1.

0 Maps and Photographs

Introduction

For long time, the conventional 'paper' maps have been used as media for storage and
presentation of terrain features for visual display and analysis of its spatial distribution.
In this lecture on maps and photographs, we discuss the map and the role it plays as a
communication medium. We also discuss a photograph and how it compares to the map as a
communication medium.
Definition
A map is a graphical representation of geographic features or other spatial phenomena, at a
certain plotting scale and a chosen projection. It conveys several types of information about the
represented area:
It is composed of different geographic features represented as points, lines, and/or areas. Each
feature is defined both by its location in space (with reference to a coordinate system), and by its
characteristics (typically referred to as attributes). Quite simply, a map is a model of the real
world. It represents snapshots of the land at a specific map scale. The map legend is the key
identifying which features are represented on a map.

2.0 Contents of a map

A map conveys several types of information about the represented area such as:
- Features of interests to a map users and its descriptors ( e.g. feature name, type, class,
size, etc)

- location: position of a particular feature on the earths' surface (in a defined coordinate
system)
- spatial relationships between various features ( e.g. proximity, neighborhood,
connectivity, etc)

Terrain features are represented graphically in the map as:

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 - Point feature: map object that it is too small for the map-scale to be shown as line or
area features, e.g. water-tower, signal, etc. It is
represented by single location/mainly shown by a special symbol or a label.
- Line feature: map object that is too narrow for the map scale to be displayed as an area,
e.g. road, water stream, etc .It is represented as set of ordered coordinates which connect
to represent the objects’ linear shape.

- Area feature: map object whose boundaries enclose a homogeneous area, e.g., lake,
country, etc. It is represented by a closed figure consisting of a set of connected lines.

Feature's characteristics (attributes) are represented graphic symbols (various line types, patterns,
color, etc.), text and further explanations provided by the map-legend. Spatial relationships are
not explicitly represented on the map. They are, however, mentally derived or interpreted by the
map reader. By looking at the map, one can derive for instant which school is near to a certain
residential area, which road connects two cities, which land-parcels are neighbors’, etc

Maps are simply models of the real world. They represent snapshots of the land at a specific map
scale. The map legend is the key identifying which features are represented on a map.

Technical characteristics:
In addition to map's information contents, maps have other technical characteristics which define
them and their Use:
- Map grid
This is a network of northing and Easting crossing at right angles to form squares.
Usually used on medium to large scale maps.
- Map graticule
This is a network of lines representing the earth’s parallels and meridians on the map.
Usually use on small scale maps
- Map margin
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 The space along the edge of the map provided for the printing of the title and other
pertinent and identifying data, separated from the body of the map by the sheet edge,
neatline or border (see the sketch below)

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 - Map-scale:
Its selection depends on the purpose and use of the map and it affects map's contents accuracy
and degree of cartographic generalization. National maps are produced in various map-scales
(i.e. map-series); each meant to serve special purpose)

- Map resolution
It defines the smallest details that can be depicted from the map. It depends on the data source
used for feature extraction, map scale, and cartographic
Enhancement, e.g. line generalization, aggregation of small adjacent areas, etc.
- Map accuracy:
-
It defines how accurately features can be depicted (absolute location, shape, relative accuracy,
etc). This depends on data source, method of feature extraction, geometric correction models and
method of processing, accuracy of equipment used for data acquisition, drafting skill and width
of lines used to represent features.

- Type of map projection:

Its selection depends on the purpose of the map and the required representation for features'
areal, shape, dimension and orientation.

- Map format:
It defines area extent Covered by map sheet, map sheet design, presentation of coordinates and
relevant information on the map.

- Map legend:
It provides explanations and classification of map
Elements and services as key linking non-spatial attributes to spatial entities (features).
Non-spatial attributes may be presented by Colour. Line-type, text, coding, shading, etc.
Classification (types) of maps:
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Maps can be divided into two Broad classes:

a. General maps. Maps which record the natural and man made (cultural earth's surface
and which are normally used for finding your way out.)

b. Special maps - Maps which record other kind of information in a variety of ways.

