate of Return on Investment (ROR)............................................................................204
10.4.5 Payback Period..............................................................................................................204
10.4.6 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR) .........................................................208
10.5 Sensitivity Analysis .............................................................................................................208
CHAPTER ELEVEN .......................................................................................................................210
11.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .......................................................................210
11.1 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................210
11.2 RECOMMENDATION .......................................................................................................210
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................211
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Properties of Acetaldehyde ...................................................................................... 6
Table 2: Properties of Acetic Acid ......................................................................................... 9
Table 3: Properties of Ethyl Acetate .................................................................................... 13
Table 4: Specification of DC-1 ............................................................................................ 38
Table 5: Specification of DC-2 ............................................................................................ 38
Table 6: Specification of DC-3 ............................................................................................ 38
Table 7: Specification of DC-5 ............................................................................................ 39
Table 8: Specification of DC-6 ............................................................................................ 39
Table 9: Specification of DC-7 ............................................................................................ 39
Table 10: Specified conditions and variables for calculations ............................................. 45
Table 11: Summary of Chemical Engineering Calculations ................................................ 50
Table 12: Percentage Composition of Stainless Steel .......................................................... 51
Table 13: Properties of Stainless Steel ................................................................................. 51
Table 14: Summary of Mechanical Engineering Calculations ............................................ 55
Table 15: Summary of types of heat exchangers design ...................................................... 58
Table 16: Typical overall coefficient for shell and tube heat exchangers............................ 71
Table 17: Constants for use in equation ............................................................................... 74
Table 18: Summary of the Chemical Engineering Calculations .......................................... 79
Table 19: Summary of Mechanical Engineering Calculations ............................................ 93
Table 20: Summary of Chemical Engineering Calculations .............................................. 111
Table 21: Summary of Mechanical Engineering Calculations .......................................... 121
Table 22: Summary of Chemical Engineering Calculations .............................................. 157
Table 23: Summary of Mechanical Engineering Calculations .......................................... 169
xii
Table 24: Some Safety Precautions of some Equipment in the Plant ................................ 179
Table 25: Process units and specific control parameters ................................................... 188
Table 26: Basis of Economics Analysis ............................................................................. 191
Table 27: Estimation of Purchased Equipment Cost ......................................................... 193
Table 28: Estimation of Direct Cost................................................................................... 195
Table 29: Estimation of Indirect Cost ................................................................................ 195
Table 30: Estimation of Total Direct Labour Cost............................................................. 197
Table 31: Estimation of Total Labour Cost........................................................................ 197
Table 32: Cost of Raw Materials ....................................................................................... 198
Table 33: Estimation of Manufacturing Costs ................................................................... 200
Table 34: Estimation of General Expenses ........................................................................ 200
Table 35: Estimation of Total Product Cost....................................................................... 201
Table 36: Estimation of Total Annual Sales ...................................................................... 202
Table 37: Summary of Annual Cumulative Cashflow ....................................................... 206
Table 38: Variations in Raw Material Costs and Selling Price of Product ........................ 209
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Chemical Structure of Acetaldehyde ...................................................................... 5
Figure 2: A Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor ..................................................................... 42
Figure 3: A Plug flow Reactor ............................................................................................. 43
Figure 4: A Packed Bed Reactor .......................................................................................... 44
Figure 5: Parts of a Packed Bed Absorption Column .......................................................... 98
Figure 6: A Conical Skirt Support ..................................................................................... 118
Figure 7: Examples of Packings......................................................................................... 128
Figure 8: A Graph of Cummulative Cashflow Against Plant Life..................................... 205
Figure 9: A graph depicting some Sensitivity Analysis ..................................................... 209
xiv
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Acetaldehyde is one of the most important aldehydes, occurring widely in nature and being
produced on large scale in the industry and worldwide. It occurs naturally in coffee, bread
and ripe fruits.
It is the main product produced in this process. Acetaldehyde was chosen as the main product
because of its profitability of its scale and its wide use in the industry. Worldwide,
acetaldehyde production has increased over the past years due to tremendous increase in
acetaldehyde consumption. China is the largest consumer of acetaldehyde in the world,
accounting for almost half of global consumption in 2012. Western European is the second-
largest consumer of acetaldehyde worldwide, accounting for 20% of world consumption in
2012.
Major use of acetaldehyde has been the production of acetic acid. It is also used in the
industry as a chemical intermediate, principally for the production of pyridine and pyridine
bases, glycol chloral and peracetic acid. Acetaldehyde has been used in the manufacture of
aniline dyes and synthetic rubber and to harden gelatin fibers. In 1976, approximately 19,000
lb of acetaldehyde were used as food additives, primarily as food and fish preservatives and
as a synthetic flavoring agent to impart orange, apple and butter flavors.
The global market for acetaldehyde is declining due to the use of more economically starting
materials for principal derivatives and a lower demand for some acetal derivatives. However,
in recent times, there is a vast potential for the profitability in manufacturing acetaldehyde
due to a decline in the number of suppliers and an increase in potential.
Traditionally, acetaldehyde was mainly used as a precursor to acetic acid. This application
has declined because acetic acid is produced more efficiently from methanol by the Monsanto
and Cativa processes. Acetic acid is inexpensive and can be generated more efficiently from
methanol by Monsanto and Cativa processes. Due to the possible legislation of MTBE out of
gasoline, there may be a worldwide of excess methanol, so any chemical that use methanol
may become economically attractive. That is the reason for using acetic acid as our starting
material. About 75% of acetic acid made for use in the industry is made by carbonylation of
methanol.
Production of acetaldehyde from acetic acid has received great interest due to the high
selectivity of up to 86% at a 46% acetic acid conversion. 20% Palladium on iron oxide is
used as a catalyst. This catalyst gives the selectivity of 86% to the desired reaction at 46%
acetic acid conversion. Acetic acid that has been produced by the Monsanto process reacts
with hydrogen and gives acetaldehyde as the main product and ethanol, ethyl acetate,
acetone, water and light hydrocarbons as the by-products. Ethyl acetate is chosen as the main
by-product. This project gives the full techno-economic assessment, including economic and
cash flow analysis. (daRosa et al., 2002)
1.1 Main Objective
• To design a plant for the production of acetaldehyde from acetic acid
1.2 Specific Objectives
• To design a process flow diagram for the production of acetaldehyde from acetic
acid
2
• To know the various units involved in the production of acetaldehyde from acetic
acid
• To design selected equipment for the unit operations in the plant
• To perform material and energy balances for the process selected
• To determine where best the plant should be situated
• To select necessary instrumentation and process controls for the plant
• To discuss the safety and pollution aspects of the plant as well as propose means
of control
• To evaluate economic viability of the plant based on costs, cash flow, profits and
return on investments
3
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Aldehydes
Aldehydes are classes of organic compounds in which a carbon atom shares a double bond
with an oxygen atom, a single bond with a hydrogen atom, and a single bond with another
atom or group of atoms. The double bond between carbon and oxygen is characteristic of all
aldehydes and is known as the carbonyl group. Aldehydes are important starting materials
and intermediates in organic synthesis, because they undergo a wide variety of reactions and
are readily available by many synthetic methods. The reactivity of these compounds arises
largely through two features of their structures: the polarity of the carbonyl group and the
acidity of any α-hydrogen that is present.
2.2 Acetaldehyde
2.2.1 Definition, Sources and Structure
Acetaldehyde is an organic chemical compound with the formula CH3CHO or C2H4O,
sometimes abbreviated by chemists as MeCHO (Me = methyl). The acetaldehyde has the
usual functional group of an aldehyde bound to a methyl group. Its systematic IUPAC name
is called ethanal. Other names include acetic aldehyde or ethyl aldehyde. It is one of the most
important aldehydes, occurring widely in nature and being produced on a large scale in
industry. Acetaldehyde occurs naturally in coffee, bread and ripe fruits and is produced by
plants. It is also produced by the partial oxidation of ethanol by the liver enzyme alcohol
dehydrogenase and is a contributing cause of hangover after alcohol consumption. Pathways
of exposure include air, water, land, or groundwater, as well as drink and smoke.
The molecule has a planar-trigonal together with tetrahedral geometry. (daRosa et al. 2002)
4
Figure 1: Chemical Structure of Acetaldehyde
2.2.2 Uses
The predominant use of acetaldehyde is as an intermediate in the synthesis of other
chemicals. Acetaldehyde is primarily used for the production of pyridine and pyridine bases,
peracetic acid, pentaerithritol, butylene glycol and chloral. It is used in the production of
esters, particularly ethyl acetate and isobutyl acetate. It is also used in the synthesis of
crotonaldehyde as well as flavor and fragrance acetals, acetaldehyde 1,1 dimethylhydrazone,
acetaldehyde cyanohydrin, acetaldehyde oxime and various acetic esters, paraldehyde
halogenated derivatives. Acetaldehyde has been used in the manufacture of aniline dyes and
synthetic rubber, to silver mirrors and to harden gelatin fibers. It has been used in the
production of polyvinyl acetal resins, in fuel compositions and to inhibit mold growth on
leather. Acetaldehyde is also used in the manufacture of disinfectants, drugs, perfumes,
explosives, lacquers and varnishes, photographic chemicals, phenolic and urea resins, rubber
accelerators and antioxidants, and room air deodorizers; acetaldehyde is a pesticide
intermediate. Acetaldehyde, an alcohol denaturant, is generally recognized as a safe
compound for the intended use as a flavoring agent. It is an important component of food
flavorings added to milk products, baked goods, fruit juices, candy, desserts, and soft drinks.
5
In 1976, approximately 19,000 lb of acetaldehyde were used as food additives, primarily as
fruit and fish preservatives and as a synthetic flavoring agent to impart orange, apple and
butter flavors. (Depew et al., 2000)
2.2.3 Properties
Table 1: Properties of Acetaldehyde
PROPERTY VALUE
Molecular weight 44.053 g/mol
Density 0.784 g/cm3
Boiling point 293.3 K
Melting point 149.78 K
Color Colorless
Odor Ethereal
Viscosity 0.21 mPa s at 293 K
Refractive index 1.3316
Dipole moment 2.7 D
Solubility in water Miscible
Vapor pressure 740 mmHg at 293 K
Acidity (pKa) 13.57
Heat capacity 89 J/mol K
Standard molar entropy 160.2 J/mol K
Standard enthalpy of formation -192.2 kJ/mol
6
2.2.4 Production of Acetaldehyde
A method of producing acetaldehyde hydrogenates acetic acid in the presence of an iron
oxide catalyst containing 20% wt. Palladium. The catalyst has a specific surface area of less
than 150 m2/g. The hydrogenation is performed at a temperature of about 280°C to 325°C.
The hydrogenation of acetic acid produces a partially gaseous product, from which
acetaldehyde is absorbed from with a solvent containing acetic acid. The gas remaining after
the absorption step contains hydrogen, and this gas is recycled for the hydrogenati3on of
acetic acid. In addition to acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate is produced as a main by-product and
is purified and sold. Other major by-products are ethanol, acetone, carbon dioxide, and the
light hydrocarbons methane, ethane and ethylene. Though this process can also be effectively
catalyzed by mercury compounds, the toxic nature of mercury makes it unfeasible. (daRosa
et al. 2002)
2.2.5 Alternative Processes and their Disadvantages
Acetaldehyde can be made commercially via the Wacker process, the partial oxidation of
ethylene. The major disadvantage of that process is that it is very corrosive requiring very
expensive materials of construction. Another major disadvantage is that the reaction is prone
to over-oxidation of the reactant, the products of which are thermodynamically more stable
than acetaldehyde which is the partial oxidation product. This over-oxidation of the reactant
reduces the yield of acetaldehyde produced and converts expensive ethylene into carbon
oxides.
Acetaldehyde is also manufactured by oxidizing ethanol using air. A mixture of air and
ethanol vapor is fed into a multi-tubular reactor. Temperature is maintained between 400°C
and 500°C and the pressure at 29.4 psi. The catalyst used is chromium activated copper.
Vapor coming out of the reactor is passed through a scrubber and unreacted ethanol is
7
separated and recycled. However, this process gives a relatively poor yield of acetaldehyde.
(daRosa et al. 2002)
2.3 Acetic Acid
2.3.1 Definition, Sources and Structure
Acetic acid, systematically named ethanoic acid, is an acidic, colorless liquid and organic
compound with the chemical formula CH3COOH. Acetic acid is the second simplest
carboxylic acid consisting of a methyl group that is attached to a carboxyl functional group.
Acetic acid is classified as a weak monobasic acid (-CO2H) but the three hydrogen atoms
linked to the carbon atom (CH3) are not replaceable by metals. Acetic acid is produced and
excreted by acetic acid bacteria, notably the genus Acetobacter and Clostridium
acetobutylicum. These bacteria are found universally in foodstuffs, water and soil and acetic
acid is produced naturally as fruits and other foods spoil. The global demand for acetic acid
is about 6.5 million metric per year (Mt/a), of which approximately 1.5Mt/a is met by
recycling; the remainder is manufactured from methanol. This growing demand for acetic
acid is a major driving force to find a better catalyst to produce acetic acid more efficiently.
About 75% of acetic acid made for use in the industry is made by carbonylation of methanol.
Vinegar is mostly dilute acetic acid produced by fermentation and subsequent oxidation of
ethanol. (Jones, 2000)
2.3.2 Uses
Acetic acid is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical, used in the production
of cellulose acetate for photographic film, polyvinyl acetate for wood glue, and synthetic
fibers and fabrics. In households, diluted acetic acid is often used in descaling agents. It is
frequently used as a solvent for reactions involving carbocations or as a solvent for
recrystallization to purify organic compounds. Vinegar, which is typically no less than 4%
8
acetic acid by mass, is used directly as a condiment and in the pickling of vegetables and
other foods. (Jones, 2000)
2.3.3 Properties
Table 2: Properties of Acetic Acid
PROPERTY VALUE
Molar mass 60.052 g/mol
Appearance Colorless liquid
Odor Heavily vinegar-like
Density 1.049 g/cm3 (liquid)
1.27 g/cm3 (solid)
Melting point 289 K
Boiling point 391 K
Solubility in water Miscible
Vapor pressure 11.6 mmHg at 293 K
Acidity (pKa) 4.756
Magnetic susceptibility -31.54 * 10-6 cm3/mol
Refractive index 1.371
Viscosity 1.22 mPa s
Dipole moment 1.74 D
Heat capacity 123.1 J/mol K
Standard molar entropy 158 J/mol K
9
Standard enthalpy of formation -483.88 kJ/mol
Standard enthalpy of combustion -875.5 kJ/mol
Sourced from: (Jones, 2000)
2.3.4 Production of Acetic Acid
In 1960, the Monsanto process for carbonylation methanol to produce acetic acid was
invented, which uses a rhodium catalyst. This was the leading technology until 1996 when
the Cativa Process, which involves an iridium catalyst, was invented. (Jones, 2000)
2.3.4.1 The Monsanto Process
The Monsanto Process is an industrial method for the manufacture of acetic acid by catalytic
carbonylation of methanol. This process operates at a pressure of 30-60 atm and temperature
of 150-2000C and gives a selectivity greater than 99%. It was developed in 1960 by the
German chemical company, BASF, (largest chemical company). Over 1-million-pound
acetic acid is being produced annually by this process. Monsanto process is a homogenously
catalyzed conversion of methanol into acetic acid or carbonylation of methanol.
Carbonylation refers to reactions that introduce carbon monoxide into organic and inorganic
substrates. Carbon monoxide is abundantly available and conveniently reactive, so it is
widely used as a reactant in industrial chemistry.
The first stage of the process involves the injection of the raw materials namely methanol,
carbon monoxide and water into the reactor to initiate the methanol carbonylation process.
The carbonylation reaction is carried out in a stirred tank reactor on a continuous basis.
Liquid is then removed from the reactor through a pressure reduction valve. This then enters
the flash tank, where light component of methyl acetate, methyl iodide, some water and
product acid are removed as vapor through the top of the vessel. The gases are fed forward
10
to the distillation train for further purification whilst the remaining the remaining liquid in
the flash tank, containing the dissolved catalyst is recycled to the reactor.
Liquid from the reactor enters the lower half of a multiple-tray distillation column operating
at conditions above atmospheric conditions. Hydrogen iodide present in the feed stream is
concentrated in the acetic acid solution in the bottom of the column. This stream is recycled
back to the reactor. Carbon monoxide, water, methyl iodide and some entrained hydrogen
iodide comprise the overhead stream from the column which passes through a condenser and
phase separator where uncondensed gas is directed towards the scrubber. The condensate
separates into two phases: a water phase consisting of some organic compounds and an
organic phase (methyl iodide) containing some water. The organic phase is recycled to the
reactor whilst part of the water phase is used as reflux in the distillation column and excess
is recycled to the reactor.
Solution of acetic acid in water containing some iodide, catalyst and by-products is
withdrawn from the bottom and introduced into a second multiple-tray distillation column
operating at conditions above atmospheric conditions. In this column, water and remaining
inert is withdrawn overhead and directed towards to the scrubber. A portion of the condensate
is returned as reflux to the column and excess is recycled to the reactor. To avoid
accumulation of water in the system, a portion of the water separated in the column is
discarded.
Residual hydrogen iodide in the feed stream to the column concentrates at a location near the
middle of the distillation column. By continually withdrawing the solution containing
hydrogen iodide from the middle of the distillation column, virtually all of the hydrogen
iodide is removed from the column. This solution can be recycled directly to the reactor or
11
alternatively to the lower half of the previous distillation column, where it is concentrated
and removed with the bottoms stream of that column.
Acetic acid is withdrawn from the drying column without further processing; acetic acid
vapor is withdrawn from the top of the column and passes through a condenser from which
it is pumped to storage. Liquid acetic acid containing residual catalyst is periodically
withdrawn from the top of the column and recycled to the reactor. (Jones, 2000)
2.3.4.2 The Cativa Process
The Cativa process is similar to the Monsanto process in that, they all produce acetic acid
via the carbonylation of methanol. The Monsanto and Cativa processes are sufficiently
similar that they can use the same chemical plant. However, the Cativa process employs the
use of Iridium catalyst. Initial studies by Monsanto had shown Iridium to be less active than
Rhodium for carbonylation of methanol unless the Iridium is promoted with Ruthenium
(Jones, 2000).
2.4 Ethyl Acetate – A major by-Product
In addition to acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate and other products including acetone, ethanol and
lighter hydrocarbons are produced as by-products in the production of acetaldehyde. Ethyl
acetate was chosen as a major by-product because of it uses in industry.
Ethyl acetate, systematically called ethyl ethanoate, is an organic compound with the formula
C4H8O2. Ethyl acetate is the ester of ethanol and acetic acid through an esterification reaction.
Ethyl acetate is synthesized in the industry mainly via the classic Fischer esterification
reaction of ethanol and acetic acid. (Pattanaik & Mandalia, 2011)
12
2.4.1 Uses
Ethyl acetate is used primarily as a solvent and diluents, being favored because of its low
cost, low toxicity and agreeable odor. It is commonly used to clean circuit boards and in some
nail varnish removers. Coffee beans and tea leaves are decaffeinated with this solvent when
supercritical CO2 extraction is not possible. It is also used in paints as an activator or hardener.
Ethyl acetate is present in confectionery, perfumes and fruits. In perfumes, it evaporates
quickly, leaving the scent of the perfume on the skin. (daRosa et al. 2002)
2.4.2 Properties
Table 3: Properties of Ethyl Acetate
PROPERTY VALUE
Molar mass 88.106 g/mol
Appearance Colorless liquid
Odor Ether-like, fruity
Density 0.902 g/cm3
Melting point 189.6 K
Boiling point 350.2 K
Solubility in water 8.3 g/100 mL
Vapor pressure 73 mmHg at 293 K
Refractive index 1.3720
Viscosity 0.426 cP
Dipole moment 1.78 D
Acidity (pKa) 25
13
Magnetic susceptibility -54.10 * 10-6 cm3/mol
Sourced from: (Pattanaik & Mandalia, 2011)
14
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION
3.1 Process Selection
Acetaldehyde will be produced via the hydrogenation of acetic acid in the presence of a
palladium catalyst. Acetaldehyde could be produced via the partial oxidation of ethylene
and oxidation of ethanol but they both produce poor yields of acetaldehyde. Conversion of
acetic acid in the reactor is 46% with a selectivity of 86% to acetaldehyde. Acetic acid will
be produced via the Monsanto process which is the carbonylation of methanol in the
presence of a rhodium catalyst. Acetic acid could be produced via the Cativa process but
the catalyst used is less active compared with the rhodium catalyst. The first section of our
plant manufactures acetic acid whiles the last section focuses on the production of
acetaldehyde followed by a series of purification steps in order to get an acetaldehyde
product of 99.6% wt. purity.
3.2 Process Description
3.2.1 Production of Acetic Acid
The feedstocks for the reaction of interest are methanol, carbon monoxide, and water and it
utilizes a rhodium catalyst. The raw materials namely carbon monoxide as gas at room
temperature, methanol and water at about 20℃ are fed to reactor R1 through streams S1,
S2 and S3 from tanks TK1, TK2 and TK3 respectively. The operating pressure of the
reactor is 1 bar. The reaction is carried out in a continuous stirred tank reactor. The gaseous
by products such as CO2 and H2 are taken off from the top through stream S10 and directed
towards a gas holder GH1. The liquid products are then taken off the bottom through
stream S4 which is passed through a pressure reduction valve V1 to a flash vessel FV1
15
operating at a pressure of 1.1 bar and temperature of 115℃ where light components
consisting of methyl acetate, methyl iodide, some water, and product acid are removed as
vapor through the top of the vessel through stream S6. The gases are fed forward to a series
of distillation columns for further purification whilst the remaining liquid in the flash vessel
containing the dissolved catalyst comes from the bottom as stream S49 which is pumped
back to the reactor through stream S51.
The light components which predominantly contains acetic acid enters a multiple-tray
distillation column DC1 operating at a pressure of 1.2 bar and temperature of 112℃.
Hydrogen iodide present in the feed stream is concentrated in the acetic acid solution in the
bottom of the column. This stream S13 is recycled back to the reactor. Carbon monoxide,
water, methyl iodide and some entrained hydrogen iodide comprise the overhead stream.
Solution of acetic acid in water containing some catalyst and by- products is withdrawn
from the bottom through stream S7 and introduced into a second multiple-tray distillation
column DC2 operating at a pressure of 1.2 bar and temperature of 120℃. In this column,
water and remaining inert is withdrawn as the overhead through stream S38 and joins with
stream S29. The combined stream S48 is recycled to the reactor R1.
Acetic acid is withdrawn from the drying column through stream ST19 into a third
multiple-tray distillation column DC3. This column is designed to separate the unwanted
propionic acid produced as part of the process from the desired acetic acid produced to
obtain a purity of greater than 99.9%. The operating conditions of distillation column DC3
are 125℃ and 1 bar. Acetic acid at 125℃ comes out as the overhead product and passes
through a condenser from which it is pumped to storage tank STK1 through stream S9. The
major liquid by product of the reaction is propionic acid which comes out as the bottom
product from DC3 and is fed to tank TK5 through stream S11.
16
3.2.2 Reaction Section
Acetic acid and hydrogen serve as the reaction’s feedstock. We assumed both starting
materials to be at 25℃. Acetic acid is available as a liquid and the hydrogen gas is
available at 13.8 bar. The pure hydrogen feed is mixed with the hydrogen recycle stream
S24, and this combined stream is compressed from 14.7 bar to 18.1 bar in the compressor
C1.
The acetic acid and hydrogen streams, S39 and S20 respectively, are both heated in the
fired heater which raises their temperature to 315℃. The off gases collected which are rich
in hydrogen and hydrocarbons are burned and used as a source of fuel in the fired heater.
The reactor R2 is a cylindrical vessel containing a packed bed of 20% wt. Pd- Fe2O3
catalyst pellets. The operating conditions of the reactor are 315℃ temperature and pressure
17.4 bar. The hydrogen and acetic acid are fed in a 5:1 molar ratio to ensure that the right
oxidation state for the desired conversion is achieved. Conversion of acetic acid is only
46%, which will enhance the selectivity to acetaldehyde, which is 86% at the given
conditions. Ethanol, acetone, carbon dioxide and light hydrocarbons are the by-products
formed in the reactor. The reactor effluent S15 is at 315℃ and 17.4 bar.
The following are the reaction mechanisms that occur in the reactor R2;
CH3COOH + H2 CH3CHO + H2O
CH3COOH + 2H2 CH3CH2OH + H2O
2CH3COOH CH3COCH3 + CO2+ H2O
3CH3COOH + 9H2 2CH4 + C2H6 + C2H4+ 6H2O
17
3.2.3 Purification of Acetaldehyde
The reactor effluent S15 must be cooled in the heat exchanger HX1 in order to achieve high
recovery in the absorption column. Cooling water from TK8 is used to cool the stream to
45℃ in HX1. This partially condenses the stream and the cool effluent S16 is fed to the
flash vessel FV2 to separate the liquid and vapor phases. Only the vapor stream S17 exiting
the flash vessel is sent to the absorber AB1, which it enters at the bottom stage. The solvent
fed to the top of the absorber is the pure acetic acid mixed with the acetic acid-rich bottoms
product from DC4. This solvent selectively absorbs acetaldehyde under high pressure (the
top stage operates at 16.1 bar).
The recovery of acetaldehyde rises as the recycle amount increases. The selected solvent
recycle allows recovery of 95% of acetaldehyde, while also leaving a feasible separation
and relatively low column costs. The pressure of the absorber is also high as possible in
order to improve acetaldehyde recovery. Hydrogen gas exiting AB1 is recycled to the gas
holder TK9. The bottoms product from the absorber, S23 is combined with S22. The
combined stream S26 passes through a valve to reduce the pressure to 3 bar before being
fed to the acetaldehyde distillation column DC4.
The main goal of the DC4 is to obtain a pure stream of acetaldehyde with 99.6% wt. purity.
This column is operated at 25℃ temperature and pressure 1 bar. Acetaldehyde and the light
hydrocarbons vaporize at this temperature. Vapor acetaldehyde is condensed and collected
via stream S28 into STK2. Some of the acetaldehyde is lost to the stream offgas.
Esterification reaction occurs at the bottom of DC4. It is the reaction between the ethanol
and some unreacted acetic acid, which forms ethyl acetate and water. Equilibrium for this
reaction is achieved wherever acetic acid and ethanol are present together but for the
18
purpose of this design, it was assumed this reaction occurs only at bottom stage of DC4,
where the high temperature and the presence of acetic acid and ethanol favor this reaction.
