Chemosphere 310 (2023) 136856

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Chemosphere
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere

Strategies for enhancing the efficacy of anaerobic digestion of food industry

wastewater: An insight into bioreactor types, challenges, and future scope
A. Saravanan a, P. Senthil Kumar b, c, f, *, Gayathri Rangasamy d, R. Hariharan a, R.V. Hemavathy e,
P.D. Deepika e, Krithika Anand e, S. Karthika e
a
Department of Sustainable Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Saveetha School of Engineering, SIMATS, Chennai, 602105, India
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, 603110, India
c
Centre of Excellence in Water Research (CEWAR), Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, 603110, India
d
University Centre for Research and Development & Department of Civil Engineering, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Mohali, Punjab, 140413, India
e
Department of Biotechnology, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai, 602105, India
f
School of Engineering, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Anaerobic digestion plays an important

role in waste to energy conversion.
• Novel strategies to enhance anaerobic
digestion for food wastes are presented.
• Different anaerobic reactors for treat­
ment of food industry wastewater are
mentioned.
• Research gaps, challenges and future
exploration viewpoints of anaerobic
digestion industry were suggested.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Food waste have become a growing concern worldwide with raising population and economic growth. Waste­
Food industry wastewater water discharged from food industries contains many valuable and toxic components that have a negative impact
Anaerobic digestion on the ecological system. Large amounts of wastewater are discharged from the food industry, which necessitates
Enhancement strategies
the creation of effective technologies. Wastewater from the food industry can be seen as a rich source of energy
Reactors
Valuable products
and a primary source for generating valuable products. Waste disposal and resource recovery are sustainably
valued by anaerobic digestion of wastewater from the food sector. The characteristics, composition, and nature of
wastewater produced from various food sectors are elaborated upon in this review. An overview of the anaerobic
digestion process for wastewater treatment in the food industry is included. Enhancement strategies for the
anaerobic digestion process have been discussed in detail. In addition, various types of reactors utilized for
performing anaerobic digestion is illustrated. Though anaerobic digestion process possesses advantages, the
challenges and future scope are examined for improving the outcome.

* Corresponding author. Department of Chemical Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai, 603110, India.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Senthil Kumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136856
Received 2 July 2022; Received in revised form 28 September 2022; Accepted 9 October 2022
Available online 12 October 2022
0045-6535/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Saravanan et al. Chemosphere 310 (2023) 136856

