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Radioactive Wastes Management

Article in Water Environment Research · October 2016

DOI: 10.2175/106143016X14696400495299

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 Radioactive Wastes

B.S. Choudri1, Mahad Baawain2*

ABSTRACT Safety Assessment. Bracke and Fischer-Appelt (2015)

Papers reviewed herein present a general overview of applied a methodological approach in preparing for

radioactive waste activities around the world in 2015. Preliminary Safety Analysis of the Gorleben Site,

These include safety assessments, decommission and according to the German requirements for the final disposal

decontamination of nuclear facilities, fusion facilities, of heat generating radioactive waste. The approach

transportation and management solutions for the final included the description of the geological site and its future

disposal of low and high level radioactive wastes (LLW evolution coupled with a range of possible waste

and HLW), interim storage and final disposal options for emplacement scenarios using site specific repository

spent fuel (SF), and tritiated wastes, with a focus on designs. The site specific safety analysis identified

environmental impacts due to the mobility of radionuclides important tasks for research and development which would

in water, soil and ecosystem alongwith other progress made have not been possible by a generic safety analysis.

in the management of radioactive wastes. Ademola et al., (2015) carried out assessment of

naturally occurring radionuclides and heavy metals in 5

KEYWORDS: radioactive waste, disposal, repository, major dumpsites around Lagos and Ogun State, Nigeria and

transport, waste form to evaluate the hazards these may have on the public. The
226Ra 232Th
results of this study showed and were lower
40K
doi: 10.2175/106143016X14696400495299 than the world average but higher for and the analysis

————————— of heavy metal concentrations indicated that there is

1
Center for Environmental Studies and Research, Sultan Qaboos presence of Cadmium, Zinc and Copper in high proportion.
University, Sultanate of Oman; e-mail: [email protected] Further, it was suggested discourage cultivation around
2*Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, College of
these dumps sites to prevent the transportation of these
Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman; e-
toxic metals into human system.
mail: [email protected]
Ragaisis et al., (2015) discusses a method for the

scoping assessment of airborne radioactive releases to the

environment especially when the level of radioactive

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contamination is low. This method is based on the transport in an arid environment. This study data suggest

grouping of items into the manageable number of mass flooding resulted in mechanical transport of contaminated

streams with particular geometric and other particles into the area between the the subsurface disposal

decommissioning approach related properties. The study area and a flood containment dike in the northeastern

suggest that this method can be used for the scoping corner, following which subsequent contamination

assessment of radionuclide releases considering that the spreading in the northeastern direction resulted from wind

radiological impact is expected to be low. transport of discrete particles.

Pirouzmand et al., (2015) presented an Brown (2015) examines the requirements of

assessment of individual and collective doses around the vessels to comply with the irradiated nuclear fuels (INF)

unit-1 of Bushehr nuclear power plant (BNPP-1) site during code and considers related operational, regulatory, safety

normal nuclear reactor operation and under reactor accident and security aspects of the shipment of INF and other

conditions which are essential for safety and environmental radioactive materials by sea. This chapter also addresses

analyses. The results illustrated that the maximum total nuclear liability and international relations for sea transport.

effective dose equivalent (TEDE) and committed effective Ammerman (2015) discuss the issues related to

dose equivalent (CEDE) values for personnel and public transportation after a long-term storage period and to

around the BNPP-1 site are lower than the annual effective suggest methods that utilities and other material

dose limits for workers and public in normal operation and management entities can utilize to ensure that it will be

under accident conditions. possible to transport this material when a destination is

The use of sealed radioactive sources has become available. The chapter higlights concerns that include

widespread and safety is the prime consideration in deterioration of the fuel cladding, deterioration of the

establishing safe methods for the use of sealed radioactive basket structure, deterioration of seals, deterioration of

sources. Bahadori (2015) discusses basic concept of neutron absorbers, deterioration of cask and canister walls,

radiation specifications; detailed information and reduction of decay heat, and build-up of internal pressure.

requirements for apparatus, containers, tests, transportation, Sert (2015) highlighted lessons drawn from

packaging, and safety of sealed source; classification, accidents that have occurred in the transport of radioactive

identification, and test procedures of sealed sources; site materials, confirming the need for an efficient emergency

inspection, source exchange, and source container response. Further, the chapter describes the complex

maintenance service. organizational roles and resources that both private and

Transport of Radioactive Waste. Snow et al., (2015) governmental bodies need to involve in the three phases of

provided a case study for studying the mechanisms and accidents, the alert, accident control and the post-
137Cs
characteristics of environmental actinide and emergency phase. The chapter also stresses many