The presence of ethyl acetate is very important in the acetic acid separation section of this
process, where ethyl acetate forms an azeotrope with water, easing the separation of water
from acetic acid. The bottoms products S42 from the acetaldehyde distillation column DC4
is spilt by a splitter with S43 proceeding to the acetic acid separation section. The
remainder S44 is cooled by the cooling water in the heat exchanger HX2 and then recycled
to the top stage of the absorber AB1 where it acts as the solvent to absorb the acetaldehyde
in the absorption column.
The esterification reaction is;
CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O
3.2.4 Separation of Acetic Acid
The main goal of the acetic acid separation column DC5 is to obtain a pure stream of
acetic acid, which can be recycled to the reactor feed. The reasons for this are twofold.
The primary reason is that the high cost of acetic acid makes it economically feasible for
us to reuse the unreacted acetic acid rather than dispose of it. This is particularly relevant
because of the low conversion in the reactor, which results in a significant amount of
unreacted acetic acid in the system. The second reason is that acetic acid is an impurity in
water and its substantial presence in the wastewater stream will increase costs of
wastewater treatment.
There is one stream entering the acetic acid distillation column. The feed stream, S30 is
from the bottoms of the acetaldehyde separation column. It primarily consists of the
unreacted acetic acid and the products of side reactions such as water, ethyl acetate,
19
acetone and ethanol. The bottoms stream S54 of DC 5 consists of purified acetic acid that
is collected in TK14 for reuse.
The feed S30 pumped to 6.9 bar before entering the column. The column is operated at a
temperature of 100℃ and a pressure of 6.6 bar. The condenser is operated at 6.6 bar
because as pressure increases, the water-ethyl acetate azeotrope becomes more water-rich,
easing the separation from acetic acid. This significantly increases the purity of acetic acid
that is collected at the bottoms. A total condenser is used because the distillate must be
fed to the decanter DE1 as a liquid. The exit stream from this DC 5 is fed to the decanter
DE1, which is used to separate the water from the ethyl acetate in the feed stream.
3.2.5 Ethyl Acetate Separation
Ethyl acetate is produced at the bottom of DC4 through an esterification reaction between
the by-product ethanol and unreacted acetic acid. In DC5, ethyl acetate forms an azeotrope
with water to aid in the acetic acid separation. S31 leaving DC5 contains the low-boiling
azeotrope of ethyl acetate and water, some acetic acid and acetone. The stream enters the
decanter DE1 and by the principle of buoyancy separates it into two streams. Stream S34
enters DC7 and it contains ethyl acetate and acetic acid. The temperature in this column is
90℃ and the pressure is 2 bar. Ethyl acetate is collected as the distillate via stream S35 into
TK10 whiles acetic acid is collected as the bottoms product via stream S55 into TK14.
3.2.6 Acetone and Wastewater Removal
Stream S32 enters DC6 and it contains acetone and water. This column operates at a
temperature of 70℃ and a pressure of 1.7 bar. Acetone is collected as the distillate via stream
S33 into TK12. The wastewater is also collected into tank TK16 via stream S56 to be further
treated before it will be disposed of.
20
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
4.1 Material Balance
4.1.1 Reactor 1 (R1)
OUTPUT
INPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
Component Mass, kg Mass %
H2 111.11 4.348
H2O 1000 0.812
CO2 2444.44 95.652
CO 64000 51.981
Total 2555.55 100
CH3OH 58120 47.206
Total 123120 100
R1
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOH 120000 20.193
HI 129292.8 21.756
CO 3111 0.523
C3H6O2 153602.86 25.847
CH3COOCH3 7475.4 1.258
CH3I 143434.2 24.136
H2O 37363.2 6.287
Total 594279.46 100
21
4.1.2 Flash Vessel 1 (FV1)
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOH 60000 20.193
HI 64646.4 21.756
INPUT
CO 1555.5 0.523
Component Mass, kg Mass %
C3H6O2 76801.42 25.847
CH3COOH 120000 20.193
CH3COOCH3 3737.37 1.258
HI 129292.8 21.756
CH3I 71717.1 24.136
CO 3111 0.523
H2O 18681.6 6.287
C3H6O2 153602.86 25.847
Total 297139.73 100
CH3COOCH3 7475.4 1.258
CH3I 143434.2 24.136
H2O 37363.2 6.287
Total 594279.46 100 FV1
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOH 60000 20.193
HI 64646.4 21.756
CO 1555.5 0.523
C3H6O2 76801.42 25.847
CH3COOCH3 3737.37 1.258
CH3I 71717.1 24.136
H2O 18681.6 6.287
Total 297139.73 100
22
4.1.3 Distillation Column 1 (DC1)
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOCH3 3737.37 4.424
INPUT CO 1555.5 1.841
Component Mass, kg Mass % H2O 7472.64 8.845
CH3COOH 60000 20.193 CH3I 71717.1 84.890
HI 64646.4 21.756
Total 84482.61 100
CO 1555.5 0.523
C3H6O2 76801.42 25.847
CH3COOCH3 3737.37 1.258
CH3I 71717.1 24.136 DC1
H2O 18681.6 6.287
Total 297139.73 100
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOH 60000 28.214
C3H6O2 76801.42 36.115
H2O 11208.96 5.271
HI 64646.4 30.399
Total 212656.78 100
23
4.1.4 Fired Heater 1 (FH1)
INPUT
INPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOH 51205.8548 100
H2 8534.3091 100
Total 51205.8548 100
Total 8534.3091 100
FH1
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOH 51205.8548 85.714
H2 8534.3091 14.286
Total 59740.164 100
24
4.1.5 Reactor 2 (R2)
INPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOH 51205.8548 85.714
H2 8534.3091 14.286
Total 59740.164 100
R2
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CO2 94.0236 0.238
H2 0.1805 0.0005
CH4 20.2711 0.051
C2H4 20.2711 0.051
C2H6 22.4276 0.057
C2H4O 5256.701 13.299
CH3COOH 27651.1616 69.953
C2H5OH 354.0984 0.896
H2O 5633.4521 14.252
Acetone 475.7254 1.204
Total 39528.3124 100
25
4.1.6 Acetaldehyde Distillation Column (DC4)
INPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CO2 94.0236 0.218
H2 0.0129 0.00003
CH4 20.2711 0.047
OUTPUT
C2H4 20.2711 0.047
Component Mass, kg Mass %
C2H6 22.4276 0.052 H2 0.0129 0.008
C2H4O 5256.701 12.187 CH4 20.2711 12.911
CH3COOH 27651.1616 64.106 C2H4 20.2711 12.911
C2H5OH 354.0984 0.821 C2H6 22.4276 14.285
CO2 94.0236 59.885
H2O 8107.1717 18.795
Total 157.0063 100
Acetone 475.7254 1.103
EthAc 1131.7347 2.624
Total 43133.5994 100
DC4
OUTPUT
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
Component Mass, kg Mass %
Acetone 475.7254 1.261
C2H4O 5256.701 100
EthAc 1809.1402 4.796
Total 5256.701 100
H2O 8245.7319 21.860
CH3COOH 27189.2941 72.082
Total 37719.8916 100
26
4.1.7 Splitter
Mass, kg Mass %
Component
Acetone 142.7176 1.261
EthAc 542.7421 4.796
H2O 2473.7196 21.860
CH3COOH 8156.7882 72.082
INPUT
Total 11315.9675 100
Component Mass, kg Mass %
Acetone 475.7254 1.261
EthAc 1809.1402 4.796
SPLITTER
H2O 8245.7319 21.860
CH3COOH 27189.2941 72.082
Total 37719.8916 100
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
Acetone 333.0078 1.261
EthAc 1266.3981 4.796
H2O 5772.0123 21.860
CH3COOH 19032.5059 72.082
Total 26403.9241 100
27
4.1.8 Acetic Acid Separation Column (DC5)
INPUT
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
Component Mass, kg Mass %
Acetone 333.0078 1.261
CH3COOH 17129.2553 100
EthAc 1266.3981 4.796
Total 17129.2553 100
H2O 5772.0123 21.860
CH3COOH 19032.5059 72.082
Total 26403.9241 100
DC5
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
Acetone 333.0078 3.591
EthAc 1266.3981 13.654
H2O 5772.0123 62.234
CH3COOH 1903.2506 20.521
Total 9274.6688 100
28
4.1.9 Decanter (DE1)
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOH 1903.2506 60.046
EthAc 1266.3981 39.954
Total 3169.6487 100
INPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
Acetone 333.0078 3.591
EthAc 1266.3981 13.654
H2O 5772.0123 62.234 DE1
CH3COOH 1903.2506 20.521
Total 9274.6688 100
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
H2O 5772.0123 94.545
Acetone 333.0078 5.455
Total 6105.0201 100
29
4.1.10 Acetone Distillation Column (DC6)
INPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass % OUTPUT
H2O 5772.0123 94.545 Component Mass, kg Mass %
Acetone 333.0078 5.455 Acetone 333.0078 100
Total 6105.0201 100 Total 333.0078 100
DC6
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
H2O 5772.0123 100
Total 5772.0123 100
30
4.1.11 Ethyl Acetate Distillation Column (DC7)
INPUT OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass % Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOH 1903.2506 60.046 EthAc 1266.3981 100
EthAc 1266.3981 39.954 Total 1266.3981 100
Total 3169.6487 100
DC7
OUTPUT
Component Mass, kg Mass %
CH3COOH 1903.2506 100
Total 1903.2506 100
31
4.2 Energy Balance
4.2.1 R-2
INPUT
Component Enthalpy, kJ Enthalpy %
CH3COOH -4478.1879 85.714
H2 -746.3821 14.286
Total -5224.57 100
Temperature, 315 ℃
Pressure, 17.4 bar
R2
OUTPUT
Component Enthalpy, kJ Enthalpy %
CO2 -12.9862 0.238
H2 -0.0273 0.0005
CH4 -2.7828 0.051
C2H4 -2.7828 0.051
C2H6 -3.1101 0.057
C2H4O -725.6440 13.299
CH3COOH -3816.9015 69.953
C2H5OH -48.8892 0.896
H2O -777.6433 14.252
Acetone -65.6948 1.204
32
Total -5456.38 100
Temperature, 315℃
Pressure, 17.4 bar
4.2.2 Fired Heater
INPUT
Component Enthalphy, Enthalphy %
KJ
CH3OOH -484.61 99.8396
H2 -0.77844 0.16037
TOTAL -485.3884 100
FH
Output
Component Enthalpy, KJ Enthalpy, %
CH3COOH -4478.1879 85.714
H2 -746.3821 14.286
Total -5224.57 100
33
4.2.3 Heat Exchanger
INPUT
Component Enthalpy, KJ Enthalpy, %
CO2 -12.9862 0.238
H2 -0.0273 0.0005
CH4 -2.7828 0.051
C2H4 -2.7828 0.051
C2H6 -3.1101 0.057
C2H4O -725.6440 13.299
CH3COOH -3816.9015 69.953
C2H5OH -48.8892 0.896
H2O -777.6433 14.252
Acetone -65.6948 1.204
Total -5456.38 100
HX1
OUTPUT
Component Enthalpy, KJ Enthalpy,%
CO2 -10.7662 0.44
34
H2 -0.0073 0.000302
CH4 -2.5303 0.1046
C2H4 -1.5602 0.0645
C2H6 -2.1101 0.0872
C2H4O -504.2320 20.8548
CH3COOH -1816.1025 75.1135
C2H5OH -22.5511 0.9327
H2O -433.4102 17.9257
Acetone -34.5832 1.4406
Total -2417.812 100
35
Input
4.2.4 Absorber Component Enthalpy, Enthalpy, %
Input KJ
Component Enthalpy, Enthalpy, H2O -433.4102 24
KJ %
Acetone -34.5832 0.8364
CO2 -10.7662 0.4400
CH3COOC2H5 -478.82 11.5802
H2 -0.0073 0.0003
CH3COOH -1816.1025 43.9225
CH4 -2.5303 0.1046
Total -4134.7816 100
C2H4 -1.5602 0.0645
C2H6 -2.1101 0.0872
C2H4O -504.232 20.8548
CH3COOH -1816.1025 75.1135
C2H5OH -22.5511 0.9327
H2O -433.4102 17.9257 AB1
Acetone -34.5832 1.4406
Total -2417.812 100
Output
Component Enthalpy, Enthalpy, %
KJ
H2 (Gas) 1168.12 100
Total 1168.12 100
Liquid stream 53103.6 100
Total 53103.6 100
36
4.2.5 DC-1
Input
Component Enthalpy, KJ Enthalpy, %
H2O -258.820 42.4049
Methanol -250.600 41.1886
Carbon -99 16.2717
monoxide
Total -608.420 100
DC1
Output
Component Enthalpy, KJ Enthalpy, %
H2O -258.820 17.3965
Carbon monoxide -80.8 4.9179
Methyl iodide -76.9 4.6805
Acetic Acid -484.1 29.4649
Propanoic acid -510 31.04127
Water -258.820 15.7531
Hydrogen iodide 26.466 -1.6108
Total -1642.974 100
37
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION
Table 4: Specification of DC-1
DC-1
Height 24 m
Diameter 2m
Trays 34
Material Stainless steel
Table 5: Specification of DC-2
DC-2
Height 24 m
Diameter 2m
Trays 34
Material Stainless steel
Table 6: Specification of DC-3
DC-3
Height 22 m
Diameter 1.83 m
Trays 37
Material Stainless steel
38
Table 7: Specification of DC-5
DC-5
Height 23 m
Diameter 3.2 m
Trays 30
Material Stainless steel
Table 8: Specification of DC-6
DC-6
Height 26 m
Diameter 0.5 m
Trays 19
Material Stainless steel
Table 9: Specification of DC-7
DC-7
Height 32 m
Diameter 1m
Trays 45
Material Stainless steel
39
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 EQUIPMENT DESIGN
6-1.0 DESIGN OF A PACKED BED REACTOR
6-1.1 Problem Statement
The reaction between acetic acid and hydrogen to produce acetaldehyde is a chemical process
which is sensitive to both temperature and pressure. To produce the desired product with
minimal side products, it is necessary to have control over the reaction which is only possible
using process vessels called chemical reactors. Chemical reactor design uses information,
knowledge, and experience from a variety of areas; thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, fluid
mechanics, heat transfer, mass transfer, and economics. (Levenspiel, 1999) The selection of
a reaction system that operates in the safest and most efficient manner can be the key to the
economic success or failure of a chemical plant. (Fogler, 2006)
6-1.2 Main Objective
To design a reactor to carry out hydrogenation of acetic acid to produce acetaldehyde with
46% conversion of acetic acid and 86% selectivity to acetaldehyde.
6-1.3 Specific Objectives
• To select the most suitable reactor to carry out the hydrogenation of acetic acid.
• To specify the reactor volume and reactor components necessary for the reaction.
• To provide specification of the mechanical engineering aspects of the reactor.
• To provide a mechanical engineering drawing of the reactor.
40
6-1.4 Introduction
In addition to the intrinsic kinetics, observed reaction rates depend on the reactor type, scale,
geometry, mode of operation and operating conditions (Perry and Green, 2008). The phases
of the reactants need also to be considered.
6-1.5 Reactor Classification by mode of operation
There are two main classifications of reactors based on their mode of operation. They are
batch and continuous reactors.
6-1.5.1. Batch Reactors
A batch reactor is used for small-scale operation, for testing new processes that have not been
fully developed, for the manufacture of expensive products and for processes that are difficult
to be converted to continuous operations. The reactants are charged through holes at the top.
A batch reactor has neither inflow nor outflow of reactants or products while the reaction is
being carried out until the desired conversion is achieved. They have the advantage of high
conversion that can be achieved by leaving the reactants in the reactor for long periods of
time. However, they have the disadvantages of high labor costs per batch, the variability of
products from batch to batch and the difficulty of large-scale production. (Fogler, 2006)
6-1.5.2 Continuous Flow Reactors
Continuous flow reactors are reactors that are characterized by a continuous flow of reactants
into and a continuous flow of products from the reaction system. They are normally installed
for large-scale productions. Continuous flow reactors are almost always operated at steady
state. There are different types of these reactors.
41
6-1.5.2.1 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
The continuous stirred tank reactor is the most commonly used reactor in industrial
processing operated continuously and primarily used for liquid phase reactions. It is normally
operated at steady state and is assumed to be perfectly mixed. Hence, every variable is the
same at every point inside the reactor. Because the temperature and concentration are
identical everywhere within the reaction vessel, they are the same at the exit point as they are
elsewhere in the tank. (Fogler, 2006)
Figure 2: A Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
6-1.5.2.2 Plug Flow Reactor
Plug flow reactor is a type of tubular reactor. It consists of a cylindrical pipe and is normally
operated at steady state. It is most often used for gas phase reactions. The reactants are
continually consumed as they flow down the length of the reactor to produce the product.
42
Hence, the concentration varies continuously in the axial direction through the reactor
consequently affecting the reaction rate as well. At the high velocities, the products are
unable to diffuse back and there is little or no back mixing. This reduces the occurrence of
side reactions and increases the yield of the desired product. (Fogler, 2006)
Figure 3: A Plug flow Reactor
6-1.5.2.3 Packed Bed Reactor
Packed bed reactors are often used for catalytic processes. Here, the reaction rate is based on
mass of solid catalyst rather than on reactor volume. Packed bed reactors consist of a
cylindrical shell with convex heads. Most are vertical, and allow reactants to flow by gravity.
Inside the reactor is an immobilized, or fixed, bed of catalysts. Reactants are converted to
products as they flow through the bed of catalysts. Packed bed reactors are assumed to have
no radial gradients in concentration, temperature or reaction rate. Packed bed reactors have
the advantage of providing adequate contact between catalysts and reactants and thus provide
high conversion of reactants per weight of catalyst. Temperature control is however usually
difficult in these reactors and side reactions are not inhibited.
43
Figure 4: A Packed Bed Reactor
6-1.6 Equipment Selection and Justification
A continuous mode of operation was chosen to ensure invariability in the product and also
to allow for large scale production. Pd-Fe2O3 catalyst pellets will be used for maximum
reduction of acetic acid to acetaldehyde. A reactor that has a continuous mode of operation
and can also make use of solid catalysts is the packed bed reactor. Packed bed reactors have
the advantage of providing adequate contact between catalysts and reactants and thus provide
high conversion of reactants per weight of catalyst. A packed bed reactor was therefore
chosen for the hydrogenation of acetic acid.
44
6-1.7 Equipment and Process Description
6-1.7.1 Equipment Description
The reactor is a multi-tubular packed bed reactor composed of a vertical reaction vessel and
tubes containing catalysts. The tubes are fixed in a tube sheet flanged to the reactor. The
vessel has openings for reactant inlet and product outlet. There is a distributor at the reactant
inlet for maximum distribution of the reactant through the tubes containing the catalysts.
There is also another inlet and outlet for water which is used as a coolant for the control of
temperature rise in the reactor. Baffles are also there to ensure effective distribution of heat
in the reactor. The vertical vessel is supported by a skirt support on a concrete slab.
6-1.7.2 Process Description
The reactor is operated at 315℃ and 17.4 bar. Before acetic acid and hydrogen feeds enter
the high temperature reactor, they both enter a fired heater where their temperature is raised
to 315℃. The entering mixture flows through the tubes containing 20% palladium on iron
oxide catalysts. The product and by-products are formed along the length of the reactor and
are collected at the top to the next unit in the plant. The reactor effluent is at 315℃ and 17.4
bar.
6-1.8 Chemical Engineering Calculations
Table 10: Specified conditions and variables for calculations
Design Parameter Value
Temperature, K 588.15
Pressure, kPa 1740
45
Density of catalyst, kg/m3 672.775
GHSV, hr-1 2600
6-1.8.1 Volumetric flow rate
𝑃 𝑀𝑎𝑣𝑔
ρ𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝑅𝑇
Pressure, P = 1740 kPa
Temperature, T = 588.15 K
Gas constant, R = 8.314 J/mol K
1 0.85714 0.14286
= +
𝑀𝑎𝑣𝑔 60.052 2.016
Mavg =11.746 g/mol
ρmix = 4.1796 kg/m3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
ϑO =
ρ𝑚𝑖𝑥
Mass flow rate = 59740.164 kg/hr
ϑO = 14293.235 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
The volumetric flow rate is 3.97 m3/s.
6-1.8.2 Volume of Catalyst Bed
GHSV for volumes of gas per volume of catalyst was reported at 2600 hr-1 under the
reaction conditions. (daRosa)
46
ϑO
GHSV =
𝑉𝐶
ϑO
𝑉𝐶 =
GHSV
VC = 5.5 m3
6-1.8.3 Weight of catalyst
Density of catalyst = 672.775 kg/m3
𝑊𝐶 = ρ𝐶 𝑉𝐶
WC = 3698.5119 kg
6-1.8.4 Rate of the reaction
The equation of the main reaction is
CH3COOH + H2 CH3CHO + H2O
A+B C+D
For a packed bed reactor, (Fogler) calculates the weight of the catalyst from the rate of the
reaction using
1
WC = [F − FA ]
−rA Ao
1
−rA = [F − FA ]
WC Ao
Molar flow rate of acetic acid entering, FAo = 236.8589 mol/s
Molar flow rate of acetic acid exiting, FA = 127.9038 mol/s
-rA = 2.9459 * 10-5 mol/g.s
47
6-1.8.5 Volume of the Reactor
The volume of the reactor is related by the volume of the catalyst bed and the void fraction.
Pressure drop depends very strongly on the void fraction(ε) of the packing. Hollow
cylinders of thin wall thickness are the preferred standard form for packing catalyst and has
a void fraction of 0.6-0.8. For a minimum amount of pressure drop across the reactor, the
packings must be uniformly arranged hence a higher void fraction is required.
VC = VR (1 − ε)
ε = 0.8
𝑉𝐶
𝑉𝑅 =
1−ε
VR = 27.5 m3
6-1.8.6 Residence Time
𝑉𝑅
τ = ϑO
τ = 6.9 s
6-1.8.7 Space Velocity
1
𝑆𝑉 =
τ
Space velocity = 0.144 s-1
6-1.8.8 Length and Diameter of Reactor
Aspect ratio is also known as H/D where H is the height and D is the diameter of the reactor.
The aspect ratio for reactors usually ranges from 2 to 3. Choosing an aspect ratio of 3
48
H
Thus, D = 3
H = 3D
πD2
Volume of reactor, VR = H
4
πD2 3πD3
VR = (3D) =
4 4
D = 2.268 m
H = 6.804 m
6-1.8.9 Tube Diameter and Length
According to (Blythe and Sampson, 1973) the tube diameter for a packed bed reactor varies
between 3 and 4.5 inches. Assuming an outer diameter to be 4 inches with an inner diameter
of 3.5 inches and tube length of the same height as the cylindrical section of the reactor which
is 5.804 m.
Tube outer diameter (DT(out)) = 0.1016 m
Tube inner diameter (DT(in)) = 0.0889 m
6-1.8.10 Number of Tubes
For a packed bed reactor, the total number of tubes is calculated from the expression;
𝜋𝐷𝑇 2 𝐿𝑇
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑛 ( )
4
4𝑉𝑅
𝑛=
𝜋𝐷𝑇 2 𝐿𝑇
Number of tubes is 584.
49
Table 11: Summary of Chemical Engineering Calculations
Design Parameter Value
Rate of reaction, rA, mol/g.s 2.9459 * 10-5
Volume of catalyst bed, m3 5.5
Weight of catalyst, kg 3698.5119
Volume of reactor, m3 27.5
Length of reactor, m 6.8
Diameter of reactor, m 2.3
Residence time, s 6.9
Space velocity, s-1 0.144
Tube length, m 5.804
Tube inner diameter, m 0.0889
Tube outer diameter, m 0.1016
Number of tubes 584
6-1.9 Mechanical Engineering Calculations
6-1.9.1 Material of Construction
For the reactor, austenitic stainless steel (type 316) is used. In this alloy, molybdenum has
been added to increase the corrosion resistance in reducing conditions (Sinnott, 2013). It
50
also has a high tensile strength, good temperature resistance and can tolerate thermal
fluctuations.
Table 12: Percentage Composition of Stainless Steel
Element Percentage Composition
Iron 65%
Chromium 16%
Nickel 12%
Molybdenum 2%
Carbon 0.08%
Manganese 2%
Silicon 1%
(Sourced from: Sinnott, 2013)
Table 13: Properties of Stainless Steel
Property Value
Tensile strength, MPa 580
Yield strength, MPa 240
Elastic modulus, GPa 200
Elongation, % 42
(Sourced from: Sinnott, 2013)
6-1.9.2 Design Temperature and Pressure
Maximum design temperature is the highest mean temperature of the metal which is typically
a 269.2 K increase in the normal operating temperature. The design temperature is therefore
857.35 K.
51
Design pressure is determined by finding 110% of the maximum operating pressure.
Maximum operating pressure is 1 bar increase in the operating pressure if the operating
pressure is less than 10 bar. The operating pressure is 17.4 bar and hence the design pressure
is 1914 kPa. (Sinnott, 2013)
6-1.9.3 Reactor Wall Thickness
PDi
The reactor wall thickness is given by: e = 2f−P
P is the design pressure
Di is the internal diameter of the reactor
f is the design stress and equals 130 MPa (Sinnott, 2013)
The reactor wall thickness, e is therefore 16.82 mm
Adding a corrosion allowance of 3.18 mm gives a minimum reactor wall thickness of 20 mm.
6-1.9.4 Reactor Head Thickness
For steels, the optimum thickness ratio is 0.6 (Coulson)
Hemisperical Head Thickness
Using a hemispherical head, = 0.6
Cylindrical Thickness
Reactor head thickness is thus 12 mm.