1. Introduction process conditions also has an impact on the digestion process. Opera­
tional parameters are tailored for promoting the growth of key microbial
Water is a vital source for the survival of mankind. It can be used for hydrolyzers in the anaerobic digesters. The previous literatures have not
direct and indirect purposes. Water plays a major role in the industrial focused on the review of enhanced methods for food industrial effluent
sector. There is an increase in the demand for water with the increasing based anaerobic digestion (Rowan et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2021).
revolution of industrial development. With this, an enormous amount of The emphasis of the current review is on improving anaerobic
wastewater is released as by-product (Shrivastava et al., 2022; Sirohi digestion of food sector effluent. The context has been briefed on the
et al., 2022). Over the past 30 years, the major concern for society has nature and content of the effluents from the food industry. The review
been about the waste waters containing undesirable toxic contaminants includes an introduction to anaerobic digestion. It has been thoroughly
from the industrial activities. Industrial water consumption is a major explained about the improvement of each stage of anaerobic digestion
drain on the world’s limited water supply (Kralj, 2015; Ahmed et al., process and the factors that affect it. The review has covered various
2021). Research states that one-third of the nations freshwater are used reactor types utilized in the digestive process. Current trends and future
in the production and processing of food industries. Equally, the scope have been briefly explored to improve future investigations.
wastewater discharge volumes vary within industries producing
different food products (Leong et al., 2019; Chai et al., 2021). For 2. Food industry wastewater
example, most of the waste water from beverage industries comes from
washing and rinsing cans, cleaning the equipment and containers, Wastewater produced from food industries are the major source of
maintaining the industry by keeping the surrounding tidy (Valta et al., environmental pollution. They contain large quantities of nutrients,
2015; Show et al., 2019). These wastewater outlets from factories organic components (carbon, nitrogen), inorganic substances, and sus­
contain effluents which are classified to check the pollution potential of pended particles which should be treated properly when directly dis­
these effluents. As the recalcitrant compounds are difficult to remove charged into sewage (Vandekerckhove et al., 2008). The quality
using a standard treatment method, direct release of this food industry parameters of wastewater are pH, temperature, appearance, odor, Total
effluent into the environment has negative effects on aquatic and Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS). Besides, they also
terrestrial ecosystem. Wastewater from the food sector can contaminate exhibit depletion of oxygen as Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and
the sediment in water systems, causing organ damage in aquatic species Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) which helps in the measurement of
who consume it. Additionally, less oxygen is present, which interferes water quality. The quality of waste is measured by determining the
with aquatic species’ metabolic processes (Foti et al., 2021). Pollutant oxygen requirement for stabilizing the waste. High amount of BOD and
removal is essential since some of them can be extremely poisonous, COD indicates the increase in product lose in waste stream (Carolina
non-biodegradable, and have negative effects on the environment. et al., 2011). The common method of BOD measurement is dilution
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen demand method and respirometry method. COD is based on biodegradable and
(BOD), along with fats, oils, and other nutrients like potassium and ni­ non-biodegradable element in wastewater. Higher BOD\COD ratio in­
trogen, are characteristics of the effluents from food industries (Chan, dicates readily biodegradable substances whereas lower BOD\COD in­
2022; Campos-Manas et al., 2019). The chemical and biological factors dicates low biodegradable or non-biodegradable elements. According to
of the drained wastewater must be carefully examined and correctives a recent study, a 40% global deficit can occur between the expected
measure should be taken with respect to the specific food industries. demand and the available supply by 2030.
Anaerobic Digestion (AD) is one such treatment method which is proven
to be feasible for the excision of the various contaminants present in 2.1. Characteristics and composition
wastewater discharge (Zahedi et al., 2020; Dai et al., 2022). The process
of anaerobic treatment involves the usage of bacteria to break down The concentration and composition of food processing wastewater
organic contaminants or BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) into biogas varies from higher strength substances to low and medium strength in
in the absence of oxygen (Tsapekos et al., 2018; Chia et al., 2021; Leong terms of organic loads, nutrients, suspended solids (Lee and Stuckey,
et al., 2021). 2022). Table 1 show that characteristics of food waste effluents. They
Biogas with methane as the major component is the primary product are carried out by different methods and instruments: pH analysis using
during anaerobic digestion process with the generation of other com­ pH meter, Total suspended solids with gravimetric method, COD with
pounds. In order to enhance the anaerobic digestion process, certain close reflux method, and BOD with Winkler titration. The research was
strategies for enhancing the hydrolysis, acetogenesis, and methano­ carried out in 2010, where the wastewater samples of dairy and meat
genesis has been adopted in recent years (Nzeteu et al., 2021). When the processing factories was characterized before treatment. Various factors
limitations of AD were studied, co-digestion emerged as the new ideal like COD, BOD, total suspended particle, pH, chlorides, nitrogen, and
standard technology. In the presence of multiple organic matters, a phosphorus concentration were obtained. If the waste is not treated, it
process called co-digestion takes place where they are combined into a could lead to sever problems. However, the waste from dairy factories
single digester (Goncalves et al., 2020; Koirala et al., 2021). Food has the high concentration of proteins, carbohydrates and high con­
wastes, fats, oils, grease and other sources from the food industries are centration of COD, BOD, pH, Chlorides when compared to meat pro­
included as the co-digestive materials. Reactors play an important role cessing factories which have high concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus
in the biogas generation where the digestate is produced (L.N. Nguyen and total suspended particles (Karadag et al., 2015; Ashekuzzaman
et al., 2021; Kausal et al., 2022). The design maybe of various shape and et al., 2019).
size specific to the raw materials to be introduced.
Anaerobic reactor is maintained at optimal conditions for conversion 2.2. Wastewater from different types of food industry
process to take place. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) is a
frequent used configuration for AD systems due to its easy operation and Wastewater generated from different food industries vary based on
ideal system parameters. Apart from this, Continuous Stirred Anaerobic the type of products manufactured and their respective raw materials.
Digesters (CSADs) are used for effluents containing high concentration Depending on the type of food processing industries, wastewater con­
to facilitate continuous stirring activity (Lutze and Engelhart, 2020; tains carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oil, organic and inorganic salts
Negri et al., 2020). To verify if the particular feedstock is suitable for AD, etc. which are added as manufacturing requirements in the production
several experimental testing are done. CSTR is contemplated as an process. General types of water pollutants include pathogenic organ­
epitome for treating the effluents from the wastewater discharge of food isms, oxygen demands, nutrient, microplastic, sediments etc., (Li et al.,
industries (Zhang et al., 2021). In addition to reactor configuration, the 2019; Grossman et al., 2021). The range of food products presents

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A. Saravanan et al. Chemosphere 310 (2023) 136856

Table 1
Characteristics of food waste effluents.
Food industry COD BOD TSS pH Total nitrogen Total References
wastewater phosphorus

Dairy products 920–9000 mg/L 400–6100 mg/L 100–850 mg/L 4.0–9.0 10–250 mg/L 9–120 mg/L Farizoglu and Uzuner, 2011
Poultry 850–1250 mg/L 600–1000 mg/L 0.7–1.5 mg/L 5.5–7.3 – – Atuanya and Aigbirior, 2002
Fishing process 250–12000 mg/L 300–47000 mg/ 95–6500 mg/L 5.7–7.5 100–500 mg/L – Muthukumaran and Baskaran,
L 2013
Fruits and vegetables 3500–11500 mg/ 1050–2600 mg/ 250–1500 mg/ 4.5–5.5 – 10–28 mg/g Chatterjee and Mazumder, 2020
g g g
Cane Sugar 110–3400 mg/L 60–1820 mg/L 5–1500 mg/L 6.0–10.0 – – Kushwaha 2015
Dairy cattle manure 550–21000 mg/L – 0.14–4.5 mg/g 5.0–7.5 120–2500 mg/ – Siddique et al., 2014
L
Brewery 1250–2000 mg/L 1200–3600 mg/ 50–3000 mg/L 4.5–7.6 25–80 mg/L 10–50 mg/L Ashraf et al., 2021
L
Beverage 228–2990 mg/L 130–350 mg/L – 5.2–9.8 – – Matosic et al., 2009
Vegetable oil 250–22300 mg/L 800–3790 mg/L – 3.5–5.1 – – Dhanke and Wagh, 2020