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communication issues, among which those raised by used in Lithuania for decommissioning of the emergency

transboundary shipments are demanding specific core cooling system and auxiliary reactor systems at

preparation. Ignalina nuclear power plant. In addition, results of a

Droste (2015) presents a description of Global Research for safety study on the different factors

radioactive waste forms and their conditioning methods, leading to the selection of dismantling techniques for

packaging designs suitable for transport and storage of non- decommissioning of a reactor pressure vessel in Germany

heat-generating wastes and heat generating high-level are presented in this paper.

waste (HLW). Further, the chapter highlights the safety One of the main tasks of any decommissioning

assessment of those dual-purpose casks is performed by project is the licensing process, which allows

experimental drop and fire tests, combined with numerical implementation of developed strategies in the real nuclear

calculations. The chapter highlights storage of vitrified power plant. Uspuras et al., (2015) discusses the main steps

high-level waste in dry vault storage systems as an of the licensing process adopted for the first dismantling

alternative method. and decontamination projects at Ignalina Nuclear Power

Decommission and Decontamination of Nuclear Plant and provides examples of safety assessment in the

Facilities. Jeong et al., (2015) suggested the assessment case of bounding initiating events that can be caused by

model on human errors for decommissioning of nuclear dismantling and decommissioning activities.

facilities. On the basis of evaluation items, the structure of Lee et al., (2015) developed an optimizing

the model was systematically established and the method mixing ratio of concrete waste, water, cement, and

for the model was quantitatively designed. The categories evaluated the characteristics of a cement waste form to

of evaluation items consist of psychological, physical, man- meet the requirements specified in the disposal site specific

machine and environmental. This method is composed of waste acceptance criteria. The results obtained from a

scaling and weighting factors. compressive strength test, leaching test, and thermal

Gurau and Deju (2015) developed a method for cycling test of cement waste forms conclude that the

testing the decontamination using chemical gels. The concrete waste, water, and cement have been suggested as

results obtained in the study have demonstrated that the an optimized mixing ratio of 75:15:10.

decontamination gels could be an efficient way to reduce or Kim et al., (2015) studied soil contaminated with

to eliminate the surface contamination of buildings or cesium at an area near a nuclear facility in Korea. The

equipment’s, minimizing the potential for spreading removal efficiency according to the lapsed time by the

contamination during decommissioning activities. electrokinetic decontamination equipment and the

Babilas and Brendebach (2015) presented main electrokinetic-elctrodialytic decontamination equipment

aspects and schemes of the selection and evaluation process was investigated through several experiments. The study

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 137Cs+
showed removal efficiency of from soil by resulting from fusion machines. Study provides an

electrokinetic-electrodialytic decontamination technology overview of the strategic issues related to tritium reduction
137Cs+
was higher than that of from soil by electrokinetic techniques is proposed for each radiological category of

decontamination technology. The removal efficiency of waste for both metallic and soft housekeeping waste. A
137Cs+ was sharply reduced after 7 days on using comparison has been made between these various technical
137Cs+
electrokinetic decontamination, because the on the options based on several criteria such as environment,

surface of the soil particles had almost been removed for 7 safety, technical feasibility and costs. Finally, authors

days. suggested for metallic waste, further R&D efforts should be

Johan et al., (2015) investigated the potential of made to optimize tritium release management and

natural zeolites on the adsorption of radioactive Cs+. The minimize the need for interim storage.

results indicated that although cation exchange capacity of Spent Nuclear Fuel Management. All radioactive

the natural zeolites was much lower compared to the materials used in commercial, medical, and industrial

synthetic and artificial zeolites, the adsorption capacity of applications require special care in storage, Sorenson

Cs+ was much greater than the synthetic and artificial (2015) has focused on the storage of spent fuel from light-

zeolites. The order of the adsorption capacity of Cs+ was water reactors. The paper discusses current spent-fuel

mordenite>clinoptilolite> Na-P1 >> zeolite A > zeolite X. storage systems, implications of these systems, and trends

These results indicates that natural zeolites are promising that are taking shape for the near future as spent fuel is

materials in the removal of radioactive Cs+. stored for longer periods.