6-1.9.5 Stress Analysis
6-1.9.5.1 Longitudinal Stress
PDi
σL =
4t
P is design pressure
52
Di is internal diameter of reactor
t is the minimum reactor wall thickness
Longitudinal stress = 54.2595 MPa
6-1.9.5.2 Circumferential Stress
PDi
σC =
2t
Circumferential stress = 108.519 MPa
6-1.9.5.3 Bending Stress
M D
Bending stress, σB = × ( 2i + t)
IW
FW X2
Total bending moment, M = 2
Reactor height, X = 6.8039 m
Loading per unit length, FW = PW × Do
Do = Di + 2t
Do = 2.3079 m
Wind pressure, PW = 1280 N/m2
FW = 2954.112 N/m
M = 68377.435 Nm
Second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending;
53
π
IW = (Do 4 − Di 4 )
64
IW = 1.50506 m4
Bending stress = 52.4259 kPa
6-1.9.5.4 Buckling Stress
t
σCr = 2 × 104 ( )
Do
Buckling stress = 173.3177 MPa
6-1.9.6 Dynamic Wind Pressure
Dynamic wind pressure, PW = 0.05(UW 2 )
Wind velocity for most engineering design is 160 km/hr (Sinnott, 2013)
PW = 1280 Pa
6-1.9.7 Vessel Support
Skirt supports are used for tall, vertical columns. A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or
conical shell welded to the base of the vessel. The skirt may be welded to the bottom head of
the vessel, welded flush with the shell, or welded to the outside of the vessel shell. A flange
at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations (Sinnott, 2013)
54
Table 14: Summary of Mechanical Engineering Calculations
Design Parameter Value
Temperature, K 857.33
Pressure, kPa 1914
Reactor wall thickness, mm 20
Reactor head thickness, mm 12
Longitudinal stress, MPa 54.2595
Circumferential stress, MPa 108.519
Bending stress, kPa 52.4259
Buckling stress, MPa 173.3177
Dynamic wind pressure, Pa 1280
Support Skirt
55
6-1.10 Mechanical Engineering Drawing
56
6-2.0 DESIGN OF A SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
6-2.1 Problem Statement
The reactor effluent is at a temperature of 315oC. This stream must be cooled in order to
achieve a higher recovery of acetaldehyde in the absorber; cooling water is used to cool the
stream to 45oC in a heat exchanger. This chapter discusses the design of a shell and tube
heat exchanger to cool 39,528.3124 kg/hr of the reactor effluent, using cooling water at a
temperature of 20oC as the coolant.
6-2.2 Main Objective
To design a heat exchanger to cool the reactor effluent at 315oC to a temperature of 45oC.
6-2.3 Specific Objectives
• To distinguish between the various types of heat exchangers.
• To select and justify the most suitable type of heat exchanger to be used to execute
this task.
• To perform chemical engineering calculations on the heat exchanger.
• To perform mechanical engineering calculations on the heat exchanger.
• To produce an engineering drawing on the selected heat exchanger.
6-2.4 Introduction to Heat Exchangers
The heat exchanger is a process equipment for the effective transfer of heat energy between
two fluids. The transfer of heat is possible due to the temperature difference of the two
fluids and also the fluids making thermal contact. By the second law of thermodynamics,
heat can flow from a hotter to a cooler fluid (ME Mechanical Team, 2016). Heat exchanger
encompasses all devices used to transfer energy from one fluid to another. Some examples
of this group are: radiators, water heaters, refrigeration batteries, evaporators, steam
57
generators (Tirenti, 2017). They can transfer heat between a liquid and a gas (i.e., a liquid -
air heat exchanger) or two gases (i.e., an air-air heat exchanger), or they can perform as
liquid- to- liquid heat exchanger (Azar et al., 2010). Heat exchangers are classified
according to transfer process, number of fluids, degree of surface contact, design features,
flow arrangements and heat transfer mechanisms.
Table 15: Summary of types of heat exchangers design
Sample Number Type Major Characteristics Applications
1 Shell and tube Bundles of tubes encased in a Always the first type of
cylinder shell exchanger to consider
2 Air cooled heat Rectangular tube bundles Economic where cost of
exchanger mounted on frame with air cooling water is high
used as the cooling medium
3 Double pipe Pipe within a pipe; inner pipe For small units
may be finned or plain
4 Extended Externally finned tube Services where the
surface outside tube resistance
is appreciably higher
than inside resistance.
5 Brazed plate fin Series of plates separated by Cryogenic services; all
corrugated fins fluids must be clean
6 Spiral wound Spirally wound tube coils Cryogenic services;
within a shell fluids must be clean
7 Scraped surface Pipe within a pipe, with Crystallization cooling
rotating blades scraping the applications
inside wall of the inner tube
58
8 Bayonet tube Tube elements consists of an Useful for high
inner tube temperature difference
between shell and tube
fluids
9 Falling film Vertical units using a film of Special cooling
cooler water in tubes applications
10 Worm coolers Pipe coils submerged in a box Emergency cooling
of water.
11 Barometric Direct contact of water and Where mutual
condenser vapour solubilities of water and
process fluid permit
12 Cascade coolers Cooling water flows over Special cooling
series of tubes applications for every
corrosive fluid
13 Impervious Constructed of graphite for Used in very highly
graphite corrosion protection corrosive heat
exchangers
(Different Types of Heat Exchangers & Their Application [PDF], n.d.)
6-2.5 Equipment Selection
The typical shell and tube heat exchanger is made up of a number of tubes mounted inside a
cylindrical shell. The two process streams(fluids) exchange heat as one fluid flows over the
outside of the tubes while the second fluid flows through the tubes. The fluids can be single
or two phase and can flow in a parallel or a cross/counter flow arrangement. (Kaveh et.
al,2010) The shell and tube heat exchanger is used when a process requires large amounts
of fluids to be heated or cooled. Due to their design, they offer a large heat transfer area and
59
provide high heat transfer efficiency. There are some types of shell and tube heat
exchangers and they are described below.
6-2.5.1 Fixed Tube Sheet Exchanger
A fixed-tube sheet heat exchanger has straight tubes that are secured at both ends to tube
sheets welded to the shell. The main advantage of the fixed tube sheet exchanger is its low
cost because of its simple construction. Fixed tube sheet being the least expensive shell and
tube exchanger type, as long as we don’t use any expansion joint. But for the same reason,
fixed tube sheet exchanger does not help much for services having large temperature
difference between shell & tube sides. Because in such cases, an expansion joint would be
needed. Other advantages are that the tubes can be cleaned easily by removing the channel
cover or bonnet. Moreover, absence of flanged joints helps to minimize the leakage of the
shell side fluid. But there is a disadvantage that the outsides of the tubes cannot be cleaned
mechanically, as the tube bundle is fixed to the shell. Fixed tube sheet exchangers require
that a clean fluid must be used on the shell side. (Hanan,2014)
6-2.5.2 Floating head exchanger
In this type of shell and tube exchanger, one end of the tubes is kept fixed in a tube sheet
attached to the shell side. While the other end is free to expand or ‘floating’ in the shell
side. In this type, heat exchangers can withstand fluids to high temperature difference, as
the tubes are free to expand. Also, the floating head cover can be easily removed to
mechanically clean insides of the tubes. Therefore, even dirty and fouling services can also
be used on the tube side. That makes this shell & tube heat exchanger type most versatile in
terms of its applicability to different scenarios. But the design is quite complex, making it
also the most expensive type of shell & tube exchangers. (Hanan,2014)
60
6-2.5.3 U tube exchanger
As the name suggests, in this type the tube bundle is U shaped. There is only one tube
sheet. All the tubes start from upper half of this tube sheet, make a U turn in the shell and
come back to the lower half of the same tube sheet. The advantage of using a U tube bundle
is that the tubes can freely expand as they are U turn end of the bundle is freely floating in
the shell side. Hence a U tube exchanger is the preferred option where there is high
temperature difference between shell & tube side fluids and tube expansion is expected. But
as the same time, this U shape of the tubes makes it difficult to mechanically clean them.
Only chemical cleaning would be possible. Hence U tube exchangers are normally not
preferred where we need to use a dirty or fouling service on the tube side. These
exchangers are also cost effective, as expansion joints are not needed and tube bundle is
free to expand. (Hanan,2014)
6-2.5.4 Advantages of shell and tube heat exchanger
• They can be designed and manufactured to bear very high pressures
• They have extremely flexible and steady design
• They are resistant to thermal shocks
• Pressure loss is at a minimum and can be maintained at a minimum in line with the
process purpose
• Pipe diameter, pipe number, pipe length, pipe pitch and pipe arrangement can be
altered, so the design of heat exchanger is quite flexible
6-2.5.5 Disadvantages of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
• It is very tough to readily analyze the shell side of the tubes for scaling or tube
damage
61
• Less efficiency in heat exchange
• Cleaning and maintenance are problematic since a tube cooler requires enough
clearance at one end to remove the tube nest
• It requires more space
• The manufacturing cost is the highest of all configurations. Due to the numerous
jacketed gaskets present, it is not the best option for toxic or hazardous processes.
6-2.6 Equipment Justification
The choice of shell and tube type is determined chiefly by factors such as the need for the
provision for differential movement between shell and tubes, the design pressure, the
design temperature, and the fouling nature of the fluids rather than the function
(Saunders,1988). The floating head heat exchanger is the most suitable for this process
because the design allows for the removal, inspection and cleaning of the shell circuit and
shell interior and the low cost of construction. The shell pass can be cleaned with chemical
method after the scaling is formed.(HEAT EXCHANGERS Selection, Rating, and Thermal
Design Third Edition, n.d.)
6-2.7 Equipment Description
They consist of tubes and shells. The tubes act as the flow channels for one of the fluids in
the heat exchanger; these exchangers are often parallel in order to provide a large surface
area for the heat transfer. On the other hand, the shell holds the tube bundle and acts as the
conduit for the fluid. The shell assembly houses the shell side connections and is the actual
structure into which the tube bundle is placed. (Chukwudi and Igwegbe,2019) One end of
the tubes is held stationary to the housing with a fixed tube sheet, but the other side is free
to expand using a component known as a floating tube sheet. This part allows the tubes to
expand with increased temperatures, without needing to bend the pipes. When being
62
operated on, one can access the tubes for easy cleaning, while also being able to create a
high temperature difference without fear of breaking the device. (Cavallo,2019). The main
components of the floating head Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger are described below:
Shell: The shell is a cylindrical body constructed from one or more pieces, obtained from a
rolled plate or a seamless tube, containing the tube bundle. The fluid bathing the tubes and
the tube bundle circulates inside the shell. It is one of the most important parts of a shell
and tube heat exchanger, especially from the structural point of view.
Tube bundle: The tube bundle is a component formed mainly by tubes and baffles. This
bundle is located inside the shell, following the same alignment. The function of the tubes
is to transfer heat between the two present fluids. The baffles support the tubes, create
turbulence and direct the fluid flowing outside the tubes
Tube sheet: The tube bundle ends in circular perforated plates called tube sheets. Their
main purposes are to divide the flow between the shell side and tube side flow and secondly
to anchor all the tubes of the bundle. Tubes cross the tube sheet from side to side inside the
drilled holes; these tubes will be sealed against the tube sheet through expansion or
welding. The aim is to join both elements permanently.
Tubes The function of the tubes is to transfer heat between the two present fluids Tubes are
standard length, whose nominal diameter coincides with the outer diameter.
Stationary head: From a structural point of view, the stationary head is similar to the shell.
Its function is to receive the tube side fluid, distribute it in the different passes and collect it
to send it outside the exchanger.
63
Floating head: The floating head is formed by the floating tube sheet, aspherical head and
a split backing ring the entire assembly bolted together. The purpose is returning the fluid
circulating inside the tubes to the stationary head.
Baffles: Baffles serve three functions: 1) support the tube; 2) maintain the tube spacing;
and 3) direct the flow of fluid in the desired pattern through the shell side. A segment,
called the baffle cut, is cut away to permit the fluid to flow parallel to the tube axis as it
flows from one baffle space to another. Segmental cuts with the height of the segment
approximately 25 percent of the shell diameter are normally the optimum. Baffle cuts larger
or smaller than the optimum typically results in poorly distributed shell side flow with large
eddies, dead zones behind the baffles and pressure drops higher than expected. The spacing
between segmental baffles is called the baffle pitch. The baffle pitch and the baffle cut
determine the cross-flow velocity and hence the rate of heat transfer and the pressure drop.
The baffle pitch and baffle cut are selected during the heat exchanger design to yield the
highest fluid velocity and heat transfer rate while respecting the allowable pressure drop.
The orientation of the baffle cut is important for heat exchanger installed horizontally.
When the shell side heat transfer is sensible heating or cooling with no phase change, the
baffle cut should be horizontal. This causes the fluid to follow an up-and-down path and
prevents stratification with warmer fluid at the top of the shell and cooler fluid at the
bottom of the shell.
Fouling consideration: Fouling is generally defined as the deposition and accumulation of
unwanted materials such as scale, algae, suspended solids and insoluble salts on the internal
or external surfaces of processing equipment including boilers and heat exchangers.
Fouling on process equipment surfaces can have a significant, negative impact on the
operational efficiency of the unit. In the shell side in particular lower fluid flow velocities
64
and low-velocity or stagnant regions, for example in the vicinity of baffles, encourage the
accumulation of foul ants. Major detrimental effects of fouling include loss of heat transfer
as indicated by charge outlet temperature decrease and pressure drop increase. Other
detrimental effects of fouling may also include blocked process pipes, under-deposit
corrosion and pollution. Loss of heat transfer and subsequent charge outlet temperature
decrease is a result of the low thermal conductivity of the fouling layer or layers which is
generally lower than the thermal conductivity of the fluids or conduction wall. As a result
of this lower thermal conductivity, the overall thermal resistance to heat transfer is
increased and the effectiveness and thermal efficiency of heat exchangers are reduced. In
general, high turbulence, absence of stagnant areas, uniform fluid flow and smooth surfaces
reduce fouling and the need for frequent cleaning. (Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers, 2007)
6-2.8 Chemical Engineering Design
6-2.8.1 Heat transfer area, A
The prime objective in the design of an exchanger is to determine the surface area required
for the specified duty (rate of heat transfer) using the temperature differences available.
6-2.8.1.1 Heat transfer per unit time, Q
The general equation for heat transfer across a surface is:
Q =UATM
where Q = heat transferred per unit time, W,
U = the overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 oC,
A = heat-transfer area, m2,
65
TM = the mean temperature difference, the temperature driving force, oC.
6-2.8.1.2 Overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo
The overall heat transfer coefficient Uo, referenced to the heat transfer area A, is related to
the individual (film) heat transfer coefficients and the fouling factors by
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln ( 𝑜 ) 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑜 1
𝑑𝑖 𝑜
= + + + × + +
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
Where Uo = the overall coefficient based on the outside area of the tube, W/m2 oC
ho = outside fluid film coefficient, W/m2 oC,
hi = inside fluid film coefficient, W/m2 oC,
hod = outside dirt coefficient (fouling factor), W/m2 oC,
hid = inside dirt coefficient, W/m2 oC
kw = thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, W/m oC,
di = tube inside diameter, m,
do = tube outside diameter, m.
6-2.8.1.3 Mean temperature difference TM
Before equation 1 can be used to determine the heat transfer area required for a given duty,
an estimate of the mean temperature difference TM must be made. This will normally be
calculated from the terminal temperature differences: the difference in the fluid
temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the exchanger. The “logarithmic mean” temperature
66
difference is only applicable to sensible heat transfer in true co-current or counter-current
flow (linear temperature enthalpy curves). For counter-current flow, the logarithmic mean
temperature is given by:
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
𝑇 −𝑡
𝑙𝑛 (𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
2 1
Where TLM is the log mean temperature difference
T1 is the hot fluid temperature, inlet
T2 is the hot fluid temperature, outlet,
t1 is the cold fluid temperature, inlet,
t2 is the cold fluid temperature, outlet.
In most shell and tube exchangers, the flow will be a mixture of co-current, countercurrent
and cross flow.
The usual practice in the design of shell and tube exchangers is to estimate the “true
temperature difference” from the logarithmic mean temperature by applying a correction
factor to allow for the departure from true counter-current flow:
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 (6.2.4)
Where ∆𝑇𝑚 is true temperature difference, the mean temperature difference for use in the
design equation 6.2.1
𝐹𝑡 is the temperature correction factor.
67
For a 1 shell: 4 tube pass exchanger, the correction factor is given by
1−𝑆
√𝑅 2 + 1 𝐼𝑛 [1 − 𝑅𝑆]
𝐹𝑡 =
2 − 𝑆(𝑅 + 1 − √𝑅 2 + 1)
(𝑅 − 1)𝐼𝑛 [ ]
2 − 𝑆(𝑅 + 1 + √𝑅 2 + 1)
The correction factor is a function of the shell and tube fluid temperatures, and the number
of tube and shell passes. It is normally correlated as a function of two dimensionless
temperature ratios.
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑅=
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑆=
𝑇1 − 𝑡1
PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF WATER AT TUBE SIDE
VARIABLES SYMBOLS VALUE UNITS SOURCE
Mean density Pw 992.8 kg/m3 Thermodynamics and
Transport Properties of
Specific heat Cp,w 75.276 J/mol.k
Fluids
capacity
(G.F.C. Rogers and Y.R.
Mean Viscosity
µ Mayhew, Fifth Edition)
Thermal
conductivity
0.798× 10−3 Pa.s
Kw
68
598 × 10−3 W/m2 oC
o
Inlet temperature t1 15 C Material balance
0
Outlet temperature t2 90 C
Flowrate mw 48318.68316 kg/h
Fouling factor hid 3000 W/m2 oC (Towler et al., 2008)
Assumptions
1. Steady state conditions
2. Constant overall transfer heat coefficient
3. Heat losses are negligible
6-2.8.2 Heat Load, Q
Heat lost by reactor effluent stream= Heat gained by water
Q=𝑚̇𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇
where
𝑚̇ is the mass flow rate
Cp is the specific heat capacity
69
∆𝑇 is the temperature difference
From the material balance, flowrate of cooling water =31,729.7479
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇
48318.68316 × 75.276 × (90 − 15)
𝑄=
3600𝑠
𝑄 = 75.776𝐾𝑊
6-2.8.3 Mean Temperature difference
(315 − 90) − (45 − 15)
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
315 − 90
ln ( )
45 − 15
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 96.778℃
315 − 45
𝑅= = 3.6
90 − 15
90 − 15
𝑆= = 0.25
315 − 15
1 − 0.25
√3.62 + 1 ln ( )
1 − (3.6 × 0.25)
𝐹= = 1.67
2 − 0.25(3.6 + 1 − √3.62 + 1)
(3.6 − 1) ln ( )
2 − 0.25 + (3.6 + 1 + √3.62 + 1)
⟹ ∆𝑇𝑀 = 1.67 × 96.778℃ = 161.62℃
6-2.8.4 Heat Transfer Area, A
Fluid allocation: Due to the fouling nature of water, water will be located in the tube while
the reactor effluent stream in the shell
70
Tube selection: The table below gives the specification of the selected tube for the design.
Overall heat transfer coefficient, gives the following for typical overall heat transfer
coefficient for shell and tube heat exchangers for water and gases.
Table 16: Typical overall coefficient for shell and tube heat exchangers
Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2 oC)
Gases Water 20-300
Using 250 W/m2 oC as a trial value for the design calculations,
Area required,
𝑄 75776
𝐴= = = 3.13𝑚2
𝑈∆𝑇𝑀 250 × 96.778
Surface area of one tube = 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝑙 = 𝜋 × (20 × 10−3 ) × 2.4 = 0.1507𝑚2
3.13
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑, = = 21
0.1507
21 tubes would be used for the design purpose.
𝜋𝑑𝑖 2 𝜋 × (15 × 10−3 )2
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 = = = 1.767 × 10−4 𝑚2
4 4
Total tube area, At =21 × 1.767 × 10−4 = 0.0037107𝑚2
Number of Tubes per pass, N
71
𝑁𝑡 21
𝑁= = =5
4 4
Number of passes (np) =4
Tube Bundle Diameter
For 4 tube passes; K1=0.175
n1 =2.285
Tube Bundle Diameter (Db)
1 1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1 21 2.285
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 × ( ) = (20 × 10−3 ) × ( ) = 0.1625𝑚
𝐾1 0.175
𝑛𝑝 4
4𝑚 (𝑁 ) 4 × 13.4218 × (21)
𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜋 × 𝑑𝑖 × 𝜇 𝜋 × (15 × 10−3 ) × 0.798 × 10−3
= 271936.4526
Tube Side Velocity, Vt
𝑛𝑝 4
4𝑚 (𝑁 ) 4 × 13.4218 × (21)
𝑡
𝑉𝑡 = = = 14.57𝑚/𝑠
𝜋 × 𝜌 × 𝑑𝑖 2 𝜋 × 992.8 × (15 × 10−3 )2
𝐶𝑝 × 𝜇 75.276 × 0.798 × 10−3
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑃𝑟 = = 0.1
𝐾𝐻20 598 × 10−3
72
Tube side heat transfer coefficient, (hi)
ℎ 𝐷𝑖 𝜇 0.14
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐾 𝑖 = 0.023𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 (𝜇 )
𝐻2𝑂 𝑤
Where n=0.3 for cooling of fluid
𝜇
And 𝜙 = 𝜇 = 1
𝑤
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖
= 0.023(271936.4526)0.8 (0.1)0.3
𝑘𝐻2𝑂
Tube Side Pressure Drop
Friction factor, f
𝑓 = (1.58 × ln(𝑅𝑒𝐷 ) − 3.28)^ − 2
= (1.58 × ln(271936.4526) − 3.28)^ − 2 = 0.00367
Pressure Drop (∆𝑃)
𝑓. 𝐿𝑡 1
∆𝑃 = 4 ( + 1) ∙ 𝑛𝑝 ∙ ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑣 2
𝑑𝑖 2
0.00367 × 2.44 1
∆𝑃 = 4 ( −3
+ 1) ∙ 4 × ∙ 992.8 ∙ 14.572 = 2692601.908𝑃𝑎
15 × 10 2
256.6267 × 598 × 10−3
ℎ𝑖 = = 10,230.84967𝑊/𝑚2𝑜 𝐶
15 × 10−3
6-2.6.4 Shell side Calculations
Triangular pitch arrangement of the tubes would used
73
1
𝑛 𝑛1
Bundle diameter, 𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 ( 𝑡 )
𝑘1
Where the constants k1 and n1 are obtained from the table below from a triangular pitch
arrangement.
Table 17: Constants for use in equation
Triangular pitch, Pt = 1.25d0
Number of 1 2 4 6 8
passes
k1 0.215 0.516 0.158 0.0402 0.0331
n1 2.207 2.291 2.263 2.617 2.643
(Rogers & Mayhew, n.d.)
Therefore, for 4 tube passes with triangular layout, k1 is 0.158 and n1 is 2.263.
1
21 2.263
𝐷𝑏 = 20 (0.158) = 173.5456𝑚𝑚 ≈ 174𝑚𝑚
Shell diameter, 𝐷𝑆 = Bundle Diameter + Bundle Diameter Clearance
For a fixed tube heat exchanger, the typical shell clearance is 88mm (Sinnot 2005),
⇒ 𝐷𝑆 = 174 + 88 = 262𝑚𝑚
74
Using a baffle spacing (𝐼𝐵 ) of 0.5 times the shell diameter 𝐷𝑆
𝑙𝐵 = 0.5 × 262𝑚𝑚 = 131𝑚𝑚
Number of Baffles (Nb)
𝐿 2.44
𝑁𝑏 = = = 18.625 ≈ 19
𝐼𝐵 0.131
Baffle Diameter (𝐼𝑑 )
𝐼𝑑 = (𝐷𝑠 − 1.6) = (262 − 1.6) = 260.4𝑚𝑚
Baffle Cut(𝐵𝐶 )
𝐵𝐶 = 0.30 × 𝐷𝑆 = 0.30 × 262 = 78.6𝑚𝑚
Baffle Holes (𝐵ℎ )
Baffle holes are usually between 0.4 − 0.7𝑚𝑚
Clearance chosen=0.7 mm
Baffle holes,𝐵ℎ = (𝑑𝑜 + 0.7) = 20 + 0.7 = 20.7𝑚𝑚
Baffle thickness (𝐵𝑡 )
It is usually between 3.2 − 19𝑚𝑚
Baffle thickness chosen, 𝐵𝑡 = 3.2𝑚𝑚
For a triangular pitch layout,
75
𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ, 𝑝𝑡 = 1.25𝑑𝑜 = 1.25 × 20 = 25𝑚𝑚
Cross flow area in the shell, As is calculated from the relation;
(𝑝𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝐵
𝐴𝑠 = (6.2.7)
𝑝𝑡
where,
do is tube outside diameter, m,
Ds is the shell inside diameter, m
lB is the baffle spacing, m
25 − 20
⟹ 𝐴𝑠 = ( ) × (262 × 131) × 10−3 = 0.0262
25
𝑊𝑠
Mass velocity of shell stream, 𝐺𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠
where
Gs is the shell – side mass velocity kg/m2s
Ws is the fluid flow- rate on the shell- side ,kg/s
As is the area for cross-flow, m2,
39528.3124 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = 419.087 ⁄𝑚2 𝑠
3600 × 0.0262
1.10
Equivalent diameter, 𝑑𝑒 = (𝑃𝑡 − 0.917𝑑𝑜2 )
𝑑𝑜
76
1.10
⟹ 𝑑𝑒 = [252 − (0.917 × 202 )] = 14.201𝑚𝑚
20
𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒
Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇
419.087 × 14.201 × 10−3
= = 7215.284
8.2484 × 10−4
Shell Side Velocity (vs)
𝑅𝑒. 𝜇 7215.284 × 8.2484 × 10−4
𝑉𝑠 = = = 0.5𝑚/𝑠
𝜌. 𝐷𝑒 854.798 × 14.201 × 10−3
Friction factor, f𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑓 = exp [0.576 − 0.19 ln(𝑅𝑒𝑠 )]
= exp [0.576 − 0.19 ln(7215.284)] = 0.3289
Shell Side Pressure Drop (∆𝑃𝑠 )
𝐷𝑠 1
∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑓 (𝑁𝑏 + 1) × × 𝜌 × 𝑣 2
𝐷𝑒 2
262 1
0.3289 × ( ) × (18.625 + 1) × × 854.798 × 0.52 = 12724.16855𝑃𝑎
14.201 2
Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient (ℎ𝑜 )
ℎ𝑜 𝐷𝑒 1 𝜇 0.14
𝑁𝑢 = = 0.36 × 𝑅𝑒 0.55 P𝑟 3 ( )
𝑘𝑠 𝜇𝑠
𝐶𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙× 𝜇𝑠 25.56 × 8.2484 × 10−4
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 = = = 0.0646
𝑘𝑠 0.326122
77
0.14
ℎ0 𝐷𝑒 1 0.798 × 10−3
= 0.36(7215.284)0.55 (0.0646)3 ( )
𝑘𝑠 8.2484 × 10−4
19.043 × 0.326122
ℎ𝑜 = = 437.323𝑊/𝑚2𝑜 𝐶
14.201 × 10−3
6-2.8.5 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
1
𝑈𝑜 =
𝑑
𝑑𝑜 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑜 )
1 𝑑𝑖 1
+ 𝑅𝑑𝑜 + + 𝑅𝑑𝑖 + 𝐷
ℎ0 2𝑘𝑠
ℎ𝑖 𝑒
𝑑𝑖
Where,
Heat transfer of tube side ℎ𝑖 = 10230.84967𝑊/𝑚2𝑜 𝐶
Heat transfer of shell side ℎ𝑜 = 437.323𝑊/𝑚2𝑜 𝐶
Internal diameter of tube 𝑑𝑖 = 15𝑚𝑚
Outer diameter of tube 𝑑𝑜 = 20𝑚𝑚
Fouling resistance of tube side 𝑅𝑑𝑖 = 0.0003 − 0.00017𝑚2𝑜 𝐶/𝑊 −1
Fouling resistance of shell side 𝑅𝑑𝑜 = 0.0002𝑚2𝑜 𝐶/𝑊 −1
Thermal conductivity of stainless steel 𝑘𝑠 = 14.2
1
𝑈𝑜 =
0.02
1 0.02𝑙𝑛 ( ) 1
+ 0.0002 + 0.015 + 0.00017 +
437.323 2 × 14.2 14.201 × 10−3
10230.84967 ×
15 × 10−3
78
𝑈𝑜 = 337.556𝑊/𝑚2𝑜 𝐶
6-2.8.6 Tube Wall Temperature
Tube Wall Temperature(𝑇𝑤 )
315+45
Mean shell side temperature, 𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 180℃
2
90+15
Mean tube side temperature, 𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 52.5℃
2
Mean temperature differences across all resistances, ∆𝑇 = 180 − 52.5 = 127.5℃
𝑈𝑜 337.556
Across shell side fluid film = × ∆𝑇 = 437.323 × 127.5℃ = 98.413℃
ℎ𝑠
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒(𝑇𝑤 ) = 180℃ − 98.4132℃ = 81.586℃
Table 18: Summary of the Chemical Engineering Calculations
Parameter Value Units
Heat transfer area 3.13 m2
Overall heat transfer 337.556 W/m2oC
coefficient
o
Mean temperature 96.778 C
difference
Heat load 75.776 KW
Mass flow rate of water 13.42 Kg/s
Tube outer diameter 20 Mm
79
Tube inside diameter 15 Mm
Length of tube 2440 Mm
Number of tubes 21
Number of passes 4
Tube bundle diameter 174 Mm
Tube side velocity 14.57 m/s
Tube side heat transfer 10230.84967 W/m2oC
coefficient
Tube side pressure drop 2692601.908 Pa
Shell internal diameter 262 Mm
Number of shell passes 1
Baffle spacing 131 Mm
Number of baffles 19
Baffle diameter 260.4 Mm
Shell side pressure drop 12724.16855 Pa
Shell side heat transfer 437.323 W/m2oC
coefficient
Overall heat transfer 337.556 W/m2oC
coefficient
80
o
Tube wall temperature 81.586 C
6-2.9 Mechanical Engineering Design
6-2.9.1 Design Temperature
For heat exchangers, the design temperature is normally set 10oC greater than the maximum
allowable temperature. (Rahul and Sachin,2018)
𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝑇𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 + 10℃ = 315 + 10℃ = 325℃
6-2.9.2 Design Pressure
For vessel under internal pressure, the design pressure is taken as the pressure at which the
relieve device is set. This is normally within the range of 5-10% above the normal working
pressure to avoid serious operational errors during minor process upsets.
