Journal of Islamic Ethics 4 (2020) 155–200

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Al-Ghazālī’s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine

Names: The Theological Underpinnings of the
Doctrine of Takhalluq in al-Maqṣad al-Asnā
Yousef Casewit
Divinity School, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
[email protected]

Abstract

Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī’s (d. 505/1111) al-Maqṣad al-Asnā fī Sharḥ Maʿānī Asmāʾ Allāh
al-Ḥusnā (“The Highest Aim in Explaining the Meanings of God’s Most Beautiful
Names”) is more than just a commentary on the ninety-nine names of God. In set-
ting out to expound on a virtue ethical theory of the divine names, the Maqṣad in
effect amounts to a sustained theological meditation upon one of the most fundamen-
tal paradoxes of monotheism: how to locate and affirm both divine incomparability
(tanzīh) and comparability (tashbīh). In order to avoid any semblance of theological
immanentism, or “the affirmation of God’s comparability” (tashbīh), al-Ghazālī begins
by positing that an unbridgeable chasm, or irreducible “disparity” (tafāwut), separates
the Lord from the servant. This chasm accounts for a disconnect not only between
God’s unqualified Essence and the human being, but also between the transcendent
meanings (maʿānī) that reside in the Essence and our limited apprehension of those
transcendent meanings in the mind. At the same time, he insists that this chasm does
not annul the ethical relevance and ontological reality of the attributes (taʿṭīl). Rather,
the latter are somehow comparable (tashbīh) and do serve as prototype for human
ethical conduct. In addressing this apparent paradox, al-Ghazālī’s Maqṣad exudes a
palpable theological anxiety. This article explores the ways in which he addresses this

* A very special thanks to my colleagues Michael Abdurrahman Fitzgerald and Kenneth

Honerkamp for graciously hosting the author and his family in Ourika during the COVID-19
pandemic. It is in their homes that much of this article was written. I am also grateful to my
esteemed colleagues at the University of Chicago Divinity School for their feedback on an
earlier version of this paper that was presented at the Divinity School’s 2019 faculty retreat.
Finally, I am indebted to Taneli Kukkonen, Mehmet Emin Güleçyüz, Susan Lee, and Ashhar
Malik for their valuable feedback, and to Saiyad Nizammuddin Ahmad for his editorial
assistance and ḥadīth citations.

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‫‪156‬‬ ‫‪Casewit‬‬

‫‪theological conundrum by grounding his treatise in Ashʿarī theology and Sufi ethics.‬‬
‫‪It closely analyses his cautious use of diction, hyper-systematised exegetical meth-‬‬
‫‪odology, and staunch commitment to a set of hermeneutical principles which serve‬‬
‫‪to undergird his virtue ethical theory of the divine names. Later generations of com-‬‬
‫‪mentators picked up on al-Ghazālī’s theological anxiety, and critiqued the work for‬‬
‫‪excessive immanentism (tashbīh), excessive transcendentalism (tanzīh), or excessive‬‬
‫‪hermeneutical systematisation (takalluf ).‬‬

‫‪Keywords‬‬

‫– ‪al-Ghazālī – virtue ethics – divine names – Ashʿarism – Takhalluq – Theosis‬‬

‫‪Sufism – al-Qushayrī‬‬

‫الخلاصة‬

‫كتاب المقصد الأسنى في شرح معاني أسماء ال� ل�ه الحسنى لأبي حامد الغزالي (ت‪ )1111/505 .‬ليس مجر ّد‬
‫شرح لأسماء ال� ل�ه الحسنى التسعة والتسعين‪ ،‬بل إنه يرتقي في عرضه للأخلاق الفضيلة المستنبطة من‬
‫الأسماء الإلهية إلى تأمّل كلامي لمفهوم التوحيد في ح ّد ذاته‪ ،‬بمعنى أن ّه يفصل في كيفي ّة تحديد وتقرير‬
‫التنز يه الإلهي من جهة والتشبيه الإلهي من جهة أخرى‪ .‬ومن أجل تجن ّب تهمة التشبيه‪ ،‬يُصرّ الغزالي على‬
‫ن هذا التنز يه الإلهي لا يفصل بين ذات ال� ل�ه المطلقة والإنسان‬ ‫مبدأ التفاوت بين الرب والعبد‪ ،‬وعلى أ ّ‬
‫فحسب‪ ،‬بل كذلك بين المعاني المنزه ّة للذات وبين إدراكنا المحدود لتلك المعاني في العقل‪ .‬وعلى الرغم‬
‫ن جميع الأسماء قابلة للتخل ّق‪،‬‬
‫ن الغزالي يحذّر من خطر تعطيل الصفات تماماً‪ ،‬و يؤكّد أ ّ‬ ‫من هذا الفصل‪ ،‬فإ ّ‬
‫وأنّها تمث ّل المثال الأرقى في السلوك الأخلاقي الإنساني‪ .‬ويستشعر القارئ‪ ،‬خلال تتب ّعه لهذا التناقض‬
‫ِض هذا‬ ‫جلي ّا في كتاب المقصد‪ .‬و يعر ُ‬‫بين التنز يه لصفات ال� ل�ه وإمكانية تخل ّق الإنسان بها‪ ،‬توتّر ًا كلامي ًّا ً‬
‫ق التي يعالج بها الغزالي هذا التناقض الظاهر من خلال الكلام الأشعري والأخلاق الصوفية‪.‬‬ ‫ل للطر ِ‬
‫المقا ُ‬
‫كما يحل ّل استخدام حجة الإسلام الحذِر َ للمصطلحات‪ ،‬ومنهجه التفسيري البالغ التنظيم‪ ،‬والتزامه لمجموعة‬
‫من المبادئ التأو يلية التي تدعم نظريته الأخلاقية للأسماء الحسنى‪ .‬وقد لاحظت أجيال لاحقة من‬
‫المفسرين مخاوف الغزالي الكلامية‪ ،‬وانتقدوا المقصد إما باتهامهم له بالإفراط في التشبيه أو قولهم بمغالاته‬
‫في التنز يه‪ ،‬أو كذلك على أساس قولهم بتكل ّفه البادي في التأو يل‪.‬‬

‫الكلمات المفتاحية‬

‫الغزالي – أخلاق الفضيلة – الأسماء الإلهية – الأشعر ية – التخلق بأخلاق ال� ل�ه – التأله – التصوف – القشيري‬

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 157

1 Introduction

Al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) repeatedly emphasises in his writings that the intrin-
sic value of every branch of knowledge is judged by its subject matter. From
his perspective, knowledge of God’s names and attributes is the most exalted
science. For its subject is God, and God is only knowable through His names,
which serve as a prototype for human ethical conduct.1 Taking his lead from
generations of Muslim scholars before him, and urged by multiple requests
from his students, al-Ghazālī set out to expound on the theological significance
and ethical implications of God’s ninety-nine most beautiful names in his aptly
titled treatise, al-Maqṣad al-Asnā fī Sharḥ Maʿānī Asmāʾ Allāh al-Ḥusnā (“The
Highest Aim in Explaining the Meanings of God’s Most Beautiful Names”).
As an eminent theologian and Sufi ethicist, al-Ghazālī had already earned
himself a wide readership when he set out to write this treatise. He was thus
acutely attentive to the dangers of drawing lessons for human comportment
from the transcendent meanings (maʿānī) of the divine names; or in the bold
words of a purported Prophetic Tradition: “characterising oneself by the char-
acter traits of God” (al-takhalluq bi-akhlāq Allāh).2 For in contrast to deriving

1 See al-Ghazālī’s discussion of the divine attributes and names in Mīzān al-ʿamal, authored
in 488/1095, five years before the Maqṣad, and prior to al-Ghazālī’s departure from Baghdād.
See also his Jawāhir al-Qurʾān where he identifies knowledge of the Essence and attributes as
the highest portion of the Qurʾān (al-Ghazālī 2013, 61).
2 The transmission of the purported ḥadīth, “characterise yourself by the character traits of
God” (takhallaqū bi-akhlāq Allāh) does not meet the standards of ḥadīth criticism, and is re-
jected by most ḥadīth experts as a forged, or baseless ḥadīth that has no origin (lā aṣl lahu). See
for example the modern ḥadīth specialist Muḥammad Nāṣir al-Dīn al-Albānī (d. 1420/1999),
Silsilat al-Aḥādīth al-Ḍaʿīfa wa-l-Mawḍūʿa, 6:346, no. 2822 who upholds this view citing au-
thoritative works Jalāl al-Dīn al-Suyūṭī (d. 911/1505) and Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728/1328). Al-Suyūṭī
upholds this view of its having no origin in his Ta‌‌ʾyīd al-Ḥaqīqa al-ʿAliyya which, to the best of
my knowledge remains in manuscript. Evidently, al-Albānī was able to consult this work for
he states that this view is stated on folio “1/89” of Ta‌‌ʾyīd al-Ḥaqīqa al-ʿAliyya. Ibn Taymiyya’s
opinion is to be found in his Talbīs al-Jahmiyya fī Ta‌‌ʾsīs Bidaʿihim al-Kalāmiyya, 6:518. Therein
he too states that this ḥadīth has no origin and further claims that the statement made in
the alleged ḥadīth is of the same class as the doctrines of “theosis” (al-tashabbuh bi-l-Bāriʾ,
al-ta‌‌ʾalluh) taught by philosophers and Sabian star-worshipers. Interestingly, the alleged
ḥadīth is also quoted in Shīʿī sources in a similar context. See Muḥammad Bāqir al-Majlisī
(d. 1110/1699), Biḥār al-Anwār, 61:131 wherein he cites the ḥadīth in passing without giving
any source. This occurs towards the end of ch. 42 of the book which is devoted to the na-
ture of the human soul (Fī Ḥaqīqat al-Nafs wa-l-Rūḥ wa-Aḥwālihimā) and al-Majlisī mentions
that this ḥadīth expounds a doctrine identical to that of the falāsifa, namely al-tashabbuh
bi-l-ilāh. At the same time, many scholars argue that the meaning of the ḥadīth is acceptable
because it is affirmed by a variety of other authentic reports and narrations and in this sense
would count as being good in substance, or “affirmed by external reports” (ḥasan li-ghayrih).

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158 Casewit

an ethics of action from the Qurʾān and Prophetic Tradition through the re-
fined filters of jurisprudence ( fiqh) and legal theory (uṣūl al-fiqh), contemplat-
ing a virtue ethics of character in light of the divine names is a much riskier
undertaking. After all, God and His attributes are not analogous to anything.
Humans, as he puts it, are as blind to the perfection of God’s qualities as bats
are to the light of the sun. Al-Ghazālī’s Highest Aim is therefore to reveal the di-
vine root of human ethics. But in reflecting upon the nature of this divine root,
he would also challenge the prevalent theological approaches to the names.
This in turn would force his readers to think about and relate to both the divine
names, and human behaviour, in a different way, and therein lies a risk of being
misunderstood (al-Ghazālī 1971, 11–12).
In order to avoid any semblance of theological immanentism, or “the af-
firmation of God’s comparability” (tashbīh), al-Ghazālī begins by positing that
an unbridgeable chasm, or irreducible “disparity” (tafāwut) separates the Lord
from the servant. This chasm, or affirmation of God’s incomparability (tanzīh),
accounts for a disconnect not only between God’s unqualified Essence (al-dhāt
al-ilāhiyya) and the human being, but also between the meanings (maʿānī) that
reside in the Essence and our apprehension of those meanings in the mind.
Yet, in spite of this chasm, he affirms at the risk of denying the attributes (taʿṭīl)
altogether, that the names are somehow comparable (tashbīh) and do serve
as prototype for human ethical conduct. Divine mercy, for instance, is com-
parable to human mercy not only in a metaphorical sense (majāz) or because
both divine and human traits are described univocally, i.e. by the same word
(ishtirāk lafẓī), but also in a spiritual sense that goes beyond semantics. The
servant, he argues, experiences three stages of grace, or “shares” (sing. ḥaẓẓ) in
the names in progressive stages as he increases in self-knowledge. The first is
to cross from abstract belief in a name to concrete certitude of it. For instance,
a servant may understand God’s power by experiencing his own utter help-
lessness. The name the Powerful thus becomes immediately evident through
“demonstrative unveiling” (inkishāf burhānī). This demonstrative unveiling

Many sound and weak reports invite the servant to assume the traits of God, and as such,
the takhalluq tradition is used not as a prooftext but a catch-phrase in the Maqṣad and other
commentaries on the divine names to refer to this cluster of more reliable scriptural refer-
ences. According to al-Qushayrī, the expression is found in God’s statement to His prophet
David: “Characterise yourself by My character traits” (takhallaq bi-akhlāqī) (al-Qushayrī
2003, 310). This statement is ascribed to al-Wāsīṭī and cited by al-Sulamī in his Ḥaqāʾiq
(Gramlich 1995, 407). The expression is ascribed in various forms to a number of early figures
including ʿUthmān Ibn ʿAffān (d. 35/656), al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī (d. 110/728), Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī
(d. 245/859 or 248/862), Sahl al-Tustarī (d. 283/896), al-Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. ca. 318/936),
Abū Bakr al-Wāsiṭī (d. ca. 320/932), Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī (d. 421/1021) (Chiabotti
2017, 170–177).