Munthali et al., (2015) determined Cs+ and Sr2+ Williams (2015) explores how society and the

adsorption selectivity of some zeolites to know effective environment are protected during the reprocessing and

zeolite species for the decontamination of radioactive Cs recycling of spent nuclear fuels. The concepts of nuclear

and Sr. Study showed among the zeolites, mordenite had safety and nuclear security are explored along with

the highest Cs+ adsorption selectivity, and the selectivity International and national regulatory frameworks

had no correlation to the cation exchange capacity (CEC) applicable to the recycling of spent fuel. The challenges of

of the zeolites. Further, a simulated soil decontamination advanced fuel cycles are discussed, including radioactive

experiment of Cs from a Cs-retaining vermiculite by using waste management implications. The chapter concludes

mordenite and that of Sr from a Sr-retaining vermiculite by that there is a comprehensive regulatory framework in

using Linde-type A showed decontamination rates of more place and this should be sufficient to accommodate the

than 90%. introduction of advanced processes.

Tritiated Waste Management. Pamela et al., (2015) Stephens et al., (2015) presents a review of the

described the specific issues raised by tritiated waste data sets and methodologies used to construct deterministic

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models for the spatial distribution of deformation zones and Management of TENORM. Attallah et al., (2015)

intervening fracture domains in 3-D space at Forsmark, evaluated the feasibility of using surfactants as extracting

Fennoscandian Shield, Sweden. This study highlights the agent for the removal of radium species from TENORM

need for an integration of structural data from the ground sludge produced from petroleum industry. Two surfactants

surface and boreholes with magnetic field and seismic namely cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and

reflection data with high spatial resolution, during the Triton X-100 (TX100) were investigated as the extracting

characterization of structures at a possible site for the agents. The study showed that Combined extraction of

storage of spent nuclear fuel in crystalline bedrock. nonionic and cationic surfactants produces synergistic
226Ra
Soucek and Malmbeck (2015) discusses different effect in removal both and 228Ra, where the removals

aspects of pyrometallurgical reprocessing of spent nuclear reached 84% and 80% for 226Ra and 228Ra, respectively,

fuels. Initially, the applicability of pyrochemical separation were obtained using surfactants admixture.

processes within the advanced nuclear fuel cycle and waste Effect of Material Corrosion. Kaufhold et al., (2015)

management strategies is mentioned. Furthr, the basic investigated the corrosion of iron in contact with different

studies needed for the process development are described, bentonites since several countries favor the encapsulation

including a summary of results achieved on of high-level radioactive waste (HLRW) in iron or steel

electrochemical and thermodynamic properties of actinides canisters surrounded by highly compacted bentonite. This

dissolved in selected molten salt media used for the study proves that the integrity of the multibarrier-system is

processes. seriously affected by the choice of the bentonite buffer

Al-Saadi and Yi (2015) performed cost analysis encasing the metal canisters in most of the concepts. In

of dry storage of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) discharged from some tests the formation of a patina was observed

Barakah nuclear power plants in the UAE using three consisting of Fe-silicate.

variables namely average fuel discharge rate (FD), Das et al., (2015) conducted potentiodynamic

discount rate (d), and cooling time in a spent fuel pool polarizations on six as-cast zirconium (Zr)-stainless steel

(Tcool). Based on this study, authors judge that the (SS) alloys (i.e. Zr-25, 20, 16, 12, 8 and 5 wt. % SS) at pH

additional cost by the accelerated transfer to casks will not = 1, 5 and 8. Electrochemical behavior of metallic-waste-

be significant, considering its benefits such as the increase form (MWF) alloys containing more than 16 wt.% SS

in safety margin in the spent fuel pool. Therefore, study showed lower potentials at the break down of passivity

recommended that the UAE should consider the attributed to localized attack mainly at Cr-depleted matrix–

accelerating transfer of spent fuel to dry storage and begin intermetallic interfaces. In addition, results showed the

research and design work. occurrence of Laves phase, e.g. Zr2 (Fe, Cr), in Zr–8SS and

Zr–16SS alloys makes them suitable for MWF.