General Maps:

The c1ass of general maps can be subdivided in terms of scale and purpose into the following:

1. Topographical maps:

Topographical maps are maps that show all the information on the ground (both natural and
cultural) that can be delineated at the scale of the map. For convenience in use and economy in
production, this scale must be carefully planned in relation to purpose of the map and the
complexity of the terrain. The scale of topographical maps produced by Photogrammetric
methods usually lies between 1: 10000 and 1:100.000. At such scales however, it is customarily
to show certain dimensions such as the width of road with some exaggeration of size. If such
detail is drawn true to scale, many essentials appear insignificant or could not be shown at a1l.
Maps at smaller scales such as I: 1:3,000,000 and even smaller are usually compiled from maps
at the larger scales

1.1 Uses of topographical maps

Topographical maps are essential for planning and for statistical recording of the country’ e.g.
Water, minerals’, forests, agriculture etc. The development of such projects as rail. Relies at the
initial stage on the use of such maps for general planning. Topographic maps are also very
necessary for Government work. They furnish data or information from which the admistration
can see most of the information bearing upon the problem at hand. The maps are essential for
military, police work, health services, educational facilities etc. boundary problems or even for
example in which division or administrative area most crime is committed.

Though maps at a large scale may later be required for closer study, the preliminary
comprehensive view obtained from the small scale topographic-map is still the first important
step.

Application of topographical maps

i. National and local Government administration

ii. Military use
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 iii. Communication management and planning

iv. Natural and Industrial resource management

v. Water management

vi. Agricultural forest application

vii. Town planning

viii. Land registration and allocation
ix. Educational purposes
x. Health facilities etc.

2. Special purpose maps

Thematic maps

Thematic maps are maps designed to show specialised information of a single phenomena
especially as a result of some research. They can also be drawn to supplement the basic data of
the topographical map.
Thematic maps define variation in amount, value and density of distribution of given items. They
are also called topical, single factor, special purpose or distribution maps.
Thematic maps can be:

a. Qualitative - maps showing spatial distribution of some kind or nominal data without
reference to the amounts represented e.g. a map showing the distribution of dairy cattle
in Kenya is a qualitative thematic map.

b. Quantitative: - maps that display the spatial aspects of numerical data i.e. the
information represented have some amounts of the feature indicated. Usually, a single
variable e.g. population and the map focuses on the variation of the feature from place to
place.

Thematic maps differ from general maps in that while general maps attempt to show positional
relationships of a variety of different geographical phenomena, thematic maps concentrate on
Spatial variation of a single phenomena or the relationship between the phenomena.

In thematic maps, the communication objective is to portray the structure of a distribution i.e. the
character of the whole as consisting of the interrelation of the parts. There is no limit to the
subject matter of the thematic maps.

Maps whose primary objective is simply to show the locations of phenomena e.g. rock or soil
types, population density at particular places etc, should not be classified as thematic maps; such
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thematic maps fall under general maps. On the other hand, maps made from the same data may
employ methods of symbolization that focuses attention on the structure of the distribution and
they could be called thematic maps.

Thematic maps are commonly small scale largely because many geographical distributions occur
over considerable small area and to show their essential structure requires great reduction.
Further more it is easier to show their essential Structural relationship of the distribution if the
variation may be perceived without much shifting of the eyes or turning of the head.

Geologic map

A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose map made to show geological features.
Rock units or geologic strata are shown by color or symbols to indicate where they are exposed
at the surface. Bedding planes and structural features such as faults, folds, foliations, and
lineations are shown with strike and dip or trend and plunge symbols which give these features'
three-dimensional orientations.
Stratigraphic contour lines may be used to illustrate the surface of a selected stratum illustrating
the subsurface topographic trends of the strata. Isopach maps detail the variations in thickness of
stratigraphic units. It is not always possible to properly show this when the strata are extremely
fractured, mixed, in some discontinuities, or where they are otherwise disturbed.

Climatic map,

This is a chart that shows the geographic distribution of the monthly or annual average values of
climatic variables—i.e., temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, percentage of possible
sunshine, isolation, cloud cover, wind speed and direction, and atmospheric pressure over
regions ranging in area from a few tens of square kilometres to global. To minimize biasing the
data because of one or two periods with abnormally high or low values, the data are averaged
over at least 30 periods, whether they be months or years.

3. Atlas Maps

An atlas may be defined as a collection of maps designed to be kept bound or loose in a volume.
A loose leaf format is the new element in atlas production. Production in this form allows

a. for research just completed to be made available

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 b. revision of individual sheets

Loose leaf atlases must be kept in boxes in an attempt to prevent loosing sheets but this is not
IOO% secure system. Many atlas makers prefer the use of screws or other mechanical devices to
keep the sheets together. Atlas maps are small scale maps showing whole countries, continents or
even the world on one sheet. They show both natural and cultural features. Although the
information may be the same as that found on general maps, the overall presentation of the
information is of specialised nature, hence they are classified into special purpose category.
Atlas maps have characteristics which distinguish them from topographical maps. A primary
difference between atlas maps and other maps is scale. Atlas maps are usually drawn at small
scale. The largest scales may be in the range of l:IM for regional atlas to the smallest which may
be as small as l:40,000,000 for the whole world. This great reduction of scale entails a great loss
of detail which is reflected in many ways e.g. the dimension of the

