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Treatment and Reforming of the Corrupted Offset Ink by a Suitable

Emulsification Technique for The Re-Use in Industrial Printing Applications

Research · December 2019

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.27497.85608

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 Republic of Yemen
Taiz University
Faculty of Applied Sciences
Industrial Chemistry Department

B. Sc. Project

Treatment and Reforming of the Corrupted Offset Ink by

a Suitable Emulsification Technique for The Re-Use in
Industrial Printing Applications

Submitted by:
- Maylad Dawood Abdulrab Mahyoub
- Fuad Abdullah Farhan
- Mohammed Ali Qaed
- Mohammed Saeed Ali
- Saeed Abdulmalik Saeed
- Ahmed Abdulwahab Abdulkader
- Abdulwasa Saeed Abdulrazaq Aqlan

Supervised by:
Dr. Niyazi A.S. Al-Areqi
Associate professor of Materials
Chemistry & Physics
I
Treatment and Reforming of the Corrupted Offset Ink by a
Suitable Emulsification Technique for The Re-Use in
Industrial Printing Applications

Submitted by:
- Maylad Dawood Abdulrab Mahyoub
- Fuad Abdullah Farhan
- Mohammed Ali Qaed
- Mohammed Saeed Ali
- Saeed Abdulmalik Saeed
- Ahmed Abdulwahab Abdulkader
- Abdulwasa Saeed Abdulrazaq Aqlan

Supervised by:
Dr. Niyazi A.S. Al-Areqi
Associate professor of Materials
Chemistry & Physics

2017/2018

II
 This research paper is lovingly dedicated to Our Respective Parents,
who have been our constant sources of inspiration, they have given us the
impetus and support to do any assignments with enthusiasm and
determination. Without their love and help, this project would not have
been made possible.
To the friendship that assisted us to overcome the difficulties.
... Our Friends.

III
 In the first, we thank and praise of Allah for our success in accomplishing this research,
and
We would like to express our gratitude and appreciation to the supervisors: Dr. Niyazi A.S. Al-Areqi
and Dr. Elyas Sadeq Al-Aghbari for the supervision, continuous guidance through discussion and
encouragement received throughout the course of this work.
In Addition, we would like to express our gratitude to the
(Head of Industrial Chemistry Department).
Dr. Mohammed H.M. Al-Housami

(Head of Chemistry Department)

Dr. Mansour S.Abdul Galil

And we send our respect and appreciation to the

(Dean of faculty of Applied Sciences at Taiz University).
Dr. Mahyoub Al-Bohiri

We are very thankful to everyone who all have supported us to

complete our project effectively and on time.

Thank you all ,,,

IV
 We are group of Applied Sciences students of Industrial Chemistry
department have prepared and implemented this project for obtaining
the Bachelor’s degree in the Industrial Chemistry Department.

Project team: AC. No

- Maylad Dawood Abdulrab Mahyoub...........................010331102

- Fuad Abdullah Farhan ................................................010331101
- Mohammed Ali Qaed ....................................................010331100
- Mohammed Saeed Ali ...................................................010031103
- Saeed Abdulmalik Saeed................................................010031103
- Ahmed Abdulwahab Abdulkader.................................010331110
- Abdulwasa Saeed Abdulrazaq Aqlan...........................010331102

V
The offset ink is the ink that use to printing on plastic materials. This ink in the ideal storage condition
is coagulated about six months from storage. This project included the treatment of this damaged of
offset ink.

 The important studies in this project:

 composition of offset ink and the important composition that can effect by condition as high
volatile solvent and the initiator that use to polymerization after printing because its rapidly
decomposition.
 Classification of offset ink and its characteristics and the important characteristics which
changed because the coagulated of offset ink are density, velocity and contact of offset ink.
 Industrial process to manufacturing the offset ink.
 Standard ink specifications to the good offset ink and comparing with damage (coagulated)
offset ink.

 After this studies, the experiment method of treatment offset ink is doing according to
this steps:
 First experiment to know the damage of offset ink (physically or chemically).
 Second experiment to know who caused the damage of offset ink
(additive material or monomer of offset ink).
 Other experiment to treatment the damage (coagulated) of offset ink.
the damaged offset ink is treatment by using organic substance and emulsifier of olive oil and lubricate
at different percentage weight and volume of olive oil and lubricate and different amount of surfactant
with different solvent.
 Final experiment to measure the characteristics of the treatment offset ink comparing
with good offset ink.
- Density and Viscosity measured of the treatment offset ink has a value closer than the density
value of good offset ink.
- Testing the contact of the treatment offset ink at swapping its by alkali substance, and studying
the effecting of components on the density.

VI
 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1- ink and printing ink

Introduction………………………...................................................................................................................1

History....................................................................................................................................................1

What is ink? ...........................................................................................................................................2

Printing inks…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………2

Characteristics of inks……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….……2

Component of ink…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….…….3

Ink formulation……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………4

Ink Performance………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……...5

Categories of Inks……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….7

Types of Printing Inks………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….…...10

Emerging Developments…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….….10

Substrates………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………….….10

Properties Used to Classify Inks……………………………………………………………………………………….………..…….11

References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….…………….20

CHAPTER 2 – Offset ink

Requirements used to classify offset printing inks...............................................................................21

Composition and production of offset printing inks............................................................................21

Formulation of offset ink …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………22

Different types of ink ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….23

Type of offset ink ……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………….24

UV offset ink ……………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………….24

UV-inks principle ……………………………………………………………………………….………………….…………………..……24

Features of UV-curable offset inks …………………………………………………….……………………………………………25

Disadvantages of UV-curable offset inks …………………………………………………………………..…………………….26

Required properties of UV-curable offset inks ………………………………………….…………………………………….26

Formulation of UV offset ink…………………………………………………………………………….….………………………….26

Composition of UV offset ink……………………………………………………………………….…………………………….……27

VII
Drying of UV offset ink…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…….…34

Testing UV vs. Conventional inks…………………………………………………………………….….……………………....….35

Key properties for testing UV inks…………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…35

Specific challenges…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...….….37

Rheological properties of offset ink…………………………………………………………………………………….….……….37

Physical condition……………………………………………………………………………………………….………………….…….…41

Standard ink specifications………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….45

References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….…46

CHAPTER 3 – Ink manufacturing

Ink manufacturing.................................................................................................................................47

Description of The Industry..................................................................................................................48

Printing Ink Manufacture......................................................................................................................48

The Printing Processes ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…..….48

Types of Printing Processes……………………………………………………………………………………………………...……..49

Offset printing inks…………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………….…..54

Type of Offset ink……………………………………………………………………………………………….…......................……54

Formulation of offset Printing ink……………………………………………………………………………………….……….….54

manufacture development ……………………………………………………………………………………………….……..…..…55

References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…61

CHAPTER 4 – Method and Materials

The plan of Implemented Experiments to treatment coagulated offset ink........................................62

Providing the require materials to treatment coagulated offset ink…………………………………………………63

providing required equipment and tool to treatment coagulated offset ink.......................................64

Method of treatment coagulated offset ink.........................................................................................64

Method to measurement the characteristics of treatment offset ink..................................................65

References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….…….…. ….66

VIII
CHAPTER 5 - result and discussion
Introduction..........................................................................................................................................67

The experiment of knowing the type of damage..................................................................................67

The experiment of knowing who cause the damaged..........................................................................67

The experiments of treatment damage offset ink and measurement the density...............................68

Discussion of excrement result…………………………………………………………………………………………………………69

relationship between the density and additional materials to treatment ink………………………….……….71

Measurement of viscosity.....................................................................................................................75

Testing the contact offset ink on the surface.......................................................................................75

Reference..............................................................................................................................................76

CHAPTER 6 – Conclusion and Recommendations

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….77

Challenges……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….77

Recommendations…………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………….77

IX
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Standard Ink Types..................................................................................................................7

Table 1.2 Specialty Ink Types..................................................................................................................9

Table 1.3Types of Printing Inks.............................................................................................................01

Table 1.4 Printing ink drying systems and vehicles...............................................................................09

Table 2.1 raw materials of offset ink....................................................................................................22

Table 2.2 requirement of the UV-curable offset inks .........................................................................22

Table 2.3: a generalized UV curable printing ink..................................................................................27

Table 2.4 UV inks are formulated from the following components .....................................................27

Table 2.5: types of diluents used in UV curable inks............................................................................29

Table 2.6 the oligomers are used depending on the characteristics desired from the ink..................29

Table 2.7: some acrylate monomers....................................................................................................31

Table 2.8 Viscosity measurements.......................................................................................................34

Table 2.9 Standard ink specifications...................................................................................................35

Table 3.1 formulation of offset Printing ink..........................................................................................43

Table3.2 compared between most important process........................................................................42

Table 3.3 Main characteristics of the printing processes.....................................................................49

Table 4.1 data of used materials...........................................................................................................63

Table 5.1 data of experiment to knowing the type of damage............................................................67

Table 5.2 data of experiment to knowing who cause the damaged.....................................................67

Table 5.3 data of experiment of treatment damage offset ink and measure the density1st...............68

Table 5.4 data of relationship between the density and solvent.………………………………………..……….……71

Table 5.5 data of relationship between the density and olive oil………………………………………………….……72

Table 5.6 data of relationship between the density and lubricate ………………………………………….…………73

Table 5.7 data of relationship between the density and L.S.S.S ………………………………………………….….…74

X
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1: Understanding how to manage ink usage can help you to get
the most out of print technology innovations……………………………………………………………………………………4

Figure 1.2: A colour bar is used to check colour density and to maintain
consistency over the course of the print run. .......................................................................................4

Figure 1.3: Tack is the relationship between ink, blanket, and paper..................................................04

Figure 1.4: Absorption drying mechanism (a) Ink just printed (b) Ink nearly dry……………………………..02

Figure 1.5: Oxidation Polymerization drying mechanism……………………………………………………………….02

Figure 1.6: Schematic diagram of ink drying by evaporation of the volatile solvents,
leaving a dry ink film on the printed stock...........................................................................................07

Figure 2.1 raw materials of offset ink...................................................................................................22

Figure 2.2 typical offset ink formulation...............................................................................................24

Figure 2.3: UV ink system.....................................................................................................................24

Figure 2.4 components of a UV offset ink............................................................................................27

Figure 2.5 the ink manufacturer can influence an ink’s properties by adjusting the individual
constituents of the ink..........................................................................................................................44

Figure 2.6 process for UV curing...........................................................................................................43

Figure 2.7 pigment UV absorbation......................................................................................................43

Figure 2.8: Laminar Shear of Fluid between Two Plates.......................................................................48

Figure 2.9: Viscosity vs. Shear Rate.......................................................................................................49

Figure 2.10: Viscosity vs. Time..............................................................................................................49

Figure 2.11 Relation between temperature, viscosity and density......................................................31

Figure 2.12 It’s easy to test whether an ink is short, or long and tacky...............................................33

Figure 2.13 Splitting of the ink film.......................................................................................................33

Figure 2. 14 Thwing Albert Inkometer..................................................................................................34

Figure 3.1 The manufacturing process of ink........................................................................................37

Figure 3.2 A schematic diagram of the ink manufacturing process......................................................37

Figure 3.3 offset single-colour printing press.......................................................................................39

Figure 3.4 show the two type of letterpress printing process............................................................41

Figure 3.5 Flexographic Printing...........................................................................................................41

Figure 3.6 Schematic of a typical micro-gravure-offset printing process.............................................40

Figure 3.7 The flatbed Screen printing with planar substrates under screen and
squeegee for solution dispensing.........................................................................................................40

XI
Figure 3.8 Rotary screen printer with moving substrate (web) between
cylindrical mask and impression cylinder……………………………………………………………………………………......42

Figure 3.9 Digital printing technology...................................................................................................42

Figure 3.10 Laser printers can be desktop-based or higher-speed and very much like presses..........44

Figure 3.11 inkjet printing process.......................................................................................................44

Figure.4.1 The flow chart of the main stages of making samples.........................................................62

Figure. 4.2 damaged offset ink.............................................................................................................24

Figure 5.1 density with solvents...........................................................................................................71

Figure 5.2 density with olive oil............................................................................................................72

Figure 5.3 density with lubricate..........................................................................................................73

Figure 5.4 density with. L.S.S.S.............................................................................................................74

Figure 5.5 Testing the contact offset ink on the surface……………………………………………..……………………75

XII
 Chapter One

Ink and Printing

ink
1.1 Introduction

I nks occupy an integral and versatile position in our daily lives. Our day begins on sleepy note with
newspapers and toiletries to breakfast table which is replete with several ink-labeled, packaged
consumer products such as tea or coffee, bread, butter and then gradually moving to our work places
schools or offices which have myriad ink laden products be it books, calendars, photocopies, computer
prints, stamps or even money, ink is found everywhere. Generally, ink is an organic or inorganic pigment
or dye dissolved or suspended in a solvent. However, chemically, it is viewed as a colloidal system of fine
pigment particles, coloured or un-coloured, dispersed in an aqueous or organic solvent. It is believed that
the appearance of the first man made ink dates back to 4,500 years in Egypt, which consisted of a mixture
of animal or vegetable charcoal (lampblack) and glue [1,2].
The earliest black writing inks, developed before 2500BC, were suspensions of carbon, usually
lampblack, in water stabilized with a natural gum or materials like egg albumen [3]. Printing is widely
used in our society to pass on information and to decorate objects. This has resulted in printing being
used on many different surfaces ranging from aluminum cans and plastic bottles through to paper.
Special inks have been developed for use in these different situations.
There are four categories of ink used in printing: powder, paste, aqueous and liquid inks.
 Liquid ink like flexographic, gravure, rotary newsprint etc.
 Paste form like letter press, offset, screen printing, etc [4].
offset ink is used widely in the field of offset printing because it has benefits of high producing efficiency
and excellent printing quality, is friendly to environment and easy to process, and can be printed on the
surface of plastic.
There are Two important parameters governing the printing characteristics of offset inks are
rheology and drying characteristics.
Like other ink properties, these parameters depend on the particular formula, especially on the vehicle
composition. In this context, we refer to conventional offset inks
and don’t consider energy-curing systems [5].
1.2 History
The origins of printing can be traced back several centuries. Pictorial prints were produced from cut wood
blocks in Japan during the tenth century and probably earlier in China. in Europe, book production from
wood blocks was seen early in the fifteenth century, and Gutenberg introduced cast metal type in the
middle of the fifteenth century. These inventions were the basis of the original printing method, namely
letter-press printing.
As the first printing was a development from writing and drawing/painting, it was natural that the first
printing inks would be based on writing inks and paints. They were composed of lampblack or coloured
minerals dispersed in water-soluble gum. [6].
In about 2500 BC, writing inks were first manufactured in both ancient Egypt and China. They basically
consisted of paste of soot bound with gums which was formed into rods and dried, them mixed with water
immediately before use. About 3000 years later, printing was invented by Chinese who used a mixture of
coloured earth, soot and plant matter for pigments, again mixed with gums as a binder.
The first dedicated printing ink was developed when Gutenberg invented his movable type printing press
in around 1452. His initial recipe was oil based and included soot, varnish and egg white. The addition of
turpentine and walnut oil to the soot however produced a superior ink that would stick to a printing
surface without blurring. Most printers continued to make their own ink until the early 19th century when
the first specially ink company, Lorilleux, was founded in France and the first ink making process was
patented. Four colour wet process inks were introduced in the 20th
century at about the time of the invention of the first litho press and just before rotogravure was invented
around 1910. In the 1930s letterpress became popular and the first pigmented flexo inks were developed
at about the same time. Throughout history the pace of developments in printing methods has driven ink
innovation and continues to accelerate, as new digital printing methods and application demands emerge.

1
Printing innovation is the driver for new ink products which create new opportunities for printers and
print buyers in all sectors of the industry.
Today’s printing inks are composed of a pigment (one of which is carbon black similar to soot used in
2500 BC), a binder (an oil, resin or varnish), a solvent and various additives such as drying and chelating
agents. The exact recipe for given ink depends on the type of surface that it will be printing on and the
printing method that will be used. Inks have been designed to print on a wide range of surfaces from
metals, plastics and fabrics to papers. The various printing methods are all similar- ink is applied to a
plate/cylinder made of metal or rubber, which is further applied to the surface to be printed. the image
can be raised up above the surface of the plate, in the plane of the plate but chemically treated to attract
the ink or etched into the plate and the excess ink scraped off. Different inks are produced to suit these
different conditions.
1.3 What is ink?
ink is a liquid or a paste like (semi- liquid) material that contains pigments or dyes and is used to colour a
surface to produce an image, text, or design.
Ink is a chemical recipe. Its manufacturers succeed on the basis of knowledge, experience, research and
development, and the strength of patent portfolios. Most are at heart chemical companies specialized in
developing and producing inks specifically for different printing methods and applications. There is a huge
range of ink products for use in offset lithography, gravure, flexography, letterpress, screen and digital
printing, including inkjet and toner devices.
Ink producers have a profound knowledge of colour science, rheology and dispersion technologies.
Rheology governs how liquid inks flow and dispersion technology ensures that the right chemical agents are
present in the ink, for instance, to prevent pigment particles clumping together. Large particles of pigment
can mean that the ink does not present in a smooth layer, adversely affecting colour brilliance.
Ink chemistry is a necessarily complex business because an ink recipe’s composition affects its appearance
when dry, drying requirements, performance on press and in use. The chemistry delivers varying levels of
durability, drinkability, light-fastness and fitness for purpose, whether the ink is for food packaging,
synthetic and natural textiles such as polyester, silk, linen or cotton, flooring, furniture, décor, wallpaper and
so on [15].
1.4 Printing inks
Are applied in thin films on many substrates such as paper, paper board, metal sheets and metallic foil,
plastic films and molded plastic articles, textiles, and glass. Printing ink is a mixture of colouring matter
dispersed or dissolved in a vehicle or carrier, which forms a fluid or paste which can be printed on a
substrate and dried [15].
1.5 Characteristics of inks
1.5.1 General Inks Characteristics
Inks are characterized by features such as their transparency, important in a subtractive colour process, their
printability, flow properties and drying, gloss, behavior on press, light and abrasion resistance. How well the
ink works with substrates, its adhesion and stability are also important. For instance, anti-migration ink stops
migration of polyester dyes in food packaging. Some highly creative applications in the sign and display
business can benefit from a cracking ink that produces crackled effects. Elasticity is a major requirement for
vehicle wrapping, where inks must be stretchable without compromising colour appearance or breaking
away from the substrate. Inks may even have to have thermoforming properties, for instance for use in three
dimensional printing [15].