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 Romaine et al., (2015) studied S235 carbon steel a linear relationship between the repassivation potential and

electrodes covered by a compacted layer of natural argillite the logarithm of the concentration of chloride.

immersed for 15–20 days in a 0.01 mol L−1 NaHCO3 + 0.01 Impact of Radiolysis. Colliaux et al., (2015)

mol L−1 NaCl solution at 80 °C and the resulting corrosion investigated the production of free radicals induced by

product layers were characterized by μ-Raman swift ions during the radiolysis of oxygenated water and

spectroscopy. In this study, three zones were generated on analyzed the underlying mechanisms. For low- Linear

the anode, the nature of the corrosion product layer varying Energy Transfer (LET) radiation, this study observed an

with the distance from the cathode. The galvanic couplings increase in production of (HO2∙ + O2∙−) with oxygen

induced by heterogeneous corrosion product layers could pressure and a saturation. Further for the same conditions,

be evidenced using the scanning vibrating electrode it was observed similar trends for high-LET ions, but with a

technique. significant reduction in the yield values and an attenuation

Moncoffre et al., (2015) assessed the effects of of the saturation behavior.

gas radiolysis and radiolytic corrosion induced by γ or He2+ Dzaugis et al., (2015) presented a mathematical

irradiation at the gas/graphite interface in order to evaluate model that quantifies the rate of water radiolysis near

their role on the radionuclide release. Different irradiation radionuclide-containing solids. To illustrate this model's

experiments were carried out using different irradiation utility, authors quantified radiolytic H2 and H2O2

devices on implanted graphite brought into contact with a production rates surrounding spent nuclear fuel under

gas simulating the coolant. Results showed inferring that different conditions. The study demonstrates the extent to

radiolytic corrosion has clearly promoted the release of which α, β and γ radiation contributes to total absorbed

14C, 36Cl and 14N located at the graphite brick/gas dose rate and radiolytic production rates and also the

interfaces and open pores. importance of including all three types of radiation in a

Haudet et al., (2015) compared the crevice general model of total radiolytic production rates.

corrosion resistance of several commercial nickel base Garaix et al., (2015) studied aqueous nitric acid

alloys using artificial neural networks.The crevice solution alpha radiolysis performance through experiments

corrosion repassivation potential of the tested alloys was carried out at a cyclotron facility, where a helion beam with

determined by the potentiodynamic-galvanostatic- an energy of 13.5 MeV could be delivered into the solution.

potentiodynamic (PD-GS-PD) method. Results of this The results showed that G (H2O2) decreases linearly with

study indicate that the repassivation potential increases increasing nitrate ion concentration. On the other hand, G

linearly with the PREN (Pitting Resistant Equivalent (HNO2) increases with the nitrate ion concentration until it

Number) at high chloride concentrations. Study also found reaches a plateau for nitric acid concentrations higher than

2 mol L–1.

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 Gamma radiolysis was investigated on a nuclear projects than for smaller ones; (3) well leakage

grade mixed bed ion exchange resin and its pure permeability is the most important variable in determining

components under different irradiation conditions by leakage processes and substantial leakage requires that

Rebufa et al., (2015). The results obtained indicated that numerous wells leaking with the anomalously high

these materials reacted differently by applying different permeability of 10−10 m2.

combinations of factor conditions. The main products of γ- Li et al., (2015) investigated the adsorption of Sr

radiolysis of the three resins were molecular hydrogen, (II) and Cs (I) on magnetic graphene oxides by batch

carbon dioxide, and trimethylamine in gaseous phase. techniques. The adsorption kinetics indicated that

Significant quantities of gaseous carbon dioxide were adsorption of Sr (II) and Cs (I) on magnetic graphene

found only when resins were irradiated in presence of oxides can be satisfactorily fitted by pseudo-second-order

oxygen. kinetic model. The finding suggested that magnetic

Sequestration of Radioactive Wastes. Contreras et graphene oxides can be one of the promising adsorbents for

al., (2015) studied commercial application of the immobilization and preconcentration of radionuclides

phosphogypsum. This study confirmed that up to 96% of from aqueous solutions in environmental cleanup.

the calcium of phosphogypsum could be recycled for CO2 Perez-Moreno et al., (2015) evaluated the use of

mineral sequestration by a simple two-step process: red gypsum (RG), waste from the naturally occurring

alkaline dissolution and aqueous carbonation, under radioactive materials industry that is devoted to the

ambient pressure and temperature. The simple process production of the TiO2 pigment, as a source of calcium for

proposed in this work will not only deal with carbon CO2 sequestration by an indirect carbonation process. The

dioxide but also reduce the mobility of trace metals and obtained results demonstrate that RG has high carbonation

toxic contaminants, reducing their transference from the reactivity, depending on the extraction agent used at room

phosphogypsum stacks to the environment. temperature and pressure. The conversion of RG to calcium