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 159

gives rise to an ineluctable certainty and an irresistible attraction toward the

beautiful names, provided that the heart is purified of worldly attachments.
Finally, the name’s magnetic appeal draws the servant to a state of proximity
(qurb) to the angels and culminates in the bewildering realisation that only
God actually knows God, and that the servant knows His Lord only insofar as
he knows himself.
As it turns out, al-Ghazālī’s Maqṣad is more than just a commentary on
the ninety-nine names of God. It is a sustained meditation upon one of the
most fundamental paradoxes of monotheism: how to locate and affirm both
divine incomparability and comparability. For although God’s incomparability
(tanzīh) may seem easier to speak of than His comparability, both pose baffling
theological conundrums for al-Ghazālī. How is it even possible for a human
being to affirm God’s absolute transcendence and utter incommensurability?
Is not the very act of drawing a hard line between what is unknowable and
transcendent in God, and what is recognisable and immanent in Him, a quali-
fication and restriction of sorts that compromises God’s absoluteness? That is,
how can we even demarcate what we can and cannot know without some sort
of recognition of what lies on both sides of the boundary? Furthermore, since
we can only know and relate to God in terms that are familiar to us, aren’t we
merely calling God transcendent or immanent through our subjective human
prism? If this is indeed the case, and if we are the very boundary that sepa-
rates our understanding of God from God-in-Himself, then by recognising the
cognitive limitations of our knowledge of the divine, do we not also hint at
something beyond the boundaries of our cognitive abilities?
Many Sufis have responded to these apparent contradictions by evoking
the servant’s annihilation in ( fanāʾ) and subsistence through (baqāʾ) the Lord,
thereby collapsing the servant-Lord binary. Al-Ghazālī, as a Sufi theologian
with a broad readership, refuses to blur those lines. As a result, the Maqṣad ex-
udes a palpable theological anxiety. In laying out a theological framework for
the divine roots of human ethics, al-Ghazālī privileges the servant’s proximity
to an angelic ideal. He does not hold God as such, nor Adam’s primordial per-
fection (kamāl ādamī as Ibn ʿArabī would put it), as the human ethical ideal.
Although he grounds his treatise in Ashʿarī theology and Sufi ethics, his anxiety
is palpable in his cautious use of diction, and a hyper-systematised approach to
interpreting the divine names, and a staunch commitment to a set of semantic
and hermeneutical principles that undergird his ethical project and create a
space for it to operate within the boundaries of Ashʿarī theological orthodoxy.
These principles include his semantic theory of non-synonymity of the divine
names, an Avicennan-inspired notion of the names’ transcendent meanings
(sing. maʿnā), and Ashʿarī volitionism. Later generations of commentators

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160 Casewit

picked up on al-Ghazālī’s theological anxieties, and critique the work for ex-
cessive tashbīh, excessive tanzīh, or excessive hermeneutical systematisation
(takalluf ).

2 Genre and Precedents

Like most authors who contributed to this contemplative genre of religious

literature, al-Ghazālī was already a mature scholar when he set out to write the
Maqṣad around 495–499/1101–1105, sometime during his period of retreat in
Ṭūs. His monumental spiritual-ethical project, Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn (“The Revival
of the Religious Sciences”) had recently been completed and was still fresh
in his mind. Moreover, he had yet to return to public teaching in Nīshāpūr by
499/1105,3 although parts of the Maqṣad were clearly composed in conversa-
tion with a small circle of students. Setting aside the obvious differences of size
and scope between the voluminous Iḥyāʾ and the much smaller Maqṣad, both
works are broadly comparable in several ways.
First, the Iḥyāʾ and the Maqṣad are fundamentally interested in character
transformation: the cultivation of virtue and the cleansing of vice. Both works
build upon the efforts of previous scholars, such as al-ʿĀmirī (d. 381/992) and
al-Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī (d. 502/1108), who brought their knowledge of philo-
sophical ethics to bear upon religious literature, and vice versa. Al-Ghazālī’s
background in works of jurisprudence, Ashʿarī theology, and Sufism such
as al-Makkī’s (d. ca. 386/996) Qūt al-Qulūb (“Nourishment of the Hearts”) is
evident in the Iḥyāʾ and the Maqṣad. Both can thus be classified as works of
“normative religious ethics,” to use Hourani’s classification of Islamic ethics.
They are “normative” in their marked reliance on transmitted wisdom coupled
with rational argument, in contrast to strictly “analytical” works of ethics such
as Miskawayh’s (d. 421/1030) influential Tahdhīb al-Akhlāq (“Refinement of
Character Traits”), a treatise that prioritises rational deliberation over scrip-
tural guidance. Both are also “religious” works that rely heavily on scriptural—
Qurʾān, Prophetic Tradition, Sufi manuals, and jurisprudence ( fiqh)—rather
than “secular” or non-scriptural sources such as proverbs, poetry, or books of
advice for kings (Zargar 2017, 79–80).
Thus, both works are ethical projects that are built on the premise that re-
velatory guidance is indispensable to the field of ethics and religious practice.
Ethical conduct cannot be arrived at through rational demonstration and

3 Al-Ghazālī cites the Iḥyāʾ in the Maqṣad (e.g., al-Ghazālī 1971, 115, 127), and the Maqṣad in the
Munqidh min al-Ḍalāl which was composed at least one year after the Maqṣad in 500/1106.

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 161

apodictic proof (burhān). It must be directed by scriptural guidance, at whose

heart lies the divine names, because the rationalising intellect does not func-
tion in a sound manner if the heart is impure. Although praiseworthy virtues
pre-exist in the innate disposition of the human being ( fiṭra), the blamewor-
thy vices, which are accidental to it, can impair the intellect. As such, the intel-
lect cannot rediscover the human being’s innate disposition on its own, since
it is easily over-clouded by and rendered in the service of uncontrolled appe-
tites. Thus, the unaided intellect cannot reason its way to spiritual purification,
character perfection, or divine realisation (al-Ghazālī 1971, 11, 55).
Despite shared similarities, the Maqṣad is arguably a more theologically and
scripturally confined ethical project than the Iḥyāʾ, and as such it differs in
approach and organisational presentation when compared with the Iḥyāʾ’s dis-
cussions of the cardinal virtues. In the Maqṣad, he commits himself to a set of
theologically-informed hermeneutical principles that he consistently adheres
to throughout the text. Moreover, the virtues that he discusses are sequentially
ordered according to their order of appearance in the Prophetic Tradition of
the divine names narrated by Abū Hurayra (d. ca. 58/678).4 The Maqṣad thus

4 The ḥadīth that lists the ninety-nine names has a rather complex transmission and reception
history. The text (matn) is narrated (rāwī) on the authority of Abū Hurayra and contains two
parts. The first part reads: “Verily God has ninety-nine names, whoever reckons them (man
aḥṣāhā) enters the Garden.” This statement is transmitted through multiple chains of repu-
table Followers (tābiʿīn) and is listed in the soundest ḥadīth collections. In most reports, the
prophetic invitation to reckon (iḥṣāʾ) the ninety-nine names is followed by a second part that
lists the ninety-nine names. It is this second part that the narrations of the ḥadīth generally
differ. Abū Hurayra’s ḥadīth is narrated by way of (ṭarīq) three transmitters: (1) ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz
b. al-Ḥuṣayn (weak), (2) ʿAbd al-Malik b. Muḥammad al-Ṣanʿānī (weak); (3) and al-Walīd
b. Muslim (soundest—but still a weak ḥadīth with two to four intermediaries on the chain).
Within each of the lists, there are considerable discrepancies. These discrepancies are under-
standable given that the oral transmitters retained the first portion of the ḥadīth, but could
not retain all the names in the list. However, the lists are not always ascribed to the Prophet
and are considered by many ḥadīth authorities to be interpolations (mudraj) added by the
transmitter (rāwī), in this case, by al-Walīd b. Muslim from his ḥadīth teachers. Al-Ghazālī
bases his Maqṣad on the locus classicus of this celebrated ḥadīth narration found in the col-
lection of al-Tirmidhī wherein we find four narrations. His ḥadīth narration goes through
al-Walīd b. Muslim and the names in the list are considered to be weak. Moreover, there
are names in Tirmidhī (e.g. the Lord al-Rabb; et al) that are not mentioned in other lists.
See Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā b. Sawrah al-Tirmidhī (d. 279/892), Sunan, 2:899–900, no. 3847, 3848,
3849, and 3850. Of these it is only no. 3849, related by Abū Hurayra, which actually lists the
99 names discussed by al-Ghazālī. The list is found in this form only in al-Tirmidhī’s Sunan.
The isnād is Ibrāhīm b. Yaʿqūb al-Jūzjānī—Ṣafwān b. Ṣāliḥ—al-Walīd b. Muslim—Shuʿayb
b. Abī Ḥamza—Abū l-Zannād—al-Aʿraj—Abū Hurayra. It is also to be found in three places
(with varying isnāds but all going back to Abū Hurayra but without listing the 99 names) in
Muḥammad b. Ismāʿīl al-Bukhārī (d. 256/870), Ṣaḥīḥ, 1:527–528, no. 2774; 3:1302, no. 6485,

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162 Casewit

serves both as a concise supplement to the Iḥyāʾ, and an alternative way of

approaching the field of Islamic virtue ethics. The virtues in the Maqṣad are
broader in scope than those presented in the Iḥyāʾ, since they are based on
names of the divine Essence. At the same time, they are treated with less depth
than the cardinal virtues are in the Iḥyāʾ.
Tellingly, the idea of deriving ethical guidance from the divine names is al-
ready discussed and theorised to a limited extent in the Iḥyāʾ.5 However, the
theological consequences of this ambitious project are only fully worked out
in the Maqṣad. The Iḥyāʾ tends to focus on, but not limit itself to, the ethi-
cal consequences of the positive or beautiful traits of God, such as generos-
ity, kindness, mercy, and knowledge, for these obviously set an ethical ideal
for human comportment. Who would question the ethical relevance of, say,
the famous Prophetic Tradition: “The merciful are treated mercifully by the
All-Merciful”?6 The names of divine majesty and transcendence, such as the
Exalted or the Avenger, however, tend to be less invoked for ethical purposes.
Thus, what is absent from the Iḥyāʾ, but present in the Maqṣad, is a detailed
exposition of theologically informed virtues that stem from the full spectrum
of divine names and attributes, and a systematic and coherent framework to
derive ethical knowledge therefrom.

3 Situating the Maqṣad

Al-Ghazālī was not the first to produce a sustained meditation on the divine
roots of human ethics (takhalluq), nor does he claim to be. In fact, the Maqṣad

and 3:1492–1493, no. 7841. There are also two places (again with varying isnāds but all going
back to Abū Hurayra but without listing the 99 names) in Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, al-Musnad,
3:1578, no. 7618; III:1599, no. 7738. Finally, it is also to be found in two places (again with vary-
ing isnāds but all going back to Abū Hurayra but without listing the 99 names) in Muslim
b. al-Ḥajjāj al-Naysabūrī (d. 261/874), Ṣaḥīḥ, 2:1133, no. 6985, 6986. See also Jamāl al-Din Yūsuf
al-Mizzī (d. 742/1342), Tuḥfat al-Ashrāf, nos. 14,674; 14,536; 13,727; 13,674.
5 There are several substantial discussions of the theory of takhalluq in the Iḥyāʾ. See his
“Book on Poverty and Renunciation” under the heading “On the excellence of poverty over
affluence” (bayān faḍilat al-faqr ʿalā l-ghinā); and his “Book on Love” (kitāb al-maḥabba),
under the heading “Making clear that God alone is worthy of love” (bayān anna l-mustaḥiqq
liʾl-maḥabba huwa Allāh). In line with al-Makkī, al-Ghazālī describes fasting as “an assump-
tion of the divine character trait of self-sufficiency (ṣamadiyya)” in his “Book on the Secrets
of the Fast” (asrār al-ṣawm).
6 This ḥadīth, known as the ḥadīth of Mercy (al-Raḥma) or al-ḥadīth al-musalsal biʾl-awwaliyya
(lit. “The ḥadīth that is narrated first”) is traditionally the first ḥadīth that is taught to chil-
dren, and it is customary for ḥadīth lessons to begin with it. Al-Tirmidhī categorises it as
ḥasan ṣahīḥ in his Sunan (kitāb al-birr wa-l-ṣila).