- The topographic maps are intended to portray and identify the features of the earth's
surface (natural and man-made features) as faithfully as possible within the limitation
imposed by the map-scale. Information in topographic maps are:
- Hydrography (water and water associated features)
- Roads and railways
- Building and construction
- vegetation '
- Boundaries (administrative, international)
- Other feature classes
- Relief (contours, spot heights,hachures)
- Names

With varieties of information and information classes required by many users, and the limitation
of pictorial presentation of map elements (i. e. limitation of map-legend and effort for visual
readability of the map), the conventional topographic map can be regarded as general purpose
map which might serve as a geometric base for the survey (mapping) of any other information,
resulting in a special purpose maps.
These specific purpose maps are often referred to as thematic maps (e. g. soil maps, geological

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maps, cadastre maps, land use maps, air charts, special maps for water management, etc).

showing land-use or wet and dry agriculture land).

The need for thematic maps and integrated resources survey is growing
with advances made in the assessment and understanding of natural resources, and the use of
terrain analysis as an essential element in those fields related to the planning for living and
movement on the earth's surface

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.Photogrammetry/Aerial Survey
Photogrammetry may be defined as the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable
information about physical objects and the environment through processes of recording,
measuring, and interpreting photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant
electromagnetic energy.
The definition has two areas
1. Metric photogrammetry- consists of making precise measurements from photos and other
information sources to determine the general locations of points. This enables finding
distances, angles ,volumes , elevations ets
2. Interpretive photogrammetry- deals with recognizing and identifying objects and judging
their significance through careful and systematic analysis
Types of photogrammetry
The types of photogrammetry include
a. Aerial photogrammetry
b. Terrestrial photogrammetry
c. Close range photogrammetry
d. Extra-terrestrial photogrammetry
History of photogrammetry
The present status of Photogrammetry is to a great extent the result of combined developments in
many related fields. Examples are: geometry (perspective theory), mathematics (calculus,
statistics, numerical analysis, and computation techniques), Physics (optics electromagnetism),
electronics (semiconductors, computers, sensing devices), platforms (airplanes, satellites, space
shuttles), photographic films, cameras instrumentation, and others. These developments are
usually associated with names of scientists, dates, and places. It is difficult to enumerate all the
technological advances, which had contributed to the progress of this science. Therefore, the
major innovations, which are considered as milestones in the development of photogrammetry,
are highlighted in chronological order.

The earliest roots of Photogrammetry could be traced to the 14005, when Leonard da VincI
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(Italy) studied the principles of geometric analysis of optical projection. Around 1600, Kepler
(Germany) gave definition of stereoscopy, and in 1726 Kapeller (Swiss) constructed a topomap
from perspective drawings. The next significant development was "projective geometry", which
was introduced by Pascal & Lambert in 1760 and forms the mathematical basis of
Photogrammetry.
In the same year Scholtze (Germany) observed that Silver Nitrate blackens when sunlight.
However, it was not until 1839 when Daguerre (France) developed actual photographic process
on metal plate coated with Silver Iodide.

With the development of compound lenses with variable diaphragms (1810-1844) all requisites
for constructing a photographic camera were at had. Nadar (France) succeeded first aerial
photograph from a balloon for a part of the countryside in 1858. In 1858 in 1895 Laussedat
(France) created the first camera and procedure for making photogrammetric measurements thus
signaling the birth of Photogrammetry.

The impact of aviation (airplane invention in 1902) was to offer a platform for aerial cameras
Until that time all photogrammetric work was limited to terrestrial Photography. The first
Photographs from an aircraft were taken by Wright (Italy) in 1909. In the same year Pulfrich
(Germany) experimented with stereo pairs of photographs, This had laid the foundation of
instrumental Photogrammetric mapping techniques in use today. The stereoautograph mapping
from terrestrial Photographs was constructed by Zeiss in 1911.

During WWI (1914) aerial Photographs were used extensively in reconnaissance. Automatic film
camera was constructed by the Germans and interpretation keys were developed. After VVVVI
(1919) topographic mapping from aerial Photographs progressed significantly. Many private
firms and governmental agencies in North America and Europe became engaged in
Photogrammetric works. Hugersholf (Germany) introduced the firs universal analogue plotter-
the autocartograph - for Plotting from terrestrial as well as aerial Photographs. Wild
(Switzerland) produced the autograph A1 in 1923 and the Multiplex in 1933. Accelerated

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developments in theories and procedures Were as a result of the Contributions of several
scientists in many countries. Examples are:

 Otto von Gruber (Germany): space resection (1924) and principles of aerial
triangulation(1932).
 Wild (Switzerland): orthogonal stereoviewing (1926)
(Optical-mechanical autographs) Nistri (Italy): Alternating projection (1919),
photocartograph 1
 Santon i (Italy): multilens aerial cameras, sola periscope (1919), stereoca rtog raph
(1925).

