Layout Simulation

MOSFET Scaling

Moore's Law, articulated by Gordon Moore in 1965, predicts that the number of transistors on a
microchip doubles approximately every eighteen months, leading to exponential growth in
computing power. This observation has guided the semiconductor industry for several decades,
influencing advancements in technology and the scaling down of MOSFETs
(Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors).

➢ The process of shrinking the layout due to the advancement of technology, in which every
dimension is reduced by a factor is called scaling.
Two main scaling techniques are defined as follows:
1. Constant field scaling or full scaling
2. Constant voltage scaling

Constant field scaling or full scaling

In the constant field scaling, the dimensions of the MOSFET and the terminal voltages are scaled
with the same scale factor so that the electric field remains constant.

• Used to achieve low-power MOSFET devices

• Scaling of the below-mentioned parameters has an effect on the MOSFET characteristics as

illustrated in Table 1.
Constant voltage scaling

• In the constant voltage scaling, the dimensions of the MOSFET are scaled but the terminal
voltages are kept constant. This type of scaling increases the electric field.

• This type of scaling is used where the signal levels of the IC cannot be scaled to match the signal
requirements by other chips in the printed circuit board where it is used.

• It is used to achieve high speed MOSFET devices

Advantages of scaling

• More transistors can be integrated per chip; means more capability

• Improvement in speed (Due to decrease in channel length L, and hence due to decrease in
transit times)

• Lower Power Consumption (Scaling reduces the power consumption of MOSFETs due to
decreased gate capacitance and lower leakage currents)

• Improved ‘throughput’ of the chip

• Cost Reduction
Disadvantages of scaling
• Short channel effects

• Complex process technology

• Parasitic effects dominate over transistor effects

• Reliability Challenges

➢ Scaling Imposed the small geometry effects which introduce potential problems in device
characteristics and modelling due to these effects.

• Short channel effects

Short Channel Effects

➢ A MOSFET with a channel length comparable to the source/drain junction depth is known as
short channel MOSFET. These short channel devices suffer from several issues that change the
characteristic of the device.

➢ Issues due to short channel effects are:

1. Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering (DIBL)

2. Channel Length Modulation

3. Threshold Voltage Lowering

4. Punch-Through

5. Velocity Saturation
1. Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering (DIBL)
● Description: DIBL occurs when a high drain voltage reduces the potential barrier between
the source and the channel region. This effect is more pronounced in short-channel devices
where the drain voltage significantly influences the channel potential.
● Impact:
● Effective Channel Length Reduction: The effective channel length decreases as the
drain voltage lowers the barrier, causing the threshold voltage (V_T) to decrease.
● Performance Degradation: Lower V_T leads to increased subthreshold leakage
current and degraded transistor performance.

2. Channel Length Modulation

● Description: Channel length modulation happens when the effective channel length varies
with changes in the drain-source voltage (V_DS). In short-channel MOSFETs, the electric
field from the drain penetrates deeper into the channel, shortening the effective channel
length.
 ● Impact:
● Saturated Drain Current Increase: The saturated drain current (I_D,sat) increases
with V_DS, rather than remaining constant, due to the reduction in effective channel
length (ΔL).
● Transistor Behavior Variation: Transistor characteristics vary with different operating
conditions, affecting overall device performance.
●
3. Threshold Voltage Lowering
● Description: As the channel length decreases, the gate control over the channel weakens,
leading to a reduction in the threshold voltage (V_T).
● Impact:
● Weakened Gate Control: Shortening the channel length reduces the distance
between source and drain regions, weakening the gate's control over the channel.
● Increased Leakage Currents: Lower V_T results in higher leakage currents,
impacting the transistor's switching characteristics and power consumption.

4. Punch-Through
● Description: Punch-through occurs when the depletion regions from the source and drain
merge under the channel region in short-channel MOSFETs, creating a direct current path
between the source and drain terminals.
● Impact:
● Effective Channel Length Shortening: The merging of depletion regions effectively
shortens the channel length, increasing leakage currents.
● Performance Degradation: Punch-through leads to undesirable leakage currents and
degrades transistor performance, making it critical to control in advanced MOSFET
designs.