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 163

displays a marked dependence upon an already well established and indepen-

dent genre of religious literature: the divine names tradition. He demonstrates
an awareness of this tradition in general, and is heavily indebted to al-Qushayrī’s
(d. 465/1074) ground-breaking commentary, al-Taḥbīr fī ʿIlm al-Tadhkīr (“The
Adornment of the Science of Exhortation”) in particular (Gimaret 1988, 25–
26; Ayed 1983, 295–298). This work, which was penned prior to al-Qushayrī’s
Sufi handbook, al-Risāla, as well as his Sufi exegesis Laṭāʾif al-Ishārāt, provides
the theological, Sufi, and ethical basis for al-Ghazālī’s ethical theory of the di-
vine names in the Maqṣad. It also influenced other similar works of the 6th/
12th century.7 In a sense, al-Qushayrī’s Taḥbīr is as theologically, mystically, and
ethically foundational to the Maqṣad as al-Makkī’s Qūt al-Qulūb is to the Iḥyāʾ.
It is the insights that al-Qushayrī compiles in his commentary on the names
that are featured most prominently in the Maqṣad.
The Taḥbīr, for its part, is a synthesis of at least three major interpretive
vectors, namely philological, theological, and Sufi. The first vector is exempli-
fied in philological commentaries (shurūḥ lughawiyya), such as Sha‌‌ʾn al-Duʿāʾ
(“Matters Concerning Supplication”) penned by the Shāfiʿī scholar al-Khaṭṭābī
(d. 388/998). Such works are predominantly lexicographic exercises in uncover-
ing the variety of meanings of each divine name.8 They function as precursors
to the second vector seen in theological texts, such as al-Bayhaqī’s (d. 458/1065)
classic, al-Asmāʾ wa-l-Ṣifāt (“The Names and Attributes”).9 This work takes the

7 Qushayrī’s Taḥbīr is extensively cited by al-Samʿānī (d. 535/1140) in his massive Persian com-
mentary on the divine names. See Chittick’s introduction to The Repose of the Spirits (Rawḥ
al-Arwāḥ) (al-Samʿānī 2019).
8 The earliest lexicographic compilations, including al-Khalīl b. Aḥmad’s (d. 170/786) Kitāb
al-ʿAyn, already showcase linguistic discussions of the divine names. Important in this
context is Abū Isḥāq al-Zajjāj’s (d. 311/923) short treatise, Tafsīr al-Asmāʾ, which consists of
linguistic analyses of the divine names from al-Tirmidhī’s list, with references to relevant
verses of poetry and scriptural prooftexts. Building upon the latter, Abū l-Qāsim al-Zajjājī’s
(d. 340/951) Ishtiqāq Asmāʾ Allāh (“Etymological Derivations of God’s Names”) highlights
the etymological roots of the names and incorporates materials from tafsīr literature into
his commentary. Divine names commentaries also build on definitions in Abū Sulaymān
al-Khaṭṭābī’s (d. 388/998) Sha‌‌ʾn al-Duʿāʾ (“Matters Related to Supplication”), a work on the
proper etiquette (adab) of supplication with an important section dedicated to linguistic
analysis of the names, which was popular in al-Andalus. Furthermore, al-Farrāʾ’s (d. 207/822)
Maʿānī l-Qurʾān (“The Meanings of the Qurʾān”) and al-Ṭabarī’s (d. 310/923) Qurʾān exegesis
are important early linguistic sources, as is Ibn Fāris’ (d. 395/1004) Arabic lexicon, Maqāyīs
al-Lugha.
9 Al-Bāqillānī (d. 402/1013) wrote his work from an Ashʿarī perspective, building upon
al-Khaṭṭābī’s Sha‌‌ʾn al-Duʿāʾ and a section on the names from al-Ḥalīmī’s (d. 403/1012) three-
volume theological work, Shuʿab al-Īmān (“The Branches of Faith”). Prior to al-Bāqillānī,
treatises and chapters on the divine names were usually included within larger theological
works, such as Ibn Khuzayma’s (d. 311/923) Kitāb al-Tawḥīd (“Book on Divine Oneness”) and

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164 Casewit

earlier philological discussions as its starting point and tries to work out the
meanings of the names within the Ashʿarī school of theology. The theological
texts, for their part, were often penned by Sufi-inclined theologians. These au-
thors were attentive to the fact that analysing the ultimacy of God’s names and
attributes also generates an awareness of His intimacy. Thus, al-Qushayrī, and
al-Ghazālī in his wake, exemplify the third vector in bringing their expertise in
Sufism to bear upon the divine names tradition.
From a broader historical developmental perspective, it is also important to
emphasise that the Maqṣad still represents a relatively early text in the genre.
It lacks at least two important approaches to the names which had yet to be
formulated and absorbed into the mainstream divine names commentaries
for obvious historical reasons. One is the ontological turn in the tradition that
was instigated by Ibn ʿArabī (d. 637/1240) and his students, who engage with
the names not from an Ashʿarī volitionist perspective but as ontological rela-
tionships (sing. nisba) between God and creation. This ontological turn raises
a host of new questions, and solves some of the theological anxieties that are
so clearly palpable in the Maqṣad. Thus, whereas al-Ghazālī treats names like
the Ever-Merciful (al-Raḥīm) or the Inflictor of Harm (al-Ḍārr) as aspects of
God’s will to bless or punish a servant, Ibn ʿArabī and his school prioritise the
servant’s subjective response to God’s singular reality depending on his ca-
pacity, or “preparedness” (istiʿdād) for that encounter. The servant responds
to the disclosed properties of these contrary names, displaying “agreeability”
(mulāʾama), “disagreeability” (munāfara), “readiness” (tahayyuʾ), or “prepared-
ness” (istiʿdād) for the divine self-disclosure. As such, God as “The Inflicter of
Harm” is really a manifestation of an unprepared servant’s response to His dis-
closure. Al-Ghazālī briefly evokes the concept of “agreeability” in the Maqṣad.10
But he prioritises Ashʿarī definitions of divine mercy and wrath as God’s will to
bless or punish in order to avoid the implication that God is qualified by im-
perfect human emotions and psychological states. In contrast to the Ashʿarīs,
7th/13th century commentators like Ibn ʿArabī, al-Qūnawī (d. 672/1274), and
ʿAfīf al-Dīn al-Tilimsānī (d. 690/1291) equate divine mercy (raḥma) with the act

Ibn Manda’s (d. 395/1004) Kitāb al-Tawḥīd wa-Maʿrifat Asmāʾ Allāh (“Book on Divine
Oneness and Knowledge of God’s Names”). Other important theological material
on the names is found in ʿAbd al-Jabbār’s (d. 415/1025) summa of theology al-Mughnī,
al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī’s (d. 463/1071) Qurʾān commentary; al-Juwaynī’s (d. 478/1085) Kitāb
al-Irshād; al-Bayhaqī’s (d. 458/1066) Iʿtiqād and al-Jāmiʿ li-Shuʿab al-Īmān; and Ibn Fūrak’s
(d. 406/1015) Mujarrad (Gimaret 1988, 15–35).
10 See al-Ghazālī’s discussion of the name the Majestic (al-Jalīl), and the perception (idrāk)
of God’s beauty and majesty (al-Ghazālī 1971, 126).

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 165

of creation (ījād) and privilege the doctrine of the Breath of the All-Merciful
(nafas al-Raḥmān).
In addition to this ontologising approach, the Maqṣad is also virtually de-
void of a second approach: occult meditations on the names and the symbol-
ism of the letters (ʿilm al-jafr). These approaches—which are both an outcome
of the ontological turn in the tradition and a result of the re-introduction of
elements within early Sufi thought that were cautiously filtered out of the
classical Sufi treatises up to al-Ghazālī’s time—occupy an important place in
commentaries written after the 7th/13th century. Instead of emphasising the
ethical implications of the names, later commentators also tended to include
discussions of the talismanic, magical, and healing properties of the names as
remedies to ailments in the soul. These remedies, which are acquired by invok-
ing the names, are a common feature of divine names commentaries in the
later Islamic Middle period. Traces of this discourse are found in earlier Sufi
and Shīʿī texts, and are featured prominently in al-Būnī’s (d. 622/1225) writings,
but are completely absent from the Maqṣad. From a broad historical perspec-
tive, therefore, the Maqṣad can be defined as a work of “theological Sufism”
that prioritises and synthesises three early interpretive strands in the pre-Ibn
ʿArabī commentary tradition: philological, theological, and Sufi-ethical.

4 Structure of the Maqṣad

Structurally, the Maqṣad is a compilation of three distinct parts, or disciplines

( funūn), and each part of the book consists of self-standing chapters (abwāb).
The first three chapters act as a prelude to the commentary on the names
and set forth al-Ghazālī’s hermeneutical principles. They stand as buttresses
against excessive tashbīh and tanzīh, and create space for his theory of takhal-
luq to operate within the bounds of Ashʿarism. Setting these chapters aside,
al-Ghazālī’s actual commentary on the ninety-nine names is quite short and
concise, spanning less than one hundred pages in Shihadeh’s 1971 edition. It is
certainly the longest chapter of the Maqṣad, but is relatively short when com-
pared to the fifty-page introductory discussions of the Maqṣad or to other vo-
luminous works.11

11 Compare with commentaries by al-Qushayrī, Ibn al-Uqlīshī, Ibn Barrajān, or Abū Bakr
b. al-ʿArabī. Moreover, the text features various types of subheadings, such as a “subtle
point” (daqīqa) that usually offer a theological insight; a “beneficial tip” ( fāʾida) regard-
ing a name; or a moral hortatory section (tanbīh) where the servant’s “share” in a name
is typically discussed. The Maqṣad even features question-and-answer sections which
al-Ghazālī likely wrote after oral interactions with students during his composition of the

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166 Casewit

Al-Ghazālī typically comments on each entry bottom-up. He begins by of-

fering a very succinct philological explanation of a name, which he then cap-
tures conceptually and transposes on to the divine plane to give a sense of
its transcendent meaning and theological implication. He often illustrates the
maʿnā of a name through a brilliant metaphor or allegory, and stresses dis-
similarity and non-qualification of God throughout. For some names, such
as the Reckoner (al-Ḥasīb) in the hereafter, he proclaims that the name is al-
most completely inaccessible and unobservable since its meanings have yet
to be fully disclosed. Al-Ghazālī also stresses that it is not enough to grasp
the linguistic-morphological analysis of a divine name (ishtiqāq), or even to
imagine its pure, supra-formal, supra-sensory meaning (tawahhum al-maʿnā);
what is necessary is the realisation (taḥqīq) and witnessing (mushāhada) of
the names (al-Ghazālī 1971, 122). Having said that, al-Ghazālī then offers his
reflections on cultivating its ethical properties.

5 Modes of Consolidation, Filtration and Self-Censorship

One of al-Ghazālī’s main goals in this work is brevity, clarity, and concision.
This he achieves with remarkable eloquence and often in rhyming prose. Many
of al-Ghazālī’s concise entries are summaries of al-Qushayrī’s lengthier entries.
These borrowings are so frequent that they are hardly worth citing, and a brief
comparison between the two texts is sufficient to show the extent of his in-
debtedness to the Taḥbīr. However, al-Ghazālī’s ethical insights are selectively
appropriated and abridged from the Taḥbīr on the basis of his theological pri-
orities. As a result, the names that receive shorter commentaries in the Maqṣad
tend to be heavily informed by the Taḥbīr, whereas the names that al-Ghazālī
dwells upon at length tend to be his own original compositions. Although it
may be tempting to assume that the Maqṣad is most original in these long tan-
gents because they mark a clear departure from al-Qushayrī’s commentary,12 I
would argue that the instances of filtration and synthesis are equally revealing
of al-Ghazālī’s authorial creativity.

text. Furthermore, internal cross-references within the treatise indicate that the Maqṣad
was written sequentially from beginning to end, a fact which would explain some of the
inconsistencies between the introductory chapters and the concluding chapters over the
question of whether or not the divine names are limited to ninety-nine.
12 See for instance his extensive discussion and illustrative examples of the All-Preserving
(al-Ḥafīẓ), and how God preserves a drop from evaporating by means of an angel
(al-Ghazālī 1971, 119–22).