different wastewater challenges. Examples: fruits and vegetables for shows that anaerobic digestion process of food industry wastewater. For
canning and preserving, fish, meat and poultry, dairy products, and effective disposal and resource recovery from toxic wastewater effluent,
sweets, beverages, snacks. In vegetable oil processing industries, oil is its quality must be determined. Additionally, the effluent quality has an
discarded with wastewater which pose a serious impact on the aquatic impact on the adjacent resources where it is dumped. Majorly, it affects
ecosystem. This oil content can be converted into volatile fatty acids the aquatic ecosystems into which the waste is drained. AD is mainly
through anaerobic digestion process. In the brewery, beverage, and used to treat sewage sludges and since large amounts of these contam­
starch based food industries, suspended solids and organic carbohydrate inants are drained into the sewage system, the toxic contaminants are
content is high in nature which can be converted into biogas through demolished before being sent out. Effluents with high concentration of
anaerobic process (Noukeu et al., 2016; Aderibigbe et al., 2017). organic wastes are most suitably treated by AD.
AD Process involves the treatment of organic wastes and converting
3. Anaerobic digestion of food industry wastewater it into useful products. The ultimate products from the biogas process
include the separation of water from gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and
Anaerobic Digestion (AD) is a sequential process to clear out the methane (CH4) gas, along with other gases in small quantities like ni­
industrial effluents. It maybe released in the form of wastewaters that trogen, hydrogen etc,. (Ugwu et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2022a,b). Among
embodies toxic wastes which are to be eliminated from the system other gases, methane (biogas) which is generated in large amounts is
(Satayavibul and Ratanatamskul, 2021; Vinardell et al., 2021). Fig. 1 reprocessed and converted into heat and electricity (Lafratta et al.,

Fig. 1. Anaerobic digestion of food industry wastewater.

3
A. Saravanan et al. Chemosphere 310 (2023) 136856

2020). Hence, the transformed electricity can be used in these V is the volume of the biological reactor and Q the influent flow rate
manufacturing industries itself as it reduces the expenses spent on in time.
power. The produced gas – CH4 on the other hand can cause harmful Longer RT and low OLR is the optimal way to achieve higher and
effects and affect the climatic conditions when exposed to environment. constant gas production.
So, the methane gas is utilized for beneficial aspects in the industry. All
the above mentioned conditions prove that, digestion in the absence of 4. Strategies for enhancing anaerobic digestion of food industry
oxygen (AD) far exceeds the need for Aerobic digestion to take place. In wastewater
addition to the drawbacks, lack of knowledge on the operating condi­
tions may misguide the entire process for which the instrument should Anaerobic digestion is the worldwide technology used for renewable
be checked for errors. Of the cases reported, majority of the complaints energy production and in wastewater enriches material (Anderson et al.,
are in correlation to the leaky operating conditions. These conditions in 2016; Gaida et al., 2017). The conversion takes place into biogas
turn are affected by attributes like temperature, pH, nutrient contents, (50–75%), carbon dioxide, methane (30–40%) and other trace gases like
retention time and Organic Loading Rate (OLR). hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide and some nutrients are left for landfills. The
Temperature is an important attribute as it is crucial for standard­ energy in biogas can also be used for natural gas to provide heat,
izing the microbial intercellular enzyme activity in the process of AD generate electricity, and power cooling systems. The process of AD
(Liu et al., 2019). The temperature ranges from 0 to 75 ◦ C that is further conversion takes place in 3 major steps: Hydrolysis, Acidification, and
grouped into three categories as psychrophilic (0–20 ◦ C), mesophilic Methanogenesis. Fig. 2 represents the strategies for enhancing anaerobic
(20–42 ◦ C) and thermophilic (42–75 ◦ C). The biogas treatment process is digestion of food industry wastewater. The organic matters cannot be
carried out in all three temperature ranges but most likely works within utilized by bacteria and microbes, so they are decomposed into soluble
the mesophilic and thermophilic range. Even if the temperature monomers with the help of extracellular enzymes of acidogens. This
changes, it is prevented by the process before exceeding the limit. The process is known as hydrolysis. Acidification is a fermentation process,
digestion takes place at an optimum temperature of 35 ◦ C and for each and it occurs in 2 steps. First the acidogenic fermentation bacteria or
10 ◦ C drop; one half of the bacterial activity is reduced. Depending on microbes converts soluble monomer into terminal product as volatile
the temperature ranges, the rate of reaction varies. Methanogenesis fatty acids (VFA) and the hydrogen producing acetogens metabolize
(methane production) doubled under thermophilic conditions when hydrolytic product into acetic acid with hydrogen and carbon dioxide
compared to that in psychrophilic conditions (Jiang et al., 2022). Also (Alavi-Borazjani et al., 2020). Some microbes use these hydrogen and
under thermophilic conditions there is lesser inhibition due to ammonia carbon dioxide to form acetic acid. Finally, methanogenesis is the pro­
than in mesophilic conditions. cess of generating methane from methanogens. With regard to present
Yet another significant factor is the pH where each microbe in AD has review concept, food industry wastewater contains numerous organic
their own specific optimum growth pH (Feng et al., 2021). Degradation carbohydrates which is hydrolyzed into simpler sugars by the hydrolytic
occurs within a suitable pH range of 5.5–8.0 units. It was found that enzymes produced by micro-organisms. Following this, acidogenic and
methane production was lowest in the pH range from 5.5 to 6.0 units and acetogenic organisms in the fermentation environment break down the
maximum at values above 7.0 units. The optimum pH range is 6.8–7.2 sugar monomers to produce acetic acid and other volatile gases. By using
units. The major drawback for AD is the acid forming bacteria alongside a proton abstraction mechanism, methanogenic organisms convert
the by-product and the condition to overcome this is to maintain pH acetic acid to methane, a significant component of biogas. The corre­
within the suitable the range as mentioned. Based on literature reviews, sponding mechanism of anaerobic digestion has been illustrated in
it was found that constant loading of high strengthened water into re­ Fig. 3.
actors may cause the acid forming bacteria to react in great extent with
water and increase the pH, which when let out as waste water causes 4.1. Enhancing of hydrolysis phase
harmful effects to the water resources. For the production of methane,
the pH range of 4–9 must be maintained where the methanogens often This phase include physical (mechanical), chemical, biological and
grow. Therefore, a buffer to maintain the pH within the methanogenic thermal process for better hydrolysis of Organic Fraction of Multiple
limit is mandatory. Solid Waste (OFMSW) (Amodeo et al., 2021). The mechanical processes
Microbes especially bacteria require small concentration of nutrients mainly focus on the breakdown of particle size and crystallinity nature
such as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, zinc etc., for microbial growth to of lignocellulosic materials. The reduction of particle size is obtained by
take place (Zhou et al., 2020). Absence of these nutrients causes great FW bead milling to enhance biogas production. However, the excessive
impact on the microbial activity performance. All these nutrients reduction of particle size results in accumulation and decrease in biogas
required by bacteria to perform AD are not present in wastewater at all production (Sun et al., 2021).
times. In this case, the necessary supplements should be provided prior High temperature allows the lignin to melt and break the shielding of
to AD processing. At the end of the process, a small excess amount of cellulose from chemical or bacteria digestion. This method is cost effi­
nutrients should remain in the effluent to ensure adequate usage by cient due to high heat requirement. To overcome this issue we can use
bacteria. Organic Loading Rate (OLR) is a significant factor in AD cor­ the generated biogas as the source of heat. Bacterial digestion of cellu­
responding to biogas production and stability. It is the ratio of amount of lose is a non-commercial process in large scale applications. Biogas
organic materials present in the feed to the digester capacity (B-Y. Li generated through the anaerobic digestion process can be utilized as a
et al., 2022). With increase in OLR, methane generation also increases heat source in thermal hydrolysis process of cellulose breakage that has
due to enhanced growth of microbes. But if OLR is very high, the a wide range of application in wastewater conversion processes. The
inhibitory organic acids will start to accumulate, resulting in an acidic experiment is performed on thermal preheating method and the result
state which is unsuitable for microbial growth (Zhou et al., 2022a,b). shows the improvement of hydrolysis and the biogas generation is
Retention time is the time taken for the complete degradation of increased by 7% and 90% of methane production (Wang et al., 2015).
organic materials. It is directly proportional to the degradation rate and Chemicals such as alkalis, acids and ozone are also used for the pre­
normally varies between 10 and 40 days. It depends on process tem­ treatment of lignocellulose. The research shows that, the methane yield
perature, OLR and feed waste concentration. Solid retention time (SRT) was increased by 20% with 3.5% NaOH when after pretreated. The
and Hydraulic retention time (HRT) are the two main types of retention microbial (biological) pretreatment is also used for lignocellulosic ma­
time. terial and it is found that the production of biogas improved by 15% than
non-pretreated substance (Wang and Lee, 2021).
HRT = V/Q
Thermal and physical (mechanical) pretreated methods are widely