Bielicki et al., (2015) simulated fluid leakage carbonate was 92% when using sodium hydroxide, whereas

from a storage reservoir and its migration into overlying 64% was obtained with ammonium hydroxide extracting.

formations using a leakage estimation model. The Scott et al., (2015) reported graphene-based

simulation results show that (1) CO2 leakage can reach an nanomaterials including graphene powder and graphene

aquifer containing potable water, but numerous intervening aerogel as novel iodine sorbents showing exceptional

stratigraphic traps limit the rate to be orders of magnitude adsorption capability and kinetics. This study measured

less than the rate of leakage from the storage reservoir; (2) iodine sorption capacities and uptake rates in an I2(g)

U.S. Department of Energy guidelines for storage saturated environment and graphene sorbents displayed

permanence allow for more leakage from larger injection impressive iodine sorption capacities with powdered

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samples achieving mass gains in excess of 85 mass%, and stability in neutral and acid media and have generated a

aerogels exceeding 100% mass gains. new phase immobilizing the actinide analogous compound.

Treatment and Disposal of Radioactive Wastes. Wang and Wan (2015) summarized and

Ilayaraja et al., (2015) sysnthesized Xanthate functionalized compared different technologies used for the treatment and

PAMAM dendrimer (XFPD) chelating ligand from disposal of spent radioactive resins including

hydroxyl terminated poly (amido) amine dendrimer. The immobilization, advanced oxidation processes and super

XFPD chelating ligand deployed for treatment of compaction. Some supplementary methods, such as acid

radioactive liquid waste (RLW) showed that percentage stripping, microbial conversion treatment and high integrity
95Zr
removal of radionuclides were in the following order; container were also mentioned. Further, authors provided

≈ 154Eu ≈ 60Co (>99.8) > 144Ce (98.8) > 125Sb (83.3) > brief information on principles of treatment methods, their
106Ru 55Mn 137Cs
(79.4) > (54.3) > (24.0). Fruther, this characteristics and applications and the future research

study has been demonstrated that XFPD chelating ligand directions were discussed.

has potential application in effective removal of various The uptake of uranium from aqueous solutions by

radionuclides from aqueous waste. tea wastes was investigated as a function of reaction time,

Mohammed et al., (2015) conducted pH, ionic strength, initial concentration and temperature

hydrothermal experiments using mixed-layer under ambient conditions by Li et al., (2015). The results

(illite/smectite) Holmehus clay and a low pH slag-based indicated that the uptake of uranium by tea wastes was

concrete placed in contact under isothermal conditions at strongly dependent on pH and ionic strength. This study

21 °C, 100 °C and 150 °C for a period of 8 weeks. Results also determined that tea wastes may have a good

showed that dissolution of illite/smectite was evident potentiality for the disposal of uranium-bearing

occurring at enhanced temperatures, with a decrease in K, wastewaters in environmental cleanup.

Mg and Fe content with advanced alteration. Study De Philippis (2015) provided a review on

concluded that the enhanced strength of clay can be partly pytoremediation of nuclear waste, the first part covers the

attributed to the precipitation of cement phases from types and nature of radioisotope contamination resulting

circulating fluids. from mining, industry, medicine, accidents and the uranium

Osuna et al., (2015) studied the hydrothermal energy cycle. The second part of the review addresses and

stability in neutral and acid media and chemical reactivity discusses the different categories of phytoremediation

in contact with an actinide analogous compound. The long- techniques and which of these may treat and control

range and short-range structural changes were analyzed by radioactive contaminated waste. In addition, discussion of

X-ray diffraction, nuclear magnetic resonance and scanning plant species that are capable of phytoextracting and / or

electron microscopy. Both bentonites have exhibited a good

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Water Environment Research, Volume 88, Number 10—Copyright © 2016 Water Environment Federation
rhizofiltering harmful radioactive elements from occurred due to structurally controlled factors, rather than

contaminated soils and water is presented. being dictated solely by the expected location of the

Majidnia et al., (2015) synthesized and mixed maximum stress.

maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) and titanium oxide (TiO2) Pusch et al., (2015) examined the role of two

nanoparticles in various ratios and embedded in PVA and repository concepts with long subhorizontal or deep

alginate beads. Batch sorption experiments were applied for vertical holes for placing the radioactive waste. Results

removal of barium ions from aqueous solution under showed that the hydraulic conductivity of the canister-

sunlight using the beads. The results revealed that 99% of embedding smectite clay can be significantly raised by high

the Ba (II) was eliminated in 150 min at pH 8 under temperature and temperature gradients, which generate

sunlight. Also, the maghemite and Titania PVA–alginate precipitation of salt and silica in different parts of the buffer

beads can be readily isolated from the aqueous solution clay. The impact of the degrading processes on the waste-

after the process and reused for at least 7 times without isolating capacity is different for shallow repositories in

significant losses of their initial properties. permeable rock and for very deep disposal with higher

Containers for Radioactive Waste Disposal. Pusch temperature.

et al., (2015) described the performance of the near field Iliopolus et al., (2015) reported on the onset and

rock of High-Level Radioactive Waste (HLW) packages evolution of the observed cracking of the concrete structure

according to two types of repositories: very long obtained by simultaneously applying Digital Image

subhorizontal holes with large diameter (1.9 m) bored or Correlation (DIC), Acoustic Emission (AE) and Ultrasonic

blasted at 400-600 m depth, and bored 4 km deep holes Pulse Velocity (UPV) nondestructive testing techniques.

with clay/concrete seals in the upper 2 km parts and HLW Results highlight the time of onset and location of crack

packages separated by clay/concrete seals in the lower 2 initiation as well as the width and depth of the cracks.

km parts. Comparison of the two concepts shows that the Finally, emphasis is given to AE indices which indicate the

one implying deep-disposal is superior but requires severity of the cracks.

preparative steps in the waste placement phase. Influence of Environment Conditions on the

Siren et al., (2015) conducted investigations for Stability of Clay Minerals. Sinnathamby et al., (2015)

in situ spalling/damage strength of the intact rock, to presented the shear behaviour and the shear resistance of

establish the state of the in situ stress and for the work to different bentonite based clay backfill materials and their

act as a Prediction–Outcome exercise within the context of interfaces of Finnish KBS-3V type nuclear waste

confirmatory underground site investigations at the nuclear repository, under varying hydraulic conditions. Test results

waste disposal site at Olkiluoto, in Western Finland. The showed that the internal shear strength of bentonite pellets

outcome of this experiment was that rock failure mainly and granules of bentonite decreased with increasing water

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Water Environment Research, Volume 88, Number 10—Copyright © 2016 Water Environment Federation
content due to the lubricating effect of the free-water wetlands. In general, the models shows terrestrial

between the granules. Furthermore, test results showed that parameters provided acceptable predictions for wetland

the interface shear parameters of the Friedland clay blocks organisms. However, occasionally predictions varied by

interface increased with increasing salinity of the interface three orders of magnitude between assessors and authors

water. concluded the need for further developments for biota dose

Villa-Alfageme et al., (2015) investigated the models.

kinetics of reaction of uranium with FEBEX in addition to Application of Membrane Processes. Borai et al.,

the uranium immobilisation ability and the structural (2015) investigated the nanoparticles and nanocomposites

analysis of the reaction products. The quantification of the for removal of some metal ions from aqueous solutions.

reaction was performed through gamma spectrometry of The effective key parameters on the sorption behavior of

uranium. The reactions of this study provide a stable radioactive cesium (Cs+), cobalt (Co2+) and europium

immobilisation mechanism for uranium even when its (Eu3+) were investigated using batch equilibrium technique

sorption and swelling capacities fail. It is concluded that with respect to solution pH and contact time. The obtained

these experiments will be of particular interest for very results revealed that the equilibrium for Cs+, Co2+ and Eu3+

deep borehole disposals were higher temperatures and is reached at 2–3 h for all nanocomposites. Futher, the data

pressures are expected. indicated that there is no significant change in the uptake

between TiO2 nanoparticles and TiO2–PS.