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 167

Al-Ghazālī’s departures from the Taḥbīr feature themes and sections that ex-
cite him and he cannot resist devoting more attention to them (al-Ghazālī 1971,
75, 92, 101). For instance, al-Ghazālī gives special attention to the problem of
theodicy under the names the All-Merciful (al-Raḥmān) and the Ever-Merciful
(al-Raḥīm) (al-Ghazālī 1971, 67), explaining how God is Ever-Merciful yet
permits so much misery in the world. Or again, the name the Determiner
(al-Ḥakam) features an extended and ingenious water clock metaphor to illus-
trate how God engineers the cosmos, while and the name the Exalted (al-ʿAlī)
receives extensive discussion on spatiality, and what it means to say that God
is not spatially determined or qualified (al-Ghazālī 1971, 115–118). Al-Ghazālī is
also keen to provide detailed explanations of the concept of divine governance
(tadbīr), decree (qaḍāʾ) and determination (taqdīr) (al-Ghazālī 1971, 98–105).
The shorter condensations of al-Qushayrī’s work feature patterns of theo-
logical filtration, synthesis, and selective appropriation. The first mode of
synthesis is simply when al-Ghazālī wishes to be brief (al-Ghazālī 1971, 136),
or to avoid redundancy (al-Ghazālī 1971, 140) or to avoid stating an obvious
point (al-Ghazālī 1971, 146). He dispenses with the poetry, the anecdotes, the
scriptural roots of the names in the Qurʾān, and instead offers his own illustra-
tive metaphors. When he senses that more discussion is in order, he typically
points his reader to a relevant book in the Iḥyāʾ or to a different divine name
within the Maqṣad. In other instances, however, one detects the suppression
of material that the author considers to be theologically objectionable or ratio-
nally inchoate. For instance, he finds much of the accumulated material on the
name the Light (al-Nūr) to be vague, incoherent, and not worth engaging. Thus
al-Ghazālī brushes this genre of mystical reflection aside and provides his own
tightly framed insight. (al-Ghazālī 1971, 158).
In some cases, al-Ghazālī chooses to be succinct in order to filter out mys-
tical discussions that he seems to approve of, but which he considers to be
too esoteric to be divulged in his book (al-Ghazālī 1971, 134). These moments
of self-censorship are meant to be revealing, at least to the educated reader,
since he informs the reader that he is cautiously filtering out material from
the text. These instances also suggest that like the Iḥyāʾ, al-Ghazālī wrote the
Maqṣad for a broad readership. For instance, in his discussion of the names the
Powerful (al-Qādir) and the Potent (al-Muqtadir), al-Ghazālī ends his discus-
sion with the tight-lipped statement: “and beyond this lie depths that a book
such as this one cannot bear” (al-Ghazālī 1971, 145). This seems to suggest his
tacit approval of statements by early Sufis such as al-Tustarī (d. 283/896) who
blur the lines between the annihilated servant and the eternal Lord. Al-Tustarī
speaks of himself as having aligned his desires with God’s will to the extent that
the divine-human volitional binary is no longer discernible and the servant

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168 Casewit

acts by and through God’s will. Al-Tustarī proclaims Qurʾānic verses, such as
God’s command is to say be and it is, as being applicable to himself since he
is completely aligned with God’s will. Al-Ghazālī seems to tacitly approve of
this idea of complete annihilation in God’s will, but considers it to be too risky,
confusing, or misleading to share in his treatise.
Al-Ghazālī’s authorial resourcefulness is also on full display in his discus-
sions of polysemic names of God. His linguistic definitions of these names
are typically based on selections from al-Qushayrī’s text. However, al-Ghazālī
puts philology in the service of theology and his selection process is guided
by his theological priorities. For instance, when al-Qushayrī explores poly-
semic names like the Guardian (al-Muhaymin), he offers several definitions
and notes how several of its meanings converge with other names such as the
Watchful (al-Raqīb), the Preserver (al-Ḥāfiẓ), or the Trustworthy (al-Amīn).
Having set the stage, al-Qushayrī enters into a multifaceted theological and
ethical discussion of the name. In contrast, al-Ghazālī begins with the a priori
theological assumption that each name only carries one meaning (see below),
and his discussion of al-Muhaymin is framed in such a way that the meanings
of other names do not overlap with it.
In addition to the theological filters that al-Ghazālī imposes upon philo-
logical discussions, he is also dismissive of certain classical discussions that
typically attract extensive commentary. These departures from convention
are revealing as well. For example, lengthy discussions over whether the all-
encompassing divine name Allāh (al-ism al-jāmiʿ) is etymologically derived
from a triconsonantal Arabic root receive lengthy treatment in al-Qushayrī
and other commentaries. Discussions over the dozen possible roots of Allāh
tend to span several pages in the major commentaries and offer a space for
reflection. But the debate is dismissed in the Maqṣad as futile and passed over
in silence. Whereas an author like al-Qushayrī would capitalise on the plural-
ity of meanings and possible etymological roots to reap abundant theologi-
cal and ethical insights, al-Ghazālī sees such discussions as opening the door
to arbitrariness. These discussions complicate his ethical project which relies
on a stable set of semantic principles (non-synonymity, monosemy); i.e., that
each divine name can only be associated with a single meaning and must have
a single root. Following al-Juwaynī’s (d. 478/1085) lead in the Irshād (al-Juwaynī
1950, 144), he simply states:

It seems most likely that the denotation of this name follows according to
the manner of proper names; thus everything that has been said about its
etymological derivation and its [multiple] definition[s] is arbitrary and
artificially imposed.
al-Ghazālī 1995, trans. Burrell and Daher with some modifications, 51
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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 169

Likewise, in contrast to the theologically rigorous foundations of the

Maqṣad, al-Ghazālī has little interest in engaging in debates over the Qurʾānic
or ḥadīth foundations of the names, and his discussions of this topic are
rather inconsistent and lacking in rigor. He does not devote much attention
to the complicated transmission history of the divine names in the Prophetic
Tradition. Like many early commentaries of the period, he is content to se-
quence his commentary according to the order of appearance of the names in
Abū Hurayra’s narration as it is transmitted by al-Walīd b. Muslim (d. 194/810)
in the Sunan collection of al-Tirmidhī (d. 279/892). This list of names, which is
not arranged theologically, follows roughly their patterns in the Qurʾān where
pairs of names are often mentioned sequentially.13 Moreover, al-Tirmidhī’s is
one among several lists, and it omits key divine names that are affirmed by the
Qurʾān such as the Only (al-Aḥad) vs. the One (al-Wāḥid).
Toward the end of the Maqṣad, al-Ghazālī confesses that the ninety-nine
names on his list are not necessarily the ones that the Prophet intended when
he stated that God has ninety-nine names. He affirms that the names are some-
how ninety-nine, even as he acknowledges that the number of names that have
come down to us through the different famous narrations (riwāyāt) far exceeds
that number.14 Likewise, if one were to derive divine names from Qurʾānic
verbs and acts ascribed to God, then the list would grow beyond ninety-nine.
He appeals to using this list following the convention of the genre since it is
the most famous narration.15 While many post-Ghazālian commentators were
keen to comment on as many names as they could track down in scripture,
al-Ghazālī chooses to apply his rather rigid theological framework for takhal-
luq on a stable inventory of divine names. Later generations of commentators
attempt to cover as many names as possible, and try to comment on every
possible name transmitted to us. In contrast, al-Ghazālī is primarily attentive

13 E.g., the Source of Safety (al-Muʾmin) and the Guardian (al-Muhaymin), or the Living
(al-Ḥayy) and the Self-Sustaining (al-Qayyūm).
14 Sufyān b. ʿUyayna (d. 198/813–4) and other scholars have derived ninety-nine names from
the Qurʾān, and Ibn al-Uqlīshī lists these names and their location in the Qurʾān (Ibn
al-Uqlīshī 2017, 1:177). ʿAfīf al-Dīn al-Tilimsānī apparently structures his commentary on
the names on the basis of Ibn ʿUyayna’s list.
15 In his conclusion to the first chapter ( faṣl 1), al-Ghazālī holds that the names are not nu-
merically limited (maḥṣūr) by the ḥadīth of ninety-nine names, since many names that
are mentioned in the Qurʾān and ḥadīth are not in the list. However, in the second chapter
( faṣl 2), al-Ghazālī attempts to demonstrate the benefit of specifying ninety-nine names,
and here he seems to contradict himself regarding whether there are ninety-nine names
or more. Then in part three ( fann 3) he holds that the names are not confined to ninety-
nine. Al-Ghazālī’s thought seems to have evolved over the course of his composition of
the text.
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170 Casewit

to the theological hermeneutics that guide his approach to the names, and
therefore devotes relatively little consideration to their scriptural foundations.16

6 The Semantic Foundations of Takhalluq

6.1 Semantic Theory

In line with a number of previous commentaries on the divine names, includ-
ing al-Qushayrī’s, al-Ghazālī devotes Chapter One (al-faṣl al-awwal) of the
Maqṣad to stake out his position on the debate over the theory of significa-
tion; that is, whether the name (ism) of a thing is identical to the thing-in-itself
(ʿayn al-musammā), or whether they are distinct. Here, al-Ghazālī’s theological
framework is truly original. It should be noted that in entering into this discus-
sion, al-Ghazālī is engaging in a discourse that has Greek precedents and a long
genealogy tracing back to debates between Arabic grammarians as well as the
Ahl al-Ḥadīth and the Muʿtazilī theologians (Maghsoudlou 2017). For the lat-
ter, semantic debates had a bearing upon such questions as the createdness or
eternity of the Qurʾān, and whether the essential attributes (Life, Knowledge,
Power, Will) are positive attributes that are superadded to the Essence (zāʾida
ʿalā l-dhāt) and coeternal with It, or whether they are negative attributes that
are original to It. References to the theory of signification are noted already by
al-Ṭabarī (d. 310/923) who quotes Aḥmad Ibn Ḥanbal (d. 241/855) as the earli-
est traditionist to respond to the Muʿtazilī claim that the name and the named
are distinct. Other early traditionists, including al-Ṭabarī and Ibn Ḥanbal’s dis-
ciple, Ibrāhīm al-Ḥarbī (d. 285/898), refrained from this debate altogether and
dismissed it as a futile waste of time.
For Muʿtazilīs, this debate was anything but futile. In the simplest terms,
affirming that the name is other than the named, or that God is other than His
names, for them entails that the divine names are created, and this was a case
in point for their arguments over the createdness of the Qurʾān. In other words,
Muʿtazilīs insist that the names are vocables, or temporally originated and ut-
tered words (sing. lafẓ ḥādith). They are non-eternal, hence created, just like
the Qurʾān, for God did not call Himself by them in pre-eternity (azal). This
position is, according to many early and later scholars, a flat heresy (al-Ghazālī

16 After al-Ghazālī, Sufi-Ashʿarī commentaries on the names including Abū Bakr. b. al-ʿArabī,
Ibn Barrajān, al-Qurṭubī, and Ibn al-Uqlīshī tend to engage a longer list of names. These
authors also ordered them differently. For instance, Ibn al-Uqlīshī’s commentary is al-
phabetically arranged; Abu Bakr b. al-ʿArabī’s is ordered hierarchically according to the
name’s proximity to God; Ibn Barrajān groups his names into theological categories; and
al-Tilimsānī’s follows the names as they appear in the Qurʾān.

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 171

1971, 42–43). In responding to the early Muʿtazilī debates with Ahl al-Ḥadīth,
the succeeding Ashʿarī scholars such as Ibn Fūrak (d. 406/1015), al-Qushayrī,
and al-Baghawī (d. 516/1122), side with the Ahl al-Ḥadīth in affirming that the
name is identical to the named. That is, the name is what is intended by the
verbal utterance (al-murād bi-l-lafẓ). They affirm an identity relation between
God and His names in order to avoid the implication that the Qurʾān is cre-
ated. In effect, they collapse the name (ism) and the named (musammā), and
refuse to identify the names of God with mere temporally originated vocables
(sing. lafẓ).17
Departing from the classical Ashʿarī position over the identification of the
name and the named, al-Ghazālī affirms the position that the name and the
named are distinct. He sides with theological outliers—Muʿtazilīs and Ibn
Ḥazm (d. 456/1064) whom he mentions in the Maqṣad—but is followed by
many late Ashʿarī thinkers including al-Rāzī (d. ca. 544/1210) in his commentary
al-Lawāmiʿ (Gimaret 1988, 27–30; al-Rāzī 1905, 21–28). Al-Ghazālī affirms that
the name, the named, and the act of naming are three distinct things (umūr
mutabāyina), unless the “name” is loosely employed to denote the mean-
ing of the name; and the thing named is its essence or quiddity (māhiyya).
He explains that words that human beings employ to signify various entities
may vary according to time and convention, whereas the existence of those
entities-in-themselves (aʿyān), and how they are experienced and conceptual-
ised within the human mind remains the same (Kukkonen 2010, 68).
Just as the maʿnā of a thing is an object of knowledge (maʿlūm) whose reali-
ty resides in the thing-in-itself (ʿayn), the maʿnā of God’s name resides in God’s
very entity (ʿayn); His Essence. This maʿnā is the eternal (qadīm) origin (aṣl)
of the name, or an attribute (ṣifa) of God. The Qurʾān twice criticises idolaters
for worshipping nothing but names that they have named (Q 12:40; 53:23). For
idols have names (ism); names that possess no reality (musammā). They are
unreal (bāṭil) since there is no maʿnā within the idols’ entities (aʿyān). In con-
trast to empty names of idols, the most beautiful names of God (ism) convey

17 Later Sunnī traditionists, such as Ibn Taymiyya and his followers, contend that a name
is for, or belongs to, the named (al-ism lil-musammā), as per the Qurʾānic verse to God
belong the most beautiful names (Q 7:180). According to this position, a name is not the
named, but it conveys the named. The mystic Ibn ʿArabī’s position in this semantic de-
bate, however, is that the name is identical with the named if by “name” we mean the
primordial eternal names that have no qualification nor etymological derivation. That is,
the name of the name. But if we mean the names that are contained in human language,
then they are other than the named. Ibn al-ʿArabī’s solution to the problem of the name
and the named is thus to affirm both the Ashʿarī and the Muʿtazilī positions at different
ontological levels (Ibn ʿArabī 2010, 10).