4
A. Saravanan et al. Chemosphere 310 (2023) 136856

Fig. 2. Strategies for enhancing anaerobic digestion of food industry wastewater.

4.2. Enhancing of acidogenesis and acetogenesis

4.2.1. Addition of trace element (TE) and Co-digestion

TE is considered as the one of the major factor in AD. Absence of TE
results in process failure and process stability. Addition of TE improves
the growth of methanogens, activity of inhibiting enzymes and stability
of the system (Zhu et al., 2022). As a component of the functional en­
zymes produced by microorganisms, trace elements are essential for the
stability of enzymes. Molybdenum, selenium, cobalt, and tungsten are
only a few of the particular TE requirements for the microbes involved in
the anaerobic digestion process. TE supplements are introduced to
biogas reactors to prevent the TEC deficit that occurs during the diges­
tion process. This can be done by the addition of Co digestion of MSW
that are enriched with TE or by external addition of TE. Co-Digestion of
OFMSW has benefits on dilution of inhibiting substances, balancing C\N
ratio and increasing synergetic effect on microbes (Dang et al., 2017).
The studies shows that the direct TE supplementation of selenium and
cobalt into the AD process with ammonia concentration and high pro­
Fig. 3. Mechanism of anaerobic digestion of food industry wastewater. pionic acid accumulation results in process stability and reduce process
failure. Further studies should implement the relational between mi­
crobial activities in response to TE of OFSMW which will improve the
used at industrial scale whereas chemical and biological (microbal) are
resource recovery process (Oygard et al., 2008).
rarely used due to high cost. Though the demand for energy production
is high worldwide, all these methods can be applied for industrial scales
4.2.2. Addition of GAC
(Yang et al., 2010; X. Li et al., 2022). However to increase the hydrolysis
Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) is used for the improvement of
process for production of biogas, there is still the need to investigate.
acidogenesis and acetogenesis phase in AD process. The pores on the
Increase of hydrolysis step results in high biogas recovery, low green­
surface help GAC to provide immobilization of microbes, adsorption of
house gas emission, and low cost management.
enzymes, and promotion of electron transfer in AD process (Lu et al.,
2020; Liu et al., 2021). In the study, the addition of GAC in the AD re­
sults in increase methane production, enhance VFA consumption;