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 110%(𝑃𝐻 + 𝑃𝐴 )
Where
PH =Total hydraulic pressure from tube and shell sides
PA =Atmospheric pressure
𝑃𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
(854.798 × 9.81 × 0.348) + (992.8 × 9.81 × 0.015) = 3064.268𝑃𝑎
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1.1(3064.268 + 101325) = 114,828.1948𝑃𝑎 = 0.115𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
81
6-2.9.3 Material of Construction
Many factors have to be considered when selecting engineering materials, but for chemical
process plant the overriding consideration is usually the ability to resist corrosion. Other
important characteristics considered in the selection of the material of construction for
equipment are Mechanical properties (Strength-tensile strength, Stiffness-elastic modulus,
Toughness-fracture resistance, Hardness-wear resistance, Fatigue resistance and Creep
resistance), ease of fabrication and ultimately the cost of the material. The metals
considered in this selection include mild steel, stainless steel, copper alloys, Monel and
nickel. The effect of temperature on the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance
makes stainless steel, Inconel, Monel and nickel the best options. Stainless steels are the
most frequently used corrosion resistant materials in the chemical industry. The uniform
structure of Austenite (FCC, with the carbides in solution) is the structure desired for
corrosion resistance, and it is these grades that are widely used in the chemical industry.
Type 304H (the so-called 18/8 stainless steels - Ti stabilised 321): the most generally used
stainless steel would be considered the best option for this design. It contains the minimum
Cr and Ni that give a stable austenitic structure. The design stress for stainless steel at
110oC is 25N/mm2.
6-2.9.4 Shell Dimensions and Orientation
For a cylindrical shell the minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure can be
determined from the equation below.
𝑃𝐷
𝑖 𝑖
𝑡𝑠 = 2𝑓𝑗−𝑃 +𝐶
𝑖
(Kreith et al., 2011)
82
Where Di is the shell internal diameter, ts is the minimum shell thickness required, f is the
design stress of the material used, Pt is the internal pressure of the vessel, j is the joint
efficiency and C is the corrosion allowance.
Shell diameter Di = 262mm
Material of construction = stainless steel (type 304 H)
Design stress at 315oC, f=106.8N/mm2 (Sinnott, 1999)
Corrosion allowance, C = 2mm
Joint efficiency j = 0.85
0.115 × 262
𝑡𝑠 = + 2𝑚𝑚 = 2.16605𝑚𝑚 ≈ 2𝑚𝑚
(2 × 106.8 × 0.85) − 0.115
Channel
The channel thickness is also obtained as;
0.115 × 262
𝑡𝑐 = + 2𝑚𝑚 = 2.16605𝑚𝑚 ≈ 2𝑚𝑚
(2 × 106.8 × 0.85) − 0.115
Nozzles
0.115 × 76.2
𝑡𝑛 = + 0.003 = 0.11𝑚𝑚
(100.6 × 0.8) − 0.115
Nozzle O.D = Nozzle I.D +2 × thickness
= 76.2𝑚𝑚 + (2 × 0.11𝑚𝑚) = 76.42𝑚𝑚
83
Weight Analysis
Weight of Shell body (Excluding Head)
Weight of shell body, 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑚𝑠 × 𝑔
Where g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s
𝑚𝑠 =mass of shell body
But mass of shell body, 𝑚𝑠 = Volume of shell body, 𝑉𝑠 × density of carbon steel, 𝜌𝑐𝑠
𝜌𝑠𝑠 = 7850𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜋 2 2
𝑉𝑠 = × (𝐷𝑠.𝑜 − 𝐷𝑠,𝑖 ) × 𝐿𝑡
4
𝜋
𝑉𝑠 = × (0.3632 − 0.2622 ) × 2.44 = 0.0195𝑚3
4
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 × 𝜌𝑐𝑠 × 𝑔
0.0195 × 7850 × 9.81 = 1501.665
Weight of baffles
𝜋𝐵𝑑2
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 =
4
𝜋 × 260.42
= 0.0532𝑚2
4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑡 = 0.7 × 0.0532 = 0.037𝑚2
84
𝜋𝑑02
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 = 𝑁𝑡 ×
4
𝜋 × (0.02)2
21 × = 0.006597 𝑚2
4
Effective area of baffles = 0.0532-0.006597 = 0.0466m2
Effective volume of baffles = effective × thickness
= 0.0466 × (3.2× 10−3 ) = 1.4912×10-4m2
Weight of baffle = 𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 × 𝜌𝑠.𝑠 × 𝑔 = 1.4912 × 10−4 × 8030 × 9.81 = 11.746𝑁
Total weight on baffle =19 × 11.746 = 223.174𝑁
Weight of Body of Tubes, 𝑾𝒕
Weight of body of tubes, 𝑊𝑡 = 𝑚𝑡 × 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑠.𝑠 × 𝑉𝑡 × 𝑔
𝜌𝑠.𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, 8000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜋
Total volume of tubes, 𝑉𝑡 = 4 × (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 ) × 𝐿𝑡 × 𝑁𝑡
𝜋
= × (0.022 − 0.0152 ) × 2.44 × 21 = 0.00704𝑚3
4
𝑊𝑡 = 8000 × 0.00704 × 9.81 = 552.4992𝑁
6-2.9.5 Weight of Cooling Water in Heat Exchanger, Wcw
The weight of cooling water in the heat exchanger is given by the formula below
85
𝑊𝒄𝒘 = 𝑊𝒄𝑤𝑡 + 𝑊𝒄𝑤ℎ
Where 𝑊𝑐𝑤𝑡 = weight of cooling water in tubes
𝑊𝑐𝑤ℎ =weight of cooling water filling the heads
Total Volume of Cooling Water in Tubes
𝜋 × 𝑑𝑖2
𝑉𝑐𝑤𝑡 = × 𝐿𝑡 × 𝑁𝑡
4
𝜋 × 0.0152
× 2.44 × 21 = 0.009054𝑚2
4
𝑊𝑐𝑤𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐𝑤𝑡 × 𝜌𝑐𝑤 × 𝑔
0.009054 × 992.8 × 9.81 = 88.18𝑁
Volume of cooling water filling the 2 heads, 𝑉𝑐𝑤𝑡 = 2 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
3
Volume of head, 𝑉ℎ = 0.087 × 𝑑𝑠.𝑖𝑑 = 0.087 × 0.2623 = 1.5646 × 10−3 𝑚3
𝑉𝑐𝑤ℎ = 2 × 1.5646 × 10−3 = 3.12934 × 10−3 𝑚3
𝑊𝑐𝑤ℎ = 𝑉𝑐𝑤ℎ × 𝜌𝑐𝑤 × 𝑔
3.12934 × 10−3 × 854.798 × 9.81 = 26.24𝑁
𝑊𝑐𝑤 = 88.18 + 26.24 = 107.42𝑁
86
6-2.9.6 Selection of Heads
There are two types of heads in a heat exchanger and these are the stationary head and the
rear head. Among the various types of stationary heads, the A-type head (channel and
removal cover) is selected for easy access of the tube for cleaning and mostly used in
industries. Type-M head type is selected for the rear head type of condenser considering its
low cost
Weight of Heads
The weight of the heads, 𝑊ℎ = 𝑉ℎ × 𝜌𝑐.𝑠 × 𝑔
𝑊ℎ = 1.5646 × 10−3 × 7850 × 9.81 = 120.487𝑁
Inside Depth of Head, ℎ𝑑
𝐷𝑠 𝐷𝑠
ℎ𝑑 = 𝑅𝑖 − [(𝑅𝑖 − ) (𝑅𝑖 + ) + 2𝑟𝑖 ]0.5
2 2
Where Crown radius 𝑅𝑖 = 𝐷𝑠 (shell diameter) = 262mm
Knuckle radius 𝑟𝑖 ; taken as 6% of 𝑅𝑖
𝑟𝑖 = 0.06 × 262𝑚𝑚 = 15.72𝑚𝑚
262 262
ℎ𝑑 = 262 − [(262 − ) (348 + ) + 2(15.72)]0.5 = 11.439𝑚𝑚
2 2
Effective Exchanger length 𝐿𝐻 = 𝐿𝑡 + 2ℎ𝑑
2.44 + (2 × 11.439 × 10−3 ) = 2.45𝑚
87
Weight of Tie Rods
The diameter of tie rods for shell diameters in the range 152-381 mm is 9.5 mm and the
minimum number of tie rods is 4. Thus, the number of tie rods chosen is 4 with lengths of
3.6 and 4.1 m
Total Volume of the Tie Rods
2 4
𝑉𝑇𝑅 = [𝜋(0.0095)2 × 3.5] + [𝜋(0.0095)2 × 4] = 1.63 × 10−3 𝑚2
4 4
Total Weight of Tie Rods
𝑊𝑇𝑅 = 𝑉𝑇𝑅 × 𝜌𝑆.𝑆 × 𝑔
1.63 × 10−3 × 8000 × 9.81 = 127.9𝑁
Weight of effluent stream in Exchanger
The Volume of the stream (shell side) is equal to the effective side volume
𝑉𝑠.𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑡 − 𝑉𝑇𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑅
Where 𝑉𝑠 = volume of shell side
𝑉𝑏 = Tube bundle volume
𝑉𝑡 = Volume occupied by tubes
𝑉𝑇𝑆 = Volume of tube sheet
𝑉𝑇𝑅 = Volume of tie rods
𝜋 × 0.2622
𝑉𝑠 = × 2.44 = 0.502𝑚3
4
88
𝜋 × 0.022 × 2.44 × 21
𝑉𝑡 = = 0.01609𝑚3
4
𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 0.502 − 0.00704 − 0.01609 − 8.23 × 10−5 − 1.63 × 10−3 = 0.47878𝑚3
Weight of stream entering shell side
𝑊𝑠 = 0.47878 × 854.798 × 9.81 = 4014.842𝑁
Weight of Nozzles
A shell diameter of 0.348m (13.7 in) should have a nozzle inside diameter of 3 inches
(76.2mm)
𝜋 × (0.07642 − 0.0762)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒𝑠; 𝑉𝑛 = 4 × × 0.048 = 3.3175 × 10−5 𝑚3
4
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒, 𝑤𝑛 = 3.3175 × 10−5 × 8000 × 9.81 = 2.604𝑁
The Dead Weight
The dead weight of the heat exchanger is given by;
𝑊𝑑 = 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑏 + 𝑊𝑡 + 𝑊𝑐.𝑤 + 𝑊ℎ + 𝑊𝑇𝑅 + 𝑊𝑇𝑆 + 𝑊𝑐.𝑠 + 𝑊𝑛
𝑊𝑑 = 1501.665 + 223.174 + 552.4992 + 107.42 + 120.487 + 127.9 + 6.458
+ 4014.842 + 2.604 = 6657.0492.394𝑁 ≈ 6.7𝑘𝑁
6-2.9.7 Support Design
Design units are needed to be held in position, hence the need for a support. The type of
support selected for pressure vessels depends on several factors including elevation from
the ground level, operating temperature and pressure, thickness of wall and external loads.
89
Example of supports are used to secure pressure vessels include; skirt, ring, lug and saddle
supports. For horizontal pressure vessels like condensers, saddle support is selected. The
heat exchanger would be mounted on two supporting saddles to prevent indeterminate load
distribution. The saddle would be made of high carbon steel because of its hardness and
low cost due to availability of raw materials.
6-2.9.8 Stress Analysis
Longitudinal Stress
The longitudinal stress imposed on the vessel is given by the formula;
𝜌 × 𝐷𝑠
𝐿𝑠 =
4×𝑡
Where P= internal pressure =3064.268Pa
𝐷𝑠 = shell internal diameter
𝑡 =Thickness of shell
0.003064 × 262 𝑁
𝐿𝑠 = = 0.1003
4×2 𝑚𝑚2
𝑃×𝐷𝑠 0.003064×262
Circumferential stress,𝐶𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠 = = = 0.2007𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
2×𝑡 2×2
𝑊𝑑 5.5 × 103
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝐷𝑠 = = = 3.3667𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 − 𝑡) × 𝑡 𝜋(262 − 2) × 2
0.88 × 𝑄
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑇𝑠 =
𝑅𝑖 × 𝑡
90
Where Q= reaction due to dead weight of vessel
6.7 × 103
𝑄= = 3350𝑁
2
𝑅𝑖 =Internal radius of shell=131mm
0.88 × 3350
𝑇𝑠 = = 11.252𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
131 × 2
Longitudinal Bending Moments at Mid-Point
4 × 𝑀1
𝐿𝑏𝑚 =
𝜋 × 𝐷𝑖2 × 𝑡
𝑊𝑑 𝐿𝑡 1 + 2(𝑅 2 − 𝐻 2 ) 4𝐴
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑀1 = [ − ]
4 4𝐻 𝐿
1 + 3𝐿
𝐴 = 0.4𝑅 = 0.4 × 131 × 10−3 = 0.0524𝑚
𝐿𝑡 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥. 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝐻 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 11.439𝑚𝑚
6.7 × 103 × 2.44 1 + 2(0.131 − 0.011439) 4 × 0.0524
𝑀1 = [ − = 4681.752𝑁𝑚]
4 4 × 0.011439 2.44
1 + 3 × 2.44
4 × 4681.752 × 103
𝐿𝑏𝑚 = = 43.419𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋 × 2622 × 2
Longitudinal Bending Stress at the saddles
The bending stress at the support is:
91
4 × 𝑀2
𝐿𝑏𝑠𝑠 =
𝐶 × 𝜋 × 𝐷𝑠2 × 𝑡
𝑀2 = 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝐶 = 1; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝐴 𝑅2 − 𝐻2
1 − 𝐿 + 2𝐴𝐿
𝑀2 = 𝑊𝑑 × 𝐴 [1 − ( )]
4𝐻
1 + 3𝐿
0.0524 0.1312 − 0.114392
1 − 2.44 +
𝑀2 = 6.7 × 103 × 0.0524 × [1 − ( 2 × 0.0524 × 2.44 )] = 22.483𝑁𝑚
4 × 0.11439
1 + 3 × 2.44
4 × 22.483 × 103
𝐿𝑏𝑠𝑠 = = 0.2085𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
1 × 𝜋 × 2622 × 2
92
Table 19: Summary of Mechanical Engineering Calculations
Parameter Value Unit
Design Temperature 325 ℃
Design Pressure 114.828 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Shell material of Medium carbon steel
construction
Tube material of 304H Stainless steel
construction
Dead weight 6.7 𝑘𝑁
Type of support Saddle
Longitudinal stress 0.1003 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Circumferential stress 0.2007 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Direct stress 3.3667 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Tangential stress 11.252 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Longitudinal bending stress 0.2085 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
at mid- span
Longitudinal bending stress 0.2085 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
at support
93
6-2.10 Mechanical Engineering Drawing
94
6-3.0 DESIGN OF A PACKED BED ASORPTION COLUMN
6-3.1 Problem Statement
In order to separate acetaldehyde from the light hydrocarbon, CO2 and unreacted hydrogen,
an absorber is designed to absorb acetaldehyde from the gaseous product entering the bottom
of the absorber.
6-3.2 Main Objective
The main objective of this equipment is to design a packed bed absorption column that will
operate at a rate of v and will be able to recover as much acetaldehyde as possible.
6-3.3 Specific Objective
i. To specify the various types of absorbers and their applications.
ii. To justify and select the type of absorber to be designed.
iii. To carry out a detailed chemical engineering design calculation for the selected
absorber type.
iv. To carry out a detailed mechanical engineering calculation for the selected absorber
type.
v. To produce a detailed mechanical engineering drawing of equipment with its
calculated parameters.
6-3.4 Introduction
Absorption is basic operation of mass transfer that consists of the separation of some
components of gaseous mixture by contact with adequate solvent. Gas absorption is a mass
transfer process in which there is transfer of solute particles from a gas stream to a liquid
stream due to contact between the two phases. The two phases however are immiscible.
95
In a chemical and petrochemical industries, some processes that demonstrate the importance
of absorption include the following;
1. Treatment of gases in refinery.
2. The recovery of solvent vapors or natural gasoline from gaseous currents.
3. The decontamination of industrial gases.
Among the most important gas-liquid system employed nowadays is absorption. The
absorption process could be classified as physical or chemical depending on whether a
reaction takes place between the solute and the solvent. Thus, the physical absorption occurs
when the solute has a higher solubility in the solvent than the other gases, that is when the
target solute is dissolved into the solvent. (Sanchez and Silva, 2016). The chemical
absorption occurs when the solute reacts with the solvent where the resulting product remains
in the solvent. (Thakore and Bhatt, 2007).
The absorption column is also known as the contact tower or a scrubber. It is a long vertical
column used in industry for absorbing gases. The gas is introduced at the bottom of the
column and the absorbing liquid passes in at the top and falls down by gravity against the
countercurrent of the gas. This tower, when it has a small diameter has packings in it.
However, a tray type is considered when the diameter is large. (Fang and Duan, 2014).
6-3.5 Types of absorbers
1. Packed bed absorber
2. Plate or tray tower
3. Venturi cleaning tower
4. Spray chambers.
96
6-3.5.1 Packed bed Absorption Column
Packed columns are used for distillation, gas absorption and liquid-liquid extraction but only
absorption will be considered. The gas-liquid contact in a packed column is continuous not
stage wise like a plate column. The liquid flows down the column over the packing surface
and the gas or vapor flows counter currently up the column. Two methods of contacting the
gas and liquid are possible through; counter-current operation and co-current operation. The
liquid is introduced at the top of the tower and flows down by gravity through the packing to
the bottom. The gas may be introduced at either end (top or bottom) of the tower since the
type of flow may be co-current or counter current. The counter current operation is mostly
used. For counter-current operation, the gas enters the column or tower from below as it
leaves at the top, while the liquid enters from the top and flows in the opposite direction and
exists from the bottom. Inside the column where their vapor-liquid contact, mass transfer by
absorption occurs.
A packed tower is a vessel that is filled with some suitable packing material. Examples of
the packing including pall rings metal, Raschig ceramics, intalox saddles ceramic. They are
used increasingly in small fractionating towers and absorbers where access is restricted. Their
use is advantageous where corrosion control is essential. Because of liquid-distribution
concerns, packing is not recommended for large diameter columns or where a high turn down
ratio is required. All packings tend to spread liquid as it flows downwards. (Kayode, 1995).
As the liquid and gas compete for space, very intimate contact takes place between the two,
and a very large contact area exists through which the transfer of chemical species can take
place. The performance of the column strongly depends on the arrangement of the packing
to provide good liquid and gas contact throughout the packed bed (Cheremisinoff, 2003).
97
Figure 5: Parts of a Packed Bed Absorption Column
6-3.5.2 Plate or Tray Tower
Plate columns are the most common type of column used in distillation and absorption
column. It can handle wide range of gas and liquid flow rate and therefore requires a column
of smaller size diameter. The liquid flows across the plate and the gas flows up through the
plate. The three types of plates are the sieve perforated plate, bubble-cap plates and the valve
or floating cap plates. The plate column has plates or trays installed within the columns which
take care of the contacting efficiencies of the tower. (Towler and Sinnott, 2008).
6-3.5.3 Venturi cleaning tower
A venturi scrubber is designed to effectively use the energy from a high velocity inlet stream
to atomize the liquid being used to scrub the gas stream. (Johnstone and Roberts, 1949). They
98
are used for high efficiency collection of small particles from many industrial processes.
Venturi cleaning tower are also used when the gas streams are too hot for other collection
devices. (Rudnick et al.,1986). Energy consumption in the form of gas phase pressure drop
across the venturi is high compared to that found in other devices of equal collection
efficiency. Also, large pressure drops and high disposal efficiency is a major problem in
venturi scrubber compared to other devices.
6-3.5.4 Spray chamber
Spray chamber is a type of absorber designed to use where pressure drop is a major factor
and where solid particles are present in treated gas. The spray tower has many advantages. It
is simple to design and also easy to construct and operate. Also, it has high efficiency removal
of acidic gases with little or no traces of scale. (Babcock and Wilcox, 2017). It has a lower
pressure and lower capital and operating cost. However, fine droplets are expected to be
produced using the spray tower. This remains a disadvantage since they are difficult to
produce.
6-3.6 Equipment Description
The absorber comprises of a vertical cylindrical shell constructed out metal, plastic, ceramic
and filled with suitable packings which offer a large interfacial area for gas-liquid for mass
transfer between the phases. (Wasi ur Rahman, 2001). A total absorption system consists of
a pressure vessel along with the associated piping, valves, control and pumps needed to
ensure continuous flow. (Perry et al., 1993). A bed of packing rests on a support plate which
offers very low resistance to gas flow. It is provided with a gas inlet and distributing space at
bottom, a liquid inlet and a liquid distributor at the top and a gas and liquid outlets at the top
and bottom. A liquid solvent is introduced from the top through the liquid distributor (which
distributes the liquid on the packing), which irrigates or wets the surface of packing
99
uniformly, liquid trickles down the bed, and finally the liquid enriched in the solute to be
absorbed called a strong liquor (solute + solvent) leaves the bottom of the column. The liquid
flow rate should be sufficient for good wetting of packing. A solute containing gas (rich gas)
is introduced from the bottom of the tower and rise upward through the interstices or open
spaces in the packing counter current to the flow of the liquid. The lean gas (dilute gas) leaves
the column from the top of the tower. In case of tall columns, liquid redistributors are used
to redistribute the liquid to avoid channeling of the same (flow the liquid along the wall).
(Wasi ur Rahman, 2001).
In filling an absorber, there must be sufficient time for any gas trapped in the pores to escape
since the present of gas pocket will cause products contamination, bed lifting or flow
distribution. Higher distribution also tends to cause too much particle turbulence, abrasion,
attrition and erosion. A well designed packed-bed tower will provide the required mass
transfer between gas and liquid phases, with low pressure drop, small capital and operating
costs, high removal efficiencies. Design of counter-current packed absorbers normally
involve; selection of packing’s based on requirements and expected conditions, calculation
of material and energy balances. Several design parameters are to be determined including
column diameter (D), packing height (Z), overall mass transfer coefficient (Km) and gas
pressure drop (∆P), as well as the overall number of gas phase transfer units, overall height
of a gas phase transfer unit and the effective surfaced area packing.
6-3.6.1 Equipment Selection
The most efficient column type ideal for the removal of H2 is the packed column. The packed
column is chosen over the other column types because of the following reason.
100
• Packed columns are suitable for handling corrosive liquids since H2 is corrosive hence
the best equipment for its removal is the packed column.
• Packed columns are generally used for small diameter less than 600mm, where plates
would be difficult to install and expensive as well.
• Packed column is appropriate for accommodating the handling of foaming liquids.
Foaming is the expansion of vapor or liquid caused by high vapor rates and since H2
forms foam for its removal hence it will be suitable to use packed column for its
removal.
• Packed columns are efficient for high liquid to gas ratio and provides a larger
interfacial area for mass transfer. They can handle liquid to gas ratio compared to
plate columns.
• Economically, packed columns are the best choice since they are less expensive and
generally cheaper.
• The liquid holdup is appreciably lower in a packed column than a plate column. This
is more important when the liquid involved are corrosive or flammable needs to be
kept as small as possible for safety reasons.
6-3.6.2 Parts of Absorption Column
The packed column consists of the following elements:
1. A vessel(tower) is usually cylindrical, usually constructed of steel and coated as
needed to prevent corrosion for other form of destruction.