2
1.5.2 characteristics of good Printing Inks
 an ink must contain pigments, resins and/or varnish, drier, and additives carefully selected by the ink
maker.
 Inks of Letterpress and lithographic are paste inks and are higher viscosity than the flexographic and
gravure inks, which are called liquid inks.
 It shall be capable of being deposited in a thin layer on the printing surface.
 It shall not unduly deform in shape during the transfer to its final position.
 The ink in its final position shall have the correct colour value.
 It shall adhere permanently to the surface on which it is printed.
 The ink must print sharply, clearly and give legible print of the desired colour.
 It must dry sufficiently fast to enable the printed sheet to be handled within a reasonable time. There
should be no setoff or smudging.
 The ink should be economical and print sufficient number of copies sufficient on a per kilograms of ink.
 Inks must be suited to the substrate being printed.
 they must provide the required product resistance.
 colour and colour strength, drying properties, and emulsification properties [14].
1.6 Component of ink
Every printing ink is formulated from three basic components: colour ant (pigment or dye), vehicle, and
additives. All inks comprise a carrier, either liquid or paste, plus colour ants.
1.6.1 Colourant
a) Dyes
Dyes are dissolved molecular organic compounds. The molecules interact with other ingredients in the ink,
so dyes are potentially abler to benefit from additives to the carrier fluid such as Optical Brightening Agents
(OBAs) and other colour enhancing additives. However, these inks are not waterproof and have a relatively
low UV resistance, so prints with dye-based inks need to be laminated for outdoor use. They can tend to be
cheaper, stronger and of denser colour than pigmented inks, but they can
also sink into a substrate or slither about on a coated surface, which can make them difficult to control [15].

Figure (1.1): Understanding how to manage ink usage can help you to get the most out of print technology
innovations.
b) Pigment
Pigments are insoluble solid particles held in a suspension, or molecules that are gathered into a mass.
Pigments make up between 5% and 30% of an ink’s volume, with the volume varying according to the
colour tone of the ink. A pigment particle can be made up of millions of molecules only a small proportion
of which actually end up on the substrate surface to respond to light. Pigmented inks are widely used
because they are more colour fast than dye based inks, but they can be more expensive and inconsistent in
colour rendering and they have a smaller colour gamut than their dye based equivalents [13,15].

3
1.6.2 Vehicle
The carrier, also referred to as the binder, is the vehicle which delivers colour ants to a substrate. It is
normally made up of resins dissolved in mineral oil plus other additives such as fluorescents, solubilizes,
lubricants, surfactants and particulate matter, like metal particles, to give an ink its particular characteristics
and flow properties. The binder can also be water.
The binder may also include thinning agents such as water or solvents, which can sometimes make up the
bulk of the ink but then can in part be recycled. For instance, toluene, a solvent used in gravure printing to
dissolve the binding substances around pigment particles, can be mostly recycled. Some manufacturers have
replaced petroleum based ingredients with vegetable based or renewable ones, to reduce solvent use [15].
1.6.3 Additives
Additives influence an ink’s flow behaviour, drying and abrasion resistance, which are especially important
considerations for applications such as packaging and signage printing and for printing matte coated papers.
An ink’s viscosity affects its performance especially on press and in the final print appearance. Solvents and
hot air blowers are used for rapid drying of highly viscous inks for instance in some screen printing
applications, especially for thick ink layers. Ink manufacturers have also developed special surface coatings
for substrates to improve ink performance and control the behaviour of the ink. Solvent and pigment
ingredients are also added for shine and enhanced colour [15].
1.6.4 Solvents
Solvents are Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) that contain heavy metals and nonrenewable oils, but
which have low boiling points and so evaporate quickly. They are selected for ink recipes according to
various criteria such as the VOC’s boiling point, flash point (the temperature at which the solvent produces
enough vapour to ignite), odour, safety, toxicity and explosion limit. Commonly used VOCs in printing inks
are ethanol, ethyl acetate and water to which alcohol has been added. However, solvents are extremely
unhealthy so the trend for several years has been towards the use of vegetable rather than petroleum oils in
printing inks.
Water is used as a carrier solvent for some types of gravure packaging printing. It is also used for inkjet inks
such as latex ink used in wide format digital printing, and for some offset press technologies [15].
1.7 Ink formulation
Ink formulations differ depending upon printing process, application, and interact with different media,
requires constant research and development and patenting to protect intellectual property. Inks are also
subject to specific labeling requirements relating to health and safety, storage, use and restrictions on their
disposal. The mixing of colour ants and other ingredients to produce the required ink colour ation and
performance is as much art as science. For printing companies an awareness of how different ink recipes
work in different situations is vital to any investment decision. Printing presses used in the various processes
require different flow characteristics or rheology for the ink to travel in an optimal fashion through the press
to the substrate. Letterpress and offset lithographic inks are fairly thick or “viscous.” On press, they move
through a series of rollers called the ink train where the action of the rollers spreads the ink into a thin film
for transfer to the blanket and/ or plate and onto the substrate. Flexographic and gravure printing inks are
more fluid, so that they flow easily into and out of the engraved cells on anilox rollers (flexo) and print
cylinders (gravure) [5].

4
1.7.1 Requirements for the formulation of inks
 The ink must be depending upon printing process and application.
 The ink must contain pigments, resins and/or varnish, drier, and additives carefully selected by the ink
maker.
 Ink formulators can choose from hundreds of materials, alone or in combination, to create an infinite
variety of vehicles, each with distinct properties suited to different printing applications.
 The ink films must adhere adequately to the substrate.
 The ink must offer adequate resistance to physical and chemical stresses.
 Light fastness.
 Fastness to chemicals.
 Resistance to heat.
 Fine particle size.
 Ability to be dispersed in the vehicle.
 There must be no visible set-off.
 There must be no deterioration in the organoleptic properties.
 All legal requirements must be complied with.
 The ink must be providing all these properties economically.
 The ink must be great in colour and colour strength, drying properties and emulsification properties [5].
1.7.2 Requirements for the production of Inks
 Traceability for all raw materials used.
 Production must be controlled, monitored and documented.
 Conformity with the product specifications must be checked as part of quality assurance.
 Test equipment must be monitored.
 Requirements for production information (data sheets).
 Correct packing into clean containers [5].
1.8 Ink Performance
 For printers and their customers, the primary consideration is how the ink can be expected to perform.
Inks are formulated for specific sectors of the printing industry, so newspaper inks are designed to print
on newsprint, UV inks for packaging and label printing, screen inks for screen printing and so on. Screen
printing works with a huge range of substrates and applications, so there are many diverse requirements
for these inks. They must meet the needs of commercial screen printing for sign and display, silk screen
printing, industrial screen printing for cups, toys and promotional materials, and special processes such as
textiles, or printed circuit boards. Uneven and difficult surfaces such as leather and porcelain which are
printed using pad printing technology, also make their own demands on inks.

Figure (1.2): A colour bar is used to check colour density and to maintain consistency over the course of
the print run.
 Perhaps the most important behavioural expectation for productive and cost effective print, is that the
transfer process doesn’t interfere with the rest of the printing process and that it meets the application
requirements. The ink transfer mechanism and how ink is dried or fixed to the substrate determine the

5
 ink’s structure and recipe. The ink splitting process affects the ink’s design, so how the process creates
the ink film must be taken into account when determining performance objectives. Inks used in direct ink
film transfer such as with hot embossing or thermo transfer will have different requirements to other
processes. How the ink is pressed through a screen in screen printing, or gets jetted onto the substrate in
inkjet printing influence ink performance and so its composition and drying requirements.
 Ink can be dried through various means, depending on its chemical composition. Most common is by
physical absorption or evaporation, but inks also dry chemically by way of oxidation or radiation curing,
or by solidification as is the case with hot melt inks.
Another important consideration for an ink is its adhesive properties. Adhesion requirements depend on
the demands of the application. Ink mechanically adheres by sinking into pores or fibers in the substrate
surface, which generally requires pressure. Ink may sink into the surface by capillary action, which is how
inkjet printing works, or ink is bonded by the chemical and physical effects of the ink and substrate.
These processes can be combined. The ink’s flow properties determine its suitability for different print
processes. Inks can range from being very thin and watery to almost dry and powdery as is the case with
electrophotography. Their recipes vary according to the required appearance in print, from simple black
text through to metallic and pearlescent inks. If an ink is used for food packaging it must have low odour
and low migration properties. Other factors shaping ink design are toxicity and emissions controls [15].

6
1.9 Categories of Inks
Nearly all types of ink can be placed into one of two main categories
1.9.1 Table 1.1 Standard Ink Types
Name of ink The main characteristics

Solvent–based ink Solvent inks are any ink that is not water based. These inks are durable and
vibrant, and suitable for outdoor use. They contain varying amounts of
solvents and so are classed accordingly. The type and character of the solvent
components influences ink performance.
The intensity of this etching process depends on the amount and type of
solvents in the ink so these prints are not always environmentally friendly.
These prints dry rapidly in air but in some printing systems they are dried
with heat.Solvents are widely used in gravure printing for publication and
packaging printing, and wide format digital printing for applications such as
vehicle wrapping, signage, and indeed any application that requires speed,
colour quality and quick drying[5].

Eco-solvent inks Eco-solvent inks are a bit less dangerous and have similar properties to
solvent inks but are slower drying. They are durable with excellent light,
water and scratch resistance. They contain lower amounts of VOCs than
solvent inks, so they are only somewhat hazardous to health and can be
used in an office environment, although the prints have a strong odour [5].

Web cold set Offset The cold set variety of web offset printing ink is a common type of ink used
Inks on web presses for newspaper and business forms printing. cold set ink is
printed on absorbent, uncoated paper stock. Coated stocks should not be
used with this type of ink because the paper will not completely absorb the
ink [14].

Web Heat set Offset The heat set variety of web offset ink contains special varnishes that help the
Inks ink dry when heat is applied. The main advantage of heat set ink is a printed
product with a higher degree of quality [14].

Quickset Inks Quickset ink contains a special varnish to speed the drying process. The ink
will not dry out on the press, but will dry quickly after it has been printed
onto the substrate. Newer types of quickset ink have a greater proportion of
antioxidants and higher boiling-point distillates, which evaporate more
slowly, so the absorption process plays a greater role with the newer inks.
Uncoated paper stocks are best suited for quickset ink. This is because the
low viscosity distillates and antioxidants are quickly absorbed by the
substrate, which leaves the remaining pigment and vehicle to dry quickly on
the surface [14].

7
Water-based Inks Water-based inks have been around for a while, but it is still not as popular
as other ink types. Water-based inks emit no VOC (Volatile Organic
Compounds). Water-based inks are used mainly in flexography and gravure
printing. It is a good choice for printers and customers who want their
projects manufactured with nontoxic materials [17,18].
Laser Ink Laser ink is specially formulated to withstand the extreme heat of the laser
printer[14].
Solvent UV inks: Solvent UV inks are a blend of solvents and UV curing ink, so the amount of
solvent is reduced. In other respects, they are very similar to solvent inks [15].

Latex inks Latex inks are water based and are claimed to have equivalent performance to
solvent inks. These inks are an aqueous polymer dispersion with the ink dried
virtually immediately using heat, which limits the substrates they can be used
with. Latex inks are used for all sorts of print including flexible applications,
such as vehicle wrapping. They pose no health risk and are durable[15].
Dye-sublimation inks Dye-sublimation inks are water based inks, with water evaporated using heat
to sublimate ink into the substrate surface. These inks are used in textile
printing for lightfast and washable print and mainly used to print flags, soft
signage, interior décor and fashion [15].

Overprint varnishes Overprint varnishes are inks without colour ants. They are used to provide a
inks protective and enhancing layer over the printed image and can be applied
inline, wet on wet or off-line, wet or dry [5].

Hybrid inks Hybrid inks plus inline coating were defined as the best choice of printing
process, which guarantees a good printability and a lot of gloss effects in the
imprints.
The viscosity and stickiness of Hybrid inks is higher comparing to
conventional inks, but lower comparing to the UV inks. The hybrid inks
behavior during the emulsification is more stable comparing to UV inks
but less stable comparing to conventional inks. UV inks have a higher dot
gain and different ink mixing properties, hybrid inks have the same tonal
transfer characteristics as standard inks.
Process Ink Colours Process ink colour s are used in Four Colour Process Printing. Cyan,
magenta, yellow, and black are the colour s necessary for this process and
are formulated differently for different types of printing processes [14].
High-Fidelity Ink High-fidelity ink colour s are used in an advanced form of colour printing,
Colours combining the standard four process colour s of cyan, magenta, yellow, and
black, with two more colour s - usually orange and green. This allows for a
greater colour range, increased subtlety in the gradations of colour, and
additional vibrancy [14].

8
 Table 1.2 Specialty Ink Types [14].
Name of ink The main characteristics
Non-porous Ink Non-porous ink is used for printing on substrates, such as metal or plastic, that
do not allow ink to be absorbed into the material. Because the printing surface of
these materials is nonabsorbent, the ink dries solely through oxidation rather than
absorption.
Metallic Ink Metallic ink provides a distinctive look to a variety of print applications. The ink is
produced by blending different types of metallic powders into the ink
mixture, such as aluminum powder to create a silver appearance and bronze
powder to create a gold appearance.
Magnetic Ink Magnetic ink is comprised of a petroleum-based ink blended with magnetic iron
oxide particles. The magnetic iron oxide particles allow documents printed with
this type of ink to be read and sorted by electronic scanning equipment.

Fluorescent Ink Fluorescent is another type of ink that can provide a distinctive look for a variety
of print applications. Fluorescent ink colour s are most often printed on labels,
posters, and signs that are used for alerting people to hazards or attracting their
attention to advertising pieces.

Phosphorescent Applications printed with phosphorescent inks acquire a “glow in the dark”
Ink: property after the phosphorescent area has been exposed to light. The length
of time that an application will glow in the dark depends upon the ink ingredients
and the length of time that the application is exposed to light.

Pearlescent Ink Pearlescent ink is a specialty ink that is used to add highlights and depth to the
printed area of an application. It is able to provide an almost 3 dimensional effect
to some applications.

Edible Ink Edible ink is used on print applications that may come into contact with food or the
ink may be part of the food product and therefore it must be made of totally
nontoxic ingredients.

Scratch and Ink Also known as a microencapsulated ink, scratch and sniff ink releases a fragrance
when the microcapsules are broken. The scratch and sniff ink is commonly used in
magazines for perfume advertisements. When the consumer scratches the surface
of the designated area of the ad, the capsules are broken, releasing the fragrance.

Medical Device Ink Ink used for printing on medical devices is made of nontoxic ingredients so that
direct printing on noninvasive surgical and medical disposable items is possible.

Moisture Resistant Moisture resistant ink is most often used for different types of packaging or for
Ink applications that may be used outdoors.

Security Ink There are a variety of inks that provide added security features to print applications.

9
 1.10 Table 1.3Types of Printing Inks [14]:
Name of ink The main characteristics
Matt inks These inks when printed give little or no gloss or shining. They are ordinary inks.

Gloss Inks These inks when printed produce a gloss finish. Gloss inks should be printed with
less pressure to avoid undue penetration of varnish on smooth and coated papers.
Then only glossy effect can be obtained.

Opaque ink Inks which have the quality hiding anything over which they are printed are known
as "Opaque Inks”. Due to the initiations in the thickness of the ink film, it is not
possible to completely blot out (hide) the under-print.

Transparent inks These inks allow anything to show through on which they print over.

Dobbing and booksThese inks are manufactured for printing on a variety of papers. They are available
inks: in different grades.

Quick-set inks These inks are mainly used on coated paper and the setting of the ink film takes
place within a few minutes.

1.11 Emerging Developments

Ink technology is constantly changing in line with innovation in printing methods. However, legislation is an
important driver, with regulations such as the European Union’s Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and
Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulation which is gradually eliminating harmful substances from the
list of ingredients ink makers can use. There is considerable activity in the area of digital inkjet printing as
manufacturers strive to optimize the relationship between print heads inks and substrates to improve
performance and quality, and reduce environment impact. Some aqueous inks contain reactive molecules for
greater adhesion, durability, resistance and performance on press to provide an alternative to UV curing inks.
Low temperature flexible inks for instance save energy and are starting to come onto the market. Water is
being used more widely to produce dispersion inks that are non-toxic, low migration and odour free. Ink is
only a small part of the business of producing print media, but its role is crucial. Business owners and
operators looking to invest in new kit should always test an ink’s behaviour on preferred substrates in order
to check the performance of different ink and substrate combinations. Rest assured that whatever printing
technology you use and whatever the application, there will be an ink for you [11].
1.12 Substrates
The physical and chemical properties of a substrate determine ink requirements. In all sectors of
conventional printing this relationship is well understood and there are ample options for print buyers.
However, media compatibility of inkjet inks is less mature. Most inks for digital printing are specific to the
media and the printing method. Some solvent, eco-solvent, UV-curable and latex inks all work with the same
print media and the same is
true for some applications printed with UV-curable, latex and dye sub inks. But the lines are vague so it is
best to always check the media compatibility of inks and to test wherever possible. There is a notable shift
from PVC to poly propylene materials in the sign and display market, so an ink’s ability to print on both
should be checked if this is required [11].