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A. Saravanan et al. Chemosphere 310 (2023) 136856

promote microbial growth. The future investigations are in need of new become unavailable during AD process. High ammonia content and
adsorptive materials and properties for GAC manufacturing. limited trace elements lead to the maximum accumulation of VFA in the
reactor. So, in order to obtain efficient biogas production, specific con­
4.3. Enhancing of methanogenesis centration of micronutrient is added in significant proportion for the
optimal growth of bacterial activity.
The main product of methanogenesis is ammonia inhibition. In the
AD process, ammonia can be obtained from various sources during 4.6. Monitoring and controlling of operating conditions
OFMSW breakdown. In aerobic condition, ammonia is oxidized to nitrite
and nitrate. Similarly under anaerobic condition, ammonia is accumu­ A Laboratory scale anaerobic digester (i.e.,) Continuous Stirred Tank
lated (Sailer et al., 2020). Ammonia is important for the growth of mi­ Reactor (CSTR) is used, generally in all type of food wastewater industry
crobes at optimum concentration, which increase the stability and (Li et al., 2018). It is cylindrical shape of stainless steel with a glass
buffering capacity of AD process. At high concentration, ammonia is window for observing the process. The top cover plate of the reactor has
toxic to microbes and inhibits methanogenesis activity. a feed inlet, mounted motor for stirring, recirculation pipe inlet and
biogas outlet pipes. The outlet of the digester and recirculating pipe is
4.4. Co-digestion given at the bottom of the reactor. The sides of the reactor contain
sampling point and substrate level measurement scales. The homoge­
Anaerobic Co-digestion results in the breakdown of two or more neous mixing of the sample is done by six agitators in the reactor.
feedstock in a single step process. This can also follow synergetic Parameters such as pH, Temperature, Oxidation-Reduction potential
interaction through nutritional balance, trace element supplement, (ORP) probes are inserted into the digester which are monitored by
enzyme inhibition, maximum microbial growth and dilution of toxic Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) and these probes are modified
substances. Co-Digestion technology is concomitantly used in the every 6 months. The information collected from the PLC data are
treatment of solid and liquid waste. The balanced C\N ratios of different recorded and stored in central server which can be operated from any
feedstock prevent the accumulation of VFA (Volatile Fatty Acids) due to device and by regulating team viewer application, it is easy to track the
the buffering capacity and reduce ammonia inhibition (Yan et al., 2015). performance of the system. The biogas composition such as Methane
In United States, around 130 water resource recoveries with AD converts (CH4), Carbon di-oxide (CO2), oxygen (O2) are monitored regularly by
organic waste stream such as food stream and high strength industrial biogas analyzer unit and they are provided with Programmed Micro­
by-product into sewage. The advantages of co-digestion include system controller to avoid data logging and Remote transmission. The concen­
stability, high methane yield, better nutrient balance, buffering capac­ tration of CH4, CO2, and H2S gas from the biogas composition are
ity, dilution of toxic compounds, antibiotic resistance bacteria (ARB). analyzed using a portable analyzer (Pisutpaisal et al., 2014; Kress et al.,
The CPI (Co-digestion Performance Index) is defined as the specific 2018). Data sample inserting into the system is both user manual and
methane yield (SMY), it is the ratio of methane potential of the Co automate (machine) adjustable. One way valve is attached to prevent
digestion blend to the weighted average, based upon VS content (% VS) the back flow of water and the impurities are removed before entering
of the individual substrate (Borth et al., 2022). It is divided based on the biogas analyze unit. The volume of the biogas produced by the
their average weight of the mono digestion of feedstock. This CPI is used reactor is calculated by using gas flow meter.
to evaluate 3 interactions in Co-digestion. Antagonistic (CPI <1), Ad­ The CSTR is operated at pH 6.5 to 8, feedstock of 10% TS and OLR of
ditive (CPI = 1), and Synergistic (CPI >1) interactions. The high CPI varying rate (1KgVS/m3d for 30 days, 2KgVS/m3d for 150 days and
value doesn’t show a maximum SMY. So, both CPI and SMY should be 3KgVs/m3d for 30 days) is determined. The result shows that the long
considered for the optimum mixing ratio of feedstock. term stable digestion process was better at OLR of 2KgVS/m3d. The
reactor’s performance is measured in terms of composition, productiv­
4.4.1. Factors affecting anaerobic co-digestion ity, efficiency, and stability. The stability is obtained by pH, C/N ratio,
The optimum parameters of Co-digestion are: chemical properties of and inhibitory factors (Jurgensen et al., 2018). The productivity is
wastewater, BMP test, functional parameters such as pH, temperature, assessed by biogas and methane yield and the efficiency of the system
particle size, C\N ratio that has to be controlled to the adequate level for are prevailed in terms of COD reduction and TSS. The measurement of
the efficient anaerobic digestion process and the methane yield (Zhao pH is evaluated by electrometric method. The temperature of the reactor
et al., 2015; Kim et al., 2022). In addition to these, stability is also is controlled by closed loop water recirculation. Food waste and diges­
considered as key parameter, which increases the growth rate to tate are characterized by pH analyzer, alkalinity, Total Nitrogen (TN),
microbes. Total Organic Carbon (TOC). The digester was operated under meso­
philic conditions at 37 ◦ C.
4.5. Addition of nutrients
5. Reactors used in anaerobic digestion for food industry
The nutrient content in anaerobic composite is low pollutant and wastewater
convenient. AD process of Food Waste (FW) is limited by methano­
genesis than hydrolysis. The quick acidification of these wastes results in The bioreactor is a cylindrical vessel like machine in which any
drop of pH in the reactors and production of huge VFC which inhibit the biochemical process takes place. This reactor acts as an ideal environ­
activity of methanogenic bacteria. These wastes are characterized by a ment for microorganisms to achieve optimal growth and produce the
low C/N ratio which is also a major restricted factor in AD process. The necessary end product metabolites (Ramos et al., 2014; Galib et al.,
stability of the AD process is affected by several factors, in which feed­ 2016). Food industries may use such reactors for processing and it is a
stock composition and concentration of micronutrients plays major role site for anaerobic digestion to take place when wastewater effluents are
(Siddique et al., 2020; Jeong and Kim, 2022). They are essential for the involved. AD is considered as a sustainable biological treatment tech­
metabolic function of microorganisms in AD process. Micronutrient is nology for scaling down of organic by-products including fruit and
used to maintain biomass resistance for inhibition, to reduce the toxicity vegetable wastes, industrial wastes and agricultural wastes especially
in Long Chain Fatty Acids (LCFA), and other inhibition in the reactor. To the sewage sludge (Park et al., 2016; V.K. Nguyen et al., 2021). Table 2
maintain the stability of AD process, specific trace elements such as Iron, correspond the performance of anaerobic digestion of food wastes.
Cobalt, Nickel can be used. Some trace elements are obtained from the Co-digestion is a similar process which involves the combination of
sulfide precipitation, which can also binds to LCFA. Even though the multiple organic feedstock into a single digester to obtain methane gas.
substrate contains many micronutrients and trace elements, they may Anaerobic reactors are used for treating wastewater containing