2. Mist eliminator which is used to trap liquid droplets that are entrained in the gas
stream before they exit the vessel.
101
3. Liquid distributors are designed to wet the column evenly and initiate uniform contact
between the flue gas stream and water.
4. Packing support and packing restrainer keeps the packing in place within the walls of
the column.
5. A spray distribution system to apply the liquid absorbent evenly over the entire top
surface of the packing.
6. Packing to promote intimate contact between molecules of target pollutants and the
liquid absorbent.
7. A pump to transfer liquid absorbent from the reservoir to the spray system.
8. A reservoir, usually at the bottom to the tower, to serve as a wet well for pump.
9. A blower to force the gas stream from its source to the packed tower an up through
the packing
10. A support floor, highly perforated, to perform several functions: holding the packing
above the reservoir so as to provide space for incoming gas(influent) to distribute
itself evenly across the cross-section of the tower. (Woodard and amp, 2006).
6-3.6.3 Types of Packings
Packings with regular or structed geometry: The term structured packing refers to packing
elements made from wire mesh or perforated metal sheets. The material is folded and
arranged with regular geometry to give a high surface area with a high void fraction. They
are available in metal, plastics and stoneware. Structured packing is more expensive yet
offers higher efficiency, lower energy consumption, increased capacity as well as lower
pressure drop. All of these will lead to increases operating rates and lower down time. The
structured packing has higher flexibility of operation compared with random packing. The
processing capacity of structed is larger and the gas-liquid distribution is more uniform.
102
Random packing: Random packings, unlike structured packings are dumped into the
column and take up a random arrangement. Random packing also known as dumped packing
is one of the cost-effective devices used in mass and heat transfer. This makes it cheaper to
install compared to structured packings. They also have a higher specific surface area of
contact.
6-3.7 Equipment Justification
6-3.7.1 Selection of Packing Material
In general, small sizes are appreciably more expensive than the larger sizes. Above 50mm,
the lower cost per cubic meter does not normally compensate for the lower mass transfer
efficiency. Packing material can be made from either metals, plastics or ceramics. Ceramic
packing are considered when dealing with corrosive or acidic streams as they offer better
resistance than the other two types (Towler & Sinnott, 2013). However, since ceramic
packing is easily broken during unstable column operation, metal pall rings will be the choice
of packing in the design of the column (Sinnott, 2009).
6-3.8 Chemical Engineering Design
In the design of every equipment, it is essential to determine the design parameters associated
with the chemical engineering principles governing the unit operation. For an absorption
column, the parameters that fully specify the equipment are, the column diameter, column
height, height of packed bed and pressure drop in the column. Other design parameters are
also specified in this design.
When designing the absorption column, the following assumptions were made:
i. The absorption takes place under isothermal conditions.
ii. The absorption conditions are isobaric.
103
iii. Steady state operations.
iv. The mass transfer of any other component except Nitrogen dioxide is neglected.
6-3.8.1 Material Balance
Let Stream L1 represents flow of acetic acid rich organic solvent and Stream G1 represents
inlet gas mixture. Where L2 and G2 represents the outlets.
General Material Balance Equation:
(Mass Accumulation) = (Mass in) - (Mass out) + (Mass generation)
Steady state operation, hence no accumulation.
G2
L1
G1
L2
ASSUMPTIONS
90% removal of H2
6-3.8.2 MOLAR MASS OF INLET GAS
Mw = ∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑀𝑖
Where yi = mole fraction of the individual gases
104
Mi = molar mass of the individual gases
Mw = 28.586kg/kmol
6-3.8.3 DENSITY OF GAS FEED
Assuming ideal gas conditions, density of the gas is calculated using the formula below;
PMw
ρ=
RT
Where;
P = Pressure of the gas = 101.325 KPa
Mw = Molar mass of the gas = 51.646 kg/kmol
T = Temperature of the gas stream = 318.15 K
R = Gas constant = 8.314 KPa.m3/kmol.K
Substituting,
101.325 × 28.586
𝜌=
8.314 × 318.15
= 1.095 kg/m3
6-3.8.4 Entering Gas
H2 = 0.3%
m = 3215.072 kg/h
T = 45 ºC
P = 1.7 MPa
105
6-3.8.5 Entering Liquid
Acetic acid rich organic solvent = 72%
T = 71 ºC
P= 1.62 MPa
Using Raoult’s law;
Yb = mXb*
Where:Yb = mole fraction of H2 in the gas at the bottom of the column
Xb* = mole fraction of H2 in the liquid at the bottom of the column
m = slope of equilibrium line
Pv (H2 )
m=
PT
Where;
P = vapour pressure of H2 at 70.67 ºC = 31.16 kPa
PT = pressure of flue gas = 760 mmHg =101.325 kPa
31.16 kPa
m=
101.325 kPa
m = 0.31
Therefore,
y = 0.31Xb*
Overall Balance:
106
La Xa + Vb Yb = Va Ya + Lb ∗ Xb ∗
Vb Yb − Va Ya
Lmin =
Xb
An efficiency of 90% removal H2 is removed.
28.586
Y= = 0.003
10645.674
Amount of H2 remaining after absorption; 0.1 * 0.003 = 0.0003
Where V= mass flow rate of gas =10645.674 kg/hour Xa= 0
L= mass flow rate of liquid = 28248.792 kg/hour Yb = 0.003, Ya= 0.003
Lmin = 2923.22 kg/hour
Actual liquid rate (Lact) has a range between 1.5 Lmin ≤ Lact ≤ 3.0Lmin
Lact= 1.5 × 2874.33 =4384.829
0.01
Xact = = 0.007
1.5
6-3.8.6 LIQUID-GAS RATIO (MINIMUM &ACTUAL)
Lin 28248.792
= = 0.377
Gin 10645.674
L/G (actual) = 0.565
6-3.8.7 ABSORPTION FACTOR, AF
Lout 4384.829
= = 1.329
mGout 10645.6745 × 0.31
The absorption factor is simply the ratio of the slope of the equilibrium line and the slope of
the actual operating line.
107
6-3.8.8 NUMBER OF GAS PHASE TRANSFER UNITS
Yin − Yout 0.003 − 0.0003
NG = = =9
Yout 0.0003
6-3.8.9 MAXIMUM VAPOUR FLOW RATE
ṁ
V=
3600ρ
Where V= vapour flow rate
ṁ = mass flow rate of vapour
9016.106
V= = 2.287m3 /s
3600 × 1.095
6-3.8.10 PRESSURE DROP CORRELATION FOR PACKED COLUMN
[Gp 2 μ0.1 L . Fp (ρw /ρl )0.1 ]
= 0.015
[32.17ρG (ρL − ρG )]
0.5
0.015[32.17ρG (ρL − ρG )]
Gp = [ ]
μ0.1 L . Fp (ρw /ρl )0.1
Where Gp = pressure drop
ρl = density of liquid solvent = 1040kg/m3 = 64.92508lb/ft 3
ρw = density of water = 997kg/m3 = 62.4lb/ft 3
2.42lbm
μl = viscosity of liquid solvent = 0.9Cp = 0.9 × = 2.178
hr. ft
ρG = density of feed gas = 1.095kg/m3 = 0.06836lb/ft 3
0.5
0.015[32.17 × 0.06836 (64.9 − 0.06836)]
Gp = [ ]
2.1780.1 × 27 × 0.96(62.4 ÷ 64.9)0.1
Gp = 0.2768lb/ft 2
108
6-3.8.11 AREA OF ABSORBER
Area= MG /Gp
MG = mass flow rate of gas mixture
From material balance MG = 10645.674kg/hr
Gp = pressure drop
Area of absorber
1 × ft 2 sec 1hr
= (10645,674kg/hr) × ( ) × (0.2226lbm/kg) × ( )
0.2768 × lbm 3600sec
Area of absorber = 23.78ft 2 = 2.209m2
πD2
But, A =
4
4A
D=√
π
4 × 2.209
D=√ = 5.51ft = 1.68m
π
6-3.8.11 HEIGHT OF COLUMN
NOG = [1/(1 − A) ln[(1 − A)(Y1 /Y2 ) + A]]
Y1 = 0.003
Y2 = 0.0003
mGm 0.31 × 10645.647
A= = = 0.75
Lm 4384.829
Substituting into the formula for NOG ,
109
NOG = 18.89m
HOG = GM /K GA . P
As we know that K GA = 1.646
GM = 10645.674
P = 101.325kPa
Putting all values into HOG we get,
10645.674
HOG = = 0.638m
101325 × 1.646
Height of absorber = HOG × NOG = 0.638 × 18.89 = 12.05m
110
Table 20: Summary of Chemical Engineering Calculations
PARAMETER VALUE
Molar mass kb/mol 19.988
The density of feed gas, kg/m3 0.708
Liquid gas ratio(actual) 0.535
Absorption factor 14.09
Number of gas-phase transfer units 9
Maximum vapor flow rate, m/s 3 352.92
Diameter, m 1.68
Height, m 12.05
Area of the absorber, m2 7.066
6-3.9 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
Process design of absorber vessels establishes the pressure and temperature ratings, the
length and diameter of the shell, the sizes and locations of nozzles and other openings, all
internals, and possibly the material of construction and corrosion allowances. The
requirements of the mechanical design engineer must be considered by the chemical
engineer. The selected material must possess sufficient strength and must be easy to work
with.
111
6-3.9.1 Material of Construction
The ideal material for construction should meet specified requirements before selected for
construction. It should possess the following mechanical properties; tensile strength,
stiffness, creep resistance, toughness, hardness and fatigue resistance. The material should
have the ability to be easily formed, have good corrosive resistance, be available in standard
sizes and come at affordable price (Towler & Sinnott, 2013).
The material to be used for the packed bed absorption column is Austenitic stainless steel,
type 304. The stainless steels are the most frequently used corrosion-resistant materials in the
chemical industry. To impart corrosion resistance, the chromium content must be above 12%,
and the higher the chromium content, the more resistant the alloy to corrosion in oxidizing
conditions. Nickel is added to improve the corrosion resistance in non-oxidizing
environments. They can be divided into three broad classes according to their microstructure;
Ferritic, Austenitic and Martensitic.
6-3.9.2 Selection of Material
One of the challenges normally faced by designers is the selection of a specific type of
absorption column for the operation of scrubbing the gas with necessary solvent to achieve
the desired concentration. A counter-current type of contacter was selected initially, to
achieve the best efficiency in separation.
A packed column was selected over a plate column due to the corrosive nature of
acetaldehyde.
Structural packing absorber was chosen over the other types of absorbers due to its low
pressure drop and higher specific surface area of contact.
112
For the removal of acetaldehyde or H2, the packing material to be used is ceramic intalox
saddles. The most popular choices are the ceramic intalox saddle and pall rings. The ceramic
intalox saddles will be selected because they are more efficient and are resistant to corrosion.
Due to the corrosive nature of acetaldehyde, it becomes more effective and efficient in the
design of the packed column.
Packing material can be made from either metals, plastics or ceramics. Ceramic packings are
considered when dealing with corrosive or acidic streams as they offer better resistance than
the other two types (Towler and Sinnot, 2013).
6-3.9.3 Design Pressure
Taking the maximum allowable pressure as 10% of the total pressure:
P = 10% more than Po (Towler & Sinnott, 2013)
Where;
P = design pressure, Pa
Po = operating pressure in the column = 1700000 Pa
Substituting,
P = 1.1 × (1700000) = 1870000 Pa
6-3.9.4 Design Temperature
For the design temperature, it is usually taken as 10oC above the operating temperature
(Towler and Sinnot, 2013).
T = 10oC +To
Where;
T = design temperature, oC
To = Operating Temperature = Temperature of the raw water = 71 oC
T = 10 + 71 = 81 oC
113
6-3.9.5 Minimum Practical Wall Thickness
PD
t= +C (Towler and Sinnot, 2013)
(2SE − P)
P = design pressure = 1870000 Pa = 1.87 N/mm2
D= diameter of column = 1.68 m = 1.68×103 mm
E = welded joint efficiency = 1
C = corrosion allowance = 2 mm
S= maximum allowable design stress of type 304 stainless steel= 138N/mm2
Substituting,
1.87 × 1.68 × 103
t= + 2 = 13.46 mm
(2 × 138 × 1) − (1.87)
6-3.9.6 Column Head Design
A tori-spherical head was selected for the adsorption column since it economical to use for
pressure not higher than 15 bar and operates very efficiently within this pressure range.
0.885PR C
th = (Towler and Sinnot, 2013)
SE − 0.1P
Where;
th = head thickness, mm
P = design pressure = 1700000 Pa = 1.70000 N/mm2
RC = crown radius = diameter of column = 1.68 m
S= maximum allowable design stress of type 304 stainless steel = 138N/mm2
E = welded joint efficiency = 1
Substituting,
0.885 × 1.7 × 1680
th = = 18.34 mm
138 − 0.1(1.7)
114
6-3.9.7 Design Stress
6-3.9.7.1 Longitudinal Stress
PD
σL = (Towler and Sinnot, 2013)
4t
Where,
σL = longitudinal stress, N/mm2
D = diameter of column = 1.68× 103 mm
t = column thickness = 13.46 mm
Substituting,
1.700 × 1.68 × 103
σL = = 53.05 MPa
4 × 13.46
6-3.9.7.2 Circumferential Stress
PD
σH = (Towler and Sinnot, 2013)
2t
Where;
σH = circumferential stress, N/mm2
P = design pressure = 1.7 N/mm2
D = diameter of column, 1.68 × 103 mm
t = column thickness = 13.46 mm
Substituting,
1.70 × 1.68 × 103
σH = = 106.1MPa
2 × 13.46
6-3.9.8 Weight of Vessel
WV = 240CW DM (HV + 0.8DM )t (Towler and Sinnot, 2013)
Where;
WV = total weight of shell without internal fittings,
115
CW= factor accounting for internal support, weight of nozzles.
Which is 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings.
DM = mean diameter = 1.68 + (13.46×10-3) = 1.693 m
HV = height of column = 12.05 m
t= column thickness = 13.46 mm
Substituting,
WV = 240(1.08) × (1.693) × [12.05 + 0.8(1.693)] × (13.46 × 10−3) = 79.17 kN
6-3.9.9 Weight of Ceramic Intalox Saddles
Wc = 9087 kg × 9.81 kg/m3 = 89143 N = 89 kN
6-3.9.10 Total Weight of Column
WT = WV + Wc
Where;
WT = total weight of column, kN
WV = weight of vessel = 79.19 kN
Wc = weight of ceramic intalox saddles = 89 kN
WT = 79.19 kN + 89 kN = 168.19 kN
6-3.9.11 Dead Weight Stress
WT
σW =
π(D + t)t
Where;
σW = dead weight stress, N/mm2
WT = total weight of column = 168.19 kN
D = diameter of column = 1.68 ×103 mm
t = column thickness = 13.46 mm
116
Substituting,
168.19 × 103
σW = = 2.35 MPa
π(1680 + 13.46) × 13.46
6-3.9.12 Wind Loading
Basics of Calculation
Wind speed = 100 mph
Wind pressure = 1280 N/m2 (Towler and Sinnott, 2013)
Loading (per linear meter)
L = DM × PW (Towler and Sinnot, 2013)
Where;
Dm = mean diameter = D + 2(t) = 1.68 + 2[(13.46) × 10-3] = 1.71 m
Pw = wind pressure = 1280 N/m2
Substituting,
𝐿 = 1.71 × 1280 = 2184.85 N/m
ii) Bending moment at any plane on the column
LH 2
MX = (Towler and Sinnot, 2013)
2
Where;
MX = bending moment at any plane, Nm
L = loading per linear meter = 2184.85 N/m
H = height of column = 12.05 m
Substituting,
2184.85 × 12.052
MX = = 158622.84 Nm
2
117
6-3.9.13 Skirt Support
A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the vessel. A
flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations. Skirt supports are
recommended for vertical vessels, as they do not impose concentrated loads on the vessel
shell; they are particularly suitable for use with tall columns subject to wind loading.
Figure 6: A Conical Skirt Support
Source: (Towler & Sinnott, 2013).
6-3.9.14 Weight on Skirt
Weight imposed on skirt = total weight of column + weight of liquid feed
Weight of liquid = ρL × V × g
Where;
ρL = density of liquid at 25℃ = 997 kg/m3 (Perry et al., 1997)
V = volume of vessel = area × height of column
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
Weight of liquid = 997 × 13.47 × 7.5 × 9.81
W = 988082 N =988kN
118
Weight imposed on skirt, WS = (441.5 + 988) kN = 1429.5 kN
6-3.9.15 Stress analysis on skirt
Bending moment at the base of skirt
LH 2
Ms = (Towler and Sinnott, 2013)
2
Where;
MS = bending moment at the base of skirt, Nm
L = loading per linear meter = 2184.85 Nm
HC = height of column = 12.05 m
HS = height of skirt = 2 m
H = total height = 14.05 m
Substituting,
2184.85 × 14.52
Ms = = 229682.36 Nm
2
6-3.9.16 Bending stress on Skirt
4Ms
σBS = (Towler and Sinnott, 2013)
π(Ds + t sk )t sk Ds
Where;
σBS = bending stress in the skirt, N/mm2
MS = bending moment at the base of skirt = 229682.36 Nm
DS = inside diameter of skirt at the base = diameter of column = 1.68×103 mm
tSK = thickness of skirt = column thickness = 13.46 mm
Substituting the values into the equation yields,
4 × 229682.36 × 103
σ𝐵𝑆 = = 7.64 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋(1680 + 13.46) × 13.46 × 1680
119
6-3.8.17 Dead Weight Stress on Skirt
WT
σWS(operating) = (Towler and Sinnott, 2013)
π(Ds + t sk )t sk
Where;
σWS = dead weight stress on the skirt, N/mm2
WT = total weight of vessel = 168.19 kN
DS = inside diameter of skirt at the base (diameter of column) = 1680 mm
tSK = thickness of skirt (column thickness) = 13.46 mm
Substituting,
168190
σWS(operating) = = 2.35 MPa
π(1680 + 13.46) × 13.46
120
Table 21: Summary of Mechanical Engineering Calculations
PARAMETER VALUE
Material of construction Stainless Steel 304
Design Pressure, MPa 1.87
Design Temperature, oC 81
Vessel Wall Thickness, mm 13.46
Domed Head Thickness, mm 18.34
Column head Torispherical
Weight of Vessel, kN 79.19
Weight of Ceramic Intalox Saddles, kN 89
Total Weight of column, kN 168.19
Dead Weight Stress, MPa 2.25
Longitudinal Stress, MPa 53.05
Circumferential Stress, MPa 106.1
Height of Skirt, m 2
Support Type Skirt support
121
6-3.10 Mechanical Engineering Drawing
122
6-4.0 DESIGN OF A DISTILLATION COLUMN
6-4.1 Introduction
Distillation is the most common and cheapest separation technique used in the chemical
industry. The efficiency and effectiveness of these distillation steps is key to the overall
economics of these processes. (Graham G.K, 2018).
Distillation is defined as a “Process which separates, by partial vaporization, a liquid
mixture of miscible and volatile substances into individual components or, in some cases,
into groups of components. The separation of a mixture of methanol and water into its
components; of liquid air into oxygen, nitrogen, and argon; and of crude petroleum into
gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, and lubricating stock are examples of distillation.” (Benitez,
2009).
Distillation occurs in a distillation column where the overhead products is collected at the
top of the column and bottoms product collected at the bottom of the column. The column
can be either tray or packed column depending on the operating conditions and process
parameters of the system such as, flow behavior, tendency to fouling, and sensitivity to
temperature. Tray columns are divided into, bubble cap, sieve and valve tray columns
whereas packed columns are divided into random dumped and structured packing
(McCabe, 2004).
6-4.2 Problem Statement
To design a multicomponent distillation column that can effectively separate acetaldehyde
with a low percentage of the other component in the upward stream.
123
6-4.3 Main Objective
The main aim of this work is to design a multicomponent distillation to separate
acetaldehyde 5256.70 kg/h and a bottom 37719.89 kg/h given an input mixture flowing at
43133.6kg at a temperature of 323 K and a pressure of 2.2 bar.
6-4.4 Specific Objectives
• To specify the type of column to be used and its internals as well as its material
of construction
• To carry out detailed chemical engineering calculations on the column
• To carry out detailed mechanical engineering calculations on the column
• To give a detailed mechanical engineering drawing of the selected column
• To calculate the appropriate number of plates, diameter and height of this
column
6-4.5 Equipment Justification
There are two types of columns that are used in distillation namely; tray/plate and packed
columns. In this design, a tray column is preferred because of its ability to handle a wider
range of liquid and gas flowrates and the ease with which it can be cleaned. Also,
predicting the efficiency of tray column can be done with relatively more certainty than
the packed column.
There are three plate types in the tray column namely; bubble, cap and sieve plates.
However, sieve plates are preferred in this design because of its merits which include; low
pressure drop, ease of cleaning due to low fouling tendency, high capacity and efficiency
and the ease to fabricate than the other types. This type of plate is also less expensive
124
hence makes it more advantageous to use since it is affordable and also suitable for almost
all applications.
6-4.6 Literature Review
6-4.6.1 Types of Distillation Columns
Batch Distillation Columns: Generally, this type utilizes a batch wise system. When the
desired task is achieved on a particular feed the next batch of feed is introduced for the
distillation process to be carried out.
Batch distillation is widely used for the separation of specialty and fine chemicals and for
the recovery of small quantities of solvent during the production of high purity and added
value products. This type of processing is the mainly used in the pharmaceutical,
biochemical and specialty chemical sectors. One merit of batch distillation is the
possibility to separate a mixture of several components with only one column. Although
a batch distillation column uses more energy than a continuous column, many times it is
convenient to operate in batch mode. For these reasons the design, analysis, and
optimization of batch distillation columns have obtained attention by several researchers
(Asteria Narvaez-Garcia., 2013).
There are two main operating methods for batch distillation columns: constant reflux and
variable reflux (U.M, 2013). The main characteristic of a batch distillation column is that
concentrations and temperatures are changing with time at any part of the column.
In its operation, the feed is introduced into the column through a reboiler to evaporate part
of the liquid to generate a vapor that rises through the column until it reached the
condenser which converts it into liquid. This liquid is collected at the flux tank and is
returned to the column as a reflux that descends through the column contacting with the
125
vapor counter-currently if the column is full of packing, or contacting the vapor in a
crosscurrent pattern if the column contains plates. Mass transfer occurs when vapor and
liquid interact and as a result the light components rise with the vapor and the heavy
compounds flow within the liquid. In this way a profile of concentration, temperature, and
pressure is drawn throughout the column. At the bottom, pressure and temperature are
higher because the heavy compounds have higher boiling points, and because the vapor
has a loss of pressure when passing through the packing or plates. The more volatile
components concentrate at the top of the column and the less volatile or heavy compounds
concentrate at the bottom.
In normal operation of a batch process, liquid distillate is withdrawn from the reflux tank,
taking away the more volatile compounds first and increasing at the same time the
concentration of the less volatile or heavy components at the bottom.
Continuous Columns: When liquid mixture is fed into the distillation column. The heated
feed is partially vaporized and rises up the column. After it rises, it cools by contacting
the descending cooler liquid and partially condenses so that, while part of vapor continues
to flow upward, the condensed portion is enriched in the less volatile component(s) and
flows downward. As the vapor continues to flow upward, it undergoes partial
condensation a number of times and each time becomes richer in the more volatile
component(s).
The part of the feed liquid that did not vaporize on entering the column, flows downward
and is heated by contacting the upward flowing hot vapor until it is partially vaporized.
The resulting vapor flows upward and the residual liquid is enriched in the less volatile
component(s) and flows downward. As the liquid continues to flow downward, it
126
undergoes partial vaporization a number of times and each time becomes richer in the less
volatile component(s). The distillation trays in the column are designed to facilitate the
intimate contacting of upward flowing vapor with downward flowing liquid. The
overhead vapor that exits the top of the column is rich in the more volatile component(s)
of the column feed and the bottoms liquid which exits the bottom of the column is rich in
the less volatile component(s) of the column feed (King, 1980). Heat is required to provide
the multiple occurrences of partial vaporization in a distillation column. The required heat
is applied to the bottom of a distillation column in a number of ways, the most common
being the transfer of heat from a reboiler. Similarly, cooling is required to provide the
multiple occurrences of partial condensation that also occur in a distillation column. The
required cooling is most usually provided by a condenser used to cool and condense the
overhead vapor into a liquid and then returning part of the cool condensed liquid to the
top of the column as reflux. The overhead condenser may be water-cooled or air-cooled.
The bottoms reboiler may be a heat exchanger heated by steam or hot oil, or it might be a
fuel-fired furnace. The location of the feed entry can vary from one design to another and
is selected to provide optimum results (McCabe, 2004).
A continuous distillation column is kept in a steady state or approximate steady state. In
the context of continuous distillation, that means that the feed rate, output product rates,
reflux rate, heating and cooling rates, temperatures, pressures, and compositions at every
point within the column are essentially kept constant during operation (King, 1980). It
also means that the column is material-balanced and heat-balanced (i.e., the material
inputs equal the material outputs, and the heat inputs equal the heat outputs). If a variation
in conditions does occur, modern process control equipment is usually able to gradually
return the system to a steady state again.
127
Packed Column: A packed column contains particles that either constitute or support the
stationary phase, and the mobile phase flows through the channels of the interstitial
spaces. The liquid flows down in the column over a packing surface and the vapor moves
counter-currently up the column. This packing is used to fill the column to provide a large
interfacial area for mass transfer between gas and liquid. Also, smaller packing sizes offer
a larger surface area that aids in effective absorption. However, smaller packing fits more
tightly, which decreases the open area between packing, thus increasing the pressure drop
across the packing bed.
Total surface area and residence time increases as packing height increases, enhancing
absorption. The packing types can be divided into two broad classes: structured and
random packings.
Figure 7: Examples of Packings
128
Tray/Plate Column: Trays are the most popular selected type of distillation column. This
type of column utilizes a pressure and temperature differential to separate the products.
For most tray columns, the weir holds a liquid level of each tray. The vapor must overcome
this liquid head to move up the column. On the tray the vapor and liquid are contacted and
then above the tray they are separated. Trayed column perform well in high liquid and
vapor loading. At low flow parameters the capacity and efficiency of trays can be reduced.
Trays have higher pressure drop than packing, and it may also have higher resistance to
corrosion.
Here are some items to consider when choosing tray for a tower;
1. Trays have higher pressure drop than structured packing column.
2. Excessive vapor and liquid maldistribution can lead to a loss of efficiency in a
tray tower.