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172 Casewit

the knowledge that humans can grasp through the human mind (dhihn) about
the named (maʿlūm) realities in divinis. Being a mental form of cognition, this
knowledge is a non-eternal (ḥādith) form (ṣūra) of the eternal maʿānī in God.
For instance, the uttered expression, “the Merciful” (al-Raḥīm) is an indicative
signifier (dalīl) of what humans can grasp and vocalise (lafẓ) on the tongue
(lisān) about the maʿnā of mercy in the Essence.
However, al-Ghazālī’s semantics also affirms the early Ashʿarī position to a
certain extent. For these non-eternal names that are inspired on the tongues
of humans and affirmed in scripture were also known by God in pre-eternity.
Gesturing to the early Ashʿarī identification of the name and the named,
al-Ghazālī affirms that while the names are non-eternal because they are ut-
tered, they are also pre-eternal (azalī) in the sense that they pre-exist in God’s
knowledge prior to their manifestation. The names were hidden in the world
of non-manifestation (buṭūn) or in potential (bi-l-quwwa). Even names like the
Creator (al-Khāliq) are pre-eternal in potential (azalī bi-l-quwwa) prior to cre-
ation (al-Ghazālī 1971, 30–32).
By appealing to his semantic concept of maʿānī as immutable realities,
transcendent attributes, or ineffable meanings of the Essence in pre-eternity
(thābita fī l-azal), al-Ghazālī anticipates the classical Ashʿarī criticism of his
position. He affirms that the eternal maʿānī precede the non-eternal designa-
tions of those maʿānī on the tongue, through the Arabic language, in the form
of the divine names (al-Ghazālī 1971, 30–31). Yet the “names of the names” exist
in pre-eternity in God’s knowledge prior to the names. Thus, God was all-holy
and all-knowing in pre-eternity before He took on or was worshipped through
the names the All-Holy (al-Quddūs) and the All-Knowing (al-ʿAlīm). The now
created names al-Quddūs and al-ʿAlīm were known to Him “in potential” in the
world of non-manifestation (buṭūn).
Al-Ghazālī’s semantics is already discussed in his “Intentions of the Philoso­
phers” (Maqāṣid al-falāsifa). Moreover, as Kukkonen has shown (Kukkonen
2010), the semantics in the Maqṣad bears traces of the Peri hermeneias and
Organon tradition, mediated through al-Farābī (d. 339/950) and Avicenna’s
(d. 427/1037) philosophies of language. His semantic discussion on what it
means to assign a name (ism) to a thing (shayʾ) is built on the Graeco-Arabic
Peri hermeneias tradition, and al-Farābī’s commentary on Aristotle’s theory
of signification is treated as a theoretical problem in Peripatetic Avicennan
fashion.
But how does his Avicennan-inspired semantic position have traction in
al-Ghazālī’s commentary on the names? The answer lies in the ethical aims
of his treatise. Al-Ghazālī enters into the age-old debate over the theory of sig-
nification with not only a new philosophical toolkit, but a different agenda

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 173

in mind. He echoes al-Ṭabarī’s complaint about the futility of this debate, but
delves into the discussion with an aim to establish a semantic principle that
creates theological stability for his ethical theory of takhalluq. To be clear:
al-Ghazālī’s Avicennan-informed semantics that posits a difference between
the divine name and the named reality reinforces his insistence on transcen-
dentalism and incomparability of the maʿānī of God’s names, or the “divine
character traits” (akhlāq) even as he affirms the ability of the human servant
to acquire those traits to a certain extent. The maʿānī of the divine names, or
the character traits of God, correspond to the universals in divinity (al-maʿānī
al-ʿulā of Avicenna), while the character traits (akhlāq) acquired by perfected
human souls are the particulars. Al-Ghazālī’s semantics provide the theological
foundations for his claim that humans can acquire virtue and ethical guidance
in light of the names without running the risk of theological immanentism
(tashbīh) because it enables him to draw a line between the higher and in-
expressible metaphysical maʿnā in divinis and the divine name which actual-
ises that maʿnā in the believer on the mental and ethical planes. Al-Ghazālī’s
semantics thus affirm the sublimity of the names on the one hand, and the
imperfection and non-eternity of human embodiment of those maʿānī on the
other. This point will be explored further below.

6.2 The Non-Synonymity (Manʿ al-Tarāduf) and Monosemy of the

Divine Names
Following his semantic discussion about the distinction between the named
and the name, al-Ghazālī introduces two hermeneutical principles that com-
plement his semantics and undergird his theory of takhalluq. He insists, first,
that the divine names by definition are not synonymous, and second, that each
name carries one single overarching meaning in divinis. That is, each name has
only one, distinct meaning that it does not share with others regardless of how
close the names may appear.
Al-Ghazālī discusses non-synonymity in Chapter Two of the Maqṣad, and
proclaims it to be an unprecedented hermeneutical move. This principle of
non-synonymity is an offshoot of his semantic theory and is premised on there
being ninety-nine “official” and exclusive names of God. However, al-Ghazālī
later admits that pinpointing all the names scripturally is a task that poses
many challenges. He contends nonetheless that a divine name by defini-
tion, or by virtue of being among the “official” ninety-nine names, must have
one overarching maʿnā. Names are not divine by virtue of their consonants
(ḥurūf ) or the way they are articulated in the throat (makhārij). According to
al-Ghazālī’s line of thinking, synonymity among the names makes no sense.
For if two names were to share the same meaning, then (1) either one of them

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174 Casewit

is not on the list;18 or (2) commentators have failed to show different meanings
of names, instead only underscoring differences in emphasis and scope.19
Al-Ghazālī accepts affinity (tanāsub) among the names, but not synonym-
ity (tarāduf ), and he holds that most mistakes and confusions in the divine
names tradition arise from the failure of commentators to distinguish between
the meanings (maʿānī) of the equivocal names (al-asmāʾ al-mushtaraka). The
names, he contends, may share qualities—e.g., the quality of majesty is com-
mon to the Great (al-Kabīr), the Exalted (al-ʿAlī), and the Supreme (al-ʿAẓīm)—
but there are significant modal differences between these names. Furthermore,
differences between the names are sometimes due to differences in scope. For
instance, the Independent (al-Ghanī) is subsumed under the King (al-Malik)
since all kings are independent, but not all independents are kings. This prin-
ciple, to al-Ghazālī’s mind, acts as a deterrent against theological and ethical
ambiguity. Moreover, it is theologically substantiated by a concluding chap-
ter in the Maqṣad where he demonstrates how each name traces back to the
Essence through one of the seven essential attributes (al-Ghazālī 1971, 172–74).
The principle of non-synonymity moulds the Maqṣad in creative ways.
In order to adhere to this principle, he either appeals to names’ contextual
usage in the Qurʾān, emphasises morphological (ṣarf ) distinctions, or assigns
names to specific cosmological levels. He appeals to Qurʾānic context, for in-
stance, when he engages with two pairs of contrary names: the Exalter and
the Abaser (al-Muʿizz, al-Mudhill) on the one hand, and the Lowerer and the
Uplifter (al-Khāfiḍ, al-Rāfiʿ) on the other. In order to distinguish between these
two pairs of names, al-Ghazālī highlights that the Exalter and the Abaser are
used in the Qurʾān (Q 3:26) to refer specifically to the giving or taking away of
sovereign ownership, in contrast to the Lowerer and the Uplifter which refer
to eschatological felicity and wretchedness, or proximity and distance from
God (al-Ghazālī 1971, 94–95). Al-Ghazālī also appeals to morphological dif-
ferences between the names to highlight the subtle but meaningful distinc-
tions between divine names that share the same triconsonantal root, such as
the names of concealment and forgiveness, al-Ghāfir, al-Ghafūr, al-Ghaffār
(Gh-F-R).20 As for employing cosmology, al-Ghazālī rejects synonymity among
names that refer to God’s creation and devising (ikhtirāʿ), including the Creator
(al-Khāliq), the Maker (al-Bāriʾ), and the Form-Giver (al-Muṣawwir). He places

18 E.g. al-Aḥad, the Only, is not included in Abū Hurayra’s list, because al-Aḥad and al-Wāḥid,
the One, denote divine oneness (tawḥīd).
19 E.g., al-Ghāfir, al-Ghafūr, al-Ghaffār (al-Ghazālī 1971, 36).
20 Al-Ghazālī points out differences in meaning between al-Ghāfir (root of concealment of
sin, maghfira), al-Ghafūr (intensity of concealment of many types of sin), and al-Ghaffār
(the repeated concealment of sin) (al-Ghazālī 1971, 41).

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 175

each name at a distinct cosmogonic level: (1) the Creator measures out and
determines all things (taqdīr), (2) the Maker brings things forth from nonex-
istence to existence (ikhrāj min al-ʿadam ilā l-wujūd), and (3) the Form-Giver
imparts each existent thing its unique form (taṣwīr).21
In Chapter Three, al-Ghazālī drives his point home by insisting that each
name carries only one meaning. The names are “most beautiful,” for each car-
ries a meaning of perfection, mercy, glory, grandeur, or eternity that befits it.
Pushing against al-Shāfiʿī’s position in al-Uṣūl, he appeals to early Arab conven-
tions of speech to make his case. For instance, when Arabs use a polysemic
word like ʿayn (spring-source, essential identity, eye, etc.), they intend one of
its dozens of meanings, not all of them at once. Al-Ghazālī objects to the posi-
tion adopted by most commentators who take a name to mean multiple things,
to have many maʿānī, as long as those maʿānī are not rationally or theologically
problematic. He ignores scholarly debates over the “differences of meaning”
(ikhtilāf fī l-maʿnā), and in contrast to al-Qushayrī, al-Ghazālī tends to provide
narrower and monosemic definitions of names.
However, there are passages in the Maqṣad where morphology, Qurʾānic
context, or cosmology do not lend themselves to al-Ghazālī’s principle of non-
synonymity. This is the case for groups of divine names that are close in mean-
ing yet do not share the same root. These include names of divine majesty such
as the Tremendous (al-ʿAẓīm), the Majestic (al-Jalīl), and the Great (al-Kabīr).
In this case, al-Ghazālī finds creative ways of defining each in light of the other.
However, these names are also more complicated because they tend to lend
themselves to multiple definitions. Al-Ghazālī’s most common hermeneutical
move in such cases is to find a way of amalgamating the various meanings
into one compounded concept. It should be noted that there are tensions be-
tween al-Ghazālī’s monosemic interpretation of names of majesty and the way
they are used in the Qurʾān. For instance, the name al-Ḥakam is Qurʾānically
associated with divine judgment, whereas in al-Ghazālī’s commentary it is
associated with God’s meticulous perfection of the cosmos.22
When al-Ghazālī comments on a name that has a plurality of maʿānī, e.g.
al-Salām—which denotes both God’s freedom from flaws and the safety of
creatures by Him and through Him—he exerts independent thinking (ijtihād)
to determine (taʿyīn) the most appropriate meaning for this name and weaves
both meanings brilliantly into a single constructed concept (al-Ghazālī 1971,

21 See also al-Ghazālī’s discussion of the difference in meaning between the Firm (al-Matīn)
which denotes intense power (shadīd al-quwwa) and the Strong (al-Qawī) which denotes
complete power (qudra tāmma) (al-Ghazālī 1971, 140).
22 I am grateful to my student, Ashhar Malik, for this insight.

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176 Casewit

73). In a similar move, the Guardian (al-Muhaymin) is a name that combines

the meanings of God’s overseeing (ishrāf ), which is a quality of divine knowl-
edge, as well as dominance (istīlāʾ), which is a quality of divine power, and
finally preservation, (ḥifẓ) which is an act of God ( fiʿl). The three meanings
come together in this name (al-Ghazālī 1971, 76).23 Al-Ghazālī’s discussion of
the name al-ʿAzīz is also noteworthy (al-Ghazālī 1971, 77). Most commenta-
tors proclaim this name to be inherently polysemic. Its meanings include the
Mighty, the Exalted, the Precious, or the Inaccessible, and each meaning has
ethical and theological connotations. In the Maqṣad, al-Ghazālī concedes that
al-ʿAzīz carries three meanings, but he insists that these merge together to form
a single meaning.24
In addition to amalgamating various meanings into one compound mean-
ing, al-Ghazālī’s hermeneutics is also guided by what he considers to be the
most theologically fitting meaning of a polysemic name. For instance, the name
al-Muʾmin means the Provider of Safety (amn) as well as the Affirmer (taṣdiq).
However, affirmative belief (taṣdīq) is a more fitting quality of human beings,
whereas providing safety is God’s. Thus, al-Muʾmin is defined as Provider of
Safety. In other cases, such as the Guardian (al-Muhaymin) and the Watchful
(al-Raqīb), he works by elimination and reasons that al-Muhaymin should ex-
clude the meaning of watchfulness. In such cases, the names operate intertex-
tually and explain each other, just as Qurʾān commentators use the Qurʾān to
explain itself.
Sometimes, it is clear that al-Ghazālī is unable crack the puzzle. He fails
to come up with a creative semantic amalgamate for certain names. His
theologically-driven semantics are disrupted by the Qurʾān’s polysemic usage
of the names. In these occasions, which are impressively rare, and in which
polysemy is indisputable, al-Ghazālī points to the two irreconcilable mean-
ings and moves on. Thus in commenting on al-Muqīt, which means the
Overpowering (Q 4:85) as well as the Nourisher, al-Ghazālī seems to concede
that the name has two have very distinct meanings that cannot be combined.
His theory of monosemy does not always work, and Qurʾānic verses confirm
this (al-Ghazālī 1971, 123).25
Al-Ghazālī’s drive for systematisation and his commitment to non-
synonymity and monosemy of the names makes the Maqṣad a hermeneutically

23 Likewise, the name al-Laṭīf, the Subtle, combines the meanings of kindness in action
(al-rifq fī l-fiʿl) and subtle perception (al-luṭf fī l-idrāk).
24 See also his commentary on the Ruler, al-Wālī, as an amalgamation of the meanings of
governance (tadbīr), power (qudra), an activity ( fiʿl).
25 See also his discussion of the two meanings of the name al-Shahīd (al-Ghazālī 1971, 137).