The impact of WWli (1938 - 1944) was to accelerate the development of devices for aerial photo
reconnaissance and aerial navigation. infrared sensitive films Were introduced to detect
camouflage. Ironically, the destruclion of manufacturing facilities had brought industrial
production to a standstill.

The following two decades (1960 - 1980) witnessed accelerated development s in electronic
computers. Analytical Photogrammetry reached high level of development. Encoders
servomotors, and other electronic components facilitated the design of automated
photogrammetric devices. In 1961 Helava developed the analytical plotter the second generation
of photogrammetric instruments. The analytic plotter signaled t birth of improvements for these
two decades as electronic computational means became progressively powerful and economical
to use.

In the last 25 years, from 1980 to present, Photogrammetry has experienced changes caused by
advances in optics, electronics, imaging, and computer technologies
These led to the introduction of the third generation instruments - the station (PWS). This
represents marked jump in data processing, where the emulsion based photograph (hard copy),
which has always been the basis of all phototogrammetric activities is now being replaced by a
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purely digital record (soft copy). This instrumentation and open limitless fields of applications of
Photogrammetry

a) Applications/uses Of photogrammetry

The major use of Photogrammetry is in the production of topographical maps in different scales,
nowadays, it is almost impossible to find a topomap which is not compiled from aerial
photographs. However, Photogrammetry found its applications in too many other fields. It is not
possible to cover all the areas where photogrammetric solutions to a problem can be applied. It is
also quite difficult to itemize all the fields where it has found practical applications
(Nevertheless, some applications are mentioned here below for demonstration)

b) Engineering:
All types of engineering planning and construction rely on large scale topomaps. The field of
highways provides an excellent example of how important photogrammetry has been in
engineering. All the phases of modern highway design, location, construction and, maintenance
are conducted wholly or in part by Photogrammetry. Selection of the best route is usually
decided from examination of aerial mosaics. Preliminary planning is carried using a small scale
topomap. The final geometric design stage is based on contour interval map or digital terrain
models (DTMs) produced from aerial photographs.
Location surveys are made with reference to points, whose ground positions have been
determined photogrammetrically. Cross and longitudinal sections as well as earth work quantities
are obtained and calculated from stereomodels. Partial and final pay quantities are often
calculated from photogrammetric measurements.
Highway maintenance Pavement condition, banks erosion, etc) can be determined from the
interpretation from or continuous or strip photography. The use of Photogrammetry in highway
engineering has not only reduced costs but has also enabled the achievement of better overall
design.

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 c) Surveys:
Planning for surveys is done by studying the stereomodel of an area in 3D and identifying the
most suitable surveying lines, the inter-visibility between points, and accessibility.

In cadastral surveys the identification and location of boundary lines and corners as well as the
definition of areas of land parcels has often been done using aerial photographs. If the corner
points are suitably targeted before Photography. Aerial triangulation can be conducted to
determine their coordinates.

d) Archeology:
Analysis of aerial and terrestrial photographs and other types of measurements and interpretation
of ruins and monuments.

e) Geology:
Image interpretation of geological forms and features (folds, faults, etc) is much more efficient
than field methods. Photogrammetry has been efficiently used in geomorphologic stratigraphic
studies, industrial inventory of mining piles and estimation of miner,

f) Forestry:
Aerial Photographs are used as a basis for timber inventories, a, determining types of forests,
assessment of fire impact, monitoring forests' state,

g) Agriculture:
Photogrammetry has been used as a powerful tool to study
Conservation, vegetation type, crop inventory, crop diseases and their damage by locusts or
drought.

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 h) Astronomy:
through Photographs, astronomers are able to expose and measure classify star magnitude and
determine star parallaxes.

i) Hydrology:
aerial photographs are successfully Used to determine slope, Landover ,watershed area, snow
depths in order to determine runoff quantities for water supplies also used to assess
sedimentation in water channels, and flood extent and damages,

j) Urban and rural planning:

The necessary information of landuse for Planning can be extracted from aerial photographs and
space imageries.

k) Environment:
Change detections and studies of landuses are performed by Photogrammetry.

l) Geographic information systems (GIS):

The collection of diverse types of information and creation of thematic maps into a database that
is used Photogrammetry.