10
1.13 Properties Used to Classify Inks
All inks are made up of pigments, resin vehicles, solvents, and other additives, but the most important
properties are colour, colour strength, body, length, tack, and drying.
 Visual characteristics (colour, gloss, pigment dispersion, optical properties, etc.)
 Drying properties
 Wet properties
 Rheological properties of ink (viscosity, tack, thixotropy, flow properties, and length, tack, etc.)
 Dampening solution absorption/emulsification behavior, pH
 Surface tensions of ink and substrate
 Trapping
 Water wash-ability.
 Adhesion and Stability
 Works with substrates
 Ability to be dispersed in the vehicle
 Emulsification properties
 Good printability by a given process, such as (smoothness, absorption capacity, wettability, non-
abrasiveness)
 Resistance properties as per the end use requirements such as bleed resistance, water resistance, abrasion/
scrubbing/rub resistance and Resistance to heat.
 Over- printability.
 behavior on press.
 fineness of the grind being the size of the particles.
 Light fastness, Fastness to chemicals.
1.13.1 Visual Properties of ink
Visual properties of inks are a function of the colour ant or pigment, in relation to the vehicle system used.
They include colour, transparency or opacity, and gloss. By far, the most widely used ink colour is black.
Then come cyan, magenta and yellow which are used in process printing to create the millions of colour s so
familiar to us in printed matter. While the physics of colour is a highly sophisticated science, in simplest
terms colour comes from reflected light. White light contains the entire rainbow of colour s. When that light
passes through a filter or is separated by a prism or raindrop we see the individual colour s in the light
spectrum. An ink film acts as a filter on the light reflected from the printed surface, e.g., a red ink film
allows the red segment of the reflected spectrum to pass through while blocking the rest of the colour s.
Because printed surfaces vary in colour and in reflectance, they, too, will affect the reflected colour . Thus,
various ink colour s printed individually or “trapped” one on top of the other create different filter effects
resulting in different visible colour s. Similarly, these same ink colour s printed on different substrates will
result in visible colour s that are different yet.
a) Ink Colour
Colour: The technology of printing ink colour is based on the Young-Helmholtz theory of three colour
vision which implies that white light is composed of light from a continuous spectrum of wavelengths,
humans perceive only three broad bands of this light, blue, green and red light; any other colour of light is
borne by an appropriate combination of these three
‘primary colours’. ‘Subtractive colours’ are produced by ‘subtracting’ one of these three primary colours
from white light, e.g., red and blue light together produce. When white light strikes an object, some of the
light is absorbed and the remainder is reflected. The colour that we perceive as the colour of the object is the
colour of the reflected light.
In printing inks, four different colours of ink are employed: cyan, magenta, yellow and black. All other
colours can be formed by ‘overprinting’ these inks, e.g., red is produced by overprinting yellow and
magenta, as the yellow absorbs the blue light (because yellow is the emission of red and green light) and

11
magenta absorbs the green light, leaving behind pure red light. Cyan, magenta and yellow add together to
give brown colour usually.
When we refer to ink colour, we are most often speaking of hue or shad whether the ink is red or blue or
green or purple. Secondarily, we might describe its strength or saturation, also termed Chroma. Thirdly, we
might indicate how light or dark it is—a reference to its purity or value. The amount of pigment used affects
an ink’s colour strength, and the type of vehicle used can affect both the hue and the value of the ink colour.
The colour of the vehicle itself, its ability to wet the pigment articles, and even the chemical interaction
between the vehicle and pigment can affect the shade or purity. Finally, the colour of the substrate, and its
drying/absorption properties affect the printed colour results.
b) Colour Properties
The colour properties of an ink, which depend largely on the pigments, are known as “mass tone,”
“undertone,” and “tinting strength.” Associated with these colour properties are transparency or opacity.
“Mass tone” is the hue or colour of a thick film of the ink. It is the colour of the bulk ink in the can. It is the
colour of light reflected by the pigment. “Undertone” is the hue or colour of a thin film of the ink. It is the
colour of light reflected by the paper and transmitted through the ink film. “Tinting strength” is colouring
power, or the amount that an ink can be reduced or diluted with a white pigment dispersion to produce a tint
of a given density or saturation. Colour is determined by pigments, which are finely divided solids.
Important characteristics of pigment include specific gravity, particle size, opacity, chemical resistance,
wettability, and permanence.
Brilliance and Hue of Pigments: Pigments vary in brilliance and in hue. Few inorganic pigments - pigments
not derived from dyestuffs - have acceptable brilliance. Inorganic pigments are generally low in colour
strength. Organic pigments are very numerous, quite brilliant, and available in a broad range of hues.
Because of their many useful properties, organic pigments are widely used in lithographic inks.
characteristics of pigment include specific gravity, particle size, opacity, chemical resistance, wettability,
and permanence.
c) Ink opacity
ability to hide the colour beneath it.
d) Ink transparency
refers to the opposite of opaque. A transparent ink does not hide the colour beneath it, but mixes with it to
create a third colour. All inks used to print full colour work must be transparent. The choice of colour ant
and the degree to which it is dispersed through the vehicle are the most important factors in determining the
transparency or opacity of an ink.
f) Ink Gloss
refers to an ink’s own ability to reflect light, and depends upon the lay or smoothness of the ink film on the
substrate surface. Generally, the higher the ratio of vehicle to colour ant, the smoother the lay, and the higher
The gloss. Application of a thicker ink film tends to improve gloss while penetration into the substrate tends
to reduce. Gloss is strongly dependent on the surface roughness and the directionality of the reflected light.
The resin component, the oil or solvent, and the pigment all affect gloss. Generally, synthetic resins of high
molecular weight that do not penetrate into the paper pores provide good holdout, enhancing the gloss
[16,19].
1.13.2 Emulsification
The formula for a good working ink may contain twelve to fifteen different ingredients, and it is developed
only after many trials and experiments. The principle reason that lithographic inks differ from inks used in
other processes is that litho inks must work in contact with water [11].

12
1.13.3 Tack
Tack refers to the stickiness of the ink, or the force required to split ink film between two surfaces. Tack
determines whether or not the ink will pick the paper surface, trap properly, or will print sharp. If the tack is
higher than the surface strength of the paper, the paper may pick, split, or tear. When putting down more
than one ink on a page, the ink that has the higher tack should be put down first. Tack can be measured using
either an ink meter or tack scope. The final property is drying, but the ink must first set before it actually
dries. Some newer drying systems include ultraviolet and electron beam radiation [11,25].

Figure (1.3): Tack is the relationship between ink, blanket, and paper.
1.13.4 Length
Length is associated with the ability of an ink to flow and form filaments. Ink length ranges from long to
short. Long inks flow well and form long filaments and are not ideal since they tend to mist or fly. Short inks
do not flow well, and tend to pile on rollers, plates, and blankets. Ideal inks are somewhere in the middle of
the two types [11].
1.13.5 Viscosity of ink
The ink’s viscosity meaning its stickiness and consistency, determines its fluidity and so suitability for
different print processes. Viscosity is the resistance to flow, so that a high viscosity ink would not flow. For
instance, flexography requires low viscosity inks to achieve good quality. In gravure printing very low
viscosity is achieved with powerful solvents, however this can affect optical ink density. In screen printing
where there is a huge array of print methods and applications, the ink’s viscosity must be tuned to the size of
the screen mesh and the desired ink layer thickness. Viscosity is the quantity describing the internal friction
or resistance of a fluid to flow. In the gravure and lithography printing process, ink viscosity is a very
important factor that needs to be maintained and monitored. It affects print uniformity, colour consistency,
printability, drying speed, trapping, gloss, adhesion, and penetration.
1.13.6 Density
The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume.
The symbol most often used for density is ρ (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter D
can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:[24]

ρ = m/ V Since m= mass in gram , v= volume in ml eq1.1

where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases (for instance, in the United
States oil and gas industry), density is loosely defined as its weight per unit volume,[25] although this is
scientifically inaccurate – this quantity is more specifically called specific weight.
For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its mass concentration. Different
materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity and packaging.
Osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure
but certain chemical compounds may be denser.

13
To simplify comparisons of density across different systems of units, it is sometimes replaced by the
dimensionless quantity "relative density" or "specific gravity", i.e. the ratio of the density of the material
to that of a standard material, usually water. Thus a relative density less than one means that the substance
floats in water.
The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. This variation is typically small for solids
and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the
object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance (with a few exceptions)
decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in
convection of the heat from the bottom to the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid.
This causes it to rise relative to denser unheated material.
The reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes
used in thermodynamics. Density is an intensive property in that increasing the amount of a substance
does not increase its density; rather it increases its mass.

Measurement of density
A number of techniques as well as standards exist for the measurement of density of materials. Such
techniques include the use of a hydrometer (a buoyancy method for liquids), Hydrostatic balance
(a buoyancy method for liquids and solids), immersed body method (a buoyancy method for liquids),
pycnometer (liquids and solids), air comparison pycnometer (solids), oscillating densitometer (liquids), as
well as pour and tap (solids).[27] However, each individual method or technique measures different types
of density (e.g. bulk density, skeletal density, etc.), and therefore it is necessary to have an understanding
of the type of density being measured [26].
1.13.7 Dry/Cured Ink Properties
Ink drying is a very important function when considering what to use. Inks can dry by absorption,
oxidation/polymerization, evaporation, solidification, and precipitation. During the process of absorption, the
vehicle drains into the sheet, leaving the pigment trapped by the fibers in the surface of the paper. Properties
of an ink are critical for a number of reasons. The most obvious is that a printed piece cannot be handled or
used until the ink has developed film integrity. In addition, however, the way an ink dries can reduce air
pollution, improve energy efficiency, and even improve productivity in the pressroom by allowing faster
printing and converting. In most cases, the first phase of ink drying is setting; immediately upon being
applied to the stock, the liquid portion of the ink begins to evaporate into the air or to penetrate the stock,
causing the ink to thicken.
Affects properties Drying or cure Is necessary for all of the solvent to be removed, and due to water having a
higher heat of vaporization as compared to similar solvents that are used in inks, the time and the
temperatures necessary to dry or cure the ink is increased greatly.
In this chapter, the various dry/cured ink testing methods are reviewed to
understand its importance to printing production and this research as well.
These are: abrasion resistance, substrate adhesion, ink film flexibility, and
specular gloss [20].

14
a) Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion resistance refers to the ability of the ink film to wear. It is an
important property of printed products, especially in package printing. As
speeds of printing and packaging machines rise, there is a need for improved abrasion resistance because of
the greater risk of scuffing from surfaces such as other printed materials or parts of the machine [21].
b) Adhesion
Set-off refers to the transfer of ink from one substrate to another. This
problem occurs when the ink does not adhere to the substrate on impression. Hence, all printed ink films
should be tested for adhesion. Adhesion test is performed according to the ASTM F 2552-03 Standard
Practice for Evaluating Ink or Coating Adhesion to Flexible Packaging Materials Using Tape. This test
involves laying the printed sample on a flat surface and using adhesive tape to hold its position. Next, a 1-
inch by 6-inch pressure-sensitive tape (Scotch™ #600 or #610) is applied to the cross direction width of the
substrate, leaving a short tab free for grasping. A rubber roller is used to remove all the air bubbles on the
tape. The tape is pulled in such a way that the angle between the tape and the substrate is at about a 150°
angle. Each sample is evaluated based on how much ink residue is covering the tape [22].
c)Flexibility
Flexibility test involves holding the printed sample between the thumb and
forefingers for each hand with about half an inch in between the hands and
flexing the sample. Then the sample is examined visually for any ink removal [23].
Drying and Curing of Printing Ink
1.13.8 Stage of change state of printing ink
 The first stage is ‘setting’ of the ink films. Setting of ink is a condition which allows printed sheets to be
handled without smudging the print. A properly set ink film, therefore will not be rubbed off, set-off or
damaged during handling in the following operations.
 the second stage is ‘hardening’ of the ink films. Hardening of ink film means that the ink has reached the
end of its chemical or physical change or that the ink film has become as hard as it should be.
1.13.9 Factors of drying mechanisms of the printing inks
 Printing method (offset, gravure, flexography, etc.)
 Printing inks type (liquid, paste, water or organic solvent based, radiation curing inks, etc.)
 Speed of printing machines.
 Printing materials substrates (paper, foils, plastics, etc.)
 The type of the printed product (packaging printing, commercial printing)
 The characteristics of the dryer systems (hot air, cured systems, IR, etc.)
1.13.10 Drying methods of the printing inks
penetration or absorption or filtration Drying
 Penetration is achieved by the interaction of printing ink and substrate. It depends on the carrier viscosity
of the printing ink, the vehicle, and the absorption capacity of the substrate. All inks printed on absorbent
materials also dry by penetration.
Penetration takes place by absorption of the vehicle of the ink into the paper leaving the dry pigment on
the surface. Strictly speaking, the ink is not being converted into a solid but becomes an integral part of
paper used and into it. For penetration drying ink, the vehicle must be thin enough to penetrate into paper.
The paper should also be extremely porous to absorb the vehicle into it and hold the pigment particles on
the surface of the paper. cold - set inks used for web offset newspaper printing dry in this way. The
penetration process is carried out in a split second and the drying process is finished show Figure1.4[7,9].

15
 Figure (1.1): Absorption drying mechanism (a) Ink just printed (b) Ink nearly dry

1.13.11 Oxidation Drying

 A chemical form of drying in which the ink vehicle takes oxygen from the air in a chemical reaction
which causes it to harden, thus binding the pigment with it. This is the chief way by which conventional
sheet-fed letterpress and sheet-fed offset inks dry. The ink layer on the sheet to be linked should be
supplied with sufficient oxygen in the delivery pile. The necessary space between the sheets can be
increased by powdering, and oxygen can then diffuse in the piles. Powdering serves to support drying in
the pile, and also to avoid smearing the image on the underside of the top sheet. In case of inks where
drying oil is used as solvent, curing occurs by the reaction of atmospheric oxygen with unsaturation of oil
[7].
1.13.12 Oxidation polymerization drying
 This type of drying system depends on the chemical reaction between the oxygen from the atmosphere
and the drying oil (such as linseed oil, china wood oil, or Soya oil) within components of the vehicle
system. The result of this process is converting the ink film on the substrate to a semi-solid or solid.
 Polymerization means combining of small molecules into larger, more complex molecules. When the
simple or smaller molecules produce a fluid, polymerization generally results in a solid. Inks made of
drying oils when exposed to the atmosphere, the process of combining molecules continuous until a hard
and flexible film is produced. This kind of drying is related to oxidation because it is also a chemical
process. Inks which dry by polymerization always contain a small amount of driers. Printing ink driers
speed up the drying process as they act as oxygen-carriers. Polymerization drying takes place in
letterpress, offset lithography (metal decoration) and screen printing (ceramic and glass printing)
processes. In air drying inks, polymerization and oxidation take place at the same time.

Figure (1.1): Oxidation Polymerization drying mechanism

1.13.13 UV and EB drying
Energy cured inks are ones which cure, or harden, under exposure to radiant energy. There are several types
of radiation applied to dry the inks may be in form of UV light, infrared radiation, and electron beam (high
energy electrons). Whereas the IR radiation has no direct significance for chemical (oxidative) drying, it is
merely the elevation of temperature that increases the reaction speed. However, UV radiation and ionizing
radiation (electron-beam) in comparison produce radiation polymerization or cross-linking (chemical drying)
[8,9,10].

16
1.13.14 evaporation Drying
The printing ink consists of several components such as resins, pigments, and solvents, the drying of which
is achieved partly by evaporation. The solvent evaporates when a printing ink is dried by evaporation. The
drying process is determined by the heat and material transport in the boundary film on the surface of a
liquid (Printing ink). Inks with vehicles consisting of a hard resin dissolved in a volatile solvent dry by
evaporation. After printing the solvent evaporates leaving the resin, binding the pigment on the surface of
the paper. Evaporation of solvent may happen naturally or may be speeded up with the aid of heat, blown up
air etc. Therefore, heating via heat radiators and / or hot air is to be combined with optimum air conduction.
“Suspension dryers” are mainly used as drying units in web offset. The web is routed contact free through
these dryers without guiding elements. This is achieved by a well-directed blower stream in the hot air dryer
[11].

Figure (1.6): Schematic diagram of ink drying by evaporation of the volatile solvents, leaving a dry ink film
on the printed stock.
This type of drying process requires airing in the function of amount of ink has been applied and function of
the atmospheric humidity. Such drying can be accelerated by blowing hot or cold air over the surface to be
dried very rapidly by evaporation of solvent or water. As soon as, ink is coming to the next printing station,
it must be dried to allow the printing machine running at high speed without any drying problems.
The efficiency and speed of the evaporation process is determined by three factors as the following:
 the rate of evaporation of the ink solvent.
 the chemical and physical interaction between the solvent and the other ink components.
 the rate of removal of the evaporated solvent from the surface of the ink film.
 The evaporation drying mechanism are used in several printing methods for example, web offset (high
boiling point mineral oils ink) and flexographic and gravure printing (low boiling organic solvent inks),
with increasing of the efficiency of the drying process,
 it must combine with another drying mechanism such as IR heater to pre-heat the wet inks before entering
in the drying chamber [12,24].
1.13.15 quick-setting (Gellation) Drying
 Quick-set inks set by gellation. Inks that contain a vehicle consisting of penetrating oil and plasticizing
(film forming) varnish dry by gellation. Ink film when transferred to paper, the penetrating oil is drained
into the paper, leaving the plasticizing varnish to bind the pigment to the surface. Such inks are limited in
their use to special applications.
 used in most letterpress and offset litho processes where rapid drying is essential, contain a balanced
combination of resin, drying oil and solvent; the solvent is rapidly absorbed by the paper, leaving a
partiality dry or set ink film of resin and oil that subsequently hardens by oxidation
1.13.16 Drying by cooling
Inks having dyes or pigments dispersed or dissolved in waxes are solid at room temperature but become
liquid at a higher temperature. They are printed on heat-set presses. When the printed ink comes in contact
with cool paper surface, it is cooled and becomes solid. Carbon papers printed by letterpress and gravure dry
by this process.

17
1.13.17 Precipitation Drying
Precipitation means separation of solid matter from a solution.
Water-based inks, with vehicle or water insoluble resin dissolved in a water-soluble vehicle (solvent glycol)
dry by precipitation.
The printed sheet is given a spray of a mist of water vapor, the water receptive (soluble) solvent accepts the
moisture and loses its ability to hold resin liquid form.
The water insoluble resin is separated from the solution thus binding the pigment on to the surface of the
paper. Such inks are called “steam-set” inks or moisture-set” inks. Such special inks.