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 177

creative, albeit rigid text. While other authors celebrate polysemy and attempt
to understand multiple valid interpretations of the divine names, al-Ghazālī
establishes the maʿānī as eternal attributes in the Essence, then proceeds to
argue that each of the ninety-nine scripturally affirmed divine names corre-
spond to one single maʿnā in divinis. Paradoxically, while al-Qushayrī holds the
rigid position that the name and the named are identical, he has a more flex-
ible and open-ended treatment of the names, and is receptive to a broader set
of ethical possibilities for each of them. In contrast, al-Ghazālī insists that the
eternal maʿnā and the non-eternal name are distinct, yet he fences each name
semantically and limits its theological and ethical ramifications.26
Despite his claims to its originality, al-Ghazālī’s doctrine of non-synonymity
also has its own long and complex genealogy. Historically, it was adopted by
some Ashʿarīs as an anti-Muʿtazilī move. For most Muʿtazilī theologians had ar-
gued that the multitude of names are reduced to mere redundancy. Accordingly,
divine unity can only be secured if the names are collapsed onto the attributes,
and the latter onto the attribute of knowledge (ʿilm), which for its part stems
from the Essence. Some went so far as to argue that the divine names are like
frozen proper names (asmāʾ al-aʿlām) that denote the Essence but carry no
meaning. An extreme—though non-Muʿtazilī—case appears to be Ibn Ḥazm,
who, according to Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728/1328), claimed that the divine names
all correspond to proper names that do not carry any meaning (Ibn Taymiyya
1965, 76–77).27 For al-Ghazālī, the names are both proper names (aʿlām) in
the sense that they denote the same Essence, yet they carry distinct meanings
(awṣāf ) and specific denotations. The names are synonymous (mutarādifa)
in respect of the Essence, since they denote a single divine reality; but they
are distinct (mutabāyina) in respect of their specific attributes (Frank 1978,
55–56). Al-Ghazālī adopts this principle of non-synonymity and polysemy in
light of his philosophically-informed semantics, and in an attempt to remove

26 There are certain exceptions in which al-Ghazālī’s monolithic interpretation of a divine

name has a broader function than al-Qushayrī’s commentary, as is the case with the name
the Concealing (al-Ghaffār).
27 Al-Ghazālī mentions in the Maqṣad that Ibn Ḥazm is a ḥadīth scholar from the Maghrib
who collected the names from the Qurʾān. The reference here is to al-Muḥallā bi-l-āthār
fī sharḥ al-mujallā bi-l-ikhtiṣār, as Ibn al-Uqlīshī explains (Ibn al-Uqlīshī 2017, 1:177). Ibn
Ḥazm in the Muḥallā maintains a strong tawqīfī position, arguing that our knowledge
of the divine names is conditional upon scripture, and that it is impermissible to call
God except by what He calls himself (Masʾala #54, 57), that there are ninety-nine names
only and no more; and that derivation (ishtiqāq) of the names is not permissible what-
soever. He lists 84 names from the Qurʾān, and describes the lists of the names in the
ḥadīths as “shaky” (muḍṭarib). The names Ibn Ḥazm lists are found in Kitāb al-Īṣāl, and
Ibn al-Uqlīshī lists them in his Inbāʾ (Ibn al-Uqlīshī 2017, 1:169–77).

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178 Casewit

ambiguity from his commentary on the divine names. Each name has a clear
and single meaning that corresponds to a single human ethical ideal. For him,
ambiguity over the root of any name, even the name Allāh, or debates over the
meanings of the name, destabilise and complicate his ethical project.

7 What Is a Maʿnā?

Al-Ghazālī’s semantic theory dovetails with his concept of maʿnā. Indeed, the
central concern of the Maqṣad is expressed in its title: Al-Maqṣad al-Asnā fī
Sharḥ Maʿānī al-Asmāʾ al-Ḥusnā (“The Highest Aim in Explaining the Meanings
of God’s Most Beautiful Names”). The key term here is maʿnā (pl. maʿānī),
whose significance is evidenced by my lack of translation. It is often glossed
as pure, transcendent, or supra-sensory meaning; concepts which describe it
in contrast to a tangible or intelligible “form” (ṣūra). At the most basic level,
a maʿna, or “meaning” refers to a thing that one intends to convey primarily
through language. But the Arabic word that comes closest to this sense of the
term maʿnā is al-murād, or “what is intended” by the speaker. In contrast to the
speaker’s intended meaning (al-murād), the maʿnā exists within an individual
entity ( fī l-aʿyān). If it pertains to the sensory realm, then the maʿnā of Zayd for
instance inheres in Zayd. If it pertains to the intelligible realm, then it exists in
the mind: my concept of Zayd has a maʿnā in my mind ( fī l-dhihn).
In theological terms, what al-Ghazālī means by maʿnā of a divine name is
a unique, inexpressible, inaccessible, inexhaustible, unqualified, and eternal
reality, trait, or attribute of God’s Essence. Each divine name has a maʿnā to
which it corresponds, which is to say that it has a reality within the unqualified
Essence of God. These maʿānī are distinctions not divisions, differences not
separations, in divinis. They are unique to God in their fullness and perfection.
Being supra-formal, they are not observable and cannot be comprehended by
the human intellect. The maʿnā of the divine name in the human mind is in-
commensurably limited in relation to the maʿnā of that name in the Essence.
The chasm between the divine maʿnā in the Essence and human appre-
hension is usually described in the Maqṣad as one that is absolute. Although
knowledge of the meanings of the divine names is inferred from observing
that this world necessitates a Creator who possesses essential attributes of life,
knowledge, will, and power, these attributes that we grasp from empirical ob-
servation only hint at, yet do not truly correspond to God’s actual qualities. To
illustrate this chasm, al-Ghazālī compares the human attempt to grasp God’s
qualities to a prepubescent child’s attempt at understanding the pleasures of
the conjugal act. The best an adult can do to explain it is to compare it to the

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 179

sweetness of sugar. Until the child attains puberty and experiences adult plea-
sure, he or she cannot know what it is in itself. Analogously, unless one is God,
one cannot fully know Him, for there is no correspondence between God and
other-than-God. Therefore, only God knows God (al-Ghazālī 1971, 162).
Al-Ghazālī thus affirms not only that the Essence is unknowable, but so are
the attributes, or the maʿānī. A maʿnā is God’s exclusive possession and as such
it is inconceivable in itself. Why are the maʿānī inexhaustible and incompre-
hensible? To answer this question, al-Ghazālī typically points to the “names of
divine acts” (sing. ism fiʿl) such as the Creator (al-Khāliq). This name encom-
passes all of existence, for God’s acts engulf all knowledge. A name like the
Determiner (al-Ḥakam) or the Equitable (al-ʿAdl) would exhaust all sciences
of humankind (ʿulūm) to be thoroughly explained. The reality of the name the
Creator is only known by the one who knows the reality of divine acts (afʿāl).
This name of act can be known in summary (bi-l-jumla) not in detail (bi-l-tafṣīl)
and not in an exhaustive manner (bi-l-ḥaṣr). Other names of act, like al-Bāʿith,
the Resurrector, are in the realm of the unseen and will only be fully disclosed
on the Day of Resurrection (al-Ghazālī 1971, 133). Due to their incommensura-
bility, al-Ghazālī endorses the Ashʿarī position that our knowledge of the di-
vine names is conditional upon revelation. They cannot be rationally inferred,
and we must call God by what He calls Himself (tawqīf ) in scripture. For by
naming God on the basis of reason, the caller inevitably commits tashbīh by
projecting human states and anthropomorphic assumptions onto Him.28

28 The Ashʿarī doctrine of tawqīf was articulated against the backdrop of internal Muʿtazilī
debates on whether the human intellect can assign names to God. The Baṣran Muʿtazilīs
held that the intellect can name Him, thus violating the principle of tawqīf that the
Baghdād school of Muʿtazilism adhered to (al-Ghuṣn 1996, 62). Imām al-Ashʿarī’s Baṣran
Muʿtazilī teacher al-Jubbāʾī (d. 303/916) held that if the intellect (ʿaql) deems a certain
meaning (maʿnā) to be admissible for God, then it is obligatory to name Him by that
meaning, even if there is no revealed text to confirm it (al-Ashʿarī 1969, 2:207–208). The
Baghdād Muʿtazilīs differed with al-Jubbāʾī on this point. They insisted, for instance, that
God called Himself al-ʿĀlim (The Knowing) not al-ʿĀrif (The Recogniser) and that His
self-designation should be respected. The doctrine of Tawqīf was also articulated by the
early Ahl al-Ḥadīth scholars. For instance, al-Khaṭṭābī (d. 388/998) held that one must
describe, name, and affirm God in His incommensurable beauty and perfection just as He
describes, names, and affirms Himself, not through the intellect (al-Ghuṣn 1996, 47). For
instance, one should not call God the Eternal (al-Qadīm) or the Essence (al-Dhāt) since
He does not call Himself that. Likewise, one should not name God on the basis of synony-
mous terms established by scriptural names or by linguistic analogy (qiyās lughawī). For
instance, God cannot be called Teacher (muʿallim). In similar vein, the Ashʿarīs in general
adhered to the principle of tawqīf. They maintain that the process of ascribing names to
the divine Essence must be moderated by scripture, for naming God is an act that per-
tains to the unseen realm and therefore must be conditioned by the Qurʾān and Prophetic

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180 Casewit

It is interesting to note, however, that al-Ghazālī sometimes softens his tone

and describes the chasm that separates the name’s maʿnā-in-itself from human
apprehension thereof in terms of degree. For instance, he says that our appre-
hension is to the divine maʿnā as a ray is to the sun. (al-Ghazālī 1971, 58–59).
The reason for this concession is that we attempt to know God by comparing
His perfect attributes to our limited ones; we allude to His meanings by sugges-
tive comparison (īhām) to our attributes that we “share” with Him. And in the
end, we can only understand God in terms that are familiar to us, or that have
a correspondence in us. We only truly recognise ourselves, and can only relate
to God by a suggestive analogical comparison. The fundamental flaw of that
comparison, moreover, is affirmed by the Qurʾānic verse: nothing is as His like
(Q 42:11). This principle of non-analogy, moreover, applies to everything that
is unseen in relation to us, including our knowledge of prophecy, heaven, and
hell—hence Qurʾānic descriptions of the afterlife in this-worldly terms.