Ecosystem. Falck et al., (2015) provided reviews on Jagasia et al., (2015) reported the supported

environmental impacts arising from the various phases in liquid membrane transport results using the four calix-

the life-cycle of uranium mining and milling (UMM) crown-6 ligands in the fluorinated diluent,

facilities. This paper discusses the impact pathways, types phenyltrifluoromethyl sulfone (PTMS) for the pertraction

of impacts, and mitigation options and particular emphasis of radio-cesium from nitric acid feed solutions. Results

is placed on a full life-cycle analysis that allows one to show that the transport data suggested arene-benzo-bis-

optimize mitigation measures, with a view to reducing the crown-6 (CBC) being the most suitable out of the calix-

overall impacts of uranium production systems while being crown-6 ligands evaluated.

in compliance with the applicable environmental and health Chu et al., (2015) prepared and charecterised a

and safety legislation. novel hybrid membranes for removal of radionuclide from

Stark et al., (2015) produced this paper under radioactive wastewater. The adsorption kinetics,

IAEA's Environmental Modelling for Radiation Safety thermodynamic parameters of ΔG, ΔH and ΔS, as well as

(EMRAS) II programme which describes an evaluation of surface SEM and EDS images were used to investigate the

how models can be applied to radionuclide contaminated removal of strontium ions. Findings demonstrate that these

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Water Environment Research, Volume 88, Number 10—Copyright © 2016 Water Environment Federation
hybrid membranes are promising adsorbents for the Emirates. This proposed technique could be used at low

removal of strontium ions from aqueous solution and can cost and with great confidence in the purification of

be potentially applied in the adsorptive separation of drinking water and the system was found to be adequate for

radionuclides from the radioactive wastewater. concentrations of strontium in the range of 5–30 ppm.

Gherasim et al., (2015) investigated the Fusion Facilities. Srinivasan et al., (2015) describes the

performance of a polyamide nanofiltration membrane (AFC experimental and Monte Carlo studies carried out in the

40) in the retention of Co (II) ions from aqueous solutions, Purnima Neutron Generator facility of the Bhabha Atomic

their separation mechanism under various process Research Center (BARC), Mumbai. This study has served

conditions and the correlation with the membrane in benchmarking the Monte Carlo simulation methods

characteristics. The results obtained indicate that Co (II) adopted for shield design of such facilities. This has also

retention by the AFC 40 membrane is due to a combination helped in augmenting the existing shield thickness to

of the preferential passage of the most mobile H+ and size reduce the neutron and associated gamma dose rates for

and charge exclusion, the first mechanism being dominant. radiological protection of personnel during operation of the

Combernoux et al., (2015) investigated the generators at higher source neutron yields up to 1 × 1010

impact of irradiation on the behavior of Polyamide (PA) n/s.

composite reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. Irradiations Sztejnberg Gonçalves-Carralves and Miller

were performed for two doses (0.1 and 1 MGy) in wet (2015) considered Neutron generators based on inertial

conditions under an oxygen atmosphere, with a gamma electrostatic confinement fusion for the design of a neutron

60Co source. Results show that NaCl rejection of RO irradiation facility for explanted organ Boron Neutron

membranes irradiated at 1 MGy decreased until 64% and Capture Therapy (BNCT) that could be installed in a health

permeability increased by a factor of three and emphasize care center as well as in research areas. This study shows

that gamma rays effects on the RO membranes led to the that neutron generators could be built to provide more than

breaking of amide and ester bonds at 1 MGy. These 1010 n s−1 and, consequently, with an arrangement of

breakings resulted in loss of hydrogen bonds between several generators appropriate enough neutron fluxes could

polyamide chains, and consequently to a relaxation of the be obtained that would be useful for several BNCT-related

polyamide network. irradiations and, eventually for clinical practice.

Chaalal et al., (2015) proposed a novel process Rehman et al., (2015) described technique to

for removal of strontium compounds contaminants from investigate and declare the presence or absence of fire

water. The proposed method shows great efficiency and the based on several sensor fusion with the autonomous robots

technique uses thermophilic bacteria found in the United deployment to seek out a potential source of fire in the

Arab Emirates near Al-Ain town located in Abu-Dhabi industrial environment. This new technique, introduced as

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Water Environment Research, Volume 88, Number 10—Copyright © 2016 Water Environment Federation
“Modified Voting Logic” and robot uses sensor readings rates less than 25 μSv/h can be achieved in the docking

comparison to approach the source and a smart obstacle room and the service room.

avoidance system to avoid obstacles together with Li et al., (2015) presented a unified modeling