18
Table 1.4. Printing ink drying systems and vehicles
Drying system Printing process Type of vehicle Examples

Absorption Newspaper printing Non-drying oil High-boiling petroleum oils

(letterpress or cold- (mineral oil, b.p. 280-350 0℃)
set web offset
Solvent evaporation Heat-set web offset Solvent/resin Lower-boiling petroleum distillates (b.p.
short drying time within 240-300 0℃) with resins and
drying oils
Gravure Solvent/resin Toluene (publication gravure), or
ethyl acetate and alcohols
(packaging gravure) with resins
Flexography Solvent/resin Alcohol, ethyl acetate or water and
resins
Oxidation Letterpress, offset, Drying oil/resin Linseed oil varnish with resins and driers
Sheet-fed Offset (cobalt or manganese soaps)
(not rubber based)
Inks, intaglio
Precipitation Letterpress Glycol/resin Moisture-set inks (glycol solvent
(specialty) Moisture with water-insoluble resin binder)
- set inks
Radiation curing All processes Monomers Acrylate or vinyl ether/epoxy resins
(UV or electron short drying time for the oligomers, reactive resins
beam) and monomers
(with photo initiators for UV curing)
Quick-setting Litho, Letterpress Drying oil/ Linseed oil/resin with petroleum
(Gellation) Quickset Inks resins/distillate distillate (b.p. 260-280 ℃)

19
References:
1. B.Michel, A.Bernard, A.Bitesh, E.Dalamache, M.Geissla, D.Junchery, J.P.Renaut, H.Rothizer,
H.Schimdt, P.Schmidt, R.Stutz, H.Wolf , "Printing meets Litho,Soft approaches to high resolution
patterning", IBM Journal of Research & Development Vol 45, No., 8, 2001.
2. Chemical & Engineering News, "The Newsmagazine of the Chemical World Online" November
16,1998, Volume 76, Number 46, CENEAR 76 46 1-56, ISSN 0009-2347.
3. Joy T. Kunjappu, "Essays in ink chemistry", New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2001.
4. Kirth-Othmer, Wiley & Sons, "Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology" (3rd Edition), V.13 (374-
397) & V.19 (110175), New York, 1981.
5. Huber grupe ,"Ink formation",1st Edition, May2013. Rev1. Pag.1.
6. Wood. S, "The history of printing inks", Prof Printer, 38,12-17, (1994).
7. A.J Baden Fuller, "Microwaves an introduction to microwave theory and techniques", Pergamon Press
UK, 1990, P.107.
8. F. Schroeder, "Strahlenvernetzbare Bes chiftungs system", FARBE+LACK, Jahrg. 93, 6/1987.
9. Helmut Kipphan, "Handbook of Print Media Technologies and Production Methods", Springer,
Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, New York, P.174,2001.
10. http://www.hoenle.com/eng/prod/uvaprint_acm.html
11. Terry Scarlett & Nelson R. Eldred, "What the printer should know about ink", GATF, P.84, 1984.
12. Cecilia Christiani; GFL & J.Anthony Bristow; STFI, "The drying mechanism of water-borne printing
inks", TAGA's 47th Annual technical conference, Orlando, Florida, , P. 7, April 1995.
13. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists,"Color Index" (3rd Edition), London, 1971.
14. https://PRINTING%20INKS%20COMPOSITION%20AND%20MANUFACTURING.pdf
15. https:// fespa-aati-its-all-about-the-ink-proof5.pdf
16. Donigian D., Dimmick, A., Kim, B.S. and Bousfield, D.W, "Deviations from the gloss-tack
relationship", PAPTAC (Pulp and Paper Technical Association of Canada), 2004.and "International
Printing and Graphic Arts Conference", Vancouver, British Columbia, October 4-6, 2004.
17. http://www.chemsoc.org/chembytes/ezine/2003/kunjappu_mar03.htm
18. . Weinzimer, Mel, "Evolution of water-based ink technology", Polymers Paint Colour Journal, Feb
1996 v186 n4377 p35(2)
19. Donigian D.W., "A new mechanism for the setting and gloss development of offset ink", Journal of
Pulp and Paper Science, 2006 32(3) pp.163-177.
20. Chatterjee, PC. and Ramaswamy, R., "Ultra Violet Radiation Drying of Inks", TheBritish Ink Maker,
February 1977.
21. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, "Paint-Test for Formulated Products and Applied Coatings",
Volume 06.01, ASTM, Philadelphia, 1991.
22. ASTM ,"Compilation of ASTM Standard Definitions", 6th edition, 1986.
23. R.H. Leach (ed.), "The Printing Ink Manual", Van Nostrand Reinhold (International), 4th ed., London,
1989.
24. Terry Scarlett & Nelson R. Eldred," what the printer should know about ink", GATF, 1984, P.84.
25. The National Aeronautic and Atmospheric Administration's Glenn Research Center. "Gas Density
Glenn research Center". grc.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on April 14, 2013.
26. "Density definition in Oil Gas Glossary". Oilgasglossary.com. Archived from the original on August 5,
2010. Retrieved September 14, 2010.
27. "OECD Test Guideline 109 on measurement of density".

20
Chapter Two

Offset ink
o ffset inks are compounded especially for use on offset presses. Never use inks intended
for other printing processes on offset presses. Offset printing needs oil based paste inks
in which the main elements are pigment, vehicle and additives. Offset printing inks
printed on absorbing substrates firstly dry by penetration and afterwards by oxy polymerization.
Oxidative drying of offset inks containing drying oils is effected without additional units by
molecular linkage with oxygen from the air. Oxidative drying can be accelerated by catalysts
such as cobalt or manganese salts of oil soluble acids. Cobalt driers are “surface driers”. The
drying process is started on the ink surface and slowly proceeds to the substrate [1,2].
2.1 Requirements used to classify offset printing inks
1. Inks are mixtures of pigments, vehicles and additives.
2. Fountain solution is evenly distributed in the ink in the form of tiny droplets, mixing with ink
to form the emulsion.
3. The ink on the ink roller should not absorb water (water-in-ink emulsification), nor should the
ink break down and combine with the fountain solution on the non-printing areas of the plate
(ink-in-water emulsification).
4. Water-ink balance is very important in offset printing, and all deviations lead to problems
when printing.
5. Inks containing more intense pigment form a thin film, narrowing the limits of the balance.
6. To achieve the best print quality ph level of experimental inks.
7. Color accuracy, intensity and brightness.
8. Stable adhesion to the substrate and mechanical damage resistance.
9. Rheological properties should match the certain printing equipment.
10. Light and difficult environment resistance.
11. Ecological compatibility.
12. The ink must be able to show its full color and opacity.
13. The ink must be resistant to gases, chemicals, heat, moisture, scuffing.
14. The ink must be able with the press fountain.
15. The ink must be wet the printing areas of the offset plate.
16. Accept and expel water as an emulsion dynamically.
17. Push a front of surface water while marching through the press.
18. Have no problem in emulsification behavior with changing printing materials, press
temperatures, speed changes, press types, and properties of the printing job in ink distribution,
ink uptake, and all the other manifold parameters.

2.2 Composition and production of offset printing inks

Requirements for offset inks can be divided into two groups. Some are common for all printing
techniques like color etc.; some are specifically directed fort the use in offset printing like water
balance.
General requirements are color, shade, power, printing contrast, gloss, translucency, drying, rub
and other resistances, stability against solvent and other chemical attacks, light fastness, and
environmental, physiological, and occupational safety requirements.

21
Used in offset printing an ink must wet the printing areas of the offset plate, take up some
dampening solution without catastrophically changing the rheology, accept and expel water as an
emulsion dynamically, push a front of surface water while marching through the press, have no
problem in emulsification behavior with changing printing materials, press temperatures, speed
changes, press types, and properties of the printing job in ink distribution, ink uptake, and all the
other manifold parameters.
Three of the four classical printing techniques offset, gravure, and letterpress apply
approximately 1 µm of ink film thickness on the material. Material layers can be drafted like in
fig.2.1 the ink must make
An intensive, colorful effect with its tiny film thickness to let us perceive a distinct color
impression. To achieve this effect, the pigment particles must be very finely distributed in the
print layer, much finer than the 1 µm layer thickness. Desired interactions with the printed paper
will touch at least the coating film and scarcely reach the fibers. The discussion many years ago
about defects in ink drying caused by chlorine free paper fibers was unprofessional nonsense [6].
Raw materials in an offset ink can be divided into groups (see fig. 2.1):

Figure (2.1): raw materials of offset ink (6)

2.3 Formulation of offset ink
Offset ink formulations are based on the following constituents (see table 2.1):
Table2.1 offset ink formulations [20]
Component Content Principal functions
Siccative vegetable oils (soya, 20 –40% Vegetable oils are used for solubilizing the resins,
linseed, wood, rape) wetting and coating the pigment and influence the
drying.
Petroleum (aliphatic, 3 – 40% Diluents are firstly used for solubilizing the resins
paraffinic, etc.) Or vegetable and then to obtain the rheological properties of the
based diluents final ink.
Modified rosin or oil based 30 – 35% Essential constituents of varnishes (resins + oils)
resins that determine the required rheological, setting,
tack, etc. Properties of the ink.
Organic or mineral pigments 10 – 20% Colouring materials chosen as a function of the
required applications and fastnesses.
Additives: fillers, waxes, 1 – 8% These products determine or influence specific
drying agents, etc properties such as rheology, abrasion resistance,
drying, etc.

22
 Figure (2.2): typical offset ink formulation [20]

Vegetable oil based inks

The varnishes and diluents used in the formulation of these inks are exclusively vegetable based
and renewable. However, the fillers, pigments and drying agents are mineral based. For this
reason, no ink is 100% vegetable.
these inks provide numerous advantages for the printer:
• better transfer, giving more intense, glossier colours and reduced ink consumption.
• better ink / water stability, enabling high speed printing (up to 18000 sheets/hour) and reduced
waste.
• better environmental management: reduction of vocs (volatile organic compounds), easier
recycling of printed materials, etc.
However, they have a strong odour and cannot be used for printing foodstuff
Packaging because they can have an adverse effect on the organoleptic properties of the
packaged goods [20].
2.4 Different types of ink
it is on the basis of this balance, which determines the drying mode, that 3 types of inks can be
distinguished: overnight inks, semi-overnight inks and siccative inks.
2.4.1 Overnight inks
These inks are only slightly siccative: there is practically no air oxidation. Thanks to
improvements in raw materials (resins, etc.), their setting and drying, formerly quite moderate,
have been considerably enhanced. With this type of ink, the ink tin can be left open for several
days, and the ink left in the duct for more than 24 hours, without the formation of a dried skin on
the surface.
2.4.2 Semi-overnight inks
Semi-overnight inks are moderately siccative. They therefore dry more quickly, allowing the
prints to be handled several hours after printing. The printing conditions, the type and the quality
of the substrate are criteria that have a considerable influence on the drying and therefore how
soon prints can be cut and folded.

23
2.4.3 Siccative inks
These inks contain high contents of drying agent. Their rate of surface and in-depth drying is
very rapid, around 2 to 3 hours. For this reason, they are recommended for printing matt coated
paper, nonabsorbent substrates and synthetics [19].
2.5 Type of offset ink
For offset printing there are two main types of inks available, oxidative drying inks and UV
curable inks. Offset printing needs oil based paste inks. Offset printing uses inks that, compared
to other printing methods, are highly viscous. Typical inks have a dynamic viscosity of 40–100
pa·s. There are many types of paste inks available for utilization in offset lithographic printing
and each have their own advantages and disadvantages. But we study in our research UV offset
ink.
2.6 UV offset ink
UV offset inks are solvent-free lithographic inks which dry by polymerization of monomers and
molecular weight polymers initiated by the absorption of ultraviolet light [17]. UV curable offset
ink is used widely in the field of offset printing because it has benefits of high producing
efficiency and excellent printing quality, is friendly to environment and easy to process,
rheological stable, cost effective in terms of the energy consumption, and can be printed on the
surface of plastic. (UV)-curable offset ink film properties (surface cure efficiency, abrasion
resistance, substrate adhesion, and ink film flexibility) were investigated. The main components
in UV inks are reactive acrylates (monomers) and initiators. There are two main applications
areas in which UV offset inks are being used. One of the main applications of UV inks is for
offset printing off food packaging (i.e. Milk packaging), because of the relative high quality and
low residue of these prints, in comparison to oxidative drying inks. The components of UV
curable offset ink, such as pre-polymer, monomer and photo-initiator, influence curing velocity.
So for accelerating the curing velocity, it is necessary to research the effect of components on
curing velocity. Dynamic viscosity of UV offset inks440 - 100 pa·s. The photo-initiators used in
different UV inks are being identified. The difference in the type of photo-initiators used by
different manufactures is being investigated, as well as the possible differences between colours
of the same ink.
2.7 UV-inks principle
A typical ultraviolet curable ink formulation is composed of the following:
Pigment, monomer, oligomer, photo-initiator, and other additives. Pigment gives color to the
printing ink. A monomer is a single molecule that can bond with other monomers to create a
three-dimensional network or polymer. An oligomer is a polymer containing a few monomers.
Photo-initiators are photosensitive molecules which when exposed to light or radiation, get into
an excited state or react with other molecules, creating free radicals.
When a sufficient amount of energy is supplied to a covalent bond, the bond breaks to create free
radicals. In the case of ultraviolet curable inks, when UV radiation of a suitable wavelength and
intensity penetrates the ink film, this causes the photo-initiators to create free radicals. Free
radicals are molecules with unpaired electrons, which are highly reactive. These free radicals
then react with monomers and oligomers in the formulation creating a three-dimensional
network or polymer. This process is called free radical polymerization [29]. The key steps in the
UV curing process are initiation, propagation, and termination. Fig.2.3 shows these steps.

24
 For the hardening of a UV-curable offset ink a mixture of different photo-initiators is being used.
An ink usually consists of multiple photo-initiators, because of the different lamps used by
different offset printers. The effective absorption spectrum is different for each initiator. Because
of the use of different pigments (colours), other photo-initiators are needed which are effective in
a different spectral region than the pigment.

Figure (2.3): UV ink system (balmer & flint ink corporation, 2002).
2.8 Features of UV-curable offset inks
 Excellent curing.  Excellent rub resistance for the cure films.
 Ink film is flexible.  High chemical, mechanical resistances
 Excellent print quality  Cured ink film is vacuum-formable.
 Excellent adhesion.  Tack levels designed to give excellent roller transfer & pan feed.
 Excellent scratch resistance  Strong colour vibrancy and density.
 Excellent light fastness  Fine patterns can be excellently reproduced.
 Highly opaque.  Application to most printing processes.
 High gloss finish.  Capability to be left on the press overnight.
 Fast curing speed.  No volatile organic compounds (voc) in formulation.
 Viscosity stability.  Ability to print on thermally sensitive substrates.
 Reduced dot gain.  Immediate stack ability for finished products.
 Energy efficient drying.  The reproducibility of halftone ink is superb.
 Very low odor.  Colour matching capability.
 Solvent free.  Over-printability is good.
 No spray powder  Free from toxic elements
 Highly stable ink film  Non absorbing substrates
 Wide adhesion range
 Superior print definition.

25
 2.9 Disadvantages of UV-curable offset inks
 Vehicle system causes irritation
 May require slightly toxic washing solutions
 Require a totally shielded UV radiation source
 Require air extraction due to ozone production
 Difficulty in recycling printed paper
 Very low viscosity is often difficult to formulate without resorting to hazardous monomers
 Expensive cost
 Difficulty curing heavy film weights
2.10 Required properties of UV-curable offset inks
Table 2.2 requirement of the UV-curable offset inks
Formulation of the ink Quantity and coordination of the photo-initiator

Water / ink balance UV offset inks are formulated so that the water / ink emulsion is
similar to that of a conventional offset ink to obtain the clearest
dots and optimum sharpness.
Misting The ink must not splatter when it is transferred on the rollers.
Colour strength The formulation of the binder must enable optimum development
of the pigment in order to obtain the best print rendering.
Rheology: UV offset inks must have a suitable rheology – supple to avoid
them “sleeping” in the ink duct and fluid on the press to optimize
the water / ink emulsion and the dot sharpness. The rheology also
influences the transfer.
Tack The tack represents the splitting force necessary to deposit the ink
film on the substrate. It has to be as low as possible to avoid any
problem of pick up from the substrate or causing the registers to be
out of sync.
Shelf life UV inks have a limited lifetime, depending on their formulation
and the storage conditions. It is recommended to store them
between 5 and 30°c protected from light. Brancher UV offset inks
are guaranteed for 12 months.
Drying UV offset inks have to be very reactive to be able to dry
completely at high printing speeds.
Resistance properties The inks should be check after 24 hrs of printing operation [14].
2.11Formulation of UV offset ink
The formulation of UV curable printing ink is very extensive. Every formula
Is dependent on the application or end-user requirements. Table 2.3 shows the general formula
used for UV curable ink [28].

26
Table 2.3: a generalized UV curable printing ink [28]
Component Percentage
Acrylate resin, or blend of resin (oligomers) 40-60%
Difunctional acrylate diluent (monomers) 10-20%
Pigment 15-23%
Photo initiator 3-8%
Photo-synergist 2-5%
Wetting agent/surfactant 1%
Wax 2%

Table 2.4 UV inks are formulated from the following components:

Component Content Principal functions
Vehicle Oligomers 40 - 50% Reactive substances that determine the principal
(60-70%) properties of the ink (press stability, printability,
resistance, etc.)
Monomers 5 – 20% Reactive diluents enabling the viscosity to be
adjusted. They influence the final properties of the
ink film.
Pigments (organic or 15 – 20% Colouring materials chosen as a function of the
mineral) applications and fastenesses required.
Photo-initiators 5 – 12% UV radiation sensitive constituents, which initiate
the polymerization reaction of the ink film.
Additives 1 – 8% Products that influence specific, properties, such as
the rheology, adhesion, rub resistance, etc. [13].
2.12 Composition of UV offset ink
Ultraviolet curable inks function the same way as conventional inks. Formulation is very similar
to other inks, which have a pigment, vehicle, solvent, and additives. Pigments for UV-curable
inks are chosen according to end-use requirements. Solvents are low-viscosity monomers. The
vehicle is composed of oligomers, and the additives contain an amount of photo-initiators that
respond to UV radiation and start the reaction [26].

%
Vehicle

Pigment

Photoinitiator
12-20%
Additives

Figure (2.1): components of a UV offset ink

27
2.12.1 Pigments
Pigments are the solid components of the ink that give it its colour. Colored pigment depending
on color, the proportion of pigment (coloring agent) lies between 10 and 30%. Pigments must
have the highest possible colour strength characteristics due to the thin printed colour film (0.25-
2 µm). The water-insoluble colored pigment is not soluble in oil or a binder, having a certain
color solid powdered substance [5].
Among the most important properties of printing ink are its color, its flow, and its drying; that is,
the color and behaviour of the ink on the press and on the print. Color is determined principally
by the pigment, flow by both the pigment and the varnish, and drying principally by the varnish
or vehicle. Pigment characteristics of importance in ink formulation include tinctorial strength,
opacity, shade, gloss, durability, particle size, specific gravity, refractive index, hardness or
texture, wettability, dispersibility, light-fastness and chemical resistance.
2.12.2 Vehicle
The vehicle is a fluid component of printing inks which serve as a carrying medium for dyes and
gives the necessary flow and tack to the ink to enable them to distribute on the printing machine
and transfer properly from the rollers to the forms. It is the vehicle again which binds the ink to
the paper and imparts drying properties to the ink [17]. Vehicle must remain in liquid form on the
press but dry completely on paper or other material. The ink vehicle is the liquid portion of the
ink; some printing inks are rather simplistic in the composition of their vehicles, while others are
an amazingly complex collection of chemicals necessary to impart some desired characteristics
to the ink. The characteristics of the ink are depending on the vehicle composition, this
composition will determine the following properties: ink’s stiffness, ink drying rate, ability to
adhere to a particular substrate, degree of gloss, rub resistance, and appropriateness to lithograph,
gravure or any other printing process. The viscosity may be varied by varying the proportions of
oil, resin and solvent in the vehicle, use of a complexion or gelling agent, amount of gelling
agent, addition of polyamide, etc. [23, 24].
Like in conventional ink systems, the vehicle accounts for the largest share of the formulation of
a UV ink. UV ink. The chemical composition of the vehicle is fundamentally different from that
of the vehicles used in conventional inks. In the case of the UV vehicle, we are dealing primarily
with synthetic products that contain terminal acrylate groups. These react with the radicals
created by the effect of the UV radiation to very quickly produce close-mesh cross linkages. This
cross linkage forms the matrix that holds the ink film together mechanically. At the same time,
it’s possible to control characteristics such as flexibility and resistance in a targeted way through
the choice of basic raw materials used [5].
The function of vehicle is the pigment carrier and provides (such characteristics as drying,
hardness, gloss, chemical resistance and printing qualities), to carry it from fountain (duct to the
form through rollers), and to transport the pigment to the plate of printing machine [17].