3. Trays have downcomer capacity problems in heavy foaming service.
4. Excessive vapor and liquid maldistribution can lead to a loss of efficiency in a
tray tower.
5. Trays have a high resistance to corrosion.
There are five major types of tray column; bubble cap tray, sieve deck tray, dual flow tray,
valve tray and baffle tray. However, sieve trays are preferred for this design.
Sieve Tray: Sieve tray is perforated plate with holes punched into the plate and usually
has holes 3/16 in to 1 in diameter. The standard size is 0.5 inch with the perforation
punched downward. Vapor comes out from the holes to give a multi orifice effect. The
vapor velocity keeps the liquid from flowing down through the holes (weeping). Vapor
129
flow through the tray deck to contact the liquid is controlled by the number and size of the
perforations. The punching direction affects the dry pressure drop, a smaller hole diameter
result in lower pressure drop for the same open area. This due to the ratio of hole diameter
to the tray thickness. The number and hole size are based on vapor flow up the tower. The
liquid flow is transported down the tower by down-comers, a dam and overflow device
on the side on the plate. A sieve tray has higher entrainment than valve tray at the same
vapor velocity. This is due to the spray of liquid directed upwards to the next tray. For
efficient operation, the hole velocity must be sufficient to balance the head of liquid on
the tray deck and thus prevent liquid from passing through the perforations to the tray
below Sieve trays can be used in almost all services. Sieve deck tray has a minimum
capacity approximately 70%. Their capacity and efficiency are at least as high as that of
other standard trays used commercially. Sieve trays may be used in moderately fouling
services, provided that large holes (3/4 to 1 in. [19 to 25 mm]) are used. Sieve trays are
simple and easy to fabricate and therefore relatively inexpensive.
6-4.6.2 Mode of Operation of Distillation Column
The column is divided in 2 sections which are rectifying and stripping sections. The feed
moves down the column after entry to the reboiler for heating which vapourizes the higher
volatile components and some amount of water in the feed. The vapour moves up and gets
into contact with new feed coming in to the column since the process is continuous.
The hot vapour strips away the volatile components from the feed and continues to travel
up the column leaving the less volatile component to move down the column into the
reboiler. This is called the stripping section and occurs below the feed stage. The vapour
flows up to the top of the column, and into a condenser. All the vapour is condensed into
liquid and part of it returned to the top of the column as the reflux. As the vapour moves
130
to the top of the column it comes into contact with the condensed liquid. The hot vapour
vapourizes the volatile components in the liquid and travels up while the less volatile
component moves down. This is called the rectification or enriching section because, the
vapour is enriched with more volatile component (Kister, 1992).
The contact of liquid and vapour occurs on the plates or trays. The vapour moves up
through the holes in the plates while the liquid flows horizontally on the surface of the
plates, this establishes an intimate contact between the two phases (they meet
perpendicularly). The liquid flows over a weir and moves vertically through a down comer
onto the next plate. These movements occur on several plates until it gets to the bottom of
the column while the vapour continues to move up through the holes to the top of the
column (Perry, 1999)
6-4.7 Chemical Engineering Design
The distillation involves a mixture of acetaldehyde and water with few other components.
6-4.7.1 Material Balance
S28
S27
131
Component S27 S28 S52
CO2 0.218 59.885
H2 0.00003 0.008
CH4 0.047 12.911
C2H4 0.047 12.911
C2H6 0.052 14.285
C2H4O 12.187 99.5
CH3COOH 64.106 72.082
C2H5OH 0.821
H2O 18.795 21.860
Acetone 1.103 1.261
EthAc 2.624 4.796
General Assumptions
1. Steady state operation
2. The feed enters as a saturated liquid
132
3. The distillation process is considered as a multicomponent feed since the feed
contains eleven components
Mass Balance Calculations
We are to achieve 155.95 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ at the bottom of the column.
Overall material balance
𝐹 =𝐷+𝐵
𝐹 = 𝐷 + 155.95
Balance on H2O
𝑥𝐹 = 𝑥𝐷 + 𝑥𝐵
0.1879F= 0.0048D + 0.219(155.95)
Solving equation 1 and 2 simultaneously gives
𝐹 = 182.44 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 = 26.49 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
6-4.7.2 Relative Volatility
The relative volatility at the top and bottom of the column is calculated using
𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑎𝑖,𝐻𝐾 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑝𝐻𝐾
Where 𝛼𝑖, = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛ts
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛ts
133
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐻𝐾 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑘𝑒𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒nt
The saturation pressures at constant atmospheric pressure at the column top and bottom
temperatures for C2H4O and H2O was generated using Antoine coefficients that satisfy
the process conditions using the Antoine equation;
B
log10 (Psat ) = A −
C+T
This gives their 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 values in mmHg. They are then converted to kPa.
Top temperature(39oC) Bottom temperature(128oC)
Component Psat(kpa) Psat(kpa)
CO2 65010.32 267062.27
H2 5.694 5.743
CH4 33.4 796.00
C 2 H4 37638.14 123873.031
C 2 H6 37800.74 123949.047
C 2 H4 O 196.02 0.508
CH3COOH 4.45 136.48
C2H5OH 126.93 5.696
H2O 6.89 279.34
Acetone 53.75 731.05
EthAc 23.84 422.50
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶2𝐻4𝑂 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚n
psat
C2H40
aC2H4O,HK = sat
pH20
134
47133.038
aC2H4O,HK = =168.73
6.89
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶2𝐻4𝑂 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 bottom 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚n
psat
C2H40
aC2H4O,HK = sat
pH20
4.194
aC2H4O,HK = = 0.0150
279.34
Calculating average relative volatility
aavg.LK = √aLKtop × aLKbottom
aavg.LK = √ 168.73 × 0.0150
aavg.LK = 0.7616
This was repeated for all the other components and at the bottom of the column and the
results are tabulated below:
Component a, a, avg
a, top
bottom
CO2 2726.9430 632.1 57.9572
H2 0.2388 0.0136 0.5024
CH4 1.4010 1.8125
1.884
C2H4 1578.781 293.1906 43.2663
C2H6 1585.6015 293.3705 43.3471
C2H4O 47133.038 0.0150 1.5909
CHCOOH 0.1867 0.3230 0.7139
C2H5OH 8.22 0.001202 3.8944
H2O 1 1 1
Acetone 2.2546 0.6612 1.9962
EthAc 3.46 1.512 2.2876
135
6-4.7.3 Minimum Reflux Ratio
1
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
((𝑋𝐹𝐿𝐾 )𝑒𝑓𝑓. ((𝑎𝐿𝐾 )𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 1))
Where Rmin = minimum reflux ratio
Light key (LK) = Acetaldehyde
Heavy key (HK) = Water
aLK = Relative volatility
From Literature, αLK = 0.7
XFLK
(XFLK )eff =
XFLK + HFHK
12.911
(XFLK )eff = = 0.3935
12.911 + 18.79
Substituting the above in the minimum reflux equation gives Rmin = 1.0158
6-4.7.4 Actual Reflux Ratio
For actual or optimum reflux ratio a rule of thumb is given in “Chemical Process
Equipment Selection and Design”
R = 1.2(Rmin) = 1.2(1.5229) = 1.21896
6-4.7.5 Minimum Number of Total Trays in a Column
𝑥 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔((𝑥 𝐿𝐾𝐷 ) × ( 𝑥𝐻𝐾𝐵 ))
𝐻𝐾𝐷 𝐿𝐾𝐵
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 , 𝐿𝐾)
Where xLK,D = mole fraction of the light key at distillate stream
xHK,D = mole fraction of the heavy key at distillate stream
xHK,B = mole fraction of the heavy key at bottom stream
136
xLK,B = mole fraction of the light key at bottom stream
αavg,LK = average realitive volatility of the light key
light key = acetaldehyde
heavy key = Water
0.966 0.048
log(( )×( ))
Nmin = 0.005 0.005
log(1.5909)
Nmin = 17.91≈ 18 stages
Minimum number of stages excluding reboiler is Nmin − 1 = 16 − 1 = 15 stages
6-4.7.6 Theoretical Number of Stages
The theoretical number of stages can be estimated using the Gilliland Relationship.
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.566
= 0.75 [1 − ( )
𝑁+1 𝑅+1
Where;
N = theoretical number of stages
Nmin = minimum number of stages = 18
R = actual reflux ratio = 1.8275
Rmin = minimum reflux ratio = 1.5229
𝑁 − 15 1.8275 − 1.5229 0.566
= 0.75 [1 − ( )
𝑁+1 1.82748 + 1
N= 35.05 ≈35 stages
Number of theoretical plates excluding reboiler, N = 35 − 1 = 34 stages
6-4.7.7 Feed Tray Location
Kirk-Bride Method is used for the estimation of feed plate location
137
𝑁𝐷 𝐵 𝑥𝐻𝐾 𝑥𝐿𝐾𝐵 2
log ( ) = 0.206[( ) ( ) ( )
𝑁𝐵 𝐷 𝑥𝐿𝐾 𝐹 𝑥𝐻𝐾𝐷
Where; ND⁄NB = ratio between top and bottom plates
ND = number of stages above the feed, including any partial condensor
NB = number of stages below the feed, including reboiler
B = total flowrate in the bottom stream = 168.25 kmol/h
D = total flowrate in the top stream = 27.44 kmol/h
(XHK)F = mole fraction of heavy key in feed = 0.188
(XLK)F = mole fraction of light key in feed = 0.122
(XLK)B = mole fraction of light key in bottom = 0.00497
(XHK)D = mole fraction of heavy key in distillate = 0.00485
𝑁𝐷 155.95 0.188 0.00497 2
log ( ) = 0.206[( )( ) ( )
𝑁𝐵 26.49 0.122 𝐹 0.00485
𝑁𝐷
log ( ) = 0.05662
𝑁𝐵
𝑁𝐷
( ) = 1.1392
𝑁𝐵
ND = 1.1392NB
The number of stages excluding reboiler is 34
ND +NB = 34
1.1392NB + NB =34
2.1392NB =34
138
34
NB =
2.1392
NB = 15.893
NB = 16
ND = 1.1392 ×16 =18.2272≈18
Therefore, the feed plate is located on the 16th plate from the top based on the theoretical
number of stages.
6-4.7.8 Column Efficiency
Using O’Connell correlation, the column efficiency can be determined. The correlation
relates the overall tray efficiency of the column to the relative volatility of the light key
components and the feed viscosity. This is shown below;
𝐸𝑜 = 51 − 32.5log (𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔 × aavg.LK )
μavg = molar average liquid viscosity
αavg,LK = relative volatility of light key = 0.7616
The molar average liquid viscosity is determined to be 0.3 mNs/m2
Hence, Eo = 51 − 32.5 log (0.3 × 0.7616)
Eo = 71.83% = 0.7183
6-4.7.9 Actual Number of Trays
Actual number of trays can be found as
139
Actual Number of Trays = NTheoretical / Eo
Actual Number of Trays = 34/0.7183
N = 47.33
N = 47 Plates
The actual number of plates is approximately 47plates. Since total condenser and only
partial reboiler is considered in this design, the actual number of stages will therefore be
47 − 1 = 46 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠.
Determining the feed plate location based on the actual number of stages.
From Kirk Bride’s equation
Now,
𝑁𝐷
( ) = 1.1392
𝑁𝐵
ND = 1.1392NB
The number of stages excluding reboiler is 47
ND +NB = 47
1.1392NB + NB =47
2.1392NB =47
47
NB =
2.1392
NB = 21.971
NB = 22
ND = 1.1392 ×22 =25.0624≈25.062
140
Therefore, the feed plate is located on the 25th plate from the top based on the actual number
of stages.
6-4.7.9 Liquid and Vapour Flowrate
From the mass balance calculations, we have;
F = 182.44 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ, B = 155.95 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 = 26.49 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
Above the feed point (rectification section), we have
𝐿𝑛
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐷
𝐿𝑛 = 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝐷)
Where Ln = Liquid downflow at the top
Rmin = minimum reflux ratio
D = distillate flowrate
Ln = 1.0158(26.49) = 26.91
Vn = Ln + D
Where Vn = Vapour flowrate at the top
Vn = 26.91 + 26.49 = 53.4 kmol/h
Below the feed point (stripping section), we have
Lm = Ln + F
Where Lm = Liquid downflow at the bottom
141
Lm = 26.91 + 182.44 = 209.35 kmol/h
Vm = Lm − W
Where Vm = Vapour flowrate at the bottom
W = bottom flowrate
Vm = 209.35 – 155.94 = 53.41kmol/h
Flowrate Flowrate(kmol/h) Flowrate(kg/h) Flowrate(kg/s)
Ln 26.91 699.66 0.1943
Vn 53.4 1389.44 0.3858
Lm 209.35 11221.16 3.1171
Vm 53.41 2862.776 0.7952
6-4.7.10 Relative Molecular Weight
Calculating for the relative molecular weight for each component,
For C2H4O;
RMM in feed = Xf ∙ molecular weight
RMM in feed = 0.122 ×44 = 5.368 kg/kmol
This was repeated for all the other components as well as the top and bottom streams and
their summation was also taken and the results are tabulated as below.
142
Molecular
weight Feed Top Bottom
Components (kg/kmol) (kg/kmol) (kg/kmol) (kg/kmol)
CO2 44 0.09592 0.7643 0
H2 2 0.0000006 0.000004 0
CH4 16 0.00752 0.0592 0
C2H4 28 0.00752 0.0592 0
C2H6 30 0.01316 0.11592 0
C2H4O 44 5.368 42.504 0.2187
CH3COOH 60 38.46 0.11592 0
H2O 18 3.3822 0.08737 3.888
Acetone 58 0.638 0 0.725
EthAc 88 2.309 0 4.19936
Total 50.281 43.706 9.03106
6-4.7.11 Determining Vapour and Liquid Densities
Components xd xb Density (kg/m3)
CO2 0.01737 0 1.87
H2 0.000129 0 0.0899
143
CH4 0.00374 0 0.657
C2H4 0.00374 0 1.18
C2H6 0.00414 0 1.282
C2H4O 0.96614 0.00497 882
CH3COOH 0 0.71723 1.05
H2O 0.004854 0.21860 997
Acetone 0 0.01255 784
EthAc 0 0.04772 902
6.4.7.11.1 Liquid Density
Components Top 𝜌𝐿 (kg/m3) Bottom 𝜌𝐿 (kg/m3)
CO2 0.0325 0
H2 0.0000116 0
CH4 0.00246 0
C2H4 0.00441 0
C2H6 0.0053 0
C2H4O 852.135 0
CH3COOH 0 0.7531
H2O 4.839 217.944
Acetone 0 9.8392
EthAc 0 43.043
Total 857.0187 271.579
144
6-4.7.11.2 Vapour Density
Vapour density (ρv) at the top is calculated from the ideal gas equation.
PV = nRT
𝑚
𝑛= where RMM = relative molecular mass at the top
𝑅𝑀𝑀
𝑃 𝑚
=
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑀𝑀 × 𝑉
𝑅𝑀𝑀×𝑃 𝑚
= =𝜌
𝑅𝑇 𝑉
Pressure 101325 (Pa)
R 8314 (m3 ∙ Pa/kmol ∙ K)
Top temperature 312 (K)
Bottom temperature 402 (K)
RMM at top 43.706 (kg/kmol)
RMM at bottom 9.03106 (kg/kmol)
43.706 ×101325
Hence, 𝜌𝑣 = = 1.7072 kg/m3
8314×312
Vapour density (ρv) at the bottom
9.03106×101325
𝜌𝑣 = = 0.27338 kg/m3
8314×402
145
6-4.7.12 Flooding Vapour Velocity
The flooding vapour velocity is calculated using
𝜌𝐿− 𝜌𝑣
𝑈𝐹 = 𝐾1 √( )
𝜌𝑣
Where, ρv = vapour density at the top or bottom
ρL = liquid density at the top or bottom
K1 will be determined from figure 3.7 using the tray spacing and the flow parameter FLV.
6-4.7.12.1 Flow Parameter
The flow parameter at the top can be calculated as
𝐿𝑤 𝜌𝑣
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = ( )( √( )
𝑉𝑤 𝜌𝐿
Where, Lẇ = liquid mass flowrate at the top = 0.1943 kg/s
Vw = vapour mass flowrate at the top = 0.3858 kg/s
ρv = vapour density at the top = 1.9072 kg/m3
ρL = liquid density at the top = 857.0187 kg/m3
Putting all these values in the equation above,
0.1943 1.9072
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = ( )( √( )
0.3858 857.087
F LV = 0.024
146
The flow parameter at the bottom
Where Lẇ = liquid mass flowrate at the bottom = 3.1171 kg/s
Vw = vapour mass flowrate at the bottom = 0.7952 kg/s
ρv = vapour density at the bottom = 0.2738 kg/m3
ρL = liquid density at the bottom = 271.579 kg/m3
Hence,
3.1171 0.2738
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = ( )( √( )
0.7952 271.579
F LV = 0.124
FLV = 0.02, the value of K1 is determined to be 0.12 at the top of the column.
Similarly, at tray spacing of 0.60m and FLV = 0.06, the value of K1 is 0.11 at the bottom of
the column.
Now, calculating for the flooding velocity at the top
𝜌𝐿− 𝜌𝑣
𝑈𝐹 = 𝐾1 √( )
𝜌𝑣
Where ρv = vapour density at the top = 1.9072kg/m3
ρL = liquid density at the top = 857.0187kg/m3
857.0187− 1.9072
𝑈𝐹 = 0.12 × √( ) = 2.54 m/s
1.9072
At the bottom
ρv = vapour density at the bottom = 2.29421 kg/m3
147
ρL = liquid density at the bottom = 744.4373 kg/m3
857.0187− 1.9072
𝑈𝐹 = 0.10 × √( ) = 3.15m/s
1.9072
FLV = 0.02, the value of K1 is determined to be 0.12 at the top of the column.
Similarly, at tray spacing of 0.60m and FLV = 0.06, the value of K1 is 0.11 at the bottom of
the column.
Now, calculating for the flooding velocity at the top
𝜌𝐿− 𝜌𝑣
𝑈𝐹 = 𝐾1 √( )
𝜌𝑣
Where ρv = vapour density at the top = 1.9072kg/m3
ρL = liquid density at the top = 857.0187kg/m3
857.0187− 1.9072
𝑈𝐹 = 0.12 × √( ) = 2.54 m/s
1.9072
At the bottom
ρv = vapour density at the bottom = 2.29421 kg/m3
ρL = liquid density at the bottom = 744.4373 kg/m3
857.0187− 1.9072
𝑈𝐹 = 0.10 × √( ) = 3.15m/s
1.9072
148
ACTUAL VAPOUR VELOCITY
For design, a value of 80%-85% of the flooding velocity is used. Assuming design for
80%, the actual vapour flooding velocity will be
𝑈𝐴 = 0.80𝑈𝐹
At the top
𝑈𝐴 = 0.80 × 2.54 = 2.032 𝑚/𝑠
At the bottom
𝑈𝐴 = 0.80 × 3.15 = 2.52 𝑚/𝑠
COLUMN AREA
MAXIMUM VOLUMETRIC VAPOUR FLOWRATE
The maximum volumetric vapour flowrate is calculated by
𝑉
𝑉𝑣 =
𝜌𝑣
Where 𝑉𝑣 = maximum volumetric vapour flowrate
V = vapour mass flowrate at the top or bottom
At the top
0.3858
𝑉𝑣 = = 0.2023 𝑚3 /𝑠
1.9072
At the bottom
0.7952
𝑉𝑣 = = 2.9043 𝑚3 /𝑠
0.2738
149
NET AREA REQUIRED
The net area required is determined by
𝑉𝑣
𝐴𝑛 =
𝑈𝐴
At the top
0.2023
𝐴𝑛 = = 0.099𝑚2
2.032
At the bottom
2.9043
𝐴𝑛 = = 1.1525𝑚2
2.52
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF THE COLUMN
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑛 − 𝐴𝑑 … … … 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴𝑑 = 0.12 𝐴𝑐 … … … 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
Making 𝐴𝐶 the subject from Equations 1 and 2,
𝐴𝑛
𝐴𝑐 =
(1 − 0.12)
At the top
0.099
𝐴𝑐 = = 0.1125𝑚2
1 − 0.12
At the bottom
150
1.1525
𝐴𝑐 = = 1.31𝑚2
1 − 0.12
6-4.7.13 Diameter of the Column
𝜋𝐷𝑐 2
𝐴𝑐 =
4
4 × 𝐴𝑐
𝐷𝑐 = √
𝜋
At the top
4 × 0.1125
𝐷𝑐 = √ = 0.378𝑚
𝜋
At the bottom
4 × 1.1525
𝐷𝑐 = √ = 1.2114𝑚
𝜋
VERIFICATION OF TRAY SPACING
According to figure 4, since the column diameter is in between 0.80m, tray spacing
should be 0.50 m. Therefore, the assumed value for tray spacing in this design is
incompatible.
6-4.7.14 Actual Height of Column
Height of column = number of actual stages × tray spacing
151
Assuming a tray spacing of 0.6 m
Height of column = 46 × 0.6
Height of column = 27.6 m = 28m
6-4.7.15 Plate Design
DOWNCOMER AREA, 𝑨𝒅
At the top
𝐴𝑑 = 0.12 × 𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑑 = 0.12 × 0.1125 = 0.0135 𝑚2
At the bottom
𝐴𝑑 = 0.12 × 1.31 = 0.1572 𝑚2
ACTIVE AREA, 𝑨𝒂
At the top
𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴𝑐 − 2(𝐴𝑑 )
𝐴𝑎 = 0.1125 − 2(0.0135) = 0.0.855𝑚2
At the bottom
𝐴𝑎 = 1.31 − 2(0.1572) = 0.9956𝑚2
HOLE AREA, 𝑨𝒉
152
The hole area is taken as 10% of the active area
At the top
𝐴ℎ = 0.10 × 𝐴𝑎
𝐴ℎ = 0.10 × 0.0855 = 0.00855𝑚2
At the bottom
𝐴ℎ = 0.10 × 0.9956 = 0.09956 𝑚2
HOLE SIZE
The holes’ sizes are varied from 2.5 to 12 mm. But 5 mm is the preferred size for holes
(diameter).
PLATE THICKNESS
A plate thickness of 5mm is chosen.
NUMBER OF HOLES
ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
2
𝜋×𝑑2 𝜋 × (5×10−3 )
Area of one hole = = = 1.9635 × 10−5 𝑚2
4 4
At the top
0.00855
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = = 435 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
1.9635 × 10−5
153
At the bottom
0.09956
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = = 5070 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
1.9635 × 10−5
At the top
0.0135
× 100% = 12%.
0.1125
𝑙𝑤
= 0.75
𝐷𝑐
𝑙𝑤 = 0.75 × 0.378 = 0.2835𝑚
At the bottom
0.131
× 100% = 12%
1.1525
𝑙𝑤
= 0.75
𝐷𝑐
𝑙𝑤 = 0.75 × 1.179 = 0.88425𝑚
WEIR LIQUID CREST
The height of the liquid crest over the weir can be estimated using the Francis weir
formula
2/3
𝐿𝑛
ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 750 × [ ]
𝜌𝐿 × 𝐿𝑊
Where Ln = liquid flowrate, kg/s
154
Lw = weir length, m
ρL = liquid density, kg/m3
how = weir liquid crest, mm
After calculation of weir liquid crest, the design has to be checked for weeping
(assuming a weir height, ℎ𝑤 of 0.50mm)
At the top
2/3
0.1943
ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 750 × [ ] = 6.462𝑚𝑚
841.735 × 0.2835
ℎ𝑜𝑤 + ℎ𝑤 = 6.462 + 50 = 56.462𝑚𝑚
At the bottom
2/3
3.1171
ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 750 × [ ] = 41.423𝑚𝑚
271.579 × 0.88426
ℎ𝑜𝑤 + ℎ𝑤 = 41.423 + 50 = 91.423𝑚𝑚
At the top, the 𝐾2 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 30
At the top, the 𝐾2 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 30.8
The value of 𝐾2 will be used to determine the minimum vapour velocity, 𝑼𝒉 through the
holes
155
MINIMUM VAPOUR VELOCITY THROUGH THE HOLES
At the top
[𝐾2 − 0.90(25.4 − 𝑑ℎ )]
𝑈ℎ = 1
𝜌𝑣 2
30 − 0.90(25.4 − 5)
𝑈ℎ = = 8.428𝑚/𝑠
(1.9072)1/2
At the bottom
30.8 − 0.90(25.4 − 5)
𝑈ℎ = = 23.77𝑚/𝑠
(0.2738)1/2
ACTUAL MINIMUM VAPOUR VELOCITY
𝑉𝑣
𝑈𝑎,𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐴ℎ
At the top
0.2023
𝑈𝑎,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 23.66 𝑚/𝑠
0.00855
At the bottom
2.9043
𝑈𝑎,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 29.171 𝑚/𝑠
0.09956
156
Since both values of 𝑈𝑎,𝑚𝑖𝑛 are greater than the corresponding 𝑈ℎ values, weeping will
not occur in either section of the column. (Sinnott, 2005).
Table 22: Summary of Chemical Engineering Calculations
PARAMETER VALUE
Column operating temperature Top 38ºC, Bottom 128 ºC
Column operating pressure Top 220.6kPa, Bottom 220.6kPa
Tray spacing 0.6m
Column efficiency 0.7183
Minimum reflux ratio 1.0158
Actual reflux ratio 1.2190
Actual number of stages 28
Minimum number of trays 15
Location of feed plate 16th stage
Column diameters Top: 0.4m, Bottom: 1.2m
Height of column 28m
Weir height 50mm
Downcomer Area Top: 0.0594 m2, Bottom: 0.0582m2
Active Area Top: 3.762 m2, Bottom: 3.686 m2
Weir Length Top: 0.6 m, Bottom: 0.6 m
Hole Area Top: 0.03672 m2, Bottom: 0.03686 m2
Number of holes Top: 1916 holes, Bottom: 1877 holes
Liquid flow arrangement Crossflow
157
Reboiler Partial
Condenser Total
6-4.8Mechanical Engineering Design
6-4.8.1 Main geometry of the vessel
The distillation column is a cylindrical shell with two torispherical head enclosures at
the top and bottom. The diameters of the stripping and rectifying sections are the same.
Thus, the two cylindrical parts of those sections are joined by using a conical vessel.