Modified Voting Logic to declare a fire threat. approach for physical experiment design and optimization

An experiment on tritium burning is conducted to on any laser facilities. Its core idea includes: (1) any laser

investigate the enhancement in the neutron production rate facility can be flexibly defined and included with two

in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) scripts, (2) complex shape targets and laser beams can be

facility by Ohnishi et al., (2015). The results show good parametrically modeled based on features, (3) an

agreement with those of a simplified theoretical estimation automatically mapping scheme of laser beam energy and

of the neutron production rate. The amount of gaseous (4) significant computation algorithms are additionally

tritium released by the developed IECF facility after tritium presented to efficiently evaluate radiation symmetry on the

burning is verified to be much less than the threshold set by target.

regulations. Other Progress. Muke and Herbert (2015) presented

Kacegavicius and Povilaitis (2015) presented the examples of in-situ constructions and laboratory tests that

integral analysis of W7-X (is an experimental facility of have been designed and implemented by BfS and GRS in

stellarator type) response to a selected accident scenario. order to demonstrate the technical feasibility of special

There were analysed two cases: (1) rupture of a pipe constructions for the sealing of drifts and shafts in different

connected to the upper divertor unit and (2) rupture of a salt formations. This paper demonstrates details of the

pipe connected to the lower divertor unit. The results of concepts and highlights results from the BfS in-situ

analysis showed that in both cases the water is almost experiments in Morsleben and the preceding GRS

completely released from the units into the plasma vessel. laboratory and in-situ tests.

In both cases the pressure in the plasma vessel rapidly Saito Kokubu et al., (2015) studied the use of

increases and in 28 s the set point for burst disc opening is JAEA-AMS-TONO (Japan Atomic Energy Agency’s

reached preventing further pressurisation. Accelerator Mass Spectrometer established at the Tono

Liu et al., (2015) used the port plug test facility Geoscience Center) facility for the dating of geological

(PPTF) in the ITER hot cell building (HCB) to test samples. Results of the measurement of 14C in soils and

activated equatorial port plugs (EPP). The results show that plants has been applied to the dating of fault activity and

the shielding is not enough with the preliminary PPTF and volcanism. Now authors plan to fine tune the system and

rooms design. A design optimization was performed in perform test measurements to develop the 26Al-AMS

order to improve the radiation shielding around the PPTF system.

and the results show that with an optimized design dose

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Water Environment Research, Volume 88, Number 10—Copyright © 2016 Water Environment Federation
 Merk et al., (2015) studied the reasons for the radionuclides in groundwater and soil. A methodological

renewed interest in fast reactors and an overview of the approach, which focuses on the dynamic of the source term

progress in sodium cooled fast reactor operation in the last in space and time, was applied to model the transport of

ten years. The excellent operational performance of sodium radionuclides. This approach can be used to plan reliable

cooled fast reactors in this period is highlighted as a sound environmental monitoring networks. The analysis was

basis for the development of new fast reactors. performed at the nuclear site of Saluggia, Vercelli (Italy).

Experimental reactors demonstrating the inherent safety of Future of the Topic

advanced sodium cooled fast reactor designs are described According to the estimate by the International

and discussed. Atomic Energy Association, there are 435 nuclear reactors

Raj et al., (2015) Presented review based on operating in the world, run by thirty three countries. During

their four decades of research, development and the last ten years as some existing plants are being closed

deployment experiences relating to life cycle management down, the construction of 62 new units has started which

of critical structural components in Indian thermal, fast would amount to 59,197 megawatts of new capacity.

reactors and reprocessing facilities. The challenges relating Clearly the nuclear industry is enjoying a comeback even

to specific structural components are described with though there seems to be no commonly agreed solution to

highlights of materials to improve life for prolonged service the growing nuclear waste problem. The future review

with safety and economics. would involve topics related to safety assessment,

Goodfellow et al., (2015) presented a first modelling on watste management, environmental impacts

attempt at understanding public views on the design of new due to the mobility of radionuclides in water, soil and

nuclear plants. A survey of 1304 adults in the UK was ecosystem alongwith other technological progress made in

carried out using a questionnaire developed in this research. the management of radioactive wastes.

The study suggests that the general public are willing and References

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 Mechanisms of Migmatitic Gneiss and Pegmatitic Villa-Alfageme, M., Hurtado, S., El Mrabet, S., Pazos, M.C.,

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