28
2.12.2.1 Monomers
Monomers, just like solvents used in conventional inks, are low molecular diluents. They help to
reduce the viscosity and help the ink to flow. After curing, the monomers become part of the
polymer matrix (they are lost during curing) [23]. There are only a few monomers that are
acceptable for use in the printing industry. Many good viscosity-reducing acrylates are not used
because they are toxic and volatile [26]. table 2.5lists the types of monomers and table2.6 lists
some acrylated monomers with different functionality.

Table 2.5: types of diluents used in UV curable inks [28]

Diluent Characteristic
Monofunctional monomers Lacks the ability to cross-link, good
Viscosity reduction, good ink flexibility
Difunctional acrylates Good pigment-wetting and ink-making properties
Trifunctional acrylates Good viscosity reduction, fast curing, capable of
extensive cross-linking
High functionality monomers Good reactivity, low viscosity, good
Cutting power, fast curing
Non-reactive plasticizing diluents Good viscosity reduction, aids pigment wetting,
powerful solvent

2.12.2.2 Oligomers
Are of high molecular weight and serve the same function as a resin used in conventional inks.
They are the backbone of a UV cured ink film and responsible for the flexibility, chemical
resistance and elasticity of the ink film. After curing, they create a tough and durable ink film.
UV-reactive oligomers are usually based on acrylates epoxy resins, polyesters, polyether's and
polyurethanes. Oligomers have a relatively high molecular weight and a wide molecular weight
distribution (between 450 and 5,000 g/mol = dalton). The viscosity and tack of the ink, which are
of crucial importance for its application, are fundamentally influenced by the oligomers. They
also determine the final characteristics of the cured ink film, such as its hardness/flexibility,
adhesion and scratch resistance [5].
Table 2.6 the oligomers are used depending on the characteristics desired from the ink: (some
acrylated oligomers [5].
Oligomers Epoxy acrylates Polyester acrylates Polyurethane Polyether
acrylates acrylates

Characteristic High chemical Low viscosity High chemical Low viscosity

resistance Flexibility resistance High reactivity
Hardness Adhesion Adhesion Good pigment
High viscosity Pigment wetting High reactivity wetting
High reactivity Flexibility
Inexpensive Toughness
Fast curing

The oligomers cited above are produced in stainless-steel reaction vessels. Depending on the
product, synthesis is conducted either under pressure or pressure less and at temperatures of

29
between 160 and 230 c. All-important process parameters, such as the dosing level, temperature
and pressure, are nowadays monitored, regulated and documented by a state-of-the-art process
control system. These parameters are evaluated very precisely as part of development work and
the scale-up process, and are standardized for the production process that follows [5].
Quality control testing is conducted using chemical/physical variables such as the acid number
and hydroxyl (oh) number, the molecular weight distribution and the viscosity, to name just a
few. The viscosities of some oligomers can be very high. The final viscosity is therefore often
regulated using what are known as ‘monomers’. Their low viscosity is founded mainly on their
lower molecular weight (<500 u) and their very narrow molecular weight distribution. The type
and functionality of the monomers is very varied, which is why they are also of great importance
with respect to application of and the final properties of the ink [5].

Table 2.7: some acrylated monomers (holman, r. And oldring, p., 1988)
Product Common
Abbreviation
Ethyl hexyl acrylate EHA
Hydroxy ethyl acrylate HEA
Phenoxyethoxy ethyl acrylate PEEA
Butanediol diacrylate BDDA
Hexanediol diacrylate HDDA
Dianol 22 diacrylate DDA
Neopentyl glycol diacrylate NPGDA
Triethylene glycol diacrylate TEGDA
Glycerol propoxylate Triacrylate GPTA
Propoxylated tmpta PTMPTA
Ethoxylated tmpta ETMPTA
Trimethylolpropane TMPTA
Pentaerythritoltriacrylate PETA

2.12.2.3 Photo-initiators and photo-synergist

An important functional constituent of UV-curing printing inks are the photo-initiators. These
are chemical compounds that on absorbing UV light create what are called ‘radicals’, which in
turn initiate polymerization (curing) in the unsaturated acrylic acid groups. Radical
polymerization takes place very rapidly, and the molecular weight rises very rapidly. The higher
functional oligomers and monomers also result in close-mesh crosslinking of the ink film. This
high level of reactivity is what characterizes UV inks, because the print products are immediately
cured right through and can be very quickly finished. There is a very large selection of
photo initiators available. The main criterion when it comes to choosing which one to use is their
absorption spectrum; this is the specific wavelength range in which a photo-initiator is capable of
producing free radicals by means of a photochemical reaction [5].

30
2.12.3 Auxiliaries (or additives)
The auxiliaries are additional components in the ink, the ink can be used as the additive material
of the finished product, as an adjuvant to alter the printing or enhance certain properties of the
ink, such as: drying, and abrasion resistance. Additives can vary depending upon the process;
shorting compounds are used in paste inks for lithography and screen printing to minimize print
defects such as misting of the ink. The auxiliaries may be effectively the offset ink to improve
printability additives are typically the smallest percentage of the composition of the ink.
Additives have a proportion of up to about 10%. The following are classed as additives in the
table. Additives are only considered additives if they individually account for less than 0.2 to 1.0
part of the ink formulation [23, 24].
Additives, when used correctly, can greatly benefit the runability and functionality of an ink. The
type of additive added to inks is dependent on the respective printing process. Additives used
include stabilizers, extenders and lubricants. Stabilizers guarantee the shelf life of the inks as
long as they are stored properly (dark, dry and at room temperature). Extenders are as a rule
inorganic mineral substances that are used to adjust the flow characteristics of the ink [5].
2.12.3.1 Common classes of ink additives
2.12.3.1.1 fillers
The filler is a white, transparent, translucent or opaque powdered substance, but also the solid
part of the ink filling from the main role. Selection of appropriate filler, in addition to reducing
the amount of pigment, to reduce cost, it may be properties of the ink, such as dilute thick, and
fluidity adjusting [17].
2.12.3.1.2 Flow control
The flow control additive is added to impart certain rheological properties, e.g., to contribute to
the high viscosity and internal cohesion of the ink, provide some flow or low yield value, and
decrease the surface energy of the ink with respect to the non-image area, and thus assist in
keeping the ink off the non-image areas. It is added in amounts which do not deleteriously alter
the viscosity characteristics imparted by the modifying varnish. The internal cohesion is
sufficient to maintain wetting and transference of the ink to the image areas of a printing plate
whereas the surface energy is sufficiently low that the ink does not wet the non-image areas of
the printing plate within the plate operating range of temperatures [17,24,].
2.12.3.1.3 Plasticizer
Used to make the ink softer and improve its flexibility, adhesion and to some extent gloss.
Added to the ink to make the resin more binding to the substrate. Its selection is based upon the
printed product, the type of substrate, and compatibility with the resin e.g. Dibutyl phthalate [23,
24].
2.12.3.1.4 Wax
Used in vehicles to impart slipperiness and to improve the rub resistance to the dried ink film.
Used to reduce setoff, improve water resistance, reduces viscosity, and slow drying. Used to
reduce tack with our appreciably altering other flow properties [17]. For improving the abrasion
resistance and slip properties. Synthetic waxes such as polyethylene waxes,
polytetrafluoroethylene, halogenated hydrocarbon waxes, and fatty acid amides; petroleum
waxes such as slack wax, scale wax, fully refined paraffin wax, petrolatum or petroleum jelly,
microcrystalline wax, ceresin wax, montane wax, montane esters; natural waxes such as
beeswax, carnauba wax, and miscellaneous natural waxes [23, 24].
31
2.12.3.1.5 Drier
Catalyzes the oxidation reaction of inks which dry by oxidation used in web-offset inks to
increase their drying speed. Drier concentration in printing inks may range from 0.5% to 5%.
Driers are supplied in liquid or paste form e.g. Salts or soaps of cobalt, manganese, lead, cerium,
or zirconium [17,6].
2.12.3.1.6 Chelating agent
Increases the viscosity of the ink e.g. (aluminum chelate) and promotes adhesion (titanium
chelate), aluminum chelate titanium chelate [17].
2.12.3.1.7 Surfactants
Improves wetting of either the pigment or the substrate. Act as stabilizing agents for pigment
dispersion. There type as anionic surfactants, cationic surfactants, non-ionic surfactants,
amphoteric surfactants [17].
2.12.3.1.8 Humectants
Retard premature drying [23, 24].
2.12.3.1.9 Alkali
Controls the viscosity / solubility of acrylic resins in water based inks e.g. Monoethanolamine
[17,23,24].
2.12.3.1.10 Reducers
Added to soften and reduce the tack of an ink. Much easier to reduce the tack than it is to
increase it. The addition of any reducer will increase dot gain e.g. Oils, other petroleum solvents,
boiled linseed oil, or a light linseed isophthalic alkyd [17,23,24].
2.12.3.1.11 Defoamer
Reduces the surface tension in water based inks, meaning that stable bubbles cannot exist used in
aqueous liquid inks to reduce foam. Used to control the foaming problems typically encountered
during pigment milling, ink manufacturing, and the printing process. Provide excellent foam
control in water, solvent, and UV inks [23, 24].
Provide high effectiveness over a wide ph range and have excellent long-term stability e.g.
Hydrocarbon emulsions they are available in silicone-free or silicone-modified compositions
[17].
2.12.3.1.12 Antioxidant
Just as oxygen tends to promote the oil drying process, antioxidants are used to retard such
drying where warranted by the printing operation e.g. Eugenol [17].
2.12.3.1.13 Wetting and dispersing agents
Used to decrease the surface tension of the vehicle and increase the wettability of pigments.
Used to promote pigment dispersion e.g. Fatty acids and alcohols. Dispersing agents are
beneficial for dispersing the pigment in the vehicle to avoid agglomeration [17].
2.12.3.1.14 Anti-skinning agents
Have a tendency to reduce the skinning and the drying of the ink while it is still in the fountain
and on the press. If a volatile anti-skinning agent is selected, the drying of the ink on the paper is
only moderately affected since the bulk of the anti-skinning agent leaves the film by evaporation
[17].

32
2.12.3.1.15 Stiffening agents
Used to stiffen an ink that is too soupy and fails to print cleanly and sharply. It "pulls the ink
together" when the ink tends to cause scrumming or tinting, and it can help prevent chalking on
coated stocks e.g. Body gum linseed varnish heavy-bodied gloss varnish (binding varnish) or gel
varnish [17].
2.12.3.1.16 Anti-setoff compounds
Various compounds prevent setoff either by protecting the ink surface or by shortening the ink
(decreasing its gelling time). Anti-setoff compounds that contain magnesia prevent setoff also
primarily by shortening the ink; however, addition of such material may also promote blanket
pilling. Spray powder or stretch reduces set-off by slightly roughening the surface of the ink film
e.g. Magnesia [17].
2.12.3.1.17 Shortening agent’s compounds:
Reduce ink flying, or misting. The addition of a wax compound shortens an ink. The printer
should not add such materials except on the advice of his ink manufacture because they can
interfere with proper ink flow on press [17].
2.12.3.1.18 Starch
It should never be mixed with the ink. Reduces contact between adjacent sheets and allows more
time for the ink to set [17].

Monomers (vehicle): Oligomers (vehicle):

• Viscosity • Viscosity
• Reactivity • Reactivity
• Pigment wetting • Pigment wetting
• Ink/water balance
UV ink • Flexibility
• Gloss • Adhesion
• Hardness • Curing speed
• Flexibility Additives:

• Adhesion • Surface slip

Photoinitiators:
• Resistance properties • Stability
Pigments
• Activation
• Curing speed • Hue • Rub resistance
• Reactivity
• Resistance • Pigment wetting
• Yellowing
• flow agents
• Odour
• scratch resistance
• Migration
the ink manufacturer can influence an ink’s properties by adjusting the individual
Figure (2.1):• Solubility
constituents of the ink.

33
2.13 Drying of UV offset ink
UV inks dry through a chemical polymerization reaction initiated by exposure to UV radiation.
This reaction, which occurs in a fraction of a second, can be broken down into several different
steps. The fluid ink (once printed) is exposed to UV radiation (by way of passing under fitted
UV lamps within the printing process). This exposure creates the chemical reaction sensitizing
the photo-initiators in the ink. The photo-initiators generate reaction species known as free
radicals, which propagate the reaction. The free radicals set off a chain reaction between the
oligomer and monomer binders in the formulation. The liquid ink hardens. At the end of the
reaction, a solid network is formed integrating the pigment [12].
.

Figure (2.6): process for UV curing

Figure (2.7): pigment UV absorption

34
2.14 Testing UV vs. Conventional inks
As is the case with conventional inks, fundamental ink tests such as particle size and color
strength are often carried out in a similar way for both ink types. Mr. Webster pointed out that
differences arise in testing methods for drying speed or curing rate.
“generally speaking, quality control testing for printing inks is basically the same regardless of
the chemistry,” mr. Lazure said. “the test methods may differ though, depending upon the type of
ink system. For example, in order to determine the tack of a conventional versus UV ink, the
same inkometer may be used, but the durometer and composition of the rollers is different. Tests
such as adhesion and solvent resistance of a printed UV ink film can be accomplished
immediately after subjecting the ink to UV energy, while some conventional inks may not be
tested immediately as their oxidation process requires more time to complete.” Drying of
conventional inks occurs over a period of time, whereas curing of UV inks is immediate. [25]
“the conventional inks simply require evaporation of solvents to dry or set,” dr. Pedersen said.
“therefore, they are tested for proper drying speed in the lab. Sometimes, additional tests are
performed for ink offsetting (ink blocking). On the other hand, the UV flexo inks are made with
monomers, which react to become dry plastic while exposed to the UV light.
All the other physical properties of both liquid inks and UV inks are tested using the same
equipment such as gloss meter for gloss; sutherland rub tester for rub resistance; scotch tape for
adhesion and coefficient of friction tester for slip characteristics.”
“in its essence, UV is just another way to polymerize (dry) the ink on the substrate,” said john
valla, UV technical service for in international ink company. “therefore, the most divergent
aspect of UV testing would be to evaluate cure with a UV curing unit rather than some kind of
dry rate testing. Secondly, the viscosity of a conventional ink is usually measured with some sort
of viscosity cup. Since UV generally has higher viscosities, it is desirable to measure UV
viscosity with a rotational viscometer. The rest of a finished ink testing parameters – color,
strength, adhesion, etc. – are basically the same.”
“testing for curing is the primary difference (light energy vs. Oxidation or heating),” said rodney
balmer, flint ink’s technical director. “it is important to make sure that the testing equipment is
compatible with the UV/eb materials (i.e. Inkometer must have epdm or buna-n rollers). When
testing for color strength, the bleaching white must be compatible with the UV/eb ink system.”
[25]
2.15 Key properties for testing UV inks
When testing for any type of ink, there are a number of critical properties to analyze. For UV
inks, the most critical aspect is whether the ink has cured properly. Pigment wetting is another
area that affects ink color and press performance.
“the two most important aspects in testing UV inks are cure rate and pigment wetting, as UV
tends to be somewhat inferior to many conventional materials for this,” said johnbraddock, akzo
nobel resins’ technical marketing manager, UV/eb curing chemicals. “key properties to test when
manufacturing UV inks are rheology, cure rate, adhesion aspects and flexibility.”
Why proper cure is paramount to UV ink performance: all other properties stem from it. Poor
cure results in detriments in many other areas.
“the amount of cure and the degree of cross-linking to ensure that the finished product meets the
necessary requirements for scratch resistance, mar resistance, product resistance, etc. Are
important, as is the viscosity and the rheology of the ink to ensure proper flow of the ink in the

35
ink fountain and down the rollers,” mr. Balmer said. “the color and color strength need to be
measured to ensure that the ink will be the proper color when the correct amount of ink is being
carried on the rollers. Too little or too much ink can influence the printability of the ink.”
UV ink rheology has been problematic due to questionable affinity of pigment and
monomeric/oligomeric components.however, rheology is crucial to proper ink transfer.
“tack is very important to measure to make sure the ink will transfer from roller to roller,” mr.
Balmer added. “it will also determine how the ink interacts with the substrate and the other inks,
if trapped wet on wet. Grind is measured to determine how well the pigment is dispersed in the
system. If the pigment is not dispersed well enough, that can impact color strength, gloss and
printability.”
If the ink is not cured properly, there could be problems with adhesion. Mr. Webster said UV
cure rate at a consistent film weight or color density is a key performance parameter that affects
press speed and adhesion to substrates. Related to that is color strength and shade. Rheological
parameters such as viscosity, flow and tack are also key parameters for all types of UV ink, and
are especially important for high-speed printing processes such as offset and flexo. “viscosity
and stability are also factors,” ms. Hahn said. “you have to be careful not to get the temperature
too high when dispersing pigment, and you often have to use three-roll mills, where there is
much better cooling than in horizontal media mills. The wetting of pigment is usually poorer, so
dispersability issues are magnified.” [25]
“depending upon the specific product and the end use application, we test grind, cure speed, tack,
viscosity, gloss, density, water pick-up, opacity, color value, rub, solvent resistance, scratch,
tape, dye strength, mek, xylene and crinkle,” mr. Lazure said. “we utilize a statistical process
control method to identify trends during the manufacturing process. Our manufacturing
equipment utilizes plc (program logic controller), which allows for each individual formulation
to be manufactured consistently every time.” [25]
Key equipment
Any well-stocked laboratory has an abundance of equipment, and leaders at ink companies have
their own recommendations for testing UV. “the most critical testing tools for UV inks are a UV
lamp, bladed hand-proofer and an advanced rheometer,” mr. Webster said. “a UV lamp curing
system with variable speed bed is critical. It is important to calibrate and test the performance of
the lamp regularly, using both speed calibration for the moving bed and UV wavelength output
intensity measurement for the lamp itself. Since UV flexo is slightly more viscous than
conventional inks, when test proofing in the lab, a good quality doctor-bladed hand-proofer is
necessary to apply consistent film weight and color density of ink to substrates. With UV flexo
inks, advanced rheometry techniques, such as controlled-stress steady-state viscosity
measurement, gives far more information about ink performance than simple flow cup
measurements.” [25]
“a radiometer is critical to adjust the UV lamp speed to simulate the press conditions,” dr.
Pedersen said. “also, using a lamp of the same type as those used at customer facilities is very
important. These are, of course, in addition to any physical property testers that are needed.” Mr.
Valla recommended a UV curing unit and a viscometer and proofing device, each designed to
handle the higher viscosities of UV[25].
Mr. Balmer recommended a wide variety of equipment, including an inkometer, ink cure
analyzer (ica), kershaw/ lithotronic, tack-o-scope, gloss meter, spectrophotometer, UV/vis
36
spectrophotometer, sutherland rub tester, UV lab curing unit, eb lab curing unit, rheometer and
prufbau.
Mr. Lazure suggested a cone and plate or rotational viscometer, inkometer, spectrophotometer,
densitometer, grind gauge, lab curing unit, proofing equipment and water balance equipment.
“the equipment is the same for UV testing vs. Conventional, so use of proofers, inkometers,
rheometers, other viscosity testing, crosshatch adhesion, sutherland rub, etc are the same,” mr.
Braddock said. “another aspect is that inkometer rollers need to be epdm rubber to avoid swell.
Another equipment need is a lab UV cure unit.” [25]
2.16 Specific challenges
There are areas specific to UV that also need to be addressed by manufacturers and end-users
alike. For example, mr. Balmer said that shelf life of UV ink is a concern that companies need to
keep in mind.
“UV ink typically has a shelf life stability that is less than that of its conventional counterpart,
and as such should be monitored more closely,” mr. Balmer said. “determining factors could be
things such as ambient temperature conditions in storage and the type of packaging that has been
utilized. Shelf life may also be decreased by incorrect selection of raw materials and their
interaction with other materials contained within the formulation. Another factor which can have
a detrimental effect is the manufacturing process used to manufacture the ink.” [25]
2.17 Rheological properties of offset ink
2.17.1 Flow and wetting properties
The study of the flow of fluids is known as rheology. The printer is interested mostly in the flow
of liquids and the control of viscosity, body and tack. The word viscosity refers to the resistance
to flow; the greater the resistance to flow, with a given applied force, the greater the viscosity.
In shear independent or Newtonian liquids, the velocity of flow is directly related to the force
applied. Printing inks are fluid or semi fluid materials of high thixotrophy. In this test, ink is
subjected to a continuously increasing shear rate. Lower shear rates simulate storage conditions
whereas higher shear rates simulate conditions on press. Steady state flow tests are commonly
used to understand the flow characteristics of inks at different shear rates. Lithographic inks are
shear dependent or Non Newtonian. A lithographic ink must be sufficiently fluid to travel from
one roller to another as it passes from the ink fountain to the plate and the blanket and then to the
paper.