6-4.8.2 Design Pressure
At the top
Design Pressure for Rectifying Section Atmospheric temperature = 101.235 kPa
Maximum pressure at the rectifying section = 220 kPa
According to Section VIII of ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code 2008, this belongs
to the category where,
𝑃𝐼𝑁 > 𝑃𝐸𝑋𝑇𝐸𝑅𝑁𝐴𝐿
𝑃𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝑃𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 10% 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎
𝑃𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 220 + 0.1(220) = 242 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 242 + 101.325 = 343.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
At the bottom
158
Design Pressure for Stripping Section Atmospheric temperature = 101.235 kPa
Maximum pressure at the stripping section = 500 kPa
𝑃𝐼𝑁 > 𝑃𝐸𝑋𝑇𝐸𝑅𝑁𝐴𝐿
𝑃𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝑃𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 10% 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎
𝑃𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 220 + 0.1(220) = 242 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 242 + 101.325 = 343.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
6-4.8.3 Design Temperature
At the top
The maximum temperature involved in the rectifying section is the feed temperature
which is 161°C. Since, non-direct heating is used;
𝑇°𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝑇°𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑇°𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝑇°𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 + 10°𝐶
𝑇°𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 38°𝐶 + 10°𝐶 = 48°𝐶
The maximum operational temperature was 171°𝐶 but for design purposes, a tolerance
of about 22°𝐶 is allowed. The maximum operational temperature could therefore be set
at 190 ̊C (Sinott, 2006).
At the bottom
The maximum temperature involved in the stripping section is the reboiler temperature
which is 193°C. Since, non-direct heating is used,
𝑇°𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝑇°𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑇°𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝑇°𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 + 10°𝐶
159
𝑇°𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 128°𝐶 + 10°𝐶 = 138°𝐶
6-4.8.4 Wall Thickness
To ensure that the column is sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight and any
incidental loads, a minimum wall thickness is allowed. For columns with diameter of 1m
and below, a minimum thickness of 5 mm is required. Since the column diameter is
approximately 0.8m, a minimum wall thickness of 5 mm is used (Sinott, 1999).
6-4.8.5 Weight of Vessel, Wv
𝑊𝑉 = 240𝐶𝑉 𝐷𝑚 [𝐻𝑐 + 0.8(𝐷𝑚 )]t
𝐶𝑉 =factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manways and internal supports and is
equal to 1.15 for distillation columns.
𝐻𝑐 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = 26𝑚
𝐷𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝐷𝑚 = 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝐷𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 0.383𝑚 + 1.2164𝑚 = 1.5994𝑚
6-4.8.6 Weight of Plates
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝐴𝑎 + 𝐴𝑑
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.0855 + 0.0135 = 0.099𝑚2
𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.9956 + 0.1572 = 1.1528𝑚2
𝑘𝑁
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 1.2 × 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑚2
At the top
Total weight of a plate = 0.099 × 1.2 × 23 = 2.7324 𝑘N
At the bottom
160
Total weight of a plate = 1.1528 × 1.2 × 23 = 31.817 𝑘N
Total weight of plates in the column = 2.7324 + 31.817 = 34.55𝑘𝑁
6-4.8.7 Choice of Closure
For vessels up to operating pressures of 15 bar, the most popular end closure is a
standard torispherical head (Sinnott, 1999). Since our column operates at a pressure of
2.2 bar, the standard torispherical head enclosure is used.
6-4.8.7 Weight of Insulation
Mineral wool is used as the insulation material for the column. It is relatively cheap and
also widely used for insulating distillation columns (Sinnott, 1999).
Density of mineral wool = 130𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (Sinnott, 1999).
Thickness of insulation = 75mm
Height of column of = 28m
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2
The volume and weight of insulation is calculated at the top and bottom of the column
due to different diameters. But since this column has same diameter at the top and
column, they will be calculated as one, using the full height of the column.
Volume of insulation = 𝜋 × 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
Volume of insulation =𝜋 × 0.8𝑚 × 28𝑚 × 75 × 10−3 𝑚 = 1.68𝑚3
Weight of insulation = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑙 ×
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
130𝑘𝑔 9.81𝑚
Weight of insulation = 1.68𝑚3 × (2 × )× = 4.3 𝑘𝑁
𝑚3 𝑠2
The density of insulation material should be doubled to allow for attachment fittings,
sealing, and moisture absorption. (Sinnott, 1999).
161
At the top,
𝑊𝑉 = 240 × 1.15 × 0.383[26 + 0.8 × (0.383)] × 5 = 13903.98 𝑁
At the bottom,
𝑊𝑉 = 240 × 1.15 × 1.2164[26 + 0.8 × (1.2164)] × 5 = 45277.94 𝑁
Hence, weight of shell = 13903.98 𝑁 + 45277.94 𝑁 = 59181.92 𝑁 ≈ 59.18𝑘𝑁
6-4.8.9 Wind Loading, FW
Calculating the effective diameter of the column, Deff
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 2(𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.79𝑚 + 2(75 × 10−3 + 0.005) = 0.95𝑚
A wind speed of 160km/h is used for preliminary design of tall columns, equivalent to a
wind pressure, 𝑃𝑊 of 1280 𝑁/𝑚2 (Sinnott, 1999)
𝐹𝑊 = 𝑃𝑊 × 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝐹𝑊 = 1280 × 0.95 = 1216 𝑁/𝑚
6-4.8.10 Bending Moment, Mx
Free standing columns unattached to steel structures act as a cantilever beam under wind
loading (Sinnott, 1999). Hence, the bending moment at any plane is given by
𝐹𝑊 × (𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛)2 1216 × (26)2
𝑀𝑋 = = = 411008 𝑁𝑚
2 2
6.4.8.11Design Stress
6-4.8.11.1 Longitudinal Stress, 𝝈𝑳
The longitudinal stress is given by
𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡
162
Where 𝑡 = wall thickness
𝐷𝑖 = Diameter of column = 0.79m
564.3 × 0.79
𝜎𝐿 = = 22289 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
4 × 0.005
6-4.8.11.2 Circumferential Stress, 𝜎ℎ
The circumferential stress is given by
𝑃𝐷𝑖 564.3 × 0.79
𝜎ℎ = = = 44579.7𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
2𝑡 2 × 0.005
6-4.8.11.3 Dead-Weight Stress
This is the stress due to the weight of the vessel and any attachments and is given by
𝑊
𝜎𝑤 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡)𝑡
Where W = weight of vessel
43000
𝜎𝑤 = = 3443 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝜋(0.79 + 0.005) × 0.005
6-4.8.11.3 Bending Stress
𝑀 𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝑏 = ± ( + 𝑡)
𝑙𝑣 2
Where M = Total bending moment at the plane
𝑙𝑣 = second moment of area of the vessel about the bending plane
𝜋
𝑙𝑣 = (𝐷𝑂 4 − 𝐷𝑖 4 )
64
𝐷𝑂 = 0.79 + 2(0.005) = 0.8𝑚
𝜋
𝑙𝑣 = (0.84 − 0.794 ) = 0.00099 𝑚4
64
163
𝑀 𝐷𝑖 411008 0.79
𝜎𝑏 = ± ( + 𝑡) = ± ( + 0.005) = 166063 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑙𝑣 2 0.00099 2
6-4.8.12 Column Support
Skirt supports are recommended for vertical vessels as they do not impose concentrated
loads on the vessel shell; they are particularly suitable for use with tall columns subject
to wind loading as the support is equally strong in all directions. A skirt support consists
of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the vessel. A flange at the bottom
of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations. (Sinnott, 1999).
6-4.8.12.1 Skirt Support Design
Stainless Steel 304 will be used for designing the skirt. A skirt thickness of 16mm and a
height of 2m in order to withstand the dead weight loads and the bending moments
imposed on the column. The resultant stresses in the skirt include;
𝜎𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 + 𝜎𝑤𝑠
𝜎𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) = 𝜎𝑏𝑠 − 𝜎𝑤𝑠
4𝑀𝑆
𝜎𝑏𝑠 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠𝑘 )𝐷𝑆 𝑡𝑠𝑘
where σbs = bending stress in the skirt
𝑀𝑆 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡
𝐷𝑆 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑡𝑠𝑘 = 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
164
6-4.8.12.2 Appropriate Weight on Skirt
Approximate weight on skirt = (volume of column) x (density of water) x (acceleration
due to gravity)
𝜋×0.792 ×26
Weight imposed on skirt = ( ) × 1000 × 9.81 = 125 𝑘𝑁
4
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×(ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛+ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡)
Bending moment, 𝑀𝑆 = 2
1216 × (26 + 2)2
𝑀𝑆 = = 476.7 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
2
Therefore, bending stress of the skirt support
4(476.7)
𝜎𝑏𝑠 = = 59576.2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝜋(0.79 + 0.016)(0.79)(0.016)
6-4.8.12.3 Dead Weight Stress on Skirt
𝑊𝑉
𝜎𝑤𝑠 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠𝑘 )𝑡𝑠𝑘
Where 𝑊𝑉(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑊𝑉(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 + 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
= 59.18 + 4.3 + 34.55 = 98 𝑘𝑁
𝑊𝑉(𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡) = total approximate weight of vessel and content = 866.785 𝑘𝑁
381.12
𝜎𝑤𝑠(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = = 3013.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝜋(2.5 + 0.016) × 0.016
866.785
𝜎𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡) = = 6853.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝜋(2.5 + 0.016) × 0.016
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6-4.8.12.4 Maximum Compressive Stress in Skirt
𝜎𝑠 = 809.7 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 + 6853.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝜎𝑠 = 7662.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
6-4.8.12.5 Maximum Tensile Stress in Skirt
𝜎𝑠 = 809.7 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 − 3013.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝜎𝑠 = −2204.11 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
6-4.8.12.6 Criteria Test for Design
𝑡𝑠𝑘
Maximum allowable compressive stress = 0.125𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐷𝑠
Where;
E = Young’s modulus of skirt material = 200 GPa
𝜃 = base angle of skirt = 90º
0.014
0.125 × 200 × 109 × sin 90 = 140000 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
2.5
Since the maximum allowable stress is higher than the calculated design stress, the
criterion is satisfied
Compressive stress (140000 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 > 7662.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 )
Maximum allowable tensile stress = 𝑆𝑆 𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑆𝑆 = maximum allowable design stress for design material = 125MPa (Sinnott, 1999)
E = joint efficiency = 0.85 (Sinnott, 1999)
Maximum allowable tensile stress = 125 × 0.85 sin 90 = 106,250 kN/m2.
This is also greater than the calculated design stress hence criterion is satisfied.
𝑘𝑁
Tensile stress (106250 𝑚2 > 2204.11𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 )
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Both criteria are satisfied. Thus, the design is satisfactory. 2mm is added to the skirt
thickness to cater for possible corrosion. Design thickness is therefore taken as 18mm.
6-4.8.13 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Design
1 4𝑀
Area of bolt, 𝐴𝑏 = 𝑁 × ( 𝐷 𝑆 − 𝑊) (Scheiman, 1963)
𝑏 𝑓𝑏 𝑏
Where;
𝐴𝑏 = area of one bolt at the root of the thread
𝑁𝑏 = number of bolts
𝑓𝑏 = maximum allowable bolt stress, typical design value 125MPa
𝑀𝑠 = bending moment at the base = 511328 𝑁𝑚
𝐷𝑏 = bolt circle diameter = bottom diameter + wall thickness + corrosion allowance +
insulation thickness = 2.5m + 0.007 m + 0.002 m + 0.075m = 2.584 m
Circumference of bolt circle = 1410π mm
W = weight of column = 98.05 kN
According to Sinnott, bolt spacing should not be less than 600 mm and the total number
of bolts should be in multiples of 4.
1410𝜋
Number of bolts required at minimum bolt spacing = = 7.4
600
Closest multiple of 4 = 8
1 4×511328
𝐴𝑏 = 8×125×106 × ( − 98050) = 0.000693𝑚2
2.584
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Use M56 bolts (BS 4190:1967) root area D 2030 mm2, or Use M48 bolts (BS
4190:1967) root area D 1470 mm2
0.6086 × 10−3
𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = √ = 0.014𝑚
𝜋
1.41×𝜋
𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 0.55𝑚
8
TOTAL COMPRESSIVE LOAD ON THE BASE RING PER UNIT LENGTH
4𝑀𝑠 𝑊
𝐹𝑏 = ( 2 + 𝜋𝐷 )
(𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛, 1963)
𝜋𝐷𝑆 𝑠
4 × 511328 98050
𝐹𝑏 = ( + ) = 116.651 𝑘𝑁/𝑀
𝜋 × (2.5)2 𝜋 × 2.5
MINIMUM WIDTH OF BASE RING
Taking a bearing pressure of 5x106 N/m2
𝐹𝑏 116651
𝐿𝑏 = = = 0.023𝑚
𝑓𝑐 5 × 106
ACTUAL WIDTH OF BASE RING, 𝑳𝑹
Using M48 bolts, 𝐿𝑟 = 127𝑚𝑚
Where 𝐿𝑟 is the distance from the skirt to outer edge of the ring
𝐿𝑅 = 𝐿𝑟 + 𝑡𝑠𝑘 + 50𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑅 = 127 + 18 + 50 = 195𝑚𝑚 = 0.195𝑚
ACTUAL BEARING PRESSURE ON CONCRETE FOUNDATION
168
𝐹𝑏 116651
𝐹𝐶 ′ = = = 598.21 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝐿𝑅 0.195
BASE RING THICKNESS
3 × 𝐹𝑐 ′
𝑡𝑏 = 𝐿𝑅 √ (𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛, 1963)
𝑓𝑟
Where 𝑓𝑟 = allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140MPa
3 × 598219.2
𝑡𝑏 = 0.195 × √ = 0.022𝑚
140000000
Table 23: Summary of Mechanical Engineering Calculations
PARAMETER VALUE
Design Pressure Top: 220kPa, Bottom: 220kPa
Design Temperature Top: 38ºC, Bottom: 128 ºC
Wall thickness 9mm
Weight of vessel 98.05kN
Weight of plates 34.55kN
Weight of insulation with fittings 4.3kN
Total weight of column 136.9kN
Total Wind Loading 1216 n/M
Total longitudinal stress 22289 kN/m2
Total circumferential stress 44579.7 kN/m2
Total deadweight stress 3013.81 kN/m2
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Bending moment 411008 Nm
Skirt height 2m
Skirt thickness 16mm
Bolt area per each 0.000693m2
Bolt spacing 0.55 m
Number of bolts 8
Bolt root diameter 0.014 m
Base ring thickness 0.023m
Actual width of base ring 0.195m
Material of construction of skirt Carbon steel
Material of construction of shell Carbon steel
Insulation material Material Wool
170
6-4.9 Mechanical Engineering Drawing
171
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 PLANT LOCATION
In modern business environment, every entrepreneur is faced with the problem of deciding
the best site for location of their plant or factory. The objective of any entrepreneur is to
locate the business organization at such a place where it is convenient to run the operations
and where the total costs are minimized. Plant location refers to the choice of the region
where men, materials, money, machinery and equipment are brought together for setting
up a business or factory (Gothwal and Saha, 2015). Identifying an ideal location is very
crucial, it should always maximize the net advantage, must minimize the unit cost of
production and distribution. Organizations need to consider various factors in selecting
plant location; availability of men, materials, money, etc. There is no exact method of
analysis or assurance for the selection of an optimal location. But an extent of analysis
and study can help in maximizing the probability of finding the right locations.
7.1. FACTORS CONSIDERED IN SELECTING PLANT LOCATION
Several factors were considered when selecting the location for the acetaldehyde
production plant. They are divided into primary factors and secondary factors.
7.1.1Primary Factors
i. Availability of Raw Materials: Material availability is the most important factor
in selecting a plant location. When the conversion of raw materials into finished
goods is the main task then such organization should be located in a place where the
raw materials availability is maximum and cheap. This plant has most of its raw
materials being imported so nearness to a port will be appropriate hence Accra and
Takoradi ports are considered.
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ii. Nearness to the Market: Nearness of market for the finished goods renders quick
services to the customers as well as reducing the transportation costs. If the plant is
located far away from the markets then the chances of spoiling and breakage also
becomes high during transport. Apart from the exportation of the processed goods
(acetaldehyde, propanoic acid and ethyl acetate), some of the companies that utilizes
these products include Emy Ghana, Imperial Trade Ghana etc
iii. Availability of Labour: Availability of labour is also an important factor in
considering plant location. The combination of the adequate number of labour with
suitable skills and reasonable labour wages can highly benefit the firm. However,
labour-intensive firms such as this should select the plant location which is nearer
to the source of manpower.
iv. Transport Facilities: In order to bring the raw materials to the firm or carry the
finished goods to the market, transport facilities are needed. Depending on the state
and size of the finished goods or raw materials a suitable transportation is necessary
such as roads, water, rail, and air. This must be done with transportation costs being
kept low hence nearness to both market and source of raw material will be of great
benefit to the company.
v. Availability of Fuel and Power: Lack of fuel and power is the major drawback in
selecting a location for a plant. Fuel and power are necessary for almost all
manufacturing units, so locating plants nearer to power industries can highly reduce
the wastage of efforts, money and time due to the unavailability of fuel and power
hence an industrial area is more suitable.
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7.1.2 Secondary Factors
i. Government Policies: While selecting a suitable location for a plant, it is
important to know the local existed government policies such as licensing policies,
institutional finance, government subsidies, government benefits associated with
establishing a unit in the urban area or rural areas.
ii. Suitability of Climate: Climate is an important factor to consider in plant
location. Climate can affect the labour efficiency and productivity.
iii. Disposal of Waste: Disposal of waste is a major problem for industries such as
chemical, packaging waste etc. hence plant location should have provision for the
disposal of waste.
iv. Availability of Finance: Finance is the most important factor for the smooth
running of any business. However, in the case of decisions regarding plant location,
it is the secondary important factor because financial needs can be fulfilled easily if
the plant is running smoothly. But it should be located nearer to the areas to get the
working capital and other financial needs easily (Trivikram, 2017).
Upon considering all these factors listed above, Tema Industrial area is the chosen
location for the acetaldehyde plant. Tema is a fast-developing industrial community
in the Greater Accra region of Ghana and a few kilometers from the capital, Accra
which in this case satisfies all the factors considered above.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL
8.1 Introduction to Safety
The objective of plant safety is to prevent accidents at plants that employs the use of
hazardous substances, and to minimize the health and environmental consequences in the
case of accident.
Safety among employees, environment and equipment cannot be left out in any production
process. Chemical process industries contain some elements of uncertainties and risks, it is
therefore necessary to safeguard its employees, the environment and equipment. Carefulness
cost you nothing, carelessness may cost you your life, and therefore under no circumstance
should safety be compromised. Hence, to ensure safe and efficient operation, good
management practices must be achieved (Sinnott and Towler, 2005). In every manufacturing
plant, general safety guidelines must be followed. These guidelines can be categorized under
the following broad topics; safety practices, personal protective measures and emergency
planning (Sinnott and Towler, 2013). The only way that accidents can be reduced and
eliminated is through an active accident prevention programme. A well-managed program
could identify a number of accidents and preventive measures can be taken. Great effort
should be directed at controlling the basic causes and to reduce the chance of accidents and
damage to properties. Top managements should establish policies, practices and conditions
that prevent accidents and ensure that those practices are fully enforced and that the safe
conditions are maintained (Rahman, 1997).
8.2 Types of Hazards
There are four major hazards in chemical processing:
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I. Chemical Hazards
II. Fire and Explosion Hazards
III. Physical Hazards
IV. Electric Hazards
V. Leakage of flammable liquid or vapours
VI. Equipment failure
8.2.1 Chemical Hazards
A chemical hazard is a type of chemical processing hazard caused by exposure to chemical
substances in the workplace. The chemical hazards associated with this plant are, possible
exposures to chlorine gas from pipe and tank leakages and spillages. In order to control and
prevent these chemical hazards, the following practices can be adopted:
i. Protective equipment such as overalls, gloves and nose masks should be worn
by all workers who find themselves within the perimeters of these chemicals.
ii. Regular checks and maintenance should be done by the workers in the plant in
order to minimize the probabilities of these hazards
iii. Leakages and spillages of water should either be swept or mobbed.
8.2.2 Fire and Explosions Hazards
Flammable materials may be: gases or vapours, liquids; mists or aerosols; and solids
(including dusts). In all cases, for a fire or explosion to occur a flammable atmosphere and a
source of ignition must be present at the same time. There are five general principles for
ensuring that the risks of fire and explosion from the use of flammable materials can be
controlled and minimised. The acronym ‘VICES’ will help one to remember them.
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i. Ventilation: There should be sufficient air around areas where materials are kept.
Good ventilation means rapid dispersion of vapours given off from a spill, leak
or release.
ii. Ignition: Sources of ignition should be removed. Ignition sources can vary
widely. They include sparks from electrical equipment or welding and cutting
tools, hot surfaces, smoking, open flames from heating equipment and
electrostatic discharges from plant, process operators or materials being
processed.
iii. Containment: Flammable materials should be contained in appropriate
containers, and measures should be put in place to avoid spillage. Means of
controlling spillage could be an impervious sill or low bund. An alternative is to
drain the area to a safe place, such as a remote sump or a separator.
iv. Exchange: Flammable materials should be exchanged for less flammable ones,
or if possible, totally substituted for non-flammable ones.
v. Separation: Flammable materials should be stored in isolation. There should be
barriers or partitions between the storage area and plant processes, with a
significant clearance. Explosions in the plant can be caused by excessive pressure
build ups in tanks. In order to avoid this, there should be pressure relief valves
on every tank in order to reduce the pressure in tanks when it becomes too much.
Explosions in the plant can be caused by excessive pressure build ups in tanks.
In order to avoid this, there should be pressure relief valves on every tank in order
to reduce the pressure in tanks when it becomes too much.
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8.2.3 Physical Hazards
These are hazards that directly pose threats to the physical well-being of people in and around
the plant. These hazards include falling objects from heights, unguarded moving parts of
machinery, excessive noise produced by equipment in the plant, sharp objects on the ground,
etc. In order to control these hazards, the following practices should be applied:
i. Safety helmets should be worn by employees to avoid injuries by falling objects.
ii. Safety boot should be worn by employees in order to avoid injuries by sharp objects
on the ground.
iii. Moving parts of machines should be guarded and employees should avoid wearing
lose clothes around such areas.
iv. Ear plugs should be worn around areas with excessive sound in order to protect the
ears.
8.2.4 Electrical Hazards
An electrical hazard is a dangerous working condition associated with making contact with
electrically energized equipment. Such hazards include exposed electrical lines, use of
equipment with wrong electrical ratings, blown fuses, etc. In order to prevent and control
these hazards, the following practices should be applied:
i. Exposed wires must be properly insulated to prevent electrocution.
ii. As much as possible, electrical lines should be kept away from water and flammable
materials to avoid electrical fires.
iii. Power transmission equipment should be heavily guarded to prevent accidental
contacts.
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iv. Workers should practice the log out and tag out system when they are performing
maintenance on electrically energized equipment.
v. Electrical equipment with the appropriate ratings should be used in the industry.
vi. Blown fuses should be replaced.
8.2.5 Leakages
Leaks of acetaldehyde and other chemicals from pipelines caused by corrosion or overflow
in tanks or vessels can be hazardous to one’s health.
8.2.6 Equipment Failure
Failure of equipment and instruments in the plant might potentially cause hazards.
This is more prone to happen in high-temperature systems, such as reactors. Pumps
and compressors are examples of units having moving elements that can fail.
Table 24: Some Safety Precautions of some Equipment in the Plant
POSSIBLE DESIGN
EQUIPMENT ASSOCIATED RISK
SOLUTION
1. Reactors 1. Runaway Reaction 1. Reactor should be
designed to allow for
maximum expected
pressure and
temperature.
2. Presence of an
emergency relief
system
to prevent explosions
179
due to pressure
fluctuations.
3. Automatic feed
shutdown upon
detection
of unexpected
imbalances in the
process such as
abnormal heat build-up
2. Absorber 1. Extreme high and 1. Vessel designed for
low temperatures maximum and
2. Extreme high and minimum expected
low pressures temperatures
and pressures.
2. Presence of emergency
pressure- relief device.
3. Automatic shutdown
of heat input.
4. Isolation of feed upon
detection of extreme
temperatures using
3. Heat transfer 1. Higher flow rate of 1. Cooling and heating
equipment fluid than expected sides designed for
(Heat
180
exchangers, maximum allowable
condensers, pressures.
etc.). 2. Equipment should be
designed to withstand
fouling.
3. Design should allow
for periodical cleaning.
4. Fluid transfer 1. Extremely higher and 1. Downstream piping
equipment lower pressures than specified to withstand
(pumps and expected. deadhead pressure.
compressors). 2. More fluid flow 2. Maximizing of NPSH
3. No or low flow of within design.
fluid. 3. Emergency pressure-
relief device.
4. High- and low-
pressure shutdown
interlock.
5. Interlock to shutdown
equipment in case of
low
flow.
5. Piping and piping 1. High and low 1. All piping and
components pressure equipment designed
for maximum pressure.
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2. Corrosion under 2. Coating and insulation
insulation or external designed to minimize
corrosion corrosion under
insulation.
3. Pressure relief devices
4. Automatic isolation
based on detection of
high or low pressure.
6. Storage vessels 1. Overpressure and 1. Vessel designed for
under-pressure maximum and
2. Leakage minimum expected
3. Excessive high or low temperatures and
temperatures pressures
2. Coating designed to
minimize corrosion.
3. Adequate spacing
between tanks
4. Provision of remote
controlled. Automatic,
and safety relief valves
to stop loss of tank
contents during an
emergency.
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8.3 Pollution
Pollution is a growing threat to human health and the natural environment. According to the
European Environmental Agency (2007), pollution is the introduction of substances or
energy into the environment that can endanger human health, harm living resources and
ecosystems and impair or interfere with social amenities and the eco-system. Most industrial
activities such as atmospheric emission, waste disposal and noise pollution contribute to
increasing environmental pollution. The main factors that contribute to environmental
pollution in the plant are essentially atmospheric emissions, wastewater generation and noise
pollution.
8.3.1 Atmospheric emissions
Off-gases such as light hydrocarbons and CO2 are emitted into the atmosphere and employees
and provided with nose masks to prevent the exposure to respiratory diseases.
8.3.2 Wastewater generation
Process water used throughout the plant would not be of any use at the end of the many
chemical reactions taking place. This water however contains some amount of the various
reactants and some products produced as well. The effluent water therefore needs to be
treated before being released into the environment. The effluent water would be treated on-
site or off-site.