Other applications:
Photogrammetriry has fund applications in architectural surveys, nuclear physics, robotics,
preparation tailoring, and animal husbandry, among others.
Products of photogrammtry
i. Aerial photographs
ii. Mosaics
iii. Orthophoto- this is a picture of the ground from a pair of overlapping photogra in such

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 manner that the perspective aspect of the picture has been removed. It can be used as a
planimetric map
Aerial Camera
The aerial camera is comparable to a survey instrument in that it gathers data in the form of rays
with certain directions and records on a photographic negative.
A standard aerial mapping camera has the three main components -lens, the magazine, and the
body
(Fig.1). shows a diagram of a camera with its components

Lens Cone Assembly.

The function of the lens is to form a clear and sharp image of the photograph at the exposure
plane The lens is usually a compound assembly of multiple optical elements (fig 2 ) highly
corrected for aberrations and distortion. Current lenses can achieve distortion less than 10
micrometers. The FOV and local length of the lenses in the commonly used topographical
cameras with image formats of 23x 23 were indicated before. The lenses are mounted in the lens
cone assembly, which has a provision for introducing a filter. A yellow (minus blue) filter can
remove the atmospheric haze. An anti-vegnetting filter could be used to provide an even
illumination across the format.

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The diaphragm, located between the lens elements, is adjustable to increase or decrease
diameter of the opening to allow a certain amount of light energy to enter the camera. It is
generally expressed in f-stop numbers, which usually range from from f/4 to f/22. Thus for
nominal 152mm focal length, the diameter of the aperture would range from about 7mm (f/22).
The f-numbers usually increase by square roots of 2 increments reduces the diameter by square
root of 2 and halves t gives the same exposure with doubling shutter speed give same exposure
as f/4 and 1/1000sec.
The shutter controls the time for exposing the film. 1/1000sec. According to the speed of the
aircraft and

The camera body

This part connects the lenses assembly with the magazine. It is designed to be light proof and to
resist any changes due to vibrations of the temperature so that the geometric stability of the
camera is maintained in different environments and conditions. It also houses the driving
mechanisms of the camera and has the mounting points for attachment to the camera mount. At
the end from the lenses cone assembly it has the exposure plane with the fiducial marks and the
marginal information.

Film Magazine

The magazine houses the reel which holds the exposed and the unexposed film and the flattening
mechanism. They are removable to facilitate the interchanging while the camera is mounted in
the aircraft.

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 A Photograph

A camera takes reflected/emitted signals from the ground features and it detects, records the
signals on a film and then the film is exposed to the light to render the recorded signals visible.
The visible signals on the film are referred to as a Photograph. It is a record of the features on
the ground from which the signals came from.

Classification of photographs

Photographs can be classified based on

i. Camera orientation

ii. Angular coverage

iii. Type of emulsion

1. Camera orientation

Under this classification a photograph can be said to be vertical or oblique

i. Vertical photographs

These are photographs which are taken with the camera axis directed as vertical as possible. The
truly vertical photographs are rare due to unavoidable tilts of the plane. This means all
photographs are unintentionally tilted. If the angle of tilt is equal to or below 3◊ such photograph
can be regarded as being vertical for most practical purposes

ii. Oblique photographs

These are photographs taken with axis intentionally inclined at an angle with the vertical .If the
inclination is big as to include the horizon then the photograph is refereed to as high oblique and
when the inclination is such that it does not include the horizon the photograph is refereed to as
low oblique.

2. Angular coverage
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This is a function of focal length and format size.

a) Narrow angle 10▫- 20▫, focal length of 610 to 915mm. these are used for intelligence,

general interpretation and mosaics

b) Normal angle 50 ▫ - 75▫ focal length of 210mm to 300mm used for interpretation, mapping,
colour photography and mosaicking and ortho- photography

c) Wide angle 85▫to 95▫ focal length 153mm. this is the most commonly used mapping

d) Ultra or super wide angle 110mm to 130mm focal length 88mm. used for mapping
areas with little relief

3. Type of emulsion

i. Panchromatic black and white. This is the most widely used emulsion for
photogrammetric mapping and interpretation

ii. Colour. This emulsion is used for interpretation and for mapping . It differentiates
between the hue

iii. Infrared black and white. This emulsion is used for interpretation and
intelligence

iv. Infrared colour. This is used for used for interpretation especially for vegetation
analysis.