2.17.1.1 Measured Flow

Is determined by measuring the distance a milliliter of ink or coating travels vertically in ten
minutes. Even inks with a higher viscosity should have a flow rate of no less than four
centimeters.
2.17.1.2 Types of flow:
Materials in terms of marital behavior are classified into four main groups according to the
characteristics of the flow:
i. Newtonian Fluids:
Considering two parallel planes of Area A shown in Fig.2.8, the plane at the top is moving and
the other at the bottom is stationary. In between these two planes is the fluid. Consider the fluid
to be several planes on top of each other. Applying a force F on the top plane will move the top
plane, which results in a velocity (v) and a velocity gradient in between those two planes.

37
Figure (2.8): Laminar Shear of Fluid between Two Plates (Wikipedia, 2008)

𝑑𝑢
Velocity gradient = = D (rate of shear) (s − 1) (eq2.1)
𝑑𝑦
The shearing stress (τ) is the force per unit area and it is proportional to
Shear rate (D) for a Newtonian fluid as presented in Equation 2 and 3.
𝐹
𝜏= (𝑒𝑞2.2)
𝐴

𝜏 = ηd (eq2.3)
Whereby η represents the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid, equivalent to
The shear stress over the shear rate. Hence, using all the equations previously stated, the unit of
viscosity can be derived as follows:
𝐹 (𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠)
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 = = 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 (𝑃𝑎) (𝑒𝑞2.4)
𝐴 (𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)

𝑑𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1 −1
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐷 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = 𝑠 (𝑒𝑞2.5)
𝑑𝑦 𝑚

𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜂 = = (𝑒𝑞2.6)
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐷

Where 1 Pa s = 10 poise; 1 m Pa s = 1 centipoise

Newtonian flow: is where viscosity will remain more or less constant as shear force is applied.
Newtonian fluids are fluids whose stress versus rate of strain curve passes through the origin. It
can also be described as fluids whose viscosity remains the same for varying shear rates.
Examples of Newtonian liquids include water, solvents used in inks, light mineral oils, and UV-
curable inks. A Newtonian fluid is presented graphically in Fig.2.9 wherein the relationship
between viscosity and shear rate is a straight line.

38
 Figure (2.9): Viscosity vs.
Shear Rate

ii.Non-Newtonian flow(pseudoplastic): flow is when viscosity will decrease as there is an increase

in shear. Non-Newtonian fluids are fluids whose viscosities change depending on either the
duration of stress or the amount of stress applied to it. There are several types of non-Newtonian
fluids. Non-Newtonian fluids whose viscosities change on the amount of stress applied to it are
either dilatant or pseudoplastic (shown in Fig. 2.9).
Non-newtonian fluids whose viscosities change on the duration of stress are either rheopectic or
thixotropic (shown in Fig. 2.10).
Printing inks used in other printing processes (lithography and flexography) are thixotropic non-
Newtonian fluids.

Figure (2.10): Viscosity vs. Time

iii.Dilatant flow: is when both the viscosity and shear increases together.
iv.Thixotropic flow: is where the where viscosity will decrease as there is an increase in shear,
which is similar to pseudoplastic flow with exception of thixotropic flow having a time
dependent characteristic.
2.17.2 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is the resistance to flow. If ink flows or pours readily, it has a low viscosity. If it
refuses to pour at all, it has a high viscosity. Offset inks usually have a relatively high viscosity.
Viscosity can be reduced by adding thinners in the form of a special additive for UV coatings,
and water or ammonia for aqueous coatings. The optimum level of viscosity depends on the
specific application. Viscosity is the ratio of shearing stress (force per unit area) to shearing rate
(strain rate or velocity gradient of flow). Lithographic inks are substantially non-Newtonian as
viscosity is not constant but is shear rate dependent. This non-Newtonian behavior necessitates
viscosity measurement over the full range of shear rate that inks can encounter. The higher the
temperature increase and/or mechanical stress, the lower the viscosity. This is known as
structural viscosity [9].

39
2.17.2.1 Factors affecting viscosity
2.17.2.1.1 Temperature
Viscosity is one of the most important properties of a printing ink. The viscosity range chosen is
based on a combination of factors such as press inking system (injector or fountain), press speed
and ink delivery (bulk handling or pumped from containers). Fluid viscosity decreases with high
temperature because increasing the temperature increases the movement of the particles. The
friction forces between the particles decrease relatively. If less, the viscosity decreases. Motorists
are advised to use high viscosity oils in summer and low viscosity in winter. It was found that the
liquid viscosity is reduced by
(1-2%) for each temperature increase of (1℃). The viscosity of all liquids changes rapidly with
the temperature. The temperature coefficient of viscosity for inks may be ± 5% per degree
Fahrenheit (about 9 - 10% per degree Celsius) or even greater. The high negative temperature
coefficient of viscosity has severe implications for the printing [8,10,11].
Generally speaking, the viscosity-increase by low temperature leads to thick ink film; the
viscosity-decrease by high temperature leads to thin ink film. If the viscosity is too high, ink
does not go through the mesh smoothly, which may cause bubbles or pin-holes. It is advised to
keep the temperature of the work-place at 18-25°C(64-77°F). Some kinds of ink absorb
humidity when the work-place is humid. That may make the ink viscous or gel. If the work-
place is humid, it is necessary to control the humidity by air-conditioner or dehumidifier
[8,10,11].

Figure (2.11): Relation between temperature, viscosity and density

2.17.2.1.2 Molecular weight

Viscosity increases with increasing molecular weight in homogeneous compounds (of one type).
For example, in C18H18 viscosity hydrocarbons greater than C7H17.
2.17.2.1.3 Attracting forces
The gravitational force between molecules is a primary measure of the fluid's wife. The more
friction between particles, the more difficult the movement of molecules becomes, and the more
viscosity becomes. Such as liquids with polar particles are higher viscosity.
2.17.2.1.4 Pressure
By increasing the pressure on the liquid, the gravitational forces of the molecules increase and
thus the viscosity increases.
2.17.2.1.5 Shape of the molecule and composition
Fluids with large, irregular particles are more viscous than small molecules.

40
2.18 Physical condition
The viscosity value varies greatly depending on the physical state, liquid and gas, as it is greatly
reduced in the gaseous state because the molecules are relatively spaced and the gravitational
forces are weaker in the liquid state.
One way to test liquid viscosity is to observe the time it takes for an object to dive. You can also
compare viscosity grades by comparing dive times for different liquids [10].
2.18.1 Type of viscosity
2.18.1.1 Kinematic viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is key to determining the viscosity of coatings during inline processing in
sheet-fed offset. It is the quotient of the dynamic viscosity and density of the fluid and is also
temperature-dependent. Because drop-ball and drop-rod rheometers (ISO 12644) – which
measure internal friction by measuring the time taken for test bodies to drop a pre-specified
distance – and capillary rheometers are so complicated to use, for ease and speed printing plants
tend to measure the run-out time from a normed cup: the longer the duration, the tackier the
fluid. As a result, DIN and ISO values are not comparable! In any case, the cup method is fairly
imprecise because the starting and finishing points are not clearly perceptible, which is why DIN
values, which are generally higher, are considered more exact.
This is also the reason why a run-out sequence is not considered reliable if it lasts less than 25
seconds.
Is the ratio between absolute viscosity and density? It is the fluid set for flow under the influence
of its weight. The motor viscosity is measured by m 3/ sec, which is 10000 viscosities.
2.18.1.2 Relative viscosity
Is the ratio of fluid viscosity to the viscosity of water at 20 ° C. If we use the year of poise as a
water viscosity unit at 20 ° C, 1.002 poise is approximately 1 Centipoise so the relative viscosity
is the absolute same if measured by the Centipoise unit, which can be calculated from the
following relationship:
1 d 1  t1

2 d 2  t 2 eq2.7

1
= Relative viscosity of liquid
2
t 1 = Fluid flow time, t2= distilled water flow time
d 1 density of liquid, d 2 = density of Distilled water
2.18.1.3 Absolute viscosity
The ratio between the skid and the velocity of sliding is absolute and measured by Pascal. Sec or
Poise.
d  t 
Can be calculated from the relationship: 1  1 1 2 eq2.8
d 2 t 2
 
Where 1 Absolute liquid viscosity, 2 viscous distilled water
2.18.1.4 Dynamic viscosity:
Is the ratio of internal constraints to the velocity gradients, which are the internal resistance of
liquids to their flow. Its unity is in the international organization (Pascal X).

41
 2.18.1.5 Viscosity Privacy
The relative height of the wife caused by the solute and which depends on its concentration.
2.18.1.6 Reduced viscosity
It is the division of the viscosity on the concentration of the solution.
2.18.1.7 Self-viscosity
It is a property of the nature of the solution [8].
2.18.2 Law of viscosity measurement
Viscosity: The power of the dyne is necessary to move the fluid face of the liquid at a speed of (
1cm / sec ).The French scientist Poisellieh achieved the measurement of viscosity as follows :
 r 4tp

8LV eq2.9
Where  : Viscosity (ETA) coefficient and its Poise unit
r : Tube diameter in unit (cm)
t : Time for liquid flow in unit (sec)
p : Pressure on the liquid
L : Length of capillary tube in unit (cm)
V : Volume of liquid used in unit (cm3) [8].
2.18.3 Device of measured viscosity of fluids
2.18.3.1 Viscometer device
The viscometer is used to measure viscosity in most conditions, working for fluids whose value
to the wife does not change under different conditions of flow.
It is often done by comparing a fixed object with fluid flow, or vice versa, ie, the fluid is constant
and the body passes through it.
Viscometer used for fluid measurement:
1 - Ostwald Viscometer 2. Bubble Viscometer 3. Falling Sphere Viscometer
4. Electromagnetically Spinning Sphere Viscometer (EMS)
2.18.3.2 Rotational viscometers [8]
2.18.3.3 The Rheometer
The radiometer is a laboratory device used to measure fluid flow, especially blood.
There are two completely different types of Rheometers:
1 - Rheometer control shear stress and called Shear Rheometers or rotational Rheometer.
There are several types: Pipe capillary (Pipe or Capillary), Rotational cylinder
2 - Rheometer controls the strain of extension and is called extensional Rrheometers [7].

42
2.18.3.4 Viscosity measurements:
Table 2.8 measurements
Offset inks Drying Conventional
Dilution vehicle(s) Petroleum or vegetable based thinner
Measurement apparatus Rotary cone-plate viscometer
Units Poise (Po) (1 Po = 0.1 Pa.s)
UV inks Drying UV
Dilution vehicle(s) UV Thinner
Measurement apparatus Rotary cone-plate Cups (Ford, DIN, AFNOR)
viscometer
Units Poise (Po) (1 Po = 0.1 Second(s) (flow time)
Pa.s)

2.18.4 Length
Describes an ink’s tendency to form long threads when stretched or pulled. Long inks flow well
but form long filaments that have a tendency to sling or mist, especially on high-speed
presses. Short inks have the consistency of butter and flow poorly. They tend to build up on
rollers, plates or blankets. Inks with the best runnability are neither excessively long nor short.
This is the behaviour of an ink when a palette knife is thrust into it and withdrawn. A long ink
will flow off in a long stream while a short ink will break away in small sections at the end of the
ink knife when lifted.
2.18.5 Length Test
Test it by tapping a puddle of ink with a corner of an ink knife and lift the knife up. The ink will
follow the knife and stretch into a string. The farther it stretches without breaking, the longer the
ink. Offset inks are generally long. A certain degree of length is necessary to make an ink feed
properly to the fountain roller and transfer without piling. Too much length can cause an ink to
fly or mist. Both the apparent tack and length of an ink change when it is worked with a knife or
on the ink rollers.
2.18.6 Tack
Tack is the force required to split ink film between two rollers. Tack is an important property in
the inking system as well as in the ink/paper interaction and in the ink trapping for multi-colour
printing. In order to trap properly, first printed ink should have a higher tack than that of the
following one. [4]

Figure (2.12):. It’s easy to test whether an ink is short, or long and tacky [3]

Tack is defined as the maximum in the force exerted on the paper surface by the ink,
From the onset of cavitation in the ink film to the rupture of the ink film filament [15]

43
Tack is important for the transfer of ink from roller to roller. Then to the printing image and from
there to the paper directly to indirectly. The tackier inks in offset print are sharper and clearer at
line and halftone areas and it has less tendency to waterlog or breakdown and emulsify in
dampening solution. If inks are too tacky, they damage the paper and print poor solids; if inks are
less tacky (too soft), they print poor halftones and lines and setoff onto other sheets in the pile
[16, 17].

Figure (2.13): Splitting of the ink film

Tack is the surface-specific force (i.e. A mechanical tension) with which a fluid film counteracts
splitting. Tack is thus a measure of how well an ink or coating film will split. The higher the
tack of an ink, the stronger its adhesion to the printing plate and blanket (which has a positive
impact on detail reproduction and the openness of the screen) and the stronger its tendency to
pick [3].
2.18.6.1 TACK TESTING
Tack was measured at 800 fpm using a Model 106 Inkometer or LTF Inkometer from Thwing-
Albert Instrument Company with readings (gram meter) recorded at 240 seconds or tack-oscope
at 32.2°C.
A measured amount of ink is placed on small rollers resembling press ink rollers. The rollers
begin to turn and the tack of the ink is indicated on a dial on the machine. Most offset inks used
to print color work have a tack numbering between 13–20. Lower numbers mean less tack.
Newer presses, which have fewer ink rollers to soften the ink than older models, require less
tacky inks [18].
The Inkometer is connected with an electronic readout. The measurement procedure followed the
ASTM Standard Method D4361-89. The cooling
Water was set at 90 F. The volume of the ink was 1.32 ml (thickness 12.3 urn). 800 rpm and
1200 rpm operating speed was used. The ink was applied and distributed by the three rollers of
the Inkometer. The Inkometer and a stopwatch were started simultaneously.
The first was taken at 20 seconds after Inkometer operated and then reading every minute for a
total period of ten minutes. The measurement was repeated three times for each ink at each speed
[21,22].