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A. Saravanan et al. Chemosphere 310 (2023) 136856

Table 2
Performance of anaerobic digestion of food wastes.
Feedstock Parameters Reactor Product Yield References

Food waste & Waste sludge HRT 24 h; velocity 0.3 m/s SAC/OD-MBR Methane 0.24 gCH4/gVS Satayavibul and
Ratanatamskul, 2021
Food waste & Domestic Temp 35 C; pH 7.3 ± 0.8; OLR 1 g COD/L/
◦
UASB Methane 0.574 L CH4/L/ Koirala et al., 2021
Wastewater day day
Food waste & piggery Temp 37 ◦ C; 140 rpm; pH 7.37; OLR 6.35 g CSTR Methane 0.396 m3/kg VS Zhang et al., 2011
COD/L day
Food waste & Domestic Temp 37 ◦ C; pH 7.2; OLR 2 g COD/L/d UASB Methane 0.001 L CH4/L/ Chan et al., 2018
wastewater day
Waste activated sludge & Food Temp 55 C◦
CSTR Methane 316.11 mL CH4/g Jang et al., 2015
wastewater COD
Oil scum & Food waste pH 7.2 ± 0.5 Co-digestion Methane 56 ± 3 mL CH4/g Lee et al., 2022
VS
Food waste & chicken manure pH 6.5–7.5; Temp 55 ◦ C; OLR 4.0 kg VS/ CSTR Methane 0.68 m3CH4kg Chuenchart et al., 2020
m3.d 1
VS−feed
Food waste & garden waste Temp 36 ◦ C; Agitator 30 rpm; OLR Anaerobic digestion Methane 0.47 L g VS− 1 Perin et al., 2020
0.24–0.54 kg VS/m3.d
Synthetic food waste Temp 36 ◦ C; OLR 15 g VS L− 1d− 1; HRT 12 d Batch Methane 407 LCH4 kg VS− 1
Li et al., 2018
Food waste (Used vegetable oil) Temp 37 ◦ C; OLR 3.0 g VS L− 1 S/I = 0.5; Batch Methane 811 LCH4 kg− 1VS Li et al., 2013
HRT 30 d
Synthetic food waste Temp 37 ◦ C; OLR 9.2 g VS L− 1 d− 1; HRT 16 Single stage semi Methane 455 LCH4 kg− 1VS Nagao et al., 2012
d continuous
Kitchen food waste Temp 35 ◦ C; OLR 10 g VS L− 1 d− 1; HRT 40 CSTR in batch Methane 313 LCH4 kg− 1VS Li et al., 2009
d
− 1
Kitchen food waste Temp 55 ◦ C; HRT 10 d Two stage CSTE Methane 364 mL g VSin Chu et al., 2012
Canteen food waste Temp 35 ◦ C; OLR 8 g VS L− 1; HRT 30 d Single stage semi Methane 347 LCH4 kg− 1VS Zhang et al., 2013
continuous
Kitchen food waste Temp 55 ◦ C; OLR 20.12 g VS L− 1; HRT 29 d CSTR in Batch Methane 419 LCH4 kg− 1VS Jiang et al., 2018
Canteen food waste Temp 35 ◦ C; HRT 5 d Two stage CSTR Bio- 464 mL g− 1VSin Chu et al., 2008
methane
1
Restaurant food waste Temp 50 ◦ C; OLR 10.5 g VS L− ; HRT 28 d Batch Methane 445 LCH4 kg− 1VS Zhang et al., 2007
1
Kitchen food waste Temp 35 ◦ C; OLR 1.11 g VS L− ; HRT 25 d Single stage CSTR Methane 257 LCH4 kg− 1VS Zhang et al., 2017
1 − 1
Food waste Temp 35 ◦ C; OLR 13.6 g VS L− d ; HRT Single stage semi Methane 405 LCH4 kg− 1VS Dai et al., 2013
12 d continuous
1 − 1
Restaurant food waste Temp 35 ◦ C; OLR 13.6 g VS L− d ; HRT Single stage CSTR Methane 448 LCH4 kg− 1VS Wu et al., 2015
30 d
Food waste Temp 50 ◦ C AnMBR Methane 0.31 L/kg.COD Jiang et al., 2021
OLR 7.3 kg COD/(m3.d)
HRT 15 d
Food waste pH 7.28 ± 0.21 Anaerobic digestion Methane 394 mL/g VS Liang et al., 2021