8 Anthropopathism

A discussion of al-Ghazālī’s treatment of tashbīh is in order. For in expounding

upon the maʿānī of the divine names and their ethical significance, al-Ghazālī
is anxious not to be misunderstood as promoting any kind of theological im-
manentism (tashbīh). The heretical immanentist doctrines that he was par-
ticularly concerned about include mystical proclamations of unificationism
(ittiḥād) attributed to extreme Sufis, doctrines of indwelling (ḥulūl) ascribed to
Christian Trinitarian theology, and the overly literal and crude anthropomor-
phism (tajsīm) of the Karrāmīs, extreme Ḥanbalīs, and the Ẓāhirīs who ascribe
human physicality to God. He thus dedicates a separate section of the Maqṣad
to refute these forms of immanentism,29 and calls attention to the dangers of

Tradition. The Ashʿarīs therefore “stop” at the names found in scripture. Al-Ghazālī
agrees that the final arbitrator in naming God is the soundness of the transmission of
the revealed text. In this spirit, al-Ghazālī holds that it is not permissible to extract divine
names from Qurʾānic verbs ascribed to God, despite the fact that divine names stem from
verbs (al-Ghazālī 1971, 165).
29 Following his introductory chapters on theology, semantics, and takhalluq, al-Ghazālī in-
cludes an apologetic concluding section following his commentary on the ninety-nine
names to refute immanentist heresies of transferal (intiqāl), unificationism (ittiḥād), in-
dwelling (ḥulūl), and characterising oneself by the actual attributes of God (al-takhalluq
bi-ʿayn al-ṣifāt), and he proclaims that his orthodox position is the “assumption of the
likenesses of the attributes of God” (al-takhalluq bi-mithlihā) which affirms a correspon-
dence between divine and human attributes in a broad sense (munāsaba ʿalā al-jumla)

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 181

tashbīh (ḥashwiyya, mujassima) in several entries in the Maqṣad (al-Ghazālī

1971, 115–118).30
However, beyond God’s non-spatiality and non-corporeality, al-Ghazālī
is also attentive to a subtle and pervasive form of tashbīh: the ascription of
human emotional and psychological states to God. “Anthropopathism” is a
theological deviation that has no name in the Maqṣad, yet it plays a key role in
how al-Ghazālī frames each entry within an Ashʿarī volitionist perspective, and
it sets the stage for the names’ ethical applicability. For if we were to conceive
of God’s mercy as being similar to human mercy, then this would entail that
God experiences feelings of hurt when He punishes servants, or that He suffers
when a servant disbelieves in Him. It would entail that He experiences relief
when showing mercy. For Ashʿarīs, God experiences neither pleasure nor pain,
and His actions are not motivated by them. His mercy and wrath do not work
in a human way. Mercy is His will to benefit and bless the servant, and anger is
His will to punish.
Thus, names of positive emotion such as mercy, denote God’s “will” or choice
to save, whereas names of negative emotion such as anger denote His “will” to
punish. Names that hint at an emotional correspondence between servant and
Lord are metaphors (majāz) for various aspects of God’s will. Al-Ghazālī’s com-
mentary on the Ever-Merciful (al-Raḥīm) illustrates this balance, and is key to
his theology since all positive names are included within Mercy, which is in-
cluded within the divine will. He upholds Ashʿarī volitionism, and insists that
divine mercy does not entail that He is emotionally invested in the wellbeing
of His servants. On the name the Loving-Kind (al-Wadūd) he says:

Just as His mercy means that He wills the good for His object of mercy,
and that He gives him all that he needs while being free from the bind-
ing empathy that is [commonly associated with human] mercy, so His
intense love (wudd) is His will to honor and bless, as well as His benefi-
cence (iḥsān) and favor (inʿām). Yet He is free from the natural inclination
[that is commonly associated with human] love and mercy. For He only
wills love and mercy for the sake of their fruits and benefits, and He is
not [motivated by] binding empathy and inclination. For benefit is the
very kernel of mercy and love; it is their spirit. This is what should be

not in the full sense of the term (mumāthala tāmma), and a sharing of common names
(mushāraka fī l-ism) (al-Ghazālī 1971, 163–71).
30 He calls attention to the dangers of corporealism when discussing names like Al-Samīʿ,
the Hearing, and al-Baṣīr. For instance, the Seeing is easily prone to anthropomorphic
interpretations (tashbīh). There is mumāthala: we hear and see, as does God; but we can
only conceive of sight through our limited faculty of vision.

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182 Casewit

conceptualized in the case of God’s [mercy and love], glorified and ex-
alted, setting aside all aspects associated [with human experience] and
which are not a condition for bestowing benefit [in the first place].
al-Ghazālī 1971, 132; English trans., 119

At first blush, this cold Ashʿarī language seems to strip God of all positive at-
tributes. Indeed, Ibn Taymiyya criticised the Maqṣad on this very point, ac-
cusing al-Ghazālī of denying the attributes (see below). For al-Ghazālī, the
Ashʿarī framework is not reductionist, but rather enables a non-literal yet faith-
ful interpretation of anthropopathic names and verses of the Qurʾān and the
Prophetic Tradition. In al-Ghazālī’s way of looking at things, this volitionist
language does not deny God’s attributes due to their perceived imperfection.
Rather, volitionism affirms that His attributes are so perfect that they are ab-
solutely distinct from human traits. That is, although stripping mercy of its
anthropopathic and emotional connotations seems excessively transcenden-
talist, it is not a deficiency in the meaning of mercy. Rather it is a perfection,
since perfection of mercy rests in the perfection of its result, and an emotion-
ally invested Lord is a deficient one. What would God’s emotional investment
add to the maʿnā of His mercy? An emotionally invested Lord seeks through
His mercy to relieve His own pain and hurt, and is thus merciful for human
“selfish” reasons. For al-Ghazālī, the perfection of divine mercy entails that He
is merciful purely for the sake of His servant and that He is not motivated by
self-relief. If God were emotionally and affectively invested in His relationship
with humans, then His attributes of mercy, kindness, and love would be in-
complete and transactional. It is for this reason that “God is hallowed beyond
the sympathetic tenderness of mercy (riqqat al-raḥma), and the affective in-
clination of mutual love (mayl al-mawadda)” (al-Ghazālī 1971, 132). He is the
All-Holy (al-Quddūs), and therefore is hallowed beyond human imperfections,
attributes, traits, feelings and psychological states.
Some divine names which have anthropopathic connotations are real with
respect to the servant, and metaphorical with respect to God. These include
names such as the Grateful (al-Shakūr) and the Patient (al-Ṣabūr). Human pa-
tience implies constraint and torment of the self, whereas divine patience is
identified with God’s will and power (qudra). That is, God’s patience is His will
to arrange all things according to their proper time (al-Ghazālī 1971, 84, 161).
Hence there is no suffering (muqāsāt) of God doing something that is contrary
to His will (irāda). He is not pulled in two directions so that He would have to
resist or suffer from the pull, or desire for another action. His patience is His
determination of all things in their appropriate preordained time (al-Ghazālī
1971, 161). God is the Forbearing (al-Ḥalīm), but does not react emotionally

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 183

to human acts of disobedience (al-Ghazālī 1971, 112). Moreover, God’s self-

greatness (kibriyāʾ) is a perfection of His existence (kamāl al-wujūd), not an
emotional state, a display of arrogance, or a pretence of greatness; for God is
too great to display pride vis-à-vis humans (al-Ghazālī 1971, 118).
The language that al-Ghazālī evokes to define and describe such di-
vine names was refined over successive generations of Ashʿarī theological
reflection.31 Earlier Ashʿarī figures, including the eponymous founder Imām
al-Ashʿarī (d. 324/936) and Ibn Fūrak (d. 406/1015), already laid the foundations
for Ashʿarī attitudes toward anthropopathism in their writings. These defini-
tions were molded against the backdrop of Muʿtazilī conceptions of divine will
as God’s approval, consent, and inclination. (van Ess 1997, 4:445–447). For the
Ashʿarīs, divine will itself is completely different from human will, and is de-
fined as the function in God which chooses one thing over another (tamyīz
al-shayʾ ʿan mithlih) and as such is ultimately indistinguishable from the di-
vine command (al-Ghazālī 2008, 173; al-Juwaynī 1950, 237–38). Al-Qushayrī
also maintains this transcendentalism in this commentary on the names,
and explains that the meaning (maʿnā) of mercy is God’s will to bless His
servants (irādat al-niʿma); and that this “will to bless” is called “mercy” only
metaphorically.32
So far, so transcendent. But how then does al-Ghazālī’s conception of an
unknowable God really differ from that of the Muʿtazilīs? If the discontinuity

31 For an excellent analysis of anthropopathism, to which this section of the paper is in-
debted, see Güleçyüz, Mütekaddimîn Dönemi Eş’arî Kelâmında Beşerî Duyguların Allah’a
Nisbeti Meselesi. As Güleçyüz argues, an extreme transcendentalist position is adopted by
al-Juwaynī in the Irshād, who reduces anthropopathic verses and traits to the transcen-
dent will of God, and proclaims that God neither loves nor is loveable in the normal emo-
tional sense. “When we say that God, exalted, loves a servant, we do not mean that He has
affection (taḥannun) and inclination toward (mayl) him. Similarly, the servant’s love for
His Lord is his submission and obedience to Him. For God is hallowed beyond inclining or
being inclined toward” (al-Juwaynī 1950, 238). Thus, God is too transcendent to offer emo-
tional affection, nor can He be the subject of human affection, since that would imply
a dependency in God. Ashʿarī Qurʾān commentators, such as al-Bayḍāwī (d. 685/1286),
apply this theological principle to their exegetical approach to verses that ascribe human-
like emotional states to God, such as verses that speak of God as Lover: He loves them and
they love Him (Q 5:54), or Prophetic Traditions that describe God as having jealousy.
32 Al-Qushayrī’s commentary on the Loving-Kind (al-Wadūd) is illustrative (al-Qushayrī
1986, 176). His loving kindness is His mercy, will, and praise of His servants. It may also
be an attribute of act such as bestowal and excellence toward servants. In return, the
servant’s love is to remain steadfast in obedience. Al-Qushayrī then offers heartwarming
anecdotes, and hyperliteral mystical interpretations of the roots of key words, to person-
alise the name al-Wadūd. Similarly, God’s clemency (ra‌‌ʾfa) is intense mercy according to
al-Qushayrī (al-Qushayrī 1986, 239).

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184 Casewit

between God and creation is not absolute, what serves to bridge the discon-
nect? Al-Ghazālī’s first step toward answering this question is to rationally
refute Muʿtazilī theological transcendentalism (taʿṭīl) which affirms some at-
tributes (Creator, Necessary Being) and the Jahmīs who purportedly deny all
attributes. He thus devotes two chapters to critiquing of the negative theology
of Muʿtazilīs who deny the divine attributes (taʿṭīl) by collapsing them into the
Essence; as well as Avicennan philosophy which reduces God to a philosophi-
cally abstract “creation machine” that believers cannot relate to ethically.33
Like other Ashʿarī theologians, he describes this negative theology as a “her-
esy regarding God’s names” (lit. “deviating in the names,” al-ilḥād fī l-asmāʾ,
Q 7:180) since one is adding beyond what is permitted, or falling short of what
is commanded.34

33 Al-Ghazālī is so concerned about the risks of negative theology that after his commen-
tary on the ninety-nine names, he devotes two chapters to the core Maqāṣid wa-ghāyāt
to explain how each name resolves to the seven attributes and the Essence according
Ashʿarism, and how all the divine names fall under ten categories. These chapters are
similar to his discussion in the Iḥyāʾ, Kitāb Qawāʿid al-ʿAqāʾid (al-Ghazālī 2011, 1:331–380)
which begins with a basic Ashʿarī creedal proclamation for children, explaining the two
shahādas in terms of the seven essential attributes and the basics of prophecy. Moreover,
in the Iḥyāʾ, from al-Risāla al-Qudsiyya (al-Ghazālī 2011, 1:381–424) onward, there is an
expansion on his creed. He discusses qualities of the divine Essence, attributes, acts, es-
chatology, as well as political leadership and the status of the companions, and the text
is framed against the Muʿtazilīs and Shīʿīs. He divides names into those that denote the
Essence alone, such as Allāh; or names that denote the Essence with negation, such as
the Independent (al-Ghanī); names that resolve to the Essence with a relationality, such
as the Exalted; names that resolve to the Will with a relationality or an act, such as the
All-Merciful (al-Raḥmān), or the Loving-Kind (al-Wadūd), for according to Ashʿarī voli-
tionist theology divine mercy stems from will and God’s excellence and bounty.
34 These two chapters of the Maqṣad are reminiscent of al-Ghazālī’s Chapter Six from the
Tahāfut al-Falāsifa, in which he refutes the philosophical and Muʿtazilī doctrine of the
attributes. A similar discussion is found in al-Iqtiṣād fī l-Iʿqitād. In the second quṭb of
the Maqṣad, al-Ghazālī discusses the properties (aḥkām) and dictates (lawāzim) of the
attributes. After a description of the Muʿtazilī position, he refers the reader to his refuta-
tion in the Tahāfut. He adds with hesitation: “should anyone wish that it not be included
in this book, he may drop it, since it is of no importance to the [argument] of the book.”
This chapter is followed by a discussion of how the philosophers and Muʿtazilīs reduce
all the attributes to divine knowledge (ʿilm), which is reduced to the Essence. They claim
that the attributes coincide with the single Essence of God, thereby denying the attributes
(taʿṭīl) and claiming that they cannot be fathomed by the intellect (al-Ghazālī 1971, 139).
All names contain an attribute; but not all attributes comprise a name (e.g. Hand, Eye,
Speech). Al-Ghazālī also refutes Avicennan philosophy of emanation and eternity of the
universe, which also reduces God to an eternal, impersonal, philosophical abstract that
functions as an emanative “creation machine.”