Figure (2.11): Thwing Albert Inkometer

44
2.19 Standard ink specifications
Table 2.9 Standard ink specifications
Properties Test method

Physical state viscous

Colour black
Odour Characteristic odour
Flash point > 100℃
Density (at 20 °C) 1,53 g/cm³
Water solubility insoluble

45
References
1. Kipphan H., "Handbook of Print Media", Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2001. ISBN 3-54067326-1.
2. Jablonovský B., "The study of offset printing inks properties drying by oxy polymerization", Master Thesis (in
Czech), University of Pardubice, Czech Republic, 2010.
3. www.kba-print.com
4.Kaplanová M., Remenárová K., Jašúrek B., Vališ J., "Study of the rheological behavior of conventional, hybrid
and UV ofset inks", 34th International Research Conference (Advances in Printing and Media Technology),
Grenoble, France, 2007, pp. 101-108. ISBN 978-953-7292-04-1.
5.www.hubergroup.com
6.Dr. Bernd Th. Grande., "offset printing inks", Bergheim, September 2012. pg.3,4.
7. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/rheometer
8. Al-Hazazi .O.A.," Measurement and application of viscosity ",1 st ed.,2010.
9. Das D, Messaâdi A, Dhouibi N, Ouerfelli N, Hamzaoui A.H (2013)., "Viscosity Arrhenius activation energy and
derived partial molar properties in N,N-dimethyl acetamide + Water Binary Mixtures at Temperatures from 298.15
K to 318.15 K", Phys. Chem. Liq. 51:677–685.
10.https://uqu.edu.sa/files2/tiny_mce/plugins/filemanager/files/4180008/text_general_chemistry/general_Chemistry
_03_Chapter_Liquids.pdf
11.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketchup#Viscosity
12. http://www.brancher.com/-Sechage,41-.html?lang=en
13.http://www.brancher.com/-Formulation,40-.html?lang=en
14. http://www.brancher.com/-Proprietes-requises-des-encres-UV-.html?lang=en
15. MANGIN, P.J., "A Critical Review of the Effect of Printing Parameters on the Linting Propensity of Paper",
Journal of Pulp & Paper Science, 17(5):J156-J-163 (1991).
16. KEHLA, V., MANNINEN, M., OITTINEN, P., "Tack Force Measurement and Picking", TAPPI, 57(4) (1974).
17. https://PRINTING%20INK%20COMPOSITION%20AND%20MANUFACTURING.pdf
18. https://OFFSET%20INK.pdf
19. http://www.brancher.com/-Differents-types-d-encres-.html?lang=en
20. http://www.brancher.com/-Formulation-.html?lang=en
21. MANGIN, P.J. and SILVY, J., "Fundamental Studies of Linting: Understanding
Ink-Press-Paper Interactions Non-Linearity", TAGA Proceedings, 884-905 (1997).
22.SUDARNO, A.T., GUJJARI, C., RAND, S., JANKO, P., BATCHELOR, W., and BANHAM, P., "Comparison
of Size Distributions of Lint Particles from Different Printing Operations", 59th APPITA Annual Conference, 279
(2005).
23. Kirk-Othmer, Wiley & Sons, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology", (3rd Edition), V.13 (374-397) &V. 19
(110-175), New York, 1981.
24. "Color Index", American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, (3rd Edition) London, 1971.
25. "Testing And QC For UV Inks - Covering the Printing Inks, Coatings and Allied Industries-
InkWorld",https://www.inkworldmagazine.com/issues/2003-08/view_features/testing-and-qc-for-uv-inks.
26. Ike S. Fatnasari., "A Study of the Effect of Water pick up of UV Curable Offset Ink on its Curing Time and its
End Use Properties", School of Printing Management and Sciences Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester,
New York, May 1993.
27. R. H. Leach (ed.), "The Printing Ink Manual", Van Nostrand Reinhold (International), 4th ed., London, 1989, p.
516.
28.Dr. R. Holman B.Sc. Ph.D. & Dr. P. Oldring Ph. D. BA (ed.), "UV&EB Curing Formulationfor Printing Inks
Coatings & Paints", SITA-Technology, London, 1988, p. 10-162.
29.Dr. R. Holman B.Sc. Ph.D. & Dr. P. Oldring Ph. D. BA (ed.), "UV & EB Curing Formulation for Printing Inks
Coatings & Paints", SITA -Technology, London, 1988, p. 10-162.
30. Alince, B., and Lepoutre, P., "Porosity and optical properties of clay coatings", J.f Colloid and Interface
Science, (1979), 76 (2), 439-444.

46
Chapter Three

Ink
Manufacturing
3.1 Ink manufacturing

M anufacturing printing ink is a complex process to satisfy the requirement of the

printing ink. The raw materials used in the manufacture of inks include pigments,
vehicles such as solvents, resins (or binders), and other additives. Although the
formulation of inks, based on the fundamental notions of the physics and chemistry of mixtures,
remains an activity that is perpetually evolving and a source of constant innovation, the basic
principles of ink manufacturing are now well established [1].
The same manufacturing principles apply to the different types of inks (conventional offset inks,
UV inks, flexo / gravure inks), involving five essential steps that determine the final properties
and performance of the inks. It is therefore useful to be familiar with the main manufacturing
parameters and to understand the key steps. Major benefits offered by UV technology include
faster run speeds, resulting in improved productivity, quick start-up resulting in less waste, quick
turnaround and converting due to instant curing of the ink film, environmentally safe technology
without the use of VOCs, and higher print quality (i.e. gloss) [2].

Figure (3.1): The manufacturing process of ink.

Figure (3.2): A schematic diagram of the ink manufacturing process.

47
3.2 Description of The Industry
The manufacture of printing inks and the major printing processes have been described in several
reviews [3].
3.3 Printing Ink Manufacture
The development of printing inks followed somewhat different paths, depending upon the
printing process. Letterpress and lithography printing use high-viscosity inks that are formulated
using low-volatility materials and are generically known as 'paste' or 'oil' inks. The flexography
and gravure processes use low-viscosity inks formulated with volatile solvents and are known
collectively as 'liquid inks. Screen printing inks generalIy are of intermediate viscosity. ink
manufacturers tend to specialize in one of these three areas, with only the largest companies
covering a broader field.
The companies in the industry range from large international groups (of which Japanese-based
Dainippon lnk & Chemicals and French-based Coates Lorileux (The Freedonia Group, 1995) are
the biggest) to small companies with less than 10 employees. For example, there are thought to
be over 200 ink manufacturers each in the United States of America (National Association of
Printing Ink Manufacturers, 1988) and in Europe [4].
3.4 The Printing Processes
The printing industry its self is equalIy varied with a limited number of very large groups and
many smaIl printers. Whatever the size, there is a tendency to concentrate on one, or at the most
two, of the different printing technologies described below. Each of the processes has its own
characteristics, summarized in Table3.2. All printing processes produce graphic images on a
substrate, which can be paper, textile, plastic, metal, etc. The following printing techniques are
commonly practised locally: lithographic printing, flexographic printing, gravure printing, and
screen printing. The very traditional letterpress technique is now a relic of the past,
which is fast being phased out. Technological advancement, especially in information
technology, has given rise to other printing processes such as digital printing, inkjet printing, etc.
that operate on principles quite unlike the traditional ones [5].
3.4.1 General Steps of Printing Process:
3.4.1.1 Pre-press step
The pre-press operation is the process that transfers the artwork or design (often in the form of
negative or positive films) into an image carrier, most often a plate, but can be a cylinder or
screen. This operation involves such physical or chemical processes as exposure to ultraviolet
(UV) light or laser, photoengraving, developing and further processing.
3.4.1.1.1 Pre-press chemicals
pre-press chemicals are used during the pre-press stage especially during plate making:
photographic reproduction, photoengraving, etching, fixing, developing, etc.
3.4.1.2 Make-ready step
Make-ready prepares the press: the plate is assembled to the machine and mechanical
adjustments made.
3.4.1.3 Press step
Press step is the actual printing operation.
3.4.1.4 Post-press step
post-press is the finishing work such as binding, gluing, etc. of printed materials to the final
printed product.

48
3.5 Types of Printing Processes
3.5.1 Plano graphic Printing (Offset Lithography)
Lithography is the commonest form of printing these days. It works on the principle that oil and
water do not mix. The lithographic process includes the following options:

Figure (3.3): offset single-colour printing press

3.5.1.1 Sheet-fed offset
in which the substrate is fed one sheet at a time, and is mainly used for printing books,
brochures, artworks, magazines, and catalogues. It is suitable for higher-quality runs from 1,000
to 100,000 copies with a mechanical velocity up to 15,000 revolutions / hour.
3.5.1.2 Web- offset cold set
in which paper is printed from a roll, is used mainly for printing newspapers and business forms.
3.5.1.3 Web- offset heat set
which typically is used for printing quality magazines and catalogues. Both web- offset cold set
and heat set are suitable for medium-to high -quality runs from 20,000 to 1 million copies with a
mechanical velocity up to 100,000 revolutions / hour [12].
3.5.2 Relief Printing
3.5.2.1 Letterpress printing
Letterpress printing is an older technology and it is now often replaced by lithographic or
flexographic technologies. Similar to flexography, it uses metal or plastic raised plates (relief
printing plates). Letterpress uses solvent- based (about 40 percent by volume), viscous, heat set
inks, similar to lithographic printing. I t is primarily used for short runs to print books, business
cards, and stationery [13].
Two types of letterpress printing machines are there- Flat bed cylinder Machines and Rotary
letterpress printing machines see figure3.4.
3.5.2.2 Flat-bed cylinder
an inking roller and an ink fountain supply ink to the plate cylinder. These presses operate very
slowly with an hourly production rate of not more than 5,000 impressions. For this reason, much
of the printing initially done by this type of press is now being carried out by rotary letterpress or
lithography.

49
3.5.2.3 Rotary Letterpress Printing
requires curved image carrying plates. The most popular types of plates used are stereotype,
electrotype, and molded plastic or rubber. These presses use heat-set inks and are equipped with
dryers, usually the high-velocity hot air type, when printing on coated papers. These are of two
types- sheet-fed and web-fed. Major chemicals used in letterpress printing are very similar to
those used in lithography. They include film developers and fixers, inks, and blanket and roller
washes.

Figure (3.1): show the two type of letterpress printing process

3.5.2.4 Flexography Printing Process
Flexography printing is sheet fed or, more frequently, web fed, and uses exposed flexible plates
that are processed in an acid bath with raised images coming in contact with the substrate during
printing. [6].

Figure (3.1): Flexographic Printing. [7]

50
3.5.3 Recess Printing
3.5.3.1 Gravure Printing
Process is used for long run printing with sharper, fine and clear images. The general operation
involves image preparation, cylinder preparation, printing and finishing. It is a form of intaglio
printing. [6, 10].

Figure (3.6): Schematic of a typical micro-gravure-offset printing process [8].

3.5.4 Stencil printing / Screen Printing

Unlike those used in other mainline printing processes, screen printing (sometimes called silk
screen or screen process) inks do not have to transfer from an image surface to the substrate but
actually pass through the image, which is the stencil on the screen.
Inks can be solvent- based, water-based, and UV-cured. CTP technology can be used in medium
-or large-size facilities.
The inks used are intermediate in viscosity between those used for litho and those used for flexo
or gravure. Evaporation, oxidation, chemical curing and UV curing methods are all used for
drying in screen printing. As with the other printing processes, there is growing use of UV- and
water-based inks [9].

Figure (3.7): The flatbed Screen printing with planar substrates under screen and squeegee for
solution dispensing.

51
Figure (3.8): Rotary screen printer with moving substrate (web) between cylindrical mask and
impression cylinder.

3.5.5 Digital and Electronic Printing

In digital printing, the image is created directly from digital data and transmitted by light to a
photosensitive material to create an electronic image, using no films, plates, nor photo-
chemicals.
The advantages are that the set up costs are very low, however the unit costs in consumables
(toner and ink) are much higher than other processes. [11]

Figure (3.9): Digital printing technology.

3.5.5.1 Dot matrix

These were the early forms of outputting a document from a personal
computer. Used largely in the office environment, they did (and do) a pretty
good job. The quality of image transfer deteriorates with aging of the ribbon and/or the hammer
[11,15].
3.5.5.2 Electrostatic
A laser beam creates a selective charge on a selenium drum when exposed to laser light [11,15].
3.5.5.3 Laser printing
This is electro photographic imaging as in copying machines, with the printing machines driven
by computers [15].

52
Figure (3.10): Laser printers can be desktop-based or higher-speed and very much like presses.
3.5.5.4 Inkjet printing
Inkjet printing is the process of creating an image on the substrate by controlling the projection
of a stream of microscopic ink droplets from a minute nozzle at a small distance above the
substrate surface. The process is mainly computer controlled.

Figure (3.11): inkjet printing process.

53
3.6 Offset printing inks
Lithographic inks are paste inks, the press works the ink, thereby heating it and reducing its
viscosity or body, making it flow readily to provide a uniform ink film to the image areas of the
plate. Litho inks must be heavily pigmented. Offset printing inks are compounded especially for
use on offset presses [14].
3.7 Type of Offset ink
For offset printing there are two main types of inks available, oxidative drying inks and UV
curable inks. Offset printing needs oil based paste inks. Offset printing uses inks that, compared
to other printing methods, are highly viscous. Typical inks have a dynamic viscosity of 40–100
Pa·s. There are many types of paste inks available for utilization in offset lithographic printing
and each have their own advantages and disadvantages. [14].
 Conventional offset ink  Energy-curable inks:  Waterless offset inks
 Cold-set offset inks  UV offset ink  Waterless UV offset inks
 Sheet-fed offset inks  EB offset ink  New offset inks
 Heat-set offset inks

3.8 Formulation of offset Printing ink

Table 3.1 formulation of offset Printing ink

formulation Offset ink
Organic pigments 10 - 30 wt. %
Varnish (binder) hard resins 20 - 50 wt. %
Alkyd resins 0 – 20 wt. %
Vegetable oils 0 – 30 wt.. %
mineral oil 20 – 40 wt. %
Additives other additives 10 wt. %
Wax 6 wt. %
Driers 3 wt. %

54
3.9 manufacture development
This project has the ink which used in Plano graphic printing process, this ink is called offset ink
that facing many problems may have occurred during storage of inks, where the homogeneity
and mixing finically occur during bad storage.
As a case study, this project focus on the experimentally treatment of the unisonance absence of
ink product during long time of storage and bad storage condition.
This project deal with product as a raw material and treat a samples chemically and physically
achieve a proper product with a closer character of desirable properties.

55
Table3.0 compared between most important process
Print Type OFFSET LITHOGRAPHY Flexographic Gravure
Mechanism and - Elastic blanket roll picks up - Patterns are raised on low-cost - Ink pick-up by the engraved cells of the
Features the ink from the grooves of flexible plate (attached to a cylinder.
the gravure plate and cylinder) using - Substrate properties of interest -
transfers it to the target photolithography. smoothness,
surface. - High flexibility and low compressibility porosity, ink receptivity
- The goal of the set process is pressure imposed on substrate and wettability.
100% transference. allows using this process for - Ink properties of interest - ink chemistry,
- Enables the printing of ink fragile and stiff substrates. viscosity, solvent evaporation rate and
onto hard surfaces. - Better pattern quality and drying.
- Main process parameters are integrity in both vertical and - Doctor blade, angle and impression
roll speed and pressure. horizontal compared to gravure. pressure, printing speed and uniformity of
the gravure cylinder diameter.
Challenges - Width of the printed line - Divergence from nominal - Cylinder life and higher cost.
increases with solvent specified values with squeezing. - Proper ratio of cell spacing to cell width.
absorption. -Marbling effect, a typical - Consistent straight printed lines with
- Lifespan of blanket expires printing problem. fine edges.
quickly with absorbing - Alignment of multi layers - Defects related challenges due to contact
solvent. transfer appears cumbersome. printing techniques.
- Viscosity thickening -Tensile stresses occur with - Pick out effect due to direction of
decreases blanket’s absorbing solvent evaporation or trenches to printing patterns
power. temperature. - Enhancement of reliability for printed
- Spreading of line during set -Surface roughness of printed electronics.
process. patterns approximately 6-8μm. - Large degree of control for size and
- High rolling resistance due to - Layer cracks and non-uniform shape of conductive lines.
the fast rolling speed. films.
- Wave like pattern’s edge
56
 with the vertical direction.
Substrates -Limited, not easily adapted to -Wide variety, can print on -Wide variety, can print on
films or laminated packaging most packaging materials most packaging materials
materials
including polyethylene, paper,
foils, and laminates
Impression -Relatively high pressure in -Light “kiss” -Heavy pressure
Pressure printing nip impression pressure in printing nip
Plate life/ Run -Avg. plate life between short -Avg. plate life between -Avg. cylinder life between
length and long run available up to 1-2 million impressions 3-4 million
300,000
Press Size -Standard format size; -Many web widths available; -Many web widths available;
sheetfed up to 60” web-fed widths range from 6” to 90” widths range from 2” to 110”
11”-60” (wider for corrugated) (wider for vinyl flooring)
Cut-off Repeat -Standard format/fixed cut-off -Variable repeat -Variable repeat
length
Speed -Product dependent: sheet-fed -Product dependent: -Product dependent:
12,000 imp/hr 2500 fpm toilet tissue–3,000 fpm; publication–3,000 fpm
pressure-sensitive labels-150– vinyl flooring–50 fpm
300 fpm
Ink -Heat-set and non-heat-set -Fast-drying fluid ink solvent, -Fast-drying fluid ink solvent, water dry
paste ink wet trapping water, and UV curable dry trapping
trapping
Digital imaging -Yes, on press and off press -Laser engraving and laser -Heavily utilized
exposable available
Image transfer indirect, “offset,” right reading direct, wrong reading direct, wrong reading
Image Carrier Flat Plate Relief Engraved
Lateral 15 40 15

57
Resolution (µm)
Ink Film 1 to 2 6 to 8 8 to 12
Thickness (µm).
Ink viscosity 30-100 0.05-0.5 0.05-0.2
(Pa.s)
Pigment Particle 0.2-0.7 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.5
(µm)
Material Volume High High High
Shear Rate (sec- MediumHigh Medium-High High
1)
Web Speed 500 300-1000 1500-3000
(m/min)
Ink distribution -paste ink & rollers -fluid ink & anilox roller to -fluid ink & doctor blade to remove
by printing apply ink to rubber relief plate excess ink on top surface
process:
various printing -Text and line art is sharp and -Outside edges of solid type -All images, both halftones and line art
results crisp with excellent edge have a darker are screened. Solids may look wormy,
definition. Halftones have high halo ring or outline. screen tints may look “snowflake” from
resolution screen rulings of dot skipping.
133–300 lpi for halftones.