5. Velocity Saturation
● Description: Velocity saturation refers to the phenomenon where carrier velocities in the
channel reach a maximum value and do not increase further with increasing electric field
strength.
● Impact:
● Reduced Carrier Mobility: As the channel length decreases, carriers experience
higher electric fields, leading to velocity saturation.
● Performance Limitations: Reduced carrier mobility due to velocity saturation limits the
transistor's speed and performance, affecting high-frequency and high-speed
applications.
Practice Ques 1
Practice Ques 2
Layout Design Rules
A layout in integrated circuit (IC) design is a detailed representation of various layers which
together form the devices and circuits. Design rules are essential guidelines that ensure the
reliability, manufacturability, and functionality of these layouts. The primary purpose of these rules
is to prevent layouts that are unreliable, difficult to fabricate, or non-functional. Here’s an overview
of the key points and objectives of layout design rules:
1. Purpose of Design Rules:
● Reliability and Fabrication: Design rules help in creating layouts that are reliable and
can be easily fabricated.
● Topological Integrity: They ensure the preservation of topological features on the
chip and prevent accidental short circuits between isolated features.
● Feature Integrity: They prevent thin features from breaking and ensure that contact
cuts do not slip outside their intended areas.
2. Communication Link:
● Circuit Designer and Process Engineer: Design rules serve as a critical
communication link between the circuit designer and the process engineer during the
IC manufacturing phase. They translate the designer's intent into manufacturable
patterns.
3. Geometric Constraints:
● Pattern Preservation: Design rules specify geometric constraints on the layout
artwork, ensuring that the patterns on the processed wafer maintain the intended
topology and geometry.
4. Yield Guarantee:
● Fabrication Yield: The constraints imposed by design rules are essential to
guarantee that the circuit can be fabricated with an acceptable yield. High yield is
crucial for cost-effective and reliable manufacturing.

Main Issues Addressed by Layout Design Rules

1. Geometrical Reproduction:
● Mask-Making and Lithography: Ensuring that features can be accurately reproduced
by the mask-making and lithographical processes. This includes maintaining
minimum feature sizes, spacing, and alignment.
2. Layer Interaction:
● Multi-Layer Interaction: Managing the interactions between different layers of the IC.
This includes rules for overlay accuracy, alignment between layers, and proper
connectivity.
Layout Design Rules Types mainly 3 types

In integrated circuit (IC) design, layout design rules are categorized into three main types:
Size Rules, Separation Rules, and Overlap Rules. These rules ensure that the designed
circuits can be reliably fabricated and function as intended.

1. Size Rule

● Minimum Feature Size:

● Determined by the line patterning capability of the lithographic equipment used in IC
fabrication.
● The minimum feature size for interconnects is generally larger than for active devices
due to patterning considerations.
● Layer-Specific Sizes:
● The design rules specify minimum feature sizes on different layers to ensure the
validity and functionality of the circuit.

2. Separation Rule

● Feature Separation:
● Different features on the same layer or different layers must have some separation
from each other.
● Interconnect Density:
● The primary motivation is to maintain good interconnect density, preventing shorts
and ensuring reliable connections.

3. Overlap Rule

● Separation Rule for Each Layer: This rule ensures that features on the same layer
are spaced apart by a minimum distance to prevent electrical shorts or other
manufacturing issues.
● Overlap Rules for Vias and Contacts: These rules dictate how vias (vertical
connections between layers) and contacts (connections to device layers) should
overlap with other layers to ensure proper connectivity and reliability.
DRC Checking Process

● The DRC process involves verifying the IC layout against a set of predefined rules to
ensure it can be manufactured correctly and function as intended.

Micron Rules

● Micron Rules: In these rules, the dimensions and spacings in the layout are specified
in micrometers (microns). This provides precise control over feature sizes based on
actual physical dimensions.

Lambda Rules

● Lambda Rules: These use a scaling factor, lambda (λ), to define dimensions and
spacings. Each dimension is expressed as a multiple of lambda, allowing for easier
scaling across different manufacturing processes.
 In IC design, some rules are specific to physical constraints and do not scale
linearly with the process technology. These rules are critical for ensuring the
mechanical and structural integrity of the final chip and are typically specified in microns
rather than lambda units. Here are the detailed explanations of these rules:

1. Bonding Pad Size: Fixed to accommodate bonding wire diameter and machine precision.
2. Cut in Over Glass: Allows contact with pads; its size doesn't scale.
3. Scribe Line Width: Must facilitate clean separation; independent of scaling.
4. Distance from Scribe Line: Fixed to avoid dicing damage.
5. Distance from Bonding Pad: Prevents wire bonding-induced damage.
6. Bonding Pitch: Determined by bonding machine precision; doesn't scale.
Default Colour code in Layout design:
▪ Green colour is used for n-diffusion.
▪ Red colour for polysilicon Layer.
▪ Blue for metal.
▪ Yellow colour used for holes diffusion.
▪ Black colour for contact.
S is Source, D is Drain and G is for gate that controls the conductivity b/w the S and D.
Layout design in integrated circuit (IC) engineering involves arranging and designing the physical
components of a chip on a silicon wafer. It encompasses positioning transistors, interconnections,
and other elements according to specified design rules and constraints.
CMOS Inverter Layout :-