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Fig 3: Photograph with all the marginal information

Fig4: Photograph showing Nairobi area

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GEOMETRY OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH

Figure5a

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Fig. 5b: Geometry of vertical
photograph

Terms applied in photograph geometry

1. Exposure station
This is the position of the aircraft at the time of photography for every camera exposure
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 2. Flying height
This is the elevation of the exposure station above datum

3. Attitude
This is the vertical distance of the aircraft above the earth’s surface

4. Tilt
This is the rotation of the aerial camera about the line of the flight

5. Tip
This is the rotation of the aerial camera about the horizontal axis normal to the of the
flight

6. Principal point
This is the point of intersection of the optical axis of the aerial camera with the plane of
the photograph

7. Principal plane
This is the plane within which lies the principal line

8. Principal axis
This is the axis that passes through the perspective centre

9. Nadir point
This is the point where plumbline dropped from the perspective centre strikes the
photograph

10. Principal line

This is the line of the greatest slope on the face of the photograph which passes through
the principal

11. Isocentre
This is the point where the bisector of the angle of tilt strikes the photograph

12. Homologous points

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 Ground points of the images on photographs

13. Perspective centre

This is the camera station defined by the point through which all imaging rays are assumed to
pass onto camera

TAKING VERTICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Most vertical aerial photographs are taken with frame cameras along flight. The line traced on
the ground directly beneath the air craft during acquisition of photograph is called the nadir line.
This line connects the image centers of the vertical photographs. The figure below illustrates
typical character of the photographic coverage along a flight line. Successive photographs are
generally taken with some degree of end lap. Not only does this over lapping ensure total
coverage along a flight line, but an end lap of at least 50 percent is essential for total stereoscopic
coverage of a project area. Stereo, scopic coverage consists of adjacent pairs of overlapping
photographs called stereo pair". Stereo pairs provide two different perspective coverage of the
ground area in their region of end lap.

Scale

"Map scale" is interpreted as the ratio of a map distance to corresponding distance on the
ground. 1n similar manner, the scale of a photograph is the ratio of distance on the photo to that
same distance on the ground. On a map scale is everywhere uniform because a map is an
orthographic projection. An aerial photograph on the other hand, is a perspective projection and,
as will be demonstrated herein its scale varies with variations in terrain elevation.

SCALE OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH for A FLAT TERRAIN.

The Figure below shows the side view of a vertical photograph taken over flat terrain since
measurements are normally taken from photo positives rather than negatives, the negative has
been excluded from this and other figures that follow in this text. The scale of a vertical
photograph over flat terrain is simply the ratio of photo distance ab over the corresponding
ground distance AB. That scale may be expressed in terms of the camera focal length, f, and
flying height above ground, H, by equating the similar triangles Lab and LAB as follows:

S= ==

Where ab = the photo

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 AB = map distance
f = focal length

SCALE OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH OVER VARIABLE TERRAIN

Figure7: variable terrain

When the terrain varies in elevation, the object distances will also vary. This will also make the
scale vary.
From figure 7

SAB =

Average photo scale

1t always convenient to use the average scale to define the overall mean scale of a vertical
photograph taken over a terrain of a variable height. The average scale at the average height of
the terrain covered by a particular photograph and it is expressed as

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SAB =

When an average scale is used, it must be understood it is exact only at those points which lie at
average elevation and it is appropriate scale for all other areas of the photograph.

Example 1

If the highest terrain h1 and the average terrain haveg and lowest terrain h2 are 2000, 1500 and
1000m above mean sea level respectively. Calculate the maximum scale, minimum scale and
average scale if the flying height above the mean sea level is 10000m and the focal length is
152.4mm

Solution

Highest scale = = = 1: 53000

Minimum scale = = = 1: 59000

Average = = = 1: 56000

OTHER METHODS OF DETERMINING SCALES OF A VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPH

The scale of a photo can be determined by comparing the distance measured on the photo and the
corresponding distance on the map of a known scale as follows.

photo scale =S = =

Example2

A vertical aerial photo is taken over a flat terrain with a 152. 4 mm focal length camera from an
altitude of 1830 m above. Determine the photo scale

By the above equation

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S= = == =

Figure 8

Example 3

A distance of 119.4mm is scaled on a photograph for which the focal length is 210mm. the
corresponding map distance on the map is 27.2mm. The scale of the map is 1:50000. The area
lies at elevation of 100 m above the sea level.

Determine the flying height above sea level

Solution

Map scale =S = =

= =

D = ground distance = 0.0272x50000 = 1360m

photo scale =S = = = =
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= =

H-100 =2391.9

H = 2492m above mean sea level.

Example 4

Two road intersections shown on the photograph are also shown on the map of the same terrain
of the scale 1: 25000. The measured distance between the intersections is 47.2 mm on the map
and 94. 3 mm on the photograph.

Use the information to determine the (I) scale of the photograph

(ii) The length of a fence whose length on the photograph is 42.9 mm.