58
 Table 3.3 Main characteristics of the printing processes
Printing Type of methods Ink film Types of Substrate types Typical applications
Process thickness printing inks
(µlm)
Offset Sheet-fed  2 Paste inks Wide range of All general print, business forms,
lithography Energy curing paper and board, technical documentation,
inks plastic sheet and packaging, promotional,
metal magazines, credit cards, Books,
Brochures and catalogues.
Web-fed Heat-set  2 Wide range of Magazines , Books, Brochures and
coated and catalogues.
uncoated paper
Web-fed Cold-set  2 Newsprint Newspapers
Letterpress Flexo/ 3-4 UV –cured Newsprint, self- Newspapers
Rotary ink, and heat- adhesive materials Corrugated Boxes, Flexible Film
set inks Paper, Cardboard Packaging, Newspapers, and labels.
Plastics
Letterpress/ 2 Paste inks Plastic containers, Dairy product and drinks
Offset Energy curing metals, Paper containers
inks
Flexography Narrow web 0.75-2 Paste inks Paper and plastic Labels, flexible packaging
Energy curing film
Wide web 0.75-2 inks Newsprint Newspapers
Gravure Large web 6 Paste inks Coated or uncoated Magazines and similar products,
paper mail order catalogues, wood grain
patterns
Smaller web 6 Coated or uncoated Packaging (especially flexible),
paper, plastic films, cigarette cartons, postage stamps
59
 board
Sheet  6 Paper Fine art reproductions
Intaglio  30 Paste inks Paper, Cardboard Bank notes, security documents,
and Stamps.
Screen  30 Liquid inks Paper, Cardboard, Point-of-sale displays, plastic
Energy curing Plastics, containers, labels, T-shirts, Glass,
inks fabric,Metal, Metal Parts, and Rigid Plastics.
Glass, shaped
containers, And
Woven material
digital Inkjet Liquid inks Paper, Cardboard Office & Home Displays Industrial
printing Energy curing Making
inks
Electrophotography Energy curing Paper
inks
From Leach & Pierce (1993), except letterpress data which have been compiled by the W orking Group

60
References
1. Leach RH, Pierce RC, Hickman EP, Mackenzie MJ & Smith HG, 'The Printing Ink
Manual", Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, (1999), 538.
2. Leach RH, Pierce RC, Hickman EP, Mackenzie MJ & Smith HG, "The Printing Ink
Manual", Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, (1999) , 726-735.
3. WilIiams;1988, 1992; Leach & Pierce, 1993; Taggi & Walker, 1996,"National Association of
Printing lnk Manufacturers".
4. European Confederation of Paint, Printing Ink and Artists' Colours Manufacturers' Associations
(CEPE) (1995), "Printing and Printing Ink Industries", Market Information, Brussels.
5. Searle, C., "Choosing the right green solvent", Br. Printer, October, (1993) , 42, 44.
6. R. R. Søndergaard, M. Hösel, and F. C. Krebs, "Roll to Roll fabrication of large area functional
organic materials", J. Polymer Sci. Part B: Polymer Phys., vol. 51, pp. 16-34, 2013.
7. D. Deganello, J. A. Cherry, D. T. Gethin, and T. C. Claypole, "Patterning of micro-scale conductive
networks using reel-to-reel flexographic printing," Thin Solid Films, vol. 518, pp. 6113-6116, 2010.
8. H. W. Kang, H. J. Sung, T. M. Lee, D. S. Kim, and C. J. Kim, "Liquid transfer between two
separating plates for micro-gravure-offset printing," J. Micromech. Microeng, vol. 19, p. 015025,
2009.
9. Pfirrmann, W. "Four-color process with UV and water-based inks: perfect prints require perfect
prepress", Screen Printing, 84, 54-61, (1994).
10. M. Pudas, J. Hagberg, and S. Leppävuori, "Gravure offset printing of polymer inks for
conductors," Prog. Org. Coat, vol. 49, pp. 324- 335, 2004.
11. E. Schwartz, "Roll to roll processing for flexible electronics," MSE Thesis, Cornell University,
2006.
12. Principles of Printing Processes.unit2.
13. printing processes. Pdf
14. K. Jain, M. Klosner, M. Zemel, and S. Raghunandan, "Flexible electronics and displays: High-
resolution, roll-to-roll, projection lithography and photoablation processing technologies for high-
throughput production," IEEE Proc., vol. 93, pp. 1500-1510, 2005.
15. H. Lee, D. Lee, J. Hwang, D. Nam, C. Byeon, S. H. Ko, et al., "Silver nanoparticle piezoresistive
sensors fabricated by roll-to-roll slot-die coating and laser direct writing," Optics Express, vol. 22, pp.
8919-8927, 2014/04/21 2014.

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Chapter Four

Methods and
Materials
In this chapter materials and methods used for analysis was presented.
Materials was collected from several sources and methods of analysis, as presented below.
4.1 The plan of Implemented Experiments to treatment coagulated offset ink
4.1.1 The main stages of implemented experiments to treatment coagulated offset ink
During practical work, these stages were followed:
 Providing the require materials (offset ink, surfactant, additive, organic materials).
 Preparing the equipment for mixing and crushing the experiment's materials.
 Implementing the experiment for making samples and tests.
 Measuring the density and testing the contact point.
4.1.2 The flow chart for practical experiment to treatment coagulated offset ink
In the time of attempting to make the samples, the main objective was to bring the best and
the simplest results. The figurative chart describes the steps in organized structures as shown
in figure (4.1)

Providing the require materials

Preparing the equipment

Method of treatment

Testing & analysis result

Figure (4.1): The flow chart of the main stages of making samples.

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4.2 Providing the require materials to treatment coagulated offset ink
4.2.1 The Sample:
In this project the damaged offset ink used Sample.
the damaged offset ink is existing in NCSPI company. See Fig4.2

Figure (4.2): damage of offset ink

4.2.2 Experimental materials to treatment coagulated offset ink

Table 4.1 data of used materials

Type of The The

materials The components assay manufactur
In % e company
Phenol 99.0 Hem barge
chemical co.
Organic Resorcinol 99.0 Alnssr co.
materials
Chloroform 99.0 Analar co.

Toluene 99.0 Sigma Aldrich

Solvents co.
Hexane 99.9 Sigma Aldrich co

Ethanol 99.9 Sigma Aldrich co

Isopropanol 99.0 Sigma Aldrich co

Benzoic acid 99.0 Sigma Aldrich co

Surfactant Lauryl sodium sulphate salt 85.0 HIMEDIA
(L.S.S.S) laboratories
Additive Lubricate Commercial product
materials Olive oil Commercial product

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4.3 providing required equipment and tool to treatment coagulated offset ink
 Heater / used to evaporating and heating.
 Mixer which used to mixing and blending the components with each other.
 Mortar this used in crushing the components.
 Balance.
4.4 Method of treatment coagulated offset ink
4.4.1 Out plane of treatment
Separation the polymerization ink (rigged ink) from the coagulated ink (damage ink).
4.4.2 Stages of treatment coagulated offset ink
4.4.2.1 Knowing the type of damage (physical or chemical)
In this stage we take a weight of damaged offset ink and good offset ink in 1:1 percentage
and heating in oven instrument at 35 c to 3 hours after that measuring they weight.
4.4.2.2 Knowing who cause the damaged (ink or additive materials)
In this stage we take a weight of damaged offset ink and good offset ink in 1:1 percentage
and solving by solvent after that putting single drop from each all on paper surface.
4.4.2.3 Treatment of damaged offset ink
 Experiment to knowing the type of damage
This method is shown the type of damage which action to the offset ink. On another side it
determines the type of treatment must be used.
-Method of experiment
I. Take a weight from tow ink's samples (good ink, damaged ink) (w1).
II. Heating this tow weights on the oven 35C° to 3 hours.
III. Weight the samples again after heating (w2).
 Experiment to knowing who cause the damaged
This method is shown the cause of damage .is it because the additive of ink or the monomer
of ink.
-Method of experiment
I. Take a weight from tow ink's samples (good ink, damaged ink) (w).
II. Solving the sample by solvent (Ethanol, Hexane and Isopropanol).
III. Put one drop from tow samples on the surface paper.
IV. Test the removed ink from the surface paper.
V. Test the removed ink from the surface paper by water swab.
 Treatment of damaged offset ink
This stage containing on steps below:
I. Balancing the components of
experiment in (g).
II. Crushing the organic
materials by using mortar to be very softly.
III. Added the solvent, surfactant
and additive materials to the very softly organic powder and mixing to be homogeneous
emulsifier.
IV. Blending the damaged offset
ink with homogeneous emulsifier.

64
4.5 Method to measurement the characteristics of treatment offset ink
4.5.1 Method to measurement the density of treatment offset ink
4.5.1.1 measure density of offset ink cannot be measured directly, must find the mass of the
ink and its volume. use Cylindrical vessel to measure the volume of ink, and use a
scale or balance to measure its mass.
I. Clean and dry a Cylindrical vessel that we know it's volume.
II. Weigh the Cylindrical vessel on the balance provided and record the mass on the data
sheet.
III. Fill the Cylindrical vessel with ink completely.
IV. Place the Cylindrical vessel with the offset ink on the balance and record the mass.
4.5.1.2 Calculation the density
The density is calculating according to Archimedes method which specify on the weight and
volume of ink according to this equation:
D = W/ V …………. Eq. 4.1
where:
D is the density of offset ink
W is the weight of offset ink
V is the volume of offset ink [1].
4.5.2 Method to measurement the contact of treatment offset ink
Measure contact of offset ink can be measured directly, by using the transparent LDPE paper
and brush.
I. Dip the brush in the treatment ink.
II. Swap lightly the brush which contain on treatment offset ink on the surface of LDPE.
III. Let it dry and test its stability by used alkali solution to remove the offset ink from
surface the paper.

65
References
1.The National Aeronautic and Atmospheric Administration's Glenn Research Center. "Gas
Density Glenn research Center". grc.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on April 14,
2013.

66
Chapter Five

Result and
Discussion
 Introduction

R
esults and discussions are the most important parts for any work or research, so that
this chapter was specified to explain the result of the research and the experiment.
These results consist many measurements such as knowing the type of damage,
knowing who cause the damaged, the density and viscosity measurement, the ink contact
testing. Then these results will be analyzed and the best once which have the density value
closed to the density value of good ink will be chosen.

5.1 The experiment of knowing the type of damage

Table 5.1 data of experiment

The sample w1 (g) w2 (g) w1 - w2 (g)
Good ink 3 3 0
Damaged ink 4 4 0

From the experiment result, the w1 - w2 of good ink and the w1 - w2 of damaged ink is equal
value.
This equal value is explaining the type of damage is chemically

5.2 The experiment of knowing who cause the damaged

Table 5.2 data of experiment

The W Toluene Ethanol Acetone Test removed Test removed
sample (g) (ml) (ml) (ml) ink ink by water
Good ink 2 1 1 1 Negative Negative
Damaged 2 1 1 1 Negative Negative
ink

From the experiment result, the removal offset ink for all testing is negative (not removed).
This result show who cause the damaged is the additive martials, not the monomer of ink.

67
 5.3 The experiments of treatment damage offset ink and measurement the density
Table 5.3 data of experiments
The Dama Phenol Resorcinol Chloroform Hexane Toluene Isopropanol Benzoic L.S.S.S Olive Lubricate Density
components ged In (g) In (g) In (ml) In (ml) In (ml) In (ml) acid In (g) oil In (g) In
offset In (g) In (g/ml)
ink (ml)
In (g)

NO. of
experiments
1st Experiment 90 3 4 1 - - - 0.2 - 2 - 0.525
2nd Experiment 90 3 4 - 1 - - 0.2 - 2 - 0.480
3rd Experiment 90 3 4 - - 1 - 0.2 - 2 - 0.512
4th Experiment 90 3 4 - - - 1 0.2 - 2 - 1.265
5th Experiment 50 3 4 - - - 1 0.2 - 2 - 0.640
6th Experiment 100 3 4 - - - 1 0.2 - 3 - 1.095
7th Experiment 65 3 4 - - - 1 0.2 - 3 - 0.934
8th Experiment 90 - 4 - - - 1 0.2 - 2 - 0.950
9th Experiment 93 - 4 - - - 1 0.2 - 2 - 0.970
10th Experiment 113 - 4 - - - 1 0.2 - 2 - 1.100
11th Experiment 91.7 - 4 - - - 1 - 0.2 - 2.5 1.271
12th Experiment 90 3 4 - - - 1 - 0.2 - 2.5 1.245
13th Experiment 91.3 3 4 - - - 1 - 0.2 - 4 1.207
14th Experiment 90 3 4 - - - 1 - 0.2 - 3 1.224
15th Experiment 90 3 4 - - - 1 - 0.3 - 2 1.391
16th Experiment 90 3 4 - - - 1 - 0.45 - 2.5 1.419

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5.4 Discussion of experiments result
 From 1st experiment result, the density is low value comparable with good offset ink, the
solvent in this experiment is not good solvent because this solvent in this experiment
do not make the mixing of damage ink easy, So the viscosity and the flow of the damage
ink is not close to the good ink because it contains small granules.

 From 2nd experiment result, the density is low value comparable with good offset ink, the
solvent in this experiment is not good solvent, So the viscosity, gloss and the flow of the
damage ink is not close to the good ink because it contains small granules.

 From 3rd experiment result, the density is low value comparable with good offset ink, the
solvent in this experiment is not good solvent, because this solvent in this experiment
do not make the mixing of damage ink easy, So the viscosity, gloss and the flow of the
damage ink is not close to the good ink because it contains small granules.

 From 4th experiment result, the density is upper value from the previous sample and closed
comparable with good offset ink, so the next experimental only used isopropanol solvent
because this solvent is give us accepted results (easy mixing, good flow, closer viscosity
and density).

 From 5th experiment result, the density is low value comparable with good offset ink, this
low value result to the quantity of ink because the quantity of damage ink is small so the
substance that added to treatment the ink doing more decreasing for density and viscosity.

 From 6th experiment result, the density is high value than sample5 and closer value
comparable with previous experiment, the quantity of olive oil is increased so that the
density and viscosity is decreased.

 From 7th experiment result, the density is low value than sample6, the quantity of olive oil
is increased and the quantity of ink decreased so that the density is decreased because the
density is decreased the viscosity is decreased.

 From 8th experiment result, the density is low value comparable with good offset ink, the
lower in density value and viscosity due to the removed of phenol from experiment.

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 From 9th experiment result, the density is low value comparable with good offset ink, but
in this sample the density more than sample8 because the quantity of ink increased, so the
viscosity is increase.

 From 10th experiment result, the density is low value comparable with good offset ink, but
in this sample the density more than sample9 because the quantity of ink increased, so the
viscosity is increase but the processed offset ink does not have good gloss and flow.

 From 11th experiment result, the density value is closed to good offset ink value, but in this
sample the density more than sample8,9,10 because using the lubricate and L.S.S.S,
because when added the lubricate the density small decrease than used olive oil and made
good gloss and flow, and L.S.S.S dong rise the density so the viscosity is increase.

 From 12th experiment result, the density value is closed to good offset ink value, but in this
sample the density more than sample8,9,10 because using the lubricate and L.S.S.S, this
material increases the density.

 From 13th experiment result, the density value is closed to good offset ink value, but in this
sample the density less than sample12 because using high quantity of lubricate so the
viscosity is low because the lubricate decrease the viscosity and density but not more but
the increase in lubricate give very good flow and gloss.

 From 14th experiment result, the density value is closed to good offset ink value, but in this
sample the density more than sample13 because decreasing the quantity of lubricate.

 From 15th experiment result, the density value is closed to good offset ink value, but in this
sample the density increased at good form because decreasing the quantity of lubricate and
increased of L.S.S.S.

 From 16th experiment result, the density value is very closed to good offset ink value, this
sample is the best density value, the density increased at good form because increased of
L.S.S.S. and the viscosity is increase, and because use lubricate the other characteristics
(flow, gloss and contact) of processed offset ink is similar to the good offset ink. So from
this experiment we have processed offset ink that can Re-Use in Industrial Printing
Applications.

70
5.5 relationship between the density and additional materials to treatment the damage
offset ink

5.5.1 relationship between the density and solvent

Table 5.4 data of relationship between the density and solvent that used
Solvent Chloroform Hexane Toluene Isopropanol
Density g/ml 0.525 0.480 0.512 1.265

1.4
1.2
Density (g)/(ml)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
isopropanol chloroform toluene hexane
Solvent

Figure (5.1): density with solvents

From the figure, the density is increased when the isopropanol used.

The isopropanol is the best solvent in this experiments.

The solvent makes the mixing easy comparing with other used solvent.

71
5.5.2 relationship between the density and olive oil

Table 5.5 data of relationship between the density and olive oil
olive oil (ml) 2 3
Density (g)/(ml) 0.95 0.1095

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Density (g)/(ml)

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
olive oil (ml)

Figure (5.2): density with olive oil

From the figure, the increasing of olive oil is decreased the density.

The density effected by the oil amount at significantly.

And the olive oil does not give to the treatment ink the shape of good ink (gloss. flow,…etc).

72
5.5.3 relationship between the density and lubricate

Table 5.6 data of relationship between the density and lubricate

lubricate(g) 2 2.5 3 4
Density
(g)/(ml) 1.39 1.271 1.224 1.207

1.4

1.35
Density (g)/(ml)

1.3

1.25

1.2

1.15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
lubrcate(g)

Figure (5.3): density with lubricate

From the figure, the increasing of lubricate is decreased the density value but comparing with
olive oil experiment, the lubricate is effect on density less than the effecting of olive oil.

And the lubricate is the best from olive oil because it is given to the treatment ink the shape
of good ink (gloss. Flow, density, viscosity…etc).

73
5.5.4 relationship between the density and L.S.S.S

Table 5.7 data of relationship between the density and L.S.S.S

L.S.S.S(g) 0.2 0.3 0.45
Density (g)/(ml) 1.271 1.391 1.419

1.44
1.42
1.4
Density (g)/(ml)

1.38
1.36
1.34
1.32
1.3
1.28
1.26
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
L.S.S.S(g)

Figure (5.4): density with L.S.S.S

From the figure, the density increase by increasing the L.S.S.S substance.

This increasing is significantly.

74
5.6 Measurement of viscosity
The viscosity is measured according to Reynolds number equation, which appear the
relationship between the density and the viscosity:

Eq. (5.1)

Where:
R is the Reynolds number, which is unit less.
ρ is the fluid density in (kg / m3).
V is the velocity in (m / s).
D is diameter of the pipe in (m).
µ is the viscosity of fluid in (pa. s). [1].
From this equation and relation, we conclude that, the increasing of density is mean
increasing of viscosity.

5.7 Testing the contact offset ink on the surface

The treatment ink is tested on the surface of poly ethylene low density.
All the result of testing is positive, that mean good stability to treatment offset ink. See
fig5.5

Figure (5.5): Testing the contact offset ink on the surface

75
References
1. Sommerfeld, Arnold (1908). "Ein Beitrage zur hydrodynamischen Erkläerung der
turbulenten Flussigkeitesbewegungen (Acntribution to Hydrodynamic Explanation of
Turbulent Fluid Motions)". International Congress of Mathematicians. 3; 116-124.

76
Chapter Six

Conclusion and
Recommendations
 6.1 Conclusion
 The damaged offset ink has been processed and very close properties of good ink (density,
viscosity, gloss, flow, contact).
 The best value of density for processed offset ink is (1.419g/ml).
 The addition of isopropanol solvent makes the mixing easy comparing with other used
solvent.
 The (2.5g) of lubricate suitable for treatment damage offset ink and made the gloss for
processed offset ink.
 The olive oil is not good additive material like lubricate.
 The L.S.S.S substance (surfactant) is important to treatment the corrupted offset ink, when
used (0.45g) because its rise the density and velocity for processed offset ink.
 The benzoic acid is not good surfactant like L.S.S.S.
 The organic materials are activating of phenolic risen only of processed offset ink.
6.2 Challenges
There are many challenges and difficulties in the implementation of this project in the real
situation. They are as follows:
 All the experimental method that are needed to treatment the sample are doing by using
simple primitive tools.
 There is no true support for this project, so that it is difficult to be implemented without a
real support. Furthermore, there are no any financial supports for this project either from
the college or the University.
 No power supply because of the situation that Yemen passes through nowadays.
 No more or enough information about this project because it is the first study.
 Better results could be made if this project is implemented in a specialist laboratory until
the measuring process is done for different influential factors of the project.

6.3 Recommendations
Researcher recommended to do more research about:
 Treatment the corrupted offset ink by using another oil like (sesame oil, corn oil, …etc.).
 Treatment the corrupted offset ink by using waxes.
 Using the hexanone solvent.
 Reactivation of phenolic risen by benzoquinone.
 Measurement the contact point of offset ink on another surface like (wood, iron, poly
propylene, poly styrene, …. etc.).

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