organic matter. It is assisted with an agitator and alternative heating and distribution of properties throughout the reactor. Conditions in the re­
cooling systems made out of steel or glass (Wei et al., 2011). These actor’s exit stream are the same as that of those present inside the tank.
operate in three phases, namely the solid phase, the liquid phase, and the The Hydraulic retention time (HRT) is defined as the time period of a
gaseous phase, in homogeneous systems. They function by retaining substrate kept inside a digester whereas the Solid retention time (SRT) is
specific conditions, such as flow rates, temperature, pH, agitation rate, the time interval that the wastewater solids are kept in an anaerobic
and foam control. An anaerobic system can be classified into two major digester (Kuruti et al., 2017). In the case of CSTRs, HRT is equal to SRT.
categories, namely suspended-growth systems and attached-growth This means that the conversion rate of effluents into biogas takes place
systems. The anaerobic system is also classified based on different in a lower rate and produce minimum yield as compared to those that
phases, such as acid-phased reactor as-acidogenic reactor and meth­ have a greater HRT than SRT (Xing and Wang, 2021). In CSTR, an
anogenic reactor and the temperature-phased reactor (Xu et al., 2014; HRT/SRT should have an optimum range of 10–15 days and the OLR
Wu et al., 2020). Several types of bioreactors are commonly used should be less than 8 g VS/L d for reasonable CH4 production and higher
namely: Continuous-Stirred tank reactor, Covered Contact Reactor, rates are to be avoided. The biomass can also be separated from the
Covered Anaerobic Lagoon, Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor, effluent and recycled back for reuse in the reactor. Consistent operation
Fixed Film Reactors, Anaerobic Sequencing Batch Reactor, Anaerobic for digestion of the most difficult -to-treat slurry streams is possible even
Baffled Reactor, Anaerobic Filter, Expanded-Bed Reactor, Fluidised-Bed when there are variations in effluent feedstock properties. Intermittent
Reactor, and Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor. Each of these reactors mixing with medium intensity is suitable within the optimum HRT for
has its own specialized unique function to carry out the process. sufficient biogas production range for which other anaerobic reactors
was introduced and preferred (Sivaprakasam and Balaji, 2021).

5.1. Continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR)

5.2. Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket bioreactor (UASBR)
Continuous-Stirred tank reactor or Completely Mixed Anaerobic
Digester is the most commonly used AD reactor for various reasons and UASBR is an extensively used technology for treatment of industrial
are performed under steady-state conditions. CSTR works by continuous wastewater and are referred to as high rate systems. The digester con­
agitation where the stirrers constantly work to dissolve microbes with sists of a granular sludge blanket through which the treatment of
the effluent materials (Ekstrand et al., 2016). Constant mixing is facili­ wastewater takes place (Dholawala and Christian, 2020). The layer of
tated by sparging the mixture which also helps in discarding the toxic blanket is formed by the sewage itself that are held together in sus­
effluents from the wastewaters (Trzcinski and Stuckey, 2016). High in­ pension. As there is sufficient contact time of wastewater with solid
tensity agitation causes increased hydrolysis. There is uniform granular blanket of the anaerobic digester, natural turbulence is created