Solutions

Using the expression,

= =

= = =

Ground distance = 0.0472X25000=1180 m

Photo scale = = =

= = =

D = 538.524m

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Ground coordinates from vertical photograph

Figure9

The coordinates of points whose images appear in a vertical photograph can be determined with
respect to an arbitrary ground coordinates system. The arbitrary ground coordinates X and Y are
in same vertical plane as the photographic x and y respectively.

From figure 9

= = =

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XA = xa ( )

Similarly

YA = ya (

Ground coordinates of point B are

XB = xb( )

YB = yb(

AB = horizontal distance = √ – – 2
)

Example 5

A vertical aerial photograph was taken with 152.4mm focal length camera from a flying height
of 1380m above datum. Images a and b of two ground points A and B appear on the photograph
and the measured photo coordinates are xa = -52.35mm ya = -48.27mm, xb = 40.64mm and yb =
43 88mm. Determine the horizontal length if the elevation of points A and B above datum
respectively 204.27m and 147.866m

–
XA = xa ( ) = -52.35 ( ) = - 403.868m

–
YA = -48.27( = - 372.866m

–
XB = xb ( ) = 40.64 ( ) = 328.6m

–
YB = 43.88( = 355.183m

AB = horizontal distance = √ – 2
) = 1033. .23m

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RELIEF AND TILT DISTORTIONS

Figure 10

Relief displacement is shift or displacement in the photographic position of an image caused by

the relief of the object in the elevation above or below datum. The displacement is outward for
points whose elevations are above datum and inward for points whose elevations are below
datum. The concept is illustrated in figure 10 which represents a vertical photograph taken from
a flying height H above datum. Camera focal length is f and o is the principal point. T he image
of terrain point A which has elevation hA above datum is located at a on the photograph. An
imaginary point A’ is located vertically beneath A in datum plane and its corresponding
imaginary image position is a’.

From the figure 10.

The equation =

Similarly

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 =

= r(H - hA) = r’H

Substituting d = r –r’

=d =

Where d = relief displacement

= h height above datum

= r = radial distance

= H = flying height

Example 6

A vertical photograph was taken from an elevation 1750m above mean sea level. The elevation
at the base of right most chimney in the upper left is 850 m above sea level. The relief
displacement d of the chimney measures 2.13mm and the radial distance to the top of the
chimney is 4.79mm.

Determine the height of the chimney

Solution

H –hA = 1750-850 = 900m

Using d =

=h= = = 400m

Example 7

A vertical photograph was taken at a flying height 1982m above datum with a camera having
152.4mm focal length. On the photo points a, b and c are images of points A, B and C corners of
a rectangular parcel of land. Their radial distances from the principal point are 91.42mm,
83.50mm and 70.06mm respectively. Corresponding ground elevations of points A, B and C are
254.57m, 182.93m and 137.19m above datum. Calculate relief displacement aa’, bb’ and cc’
necessary to locate the datum positions of a’, b’ and c’ of the points and calculate datum scale.
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Solution

=aa’ = = = 11.73mm

=bb’ = = = 7.71mm

= cc’ = = = 4.85mm

Datum scale = = = 1:13000

Example 7 KNEC (2016) diploma in Building

(a) A tower was photographed from an elevation of 1500m. The radial distances to the top and
the bottom of the tower from the principal point are 121.6mm and 91.2mm respectively. If the
bottom of the tower has an elevation of 300m, determine the height of the tower

(b) Three points A, B and C at elevations 1500m, 900m and 1200m respectively were selected in
order to determine the average scale of the photograph. If the flying height was 3600m and the
focal length was 220mm, calculate

Average scale

The corresponding length of a fence which measures 152.06 mm

Height above datum of the camera if the average altitude of the terrain is 2000m and the photo
scale was 1:5000

Solution

H –hA = 1500-300 = 1200m

=d = 121.6 – 91.2 =30.4mm

Using d =

=h= = = 400m

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TILT DISPLACEMENT

Figure 11

Figure 11 shows principal plane of tilted photograph taken from the exposure station L. The
figure also shows the plane of an equivalent vertical photograph. This is an imaginary truly
vertical photograph taken from the same exposure station as the tilted photograph with the same
camera. The bisector of the tilt angle intersects the plane of the tilted photo at a point I, which is
known as the isocenter. The line in the plane of the tilted photograph perpendicular to the
principal line and passing through the isocenter axis of tilt. This line is the line of intersection
between the plane of the tilted photo and the plane of the equivalent vertical photo

Tilt displacement is the radial distance from the isocenter to the image on the tilted photo
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The amount of tilt displacement d =

Example
A photograph having a tilt of 3ᴏ was exposed with a 152.4mm focal length camera. Radial
distance from the isocenter to a ceratin image point in the area above the axis of tilt measures
105mmm.the clockwise angle between the principal line and the radial line from the isocenter to
the point was 40 ᴏ