8.3.3 Noise pollution
The level of sound above reasonable limit (80 dB) is regarded as noise in any working
environment (EPA, 1996). High level of noise could impede the hearing of instructions and
warning signals by workers. This could distract the workers, make them less productive and
create an irritating and unsafe workplace. Furthermore, prolonged exposure to noise can
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cause hearing problems. The compressor and pumps are the major equipment that can cause
noise in the plant. According to the occupational safety and health organization (OSHA)
(2018), a worker is regarded as injured and must be given a 30-day rest from work when
there is a shift in their hearing threshold relative to the average baseline of 10 dB or even
more. Therefore, it is necessary to put measures in place to check on the hearing of the
workers who will operate equipment with high frequencies of sounds. Ear plugs or ear muffs
should be added to the minimum clothing for workers in units where loud noises are emitted.
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CHAPTER NINE
9.0 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
9.1 Process Control
All processes are subject to disturbances that tend to change operating conditions,
compositions and physical properties of its streams. In order to minimize the ill-effect that
could arise from such disturbances, instruments are provided to monitor the key process
variables during plant operation. They may be incorporated in automatic control loops, or
used for the manual monitoring of the process operation. They may also be part of an
automatic computer data logging system. Instruments monitoring critical process variables
would be fitted with automatic alarms to alert the operators to critical and hazardous
situations.
9.1.1 Importance of Process Control
• To keep the process variables within safe operating mode.
• To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and automatic
shut-down systems.
• To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures.
• To achieve the desired product output (production rate).
• To maintain the product composition within the specified quality standards.
• To operate at the lowest production cost
9.2 Instrumentation
A central control computerized panel would be located in the plant and it would be
responsible for indication, recording, and regulation of process variables and indication of a
185
signal when the set-point of a process variable is changed. The following process variables
would be measured and monitored by the control systems.
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Flow rate
• Fluid level
These variables play vital roles in their respective places and recording continuously would
enable personnel to control them within limit. Other variables that need to be controlled in
the acetaldehyde production plant are retention time, composition and certain physical
properties which are indirectly related to the process variables e.g., viscosity
9.3 Process Variables Control System
9.3.1 Temperature control system
This would be used to monitor the fired heater, reactors, heat exchangers, distillation columns
and absorption column temperatures. Deviation from the required temperatures would result
in the production of poor-quality products. Thermocouples would be used to check the
temperatures.
T- type thermocouples with a working range of 0-350oC will be used to monitor the
temperature in the process units. In the control of temperature in the fired heater, the
manipulated variable is fuel flow.
9.3.2 Pressure Control system
Pressure control becomes a necessity when vapor or gas handling equipment are to be used,
in other to ensure safety due to pressure build-up. Excessive pressure build-up can result in
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explosion, production of undesired products and destruction of equipment. The purpose of
the pressure control system would be to maintain operating pressures within the required
limits so that any excessive pressure that builds up is let out through pressure releasing
valves. This system would specifically be employed to check the pressures of reactors, fired
heater, heat exchangers, distillation columns and absorption column.
Control devices such as alarms, piezoelectric pressure sensor and safety valves would be
employed where necessary to ensure safe operations and if possible, this instrument would
be controlled by a central computer.
9.3.3 Level control system
When the maximum or minimum level of a tank is exceeded, it could lead to equipment
damage. The level control systems would thus operate the inlet and outlet valves to regulate
the influx and efflux of influents and effluents respectively and also check filling and
emptying of equipment like the mixers, storage tanks and reactors. Level measurement would
be taken and controlled using gauge glass, ultrasonic level transmitter and displacement float
level transducer.
9.3.4 Flow control system
Flow control is essential in the process industries. Flow rate is checked with the help of flow
meters, pumps and valves. Control valves and flow meters are used to ensure that the set flow
of the stream is maintained. The flow measuring device chosen for this plant is the orifice
meter. The orifice meter relates pressure drop across it to the volumetric flow rate of the fluid.
Any deviation that occurs in process streams is corrected by the controller (Geankoplis,
1993). The flow rates of small streams will be controlled using metering pumps that deliver
187
a constant mass flow rate. Shutoff valves are also employed to regulate the inflow and
outflow in the storage tanks (Sinnott, 2005).
9.3.5 Composition Control system
The composition of the various streams to and from the reactors, distillation columns and the
absorption column will be monitored to ensure that the desired compositions and conversions
are achieved. Samples of the streams will be picked and analyzed in a laboratory to determine
their compositions.
9.4 Alarms and Safety trips
Alarms will be used to alert operators of serious and potentially hazardous deviations in
process conditions. Key instruments will be fitted with switches and this relays to operate
audible and visual alarms on the control panels and annunciation panels. Trip systems will
be fitted together with the alarms, to take action automatically to avert the hazard, such as
closing valves or shutting down pumps
Table 25: Process units and specific control parameters
Equipment Control parameters Sensor
Reactors Temperature, Pressure, T-type thermocouples,
Time, Flow controls. The alarms, piezoelectric
temperature in the reactor pressure sensor and
(R1) would be controlled at safety valves
a set point of 25℃ and
pressure of 1 bar; reactor
(R2) at temperature of
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315℃ and pressure of 17.4
bar.
Storage Tanks Flow controls (This would gauge glass, ultrasonic
lead to a control of the level transmitter and
liquid level in the tank) displacement float
level transducer.
Distillation columns Temperature and pressure T-type thermocouples,
control alarms, Piezoeletric
Pressure sensor and
safety valves
Mixers Flow controls (This would gauge glass, ultrasonic
lead to a control of the level transmitter and
liquid in the tank), Time displacement float
control level transducer.
Absorber Temperature and pressure T-type thermocouples,
control Piezoeletric pressure
sensor
Fired heater Temperature, Time and T-type thermocouple,
Flow controls. The alarms, piezoelectric
combustion temperature
189
would be controlled in the pressure sensor and
range of 315℃ to 350℃ safety valves.
Heat Exchanger Temperature and pressure T-type thermocouple,
control. The operating alarms, piezoelectric
temperature and pressure sensor.
would be controlled at
325℃ and 0.115𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
respectively.
190
CHAPTER TEN
10.0 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
10.1 Introduction
The primary purpose for establishing chemical plants is to make profit. As a result, it is
essential to consider the economics of any chemical plant. Before the profitability of a project
can be reliably analyzed, an estimate of the required investment as well as the cost of
production is needed. After initial design work, economic analysis is used to determine the
viability of a project. Using the estimated expenditures and revenue, different methods of
evaluating profitability including rate of return, payback period and breakeven point are used
to assess the economic viability of this project.
Table 26: Basis of Economics Analysis
Construction period 2 years
Start of construction January, 2023
Completion of construction December, 2024
Commissioning January, 2025
Plant operation process Continuous
Number of days per week 7 days
Number of days per annum 350
Number of shifts per day 3
Plant production capacity 46,048,700 kg/year
Plant life 25 years
Dollar exchange rate (as at August, 2022) 9.95
191
10.2 Total Capital Investment
This is the investment supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and
equipment, obtain land and service facilities and erect plant with all the necessary piping,
control and services (Sinnott, 2005). It comprises of fixed capital investment and the working
capital.
10.2.1 Fixed Capital Investment
This is the total cost of the plant ready for start-up. It includes;
i. Direct fixed capital investment – the investment needed for the purchase and installation
process equipment and its auxiliaries such as piping, process control, building and structure
cost, purchase of equipment, etc.
ii. Indirect fixed capital investment – this includes engineering and supervision cost,
contingency fees and contingency allowance (Sinnott, 2005).
10.2.1.1 Estimation of Purchased Equipment Costs
The methods of evaluating fixed capital investment use the cost of purchased equipment as
basis, hence it is essential that estimates of equipment cost are as accurate as possible. In this
project, charts provided by Donald E. Garrett (1989) are used and the provided costs are
updated to reflect current market costs of the equipment using the chemical engineering plant
cost index for 2022.
192
Table 27: Estimation of Purchased Equipment Cost
Equipment Number Unit cost, $ Total cost, $
AB-1 1 1,586,502 1,586,502
DC-1 1 1,737,993 1,737,993
DC-2 1 1,737,993 1,737,993
DC-3 1 1,422,413 1,422,413
DC-4 1 650,825 650,825
DC-5 1 2,615,747 2,615,747
DC-6 1 433,269 433,269
DC-7 1 1,475,112 1,475,112
Reboilers 4 28,693 114,772
Condensers 4 21,994 87,976
RB-4 1 503,798 503,798
RB-5 1 414,732 414,732
RB-6 1 34,861 34,861
CD-4 1 689,281 689,281
CD-5 1 212,440 212,440
CD-7 1 60,635 60,635
FV-1 1 768,208 768,208
FV-2 1 2,212,438 2,212,438
HX-1 1 101,403 101,403
HX-2 1 192,052 192,052
C-1 1 1,075,398 1,075,398
R-1 1 5,772 5,772
R-2 1 3,111,241 3,111,241
193
Equipment Number Unit cost, $ Total cost, $
DE-1 1 69,138 69,138
Mixer 2 94,436 188,872
Pumps 4 1,863 7,452
GH-1 1 275,787 275,787
GH-4 1 79,125 79,125
TK-1 1 158,297 158,297
TK-2 1 484,528 484,528
TK-3 1 237,928 237,928
TK-4 1 230,731 230,731
TK-5 1 2,345,852 2,345,852
TK-6 1 182,872 182,872
TK-7 1 197,378 197,378
TK-8 1 188,872 188,872
TK-9 1 1,864,661 1,864,661
TK-10 1 45,831 45,831
TK-11 1 1,122,328 1,122,328
TK-12 1 17,669 17,669
TK-13 1 153,196 153,196
TK-14 1 62,286 62,286
TK-15 1 152,958 152,958
TK-16 1 45,125 45,125
STK-1 1 2,132,667 2,132,667
STK-2 1 665,475 665,475
Total Purchased Equipment Cost, PEC = $37,599,983
194
The fixed capital investment comprises of both the direct and indirect investment required
for the purchase and installation of equipment and the cost involved in the construction of
facilities. The detailed factorial method is used to estimate the fixed capital investment by
assigning fractions to the direct and indirect cost incurred in the setup of the plant. The
fractions of component used are for fluid solid process type (Sinnott, 2003).
Table 28: Estimation of Direct Cost
Direct cost Description, %PEC Cost, $
Equipment erection 45 16,919,992
Piping 45 16,919,992
Instrumentation 15 5,639,997
Electricals 10 3,759,998
Process building 10 3,759,998
Utilities 25 9,399,996
Storages 20 7,519,997
Site development 5 1,879,999
Ancillary buildings 20 7,519,997
Land 2 752,000
Total Direct Cost = $111,671,949
Table 29: Estimation of Indirect Cost
Indirect Cost % Direct Cost Cost, $
Contingency 10 11,167,195
Design and engineering 30 33,501,585
195
Contractor’s fees 10 11,167,195
Total Indirect Cost = $55,835,975
Fixed capital Investment = TDC + TIC
FCI = $167,507,924
10.2.2 Working Capital
This is the investment needed above and over the fixed capital to start and operate a plant to
a point where income is earned. It includes the cash kept on hand for monthly payment of
operating expenses, raw materials, etc. It is typically estimated to be 15% of the total capital
investment (Sinnot, 2003).
Working capital = 15% of FCI
WC = $25,126,188
Total Capital Investment = $192,634,113
10.3 Total Product Cost
An assessment of the viability the project requires the determination of the operating cost
and cost of producing the product.
The total product cost is a sum of the manufacturing cost and general expenses.
10.3.1 Manufacturing Cost
Manufacturing costs involves all expenses directly connected with the manufacturing
operation or the physical equipment of a process plant. It comprises of three categories; direct
production costs, fixed charges (e.g, property taxes, insurance) and plant overhead cost (e.g,
plant maintenance and overhead, safety services, social security) (Sinnott, 2003).
196
The direct production costs include all expenses directly associated with manufacturing
operation. This includes cost of raw materials, costs of operating labour, and transportation.
The operating labour may be divided into skilled and unskilled labour (Peters et al., 2003).
Table 30: Estimation of Total Direct Labour Cost
Personnel Number Annual Salary/head, Total Annual Salary,
GHȼ GHȼ
Factory manager 1 78,000 78,000
Production manager 1 66,000 66,000
Process supervisors 6 32,400 194,400
Electrical engineer 1 42,000 42,000
Mechanical engineer 1 38,400 38,400
Quality controllers 3 30,000 90,000
Lab technicians 6 21,600 129,600
Operators 24 26,400 633,600
Mech. technicians 6 24,000 144,000
Electrical technicians 6 24,000 144,000
Total Direct Labour cost (TDL) 1,560,000
TDL $264,856
Table 31: Estimation of Total Labour Cost
Personnel Number Annual Salary/head, Total Annual Salary,
GHȼ GHȼ
Managing director 1 93,600 93,600
Human resource manager 1 63,024 63,024
Marketing manager 1 42,000 42,000
197
Accountant 1 36,000 36,000
Accountant clerks 3 19,200 57,600
Receptionist 1 12,600 12,600
Secretary 1 24,000 24,000
Store keeper 3 15,600 46,800
Cleaners 12 9,000 108,000
Security 6 12,000 72,000
Drivers 6 14,400 86,400
Total Indirect Labour Cost (IL) 642,024
Total Operating Labour Cost = (DL + IL) 2,202,024
Social Security Contribution (5% of total Operating labour 110,101
cost)
Overall Total Labour Cost 2,312,125
Overall Total Labour Cost, USD 231,213
10.3.1.1 Raw Materials Cost
Raw materials for the production of acetaldehyde are acetic acid and hydrogen gas with the
use of a palladium on iron oxide catalyst. Acetic acid will be produced from methanol and
carbon monoxide in the presence of a rhodium catalyst. Summary of the costs of these
materials is found in the table below.
Table 32: Cost of Raw Materials
Material Quantity required Cost, $/unit Total cost, $/yr
Methanol 32,000 kg/hr $0.50/kg 24,960,000
Carbon monoxide 35.49 m3/hr $47.62/m3 14,803,845
Hydrogen 8534.3 kg/hr $16/kg 1,191,167,488
198
Rhodium catalyst 6 g/yr $25/g 150
Palladium on iron 3698.5 kg/yr $3,637.6/kg 13,453,664
oxide catalyst
Raw material cost = $1,249,385,146/yr
10.3.1.2 Annual Depreciation Charge
In this project, the straight-line method is used to estimate the depreciation of physical
equipment in the plant. The annual depreciation charge as calculated using the straight-line
method is given by
𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠
𝑑=
𝑛
Where d = annual depreciation
V = fixed capital investment = $167,507,924
Vs = salvage value (10% of fixed capital investment) = $16,750,792
n = useful service life
The service life of the plant is determined from the most important equipment in the plant.
The most important equipment are identified to be the reactors, mixers, absorption and
distillation columns. Reactors, mixers, absorption and distillation columns used normally last
up to 25 years hence the useful life of the plant is estimated to be 25 years.
167,507,924 − 16,750,792
𝑑=
25
The depreciation is therefore $6,030,285/yr.
199
Table 33: Estimation of Manufacturing Costs
Manufacturing Costs
Direct costs Description Cost, $
Total labour costs From table name 231,213
Raw material costs From table name 1,249,385,146
Utility costs 12% OF WC 3,015,142.56
Maintenance 10% of FCI 16,750,792
Operating supplies 8% of maintenance 1,340,063
Laboratory costs 9% of Total labour costs 20,809
Royalties 1% of FCI 1,675,079
Total Direct Cost (I) = $1,274,930,863
Fixed charges Percentage description Cost, $
Insurance 1% of FCI 1,675,079
Taxes 2% of FCI 3,350,158
Depreciation Calculated 6,030,285
Total Fixed Charges (II) 11,055,522
Plant Overhead Costs (III) 45% of TLC 104,046
Manufacturing Costs I + II + III 1,286,090,431
10.3.2 General Expenses
General expenses are included in any company's operations in addition to manufacturing
costs. Administrative expenses, distribution and marketing expenses, research and
development expenses, and finance expenses are all elements of general expenses.
Table 34: Estimation of General Expenses
General Expenses
200
Administrative expenses 15% of TLC $34,682
Distribution and marketing 5% of TDC $63,746,543
Research and Development 25% of TDC $318,732,716
General Expenses $382,513,941
Table 35: Estimation of Total Product Cost
Total Product Cost
Manufacturing cost $1,286,090,431
General expenses $382,513,941
Total Product Cost (TPC) $1,668,604,372
10.4 Profitability Analysis
In order for the manufacturing plant to be worth the required investment, it should be able to
make income above the total amount invested. However, the total profit alone cannot be used
as determining factor if an investment should be made. As such, more conclusive methods
including rate of return on investment (ROR), Turnover Ratio (TOR), Discounted Cash flow
Rate of return (DCFR) and payback period are used to analyze the profitability of this project.
10.4.1 Annual Cashflow
Annual cash flow tells us the total amount of income generated from the sales of products in
a year. Income generated from the plant will be from the sales of the acetaldehyde and other
major by-products including ethyl acetate, propionic acid and acetone. The table below
summarizes the annual cashflow into the plant.
201
Table 36: Estimation of Total Annual Sales
Product Quantity, kg/yr Selling price, $/kg Total sales, $
Acetaldehyde 46,048,700 12.53 576,990,211
Propionic acid 648,240,00 2 1,296,480,000
Ethyl acetate 11,093,647 1.5 16,640,471
Acetone 2,917,148 1.13 3,296.378
Total Annual Sales, TAS 1,893,407,060
Gross profit = TAS -TPC
Gross profit = $224,802,688
Companies operating in Ghana are charged a corporate income tax at a flat rate of 25% of
gross profit (Ghana Revenue Authority, 2019).
Income tax = $56,200,672
Net profit = Gross Profit – Income Tax
Net profit = $168,602,016
10.4.2 Breakeven Point
The break-even point gives the amount of products needed to be produced and sold in order
to recover the total investment. It gives the minimum production rate of a plant at which the
plant can start making profit. The break-even point occurs when the total annual product cost
equals the total annual sales.
That is, at the break-even point;
202
Total Annual Product Cost = Total Annual Sales
But, Total Product Cost = Direct production cost + Fixed cost
Direct production cost = PX
Where, P = direct production cost per kg, $2.23/kg
Let x = quantity produced at break-even
Fixed cost = fixed charges + plant overhead cost + general expenses
Fixed cost = $393,673,509
Total annual sales = unit selling price × quantity of products produced = SX
Where, S is the unit selling price, which is $12.53/kg
Substituting the values into the equation,
x = 38,220,729.03 kg
Therefore, 38,220,729 kg of acetaldehyde needs to be produced to break even.
10.4.3 Turnover Ratio (TOR)
Turnover ratio is the ratio of gross annual sales of products to the fixed capital investment. It
is a measure of how a plant is deploying its assets in generating revenue. A higher turnover
ratio means a better performance of the plant in general (Peters et al., 2003). Mathematically,
Total annual sales 1,893,407,060
TOR = = = 11.3
Fixed capital investment 167,507,924
203
10.4.4 Rate of Return on Investment (ROR)
Rate of return (ROR), is the ratio of annual profit to investment, and it is a simple index of
the performance of the money invested. The ROR gives the percentage of the investment that
is made back as profit every year. That is, for every year, how much of the initial investment
does the profit made represent. Since annual profit (net cash flow) will not be the same for
every year in the life of the plant, it is required in the calculation of ROR that an average
profit value over the life of the plant is used. Profits may be expressed on a before or after-
tax basis. Mathematically,
Cumulative net cash flow at end of project
ROR = × 100%
Plant life × Total capital investment
$3,408,704,941
ROR = × 100% = 70.8%/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
25 years × $192,634,113
10.4.5 Payback Period
Payback period is the length of time taken to recover the initial capital investment. For a
project with a short life span, the typical acceptable payback time is between 2 and 5 years
(Sinnot, 2005). The payback time for this project is 2.5 years, that is, 2 years and 6 months.
204
CUMMULATIVE CASHFLOW DIAGRAM
40000
35000
Cummulative cashflow , $Million 30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-5000
Plant life, years
Figure 8: A Graph of Cummulative Cashflow Against Plant Life
205
Table 37: Summary of Annual Cumulative Cashflow
Year Fractional Capacity Annual Product Cost, $ Annual Sales, $ Net Profit, $ Cumulative Net Cash flow, $
0 0 0 0 0 -192,634,113
1 0.6 1,001,162,623 1,136,044,236 10,116,121 -182,517,992
2 0.7 1,168,023,060 1,325,384,942 118,021,412 -64,496,580
3 0.8 1,334,883,498 1,514,725,648 134,881,613 70,385,033
4 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 222,126,847
5 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 373,868,661
6 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 525,610,475
7 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 677,352,289
8 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 829,094,103
9 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 980,835,917
10 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 1,132,577,731
11 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 1,284,319,545
12 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 1,436,061,359
13 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 1,587,803,173
14 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 1,739,544,987
15 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 1,891,286,801
206
16 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 2,043,028,615
17 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 2,194,770,429
18 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 2,346,512,243
19 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 2,498,254,057
20 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 2,649,995,871
21 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 2,801,737,685
22 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 2,953,479,499
23 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 3,105,221,313
24 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 3,256,963,127
25 0.9 1,501,743,935 1,704,066,354 151,741,814 3,408,704,941
207
10.4.6 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR) measures the earning power of money
invested in a project by taking into consideration the time value of money. DCFRR indicates
the maximum interest rate a project could pay and still break even by the end of the project
life (Sinnott, 2005). The more profitable the project, the higher the DCFRR that it can afford
to pay. It is based on the amount of the investment that is unreturned at the end of each year
during the life of the project, the total net present worth (NPW). If a project earns at the rate
of the DCFRR then at the end of the project life, the total NPW should be zero.
Mathematically,
𝑛=𝑡
𝑁𝐹𝑊
Total NPW (or NPV) = ∑ =0
(1 + 𝑟)𝑛
𝑛=1
Where, NFW = Net future worth
r = discounted rate (interest rate)
t = life of project
n = nth year
10.5 Sensitivity Analysis
The assessment of the viability of the project is based on estimates of raw material costs,
labour costs and other operating costs. However, in the operation of the plant, the actual
annual values of these factors may differ from the estimates. Also, the actual cash flows
achieved any year will be affected by the changes in these operating factors, as well as sales
volume and price. Sensitivity analysis is a way of analyzing the impact variations of actual
values from estimates have on the viability of the project. It shows how sensitive the cash
208
flows and economic criteria are to errors in the forecast figures. It gives some idea of the
degree of risk involved in making judgements on the forecast performance of the project
(Sinnot, 2005). The two factors that are most susceptible to change are the cost of raw
materials and the market value of products. Hence variations in these two factors are those
that are used in the sensitivity analysis.
Table 38: Variations in Raw Material Costs and Selling Price of Product
Variables
Cases Raw Material Cost Selling Price of Product
0 (Base case) Constant Constant
1 Constant 5% increase
2 5% increase Constant
3 5% increase 2% increase
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
60000
Annual Cummulative Casflow, $Million
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
-10000
Plant life, years
Case 0 Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Figure 9: A graph depicting some Sensitivity Analysis
209
CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
11.1 CONCLUSION
The plant design for the production of acetaldehyde from acetic acid was found to be
economically feasible based on the economic analysis done. The high rate of return, 70.8%,
coupled with the relatively short payback time of 2 years and 6 months indicates that the
project is truly profitable. Acetaldehyde recovered was of high purity which is a major
requirement for its sales. Other major by-products recovered are also of high purity and
would be sold as well thereby generating more revenue. The plant is located at the Tema
Industrial Area due to several reasons that will ensure its sustainability. The products from
the plant will serve as precursors to other chemicals, additives and flavours.
11.2 RECOMMENDATION
The following recommendations are made for future projects that are related to this project:
I. Further expansion of the plant is recommended in order to achieve high quality by-
products which can be sold at higher prices.
II. Further expansion of the plant is recommended in order to treat the wastewater
produced in the production process.
III. Provision can be made available in the future by expanding the plant to include more
separation units in order to get high quality products.
210
REFERENCES
Asteria Narvaez- Garcia, L. E. V.B, 2013 Design of Batch Distillation Columns at
columns at constant reflex. Bombay, India; Indian Institute of Technology.
Aurindam Ghatak, Calvin daRosa & Claire Pinto (2002) Production of acetaldehyde from
acetic acid. Senior design report (CBE).
Benitez, J., 2009. Principles and Modern Applications of Mass Transfer Operations. John
Wiley and sons, incorporated publication. Hoboken, New Jersey, p. 2nd ed. p: 283.
Depew, L. S., Collins, N. A., Lee, P. E. C., & Matthew, W. (2000). United States Patent C-
SE
Different Types of Heat Exchangers & Their Application [PDF]. (n.d.). Retrieved July 22,
2022, from https://www.theengineerspost.com/types-of-heat-exchanger/
Fogler, H.S. (2006) Elements of chemical reaction engineering. 4th ed. Prentice Hall, Boston.
Graham, G.K. Experimental Validation of column Simulations, Chemical Engineering 125
(2) (2018).
HEAT EXCHANGERS Selection, Rating, and Thermal Design Third Edition. (n.d.)
James R. Fair, Henry Z. Kister, in Encyclopedia of physical Science and Technology (Third
Edition), 2003.
Jones, J. H. (2000), The CativaTM Process for the Manufacture of Acetic Acid: Iridium
catalyst improves productivity in an established industrial process. Platinum Metals
Review, 44(3), 94–105.
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Kister, H. Z., 1992. Distillation Design, 1st Edition. ISBN 0-07 034909-6: McGraw-Hill.
Kreith, F., Manglik, R. M., & Bohn, M. S. (2011). An Instructor’s Solutions Manual to
Accompany PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER, 7 TH EDITION, SI SI EDITION
PREPARED BY: SHALIGRAM TIWARI. www.cengage.com/permissions.
McCabe, W. S. J. a. H. P., 2004. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, ISBN 0-07-
284823-5: McGraw Hill.
Octave Levenspiel (1999) Chemical Reaction Engineering. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons,
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Pattanaik, B. N., & Mandalia, H. C. (2011). Ethyl Acetate: Properties, Production Processes
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23–40
Perry, Robert H, and Don W. Green. Perry’s Chemical Engineers handbook. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2008. Seventh Edition, Pp.1538-1541
Rogers, G. F. C., & Mayhew, Y. R. (n.d.). Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of
Fluids SI Units arranged by.
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Suman Gothwal, Rajeev Saha (2015) International Journal of Services and Operations
Management (Plant location selection of a manufacturing industry using analytic
hierarchy process approach) 235-255.
Sujatha Trivikram (March, 2017) Plant Location Decisions and Factors Affecting Plant
Location
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Towler, G.& Sinnott, R., 2013. Chemical Engineering Design: Principles, Practice and
Economics of Plant and Process Design. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 564-618
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