7
A. Saravanan et al. Chemosphere 310 (2023) 136856

causing the air bubble to raise up. This eliminated the need of fluidizing membrane modules with integrating membrane filtration found in an
the sludge layer in the process. Distilley vinasse and dairy manure are external loop and biomass is retained. In comparison, this is more ad­
the most commonly used substrate in UASBR (Garcia et al., 2008). With vantageous as it does not affect the operation of the reactor. Due to this
a HRT of 9 h, the waste water effluents are driven upward and forced to reason, HRT is lowered and significantly STR is prolonged for biodeg­
flow through this broad stream of granules, where they come into touch radation to take place. This reactor is an aid for treatment of waste with
with the substrate molecules and the anaerobic digestion process begins. extreme conditions (Berkessa et al., 2018).
This results in the breakdown of organic wastes by the existing anaer­ The microbial biomass is confined inside the system by the physical
obes and the necessary biogas is produced. The system consists of a membrane separation and the system is composed of more SRT than
gas-solid separator to retain the necessary sludge and draw out the HRT. The increase in SRT promotes conversion process effectively.
biomethane. No aeration or agitation systems are needed. The upflow Membrane materials may be organic, inorganic or metallic types. Pol­
velocity should not be more than 1.2 m/h at peak flow in order to retain yethersulfone (PES) is a widely used organic polymeric membrane due
the sludge in the reactor. Maintenance of “gas-liquid-solid-separator” to its low cost and availability. The metallic membrane type has high
(GLSS) should be conventional (Kaparaju et al., 2010). durability and resistance towards temperature and is opted by large
UASBR generally occurs at higher SRT than the HRT around the scale investors. Sludge filtration in this system is achieved by ultrafil­
range 30–60 days. This is quite effective at producing a sufficient tration (UF) and microfiltration (MF) membranes having hollow or flat
amount of converted biomass. SRT is kept greater so that the effluents sheets (Dominguez et al., 2012).
make full use of all the available microbes for active, efficient conversion The optimum temperature for the process is preferentially at ther­
and it also leads to enhancement of volatile substance reduction (Far­ mophilic temperatures (57 ◦ C) due to its high OLR and biodegradation
ajzadehha et al., 2012). The operating temperature is about ≥20 ◦ C. rates. Finer hydrolysis of organic effluent from wastewater is attained
Having OLR around the range 1.5–10 g resulted in a methane yield of due to increased SRT. More biogas was produced due to the increased
around 0.3–0.36 m3. Separation gap among the gas collection hood in OLR, which also led to the reduction of COD. Increasing OLR and
the reactors should be checked to prevent intermixing and floatation decreasing HRT have the effect of reducing system volume. The aim of
effects. Due to the absence of usual reactor components like the agitator the reactors to be used is to bring about total solid concentration to
and aerator, this system is benefited with the best advantage as the promote filtration and produce methane for industrial heat and elec­
installation costs are relatively low when compared to other high rate tricity uses. The primary reactors used for enhanced anaerobic digestion
efficient bioreactors. Major drawbacks for utilization of these reactors for food industry wastewater is shown in Fig. 4.
occur during the start-up period where there is need for adequate
amounts of granules to speed up the sludge blanket formulation. Skilled 6. Challenges, scope and future opportunities
operation is essential to prevent significant sludge wash-outs during the
initial phase of processing. Two main groups of microorganisms, the acetogens and metha­
nogens play a main role in anaerobic digestion process. There might be
instability as these two types are physiologically different and shows
5.3. Anaerobic Membrane Reactors (anMBR) varying response to operating conditions. There is also a possibility of
inhibitory intermediate compounds formation which may alter the mi­
Anaerobic Membrane Reactors (anMBRs) are known for its low crobial growth rate thus hindering microbial action. Radical change in
sludge generation, excellent effluent quality and ease of the methods pH due to the formation of volatile fatty acids at the beginning of the
automation (Chen et al., 2021). The AnMBR uses submersible mem­ process can pave way to abnormality. Ammonia is typically created
brane modules in which the membrane is present inside the reactor when nitrogen-rich substances are digested, however even though it is
making it compact and easy to control. It may also employ external

Fig. 4. Different reactors used for enhanced anaerobic digestion of food industry wastewater.

8
A. Saravanan et al. Chemosphere 310 (2023) 136856

necessary for microbial growth, it can be harmful in excess amounts. The emerging contaminants from wastewater. J. Hazard Mater. 416, 125912 https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125912.
inhibitory compounds can be hindered by making a contaminant free
Alavi-Borazjani, S.A., Capela, I., Tarelho, L.A.C., 2020. Over-acidification control
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anaerobic digestion (TPAD) of organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW)
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Credit author statement digestion (AD). Biomass Bioenergy 139, 105594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
biombioe.2020.105594.
Chen, G., Wu, W., Xu, J., Wang, Z., 2021. An anaerobic dynamic membrane bioreactor
A. Saravanan: Writing - review & editing; Conceptualization; Data for enhancing sludge digestion: impact of solids retention time on digestion efficacy.
curation; Formal Analysis. P. Senthil Kumar: Conceptualization; Vali­ Bioresour. Technol. 329, 124864 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.124864.
dation; Supervision. Gayathri Rangasamy, R. Hariharan, R.V. Chia, S.R., Chew, K.W., Leong, H.Y., Ho, S.-H., Munawaroh, H.S.H., Show, P.L., 2021.
CO2 mitigation and phycoremediation of industrial flue gas and wastewater via
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Chu, C.-F., Li, Y.-Y., Xu, K.-Q., Ebie, Y., Inamori, Y., Kong, H.-N., 2008. A pH- and
temperature-phased two-stage process for hydrogen and methane production from
Declaration of competing interest food waste. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 33, 4739–4746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijhydene.2008.06.060.
Chu, C.-F., Xu, K.-Q., Li, Y.-Y., Inamori, Y., 2012. Hydrogen and methane potential based
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial on the nature of food waste materials in a two-stage thermophilic fermentation
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence process. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 37, 10611–10618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
the work reported in this paper. ijhydene.2012.04.048.
Chuenchart, W., Logan, M., Leelayouthayotin, C., Visvanathan, C., 2020. Enhancement
of food waste thermophilic anaerobic digestion through synergistic effect with
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Dai, C., Yang, L., Wang, J., Li, D., Zhang, Y., Zhou, X., 2022. Enhancing anaerobic
Data will be made available on request. digestion of pharmaceutical industries wastewater with the composite addition of
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