Determine the tilt displacement for the image

Solution

= = 2.3mm

Rectification

Cross ratios / anharminic

Difference between vertical photograph and map

Attribute Photograph Map

Projection A photograph is a perspective A topo map is an orthogonal

projection. In this type of projection. In this type of
projection the images are projection the images are
projected by lines that pass projected by lines that are
through the point( the parallel to each other.
perspective centre)

Scale The scale of an aerial The scale of the top map is

photograph varies from point uniform through out
to another, depending on the
variation of the height

Presentation of features The photograph shows the The topo map shows features
images of features. These by symbols .The symbols do
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 images are almost the replica not have to look like the
of the objects objects or features.

Relief presentation The photograph does not show The topo map shows relief by
relief. means of contours, hachures ,
Hill shading , spot heights
and formlines

Detail The photograph shows all The topo map shows only the
details appearing on the selected details and in the
photographed area chosen amounts. It does not
show all the detail. The
amount to be shown depends
on the sc ale.

Elements of image/photograph interpretation

During interpretation of photographs the following basic characteristics or variations of them:

shape, size, pattern, tone (or hue), texture, shadows, site, association, and resolution (Olson,
1960) are used.

Shape refers to the general form, configuration, or outline of individual objects in the case of
stereoscopic photos; the object's height also defines its shape. The shape of some objects is so
distinctive that their images may be identified solely from this criterion. The Pentagon building
near Washington is classic example. All shapes are obviously not this diagnostic, but every shape
is of some significance to the image interpreter.

Size of objects on images must be considered in the context of the image scale a small storage
shed, for example, might be misinterpreted as a barn if size is not considered. Relative sizes
among objects on images of the same scale must also be considered.

Pattern relates to the spatial arrangement of objects. The repetition of certain general forms or
relationships is characteristic of many objects, both natural and constructed, and gives objects a
pattern that aids the image interpreter in recognizing them. For example, the ordered spatial
arrangements s in an orchard is in distinct contrast to that of forest tree stands.
Tone (or hue) refers to the relative brightness or color of objects on an image

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Texture is the frequency of tonal change on an image . It is produced by an aggregation of unit
features that may be too small to be decerned individually on an image, such as tree leaves and
leaf shadows. It is a product of individual shape, size, pattern, shadow, and tone

Shadows are important to interpreters in two opposing respects ( i) shape or outline of a shadow
affords an impression of a profile view of objects (which aids interpretation) and (2) objects
within shadow reflect little light and are difficult to discern on an image
Site refers to topographic or geographic location and is a particularly important aid in the
identification of vegetation types. For example certain tree species would be expected to occur
on well-drained upland sites. Other tree species would be expected to occur on poorly drained
lowland
Association refers to the occurrences of certain features in relation to others

Resolution Depends on many factors but it always places a practical limit on interpretation
because some objects are too small or have too little contrast within their surroundings to be
clearly seen on the image

Elements of Image Interpretation for Landform Identification and Evaluation

Image interpretation for landform identification and evaluation is based a systematic observation
and evaluation of key elements that are studied! Stereoscopically. These are topography,
drainage pattern and texture, erosion image tone, and vegetation and land use.

Topography

Each landform and bedrock type described here has its own characteristic
topographic form, including a typical size and shape. In fact there often a distinct topographic
change at the boundary between two different landforms.

With vertical photographs having a normal 60 percent overlap, most individuals see the terrain
exaggerated in height about three or four" times. Consequently, slopes appear steeper than they
actually are. The s amount of vertical exaggeration observed in any given stereopair is a function
of geometric conditions under which the photographs are viewed and taken.

Drainage Pattern and Texture

The drainage pattern and texture seen on aerial and space images are indictors of landform and
bedrock type and also suggest soil characteristics and site drainage conditions.

Erosion
Gullies are small drainage features that may be as small as a meter and a hundred meters long.
They result from erosion of the unconsolidated material by runoff and develop where rainfall
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cannot adequately percolate into the ground but instead collects and flows across the surface in
small rivulets.

Image tone
The term image tone refers to the brightness at any point on an aerial or space image. The
absolute value of the image tone depends not only on the certain terrain characteristics but also
on the image acquisition factors such as film – filter combination ( or the bands used for
multispectral or hyperspectral scanning ) , exposure and photographic / data processing

Vegetation and land use

Differences in natural or cultivated vegetation often indicate differences in terrain conditions.

For example, orchards and vineyards are generally located on well drained soils, whereas truck
farming activities often take place on highly organic soils such as muck and peat deposits

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