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 185

Aside from refuting extreme transcendentalism, al-Ghazālī’s constructive

answer lies in the fact that God describes Himself to us and in relation to what
we can possibly understand about Him. God crosses the chasm by addressing
us so that we may cross back to Him. He describes Himself through forms (sing.
ṣūra) that exist in our limited minds, in the sensory domain, and in the literal
meanings of human language. These pale reflections of the eternal maʿānī ini-
tiate the servant’s process of internalising those names according to his own
measure, by grasping their meanings intellectually and inculcating some of
their ethical consequences existentially. As it turns out, the maʿnā is not com-
pletely inaccessible. It faces both directions: the Essence and the name. The
name, for its part, points to the servant’s limited ability and the maʿnā. Thus,
the divine names bridge an otherwise inaccessible and incomprehensible
maʿnā within the Essence because they are addressed to our understanding.
They communicate the maʿnā through human speech and human proportions.
A divine name thus denotes a certain property, characteristic, and quality
of the Essence that we cannot fully fathom. What we glean from a name is in
relation to us. Our understanding thus confines the maʿnā, by setting a sub-
jective and linguistic prism around it. The maʿnā is an interface between the
unqualified Essence and the qualified divine names (asmāʾ). Consequently, the
names are an interface between the perfect maʿānī of the Essence and the im-
perfect human grasp of those maʿānī in the mind. For it is precisely because the
inexhaustible maʿānī can be communicated to a certain extent through scrip-
tural reference that they can be put into practice to some extent. Al-Ghazālī’s
Highest Aim is thus to shed whatever light possible on the ultimately unfath-
omable maʿnā of each name, or the realities of the names in God, guided by
theological reflection and linguistic exposition. The ultimacy of the maʿnā is
communicated through the intelligibility of the divine names, which is inter-
nalised through the intimacy of spiritual practice and cultivation of virtue.
This is where takhalluq starts.

9 The Doctrine of Takhalluq

The theory of takhalluq allows al-Ghazālī to switch perspective by contem-

plating the relationship between the Creator and the created from the human
standpoint. Turning his theological gaze to the field of ethics, he notes that
since the names are divinely intended to generate some kind of understanding
of the maʿānī in human language, they cannot be completely incomprehen-
sible. The theological sublimity and ultimacy of the maʿānī must not render

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186 Casewit

God’s attributes inoperable (taʿṭīl), but rather should communicate an arche-

typal code of ethics for human conduct. The maʿānī can be experienced and
enacted to the extent of the observer’s own measure.
To this effect, al-Ghazālī affirms that ethics can neither derive directly from
God who is incomparable, yet nothing else can serve as the ultimate prototype
for human comportment and virtue. Thus, instead of asking “what right do
humans have to assume divine character traits?” he insists that there must be
a relationship between God and human ethics. For within a world governed
by divine oneness (tawḥīd), if human ethics are not somehow divinely pre-
figured, what else could serve as prototype for human comportment? If all
human beings were born prelingually deaf, would God describe Himself to us
as the Hearing (al-Samīʿ)? If there were absolutely no correspondence between
the human grasp of the meanings of the names, then what meaning would
Qurʾānic descriptions of God have? Al-Ghazālī thus makes a case for the pos-
sibility of characterising oneself by the transcendent meanings of the names
at three different stages of grace. These stages, or the “shares” (sing. ḥaẓẓ) in
the names, determine the servant’s proximity to the angelic state and to God.
Ascending through these stages presuppose a demonstrative unveiling of the
maʿānī in the intellect, a reverence and attraction to them in the heart, and pu-
rification of the soul. In contrast to al-Qushayrī, al-Ghazālī insists repeatedly
that the Prophets and Messengers embodied these three levels to the fullest
extent (Chiabotti 2017, 189). But how?

9.1 First Share: “Demonstrative Unveiling” (Inkishāf Burhānī)

Al-Ghazālī insists that the human being can potentially reach a “share” (ḥaẓẓ)
in all the divine names. This human “share” (ḥaẓẓ) goes beyond “hearing” the
name, for even the eardrum of a dumb beast can capture soundwaves. It also
surpasses comprehension of the linguistic meaning of a name, for any simple
Arab Bedouin understands the surface meanings of the ninety-nine names.
This “share,” moreover, surpasses abstract belief in the heart, for any common
believer or child has abstract belief. Common believers and exoteric scholars
(ʿulamāʾ) tend to know the names merely at the level of the uttered sound (lafẓ),
philological meaning (lugha), and abstract belief in the heart (al-Ghazālī 1971,
42–43).
In contrast, the advanced seeker recognises the divine names in three ways.
The first is unveiling (mukhāshafa) and direct witnessing (mushāhada) of the
meanings of the names such that their realities become demonstrably clear.
At this level, the fact that God is qualified by His meanings is grasped with the
same degree of certainty that one has of one’s own inner attributes, attributes

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 187

of the self which we perceive not through outer sensory perception but the
witnessing of our inner senses. This demonstrative unveiling is captured by
his discussion of the names the Manifest (al-Ẓāhir) and the Non-manifest
(al-Bāṭin). God is the Manifest (al-Ẓāhir) by way of demonstrative proof
(istidlāl), since we can prove God’s existence cosmologically and teleologically.
Yet He is the Non-manifest (al-Bāṭin) in relation to our senses, for everything
points to Him and there is no way to contrast an existent thing that points to
God from one that is completely devoid of divine signification. Thus, God is
so manifest that He is non-manifest, and if something did not point to Him
it would be possible to understand how the rest points to Him. (al-Ghazālī
1971, 147–149). This point about God’s manifestness and non-manifestness,
according to al-Ghazālī, is grasped through contemplative study that leads to
“demonstrative unveiling.”
There is thus a strong rational streak to al-Ghazālī’s discourse on direct
taste, or the fruitional experience of Sufis (dhawq). In effect, al-Ghazālī ap-
plies the Aristotelian methods of demonstration that are employed in the
works of Avicenna to Sufi discourse on unveiling. As such, the indubitable
standards of demonstration of falsafa apply to the Sufi “science of unveiling”
(ʿilm al-mukāshafa), such that the unveiled person has an ineluctable certainty
about God’s assumption of the eternal traits that is as self-evident as his own
assumption of human virtues. In al-Ghazālī’s Maqṣad, Avicennan burhān is
mysticised, and mysticism is Avicennised in this process of “demonstrative
unveiling” (inkishāf burhānī) (al-Ghazālī 1971, 54–55). For in contrast to Latin
logic, al-Ghazālī’s burhān is the highest form of conveying truth and a demon-
strative knowledge that brings with it ineluctable intellectual and illuminative
certitude.
Al-Ghazālī’s idea that the direct recognition (maʿrifa) of the meanings of
the names by way of unveiling (mukāshafa) and witnessing (mushāhada) op-
erates through a demonstrative knowledge (burhān) that does not allow for
error (al-burhān al-ladhī lā yajūz fīhi l-khaṭa‌‌ʾ) stands in contrast to the notion
of mystical knowledge (maʿrifa) in other schools of Sufism. In the school of
Ibn ʿArabī, for instance, maʿrifa is understood as the beginning of the oblitera-
tion of the servant’s trace (maḥw al-rasm). It is where the line of demarcation
between divine and human traits begin to blur, and the beginning of annihila-
tion. To realise a name is to obliterate an aspect of one’s self. In the Maqṣad,
this anarchic moment is never entertained: the lines between servant and Lord
are never complicated.

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188 Casewit

9.2 Second Share: Reverence, Attraction, and Self-Purification

When the divine attributes become demonstrably unveiled in their full
glory, the heart naturally begins to become imbued with reverence for them
(istiʿẓām). At this level, the servant is characterised by a longing for the names
and an incitement to (bāʿith) adorn himself by their qualities in any way pos-
sible. This incitement in the heart marks the beginning of the servant’s journey
toward proximity (qurb) to the Real. This process, however, cannot begin if a
heart is stirred up for anything other than God. For just as a student in a state of
hunger cannot acquire knowledge until he is satiated, or just as a teacher can-
not be fully present in delivering his morning lecture until he has had his cup
of coffee (not al-Ghazālī’s metaphor), a heart cannot have complete longing
for God until it has emptied itself of worldly desires and attachments. Hence
the indispensability of renunciation and inner purification in the process of
refining the soul and transforming character (al-Ghazālī 1971, 43–44).
A soul that is purified begins to realise its servanthood and need for God.
It gains its first glimpse at its “share” in some of the maʿānī of God’s names or
character traits (akhlāq). It begins to adorn itself with God’s seven essential
attributes—Life, Knowledge, Will, Power, Hearing, Seeing, and Speech—which
are innately imprinted upon the canvas of the human soul. For the human
soul is created in God’s form (ṣūra), and virtue pre-exists in the innate human
disposition ( fiṭra). However, God lives, knows, wills, and exerts power by and
through Himself; whereas the servants’ traits are sustained through God’s self-
sustenance. Moreover, God’s akhlāq, or the maʿānī, reside in His Essence, while
human character traits reside in the heart. Divine akhlāq manifest in God’s
acts (afʿāl)—i.e., the cosmos (kawn)—or the effects and traces (āthār) of His
names and attributes. Human virtues manifest on the bodily limbs through
human actions (aʿmāl) and interactions (muʿāmalāt).
God’s essential traits are nondelimited, whereas human traits are delimited.
God’s akhlāq are perfect and not subject to change, while human virtue is in-
trinsic to the human state, but can become debased to the predatory (sabuʿī),
beastly (bahīmī), or satanic (shayṭānī) states through indulging in vices and
worldliness. Human traits must become refined (tahdhīb al-akhlāq) as the
human being reclaims his innate disposition ( fiṭra) and approaches God’s
perfections and through spiritual exercise (tarbiya), adherence to the Sharīʿa,
performance of supererogatory devotions, acquiring and applying knowledge,
and seeking righteous company.
The process of takhalluq, or the “assumption of divine character traits,” is
at once a movement toward the human innate disposition ( fiṭra), a move-
ment toward God, and an affirmation of the correspondence (munāsaba) be-
tween God and the human being. It is in light of this correspondence that God

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 189

ascribes the human spirit (rūḥ) to Himself, teaches Adam all the names, allows
him to speak about what can be named (including God), commands the angels
to prostrate to him (and to God), and appoints Adam and his children as His
vicegerents on earth (khalifa). This status of vicegerency is also why Adam’s
children are given the power to represent God’s beauty and splendour, or, alas,
to destroy themselves and the earth (Q 2:30–42, 15:29, 30:41).

9.3 Third Share: Angelic Proximity

The servant’s final “share” is determined by the effort he exerts acquiring what-
ever can be acquired of God’s attributes, adorning himself with their beauty
and attaining a proximity not to God as such, but to His angels. For al-Ghazālī,
knowledge of God and the process of takhalluq culminates in a bewildering
state of dismay (dahsha, ḥayra) that we are incapable (ʿajz) of truly know-
ing God, and a certitude that God in Himself cannot be realised. This state
of bewilderment captures the simultaneous affirmation and negation of the
possibility of knowing God, and it goes hand in hand with the process of dis-
covering the names. For just as the maʿānī face two directions (the Essence
and the names), the servant faces two infinitudes: there is no end to what we
can know about God, just as there is no end to what we cannot know about
God. The furthest goal (ghāya) and highest aim of al-Ghazālī’s Maqṣad is to
offer intimations (īmāʾ) of the keys to unlocking this state of bewilderment by
offering synoptic insights into the core creedal beliefs concerning the names
(al-Ghazālī 1971, 108, 111).
Theologically speaking, al-Ghazālī never tires of reminding his reader that
there is no analogy that can be drawn between the servant and the Lord at
this third “share”. For in the end, takhalluq is seeking proximity (qurb), i.e.,
becoming more angelic and less beastly. Those who have the fullest share in
the names act as intermediaries between God and human beings. They are
vessels through whom God provides, guides, and bestows His outward and in-
ward blessings upon mankind; i.e., the Prophets, the saints, and the scholars.
Their “share,” or “portion” (ḥaẓẓ) does not denote a “sharing” (mushāraka) in
divine character traits. It is not a likening of human attributes to divine attri-
butes, since “to liken” (mumāthala) is to affirm a commensurability of quiddity
(māhiyya) or species (nawʿ) between the servant and God.
In true Ashʿarī fashion, he argues that logically equivocal terms (mushāraka
fī l-ism) applied to both God and the servant do not bridge the disparity
(tafāwut) between the two. Al-Ghazālī argues that what humans share with
God can be compared to accidental qualities (sing. ʿaraḍ) which are outside the
essential identity of God. For even complete opposites can be alike, and share
characteristics: black and white are accidental qualities, colours, perceived by

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190 Casewit

eyesight, that inhere in atoms. In a similar sense, we share seven attributes

with God, but He is distinguished as the Necessary Being from whom all beings
exist (al-Ghazālī 1971, 47). This is why just as a conceptual grasp of the maʿnā of
a name is beyond human reach, when the servant shares in the supra-formal
meaning of a name (maʿnā), he partakes in it in a mode that is characterised
by deficiency (naqṣ), delimitation (taqyīd), shortcoming (taqṣīr), pretence
(takalluf ), metaphor (majāz), correlation (iḍāfa); this is in contrast to God’s
perfection (kamāl), nondelimitation (iṭlāq), reality (ḥaqq).
Thus, only God knows His own quiddity (māhiyya). We only know God by
name. Yet when we claim to “know God by name,” that denotes a certain inti-
macy with God (after all, we’re on a first-name basis with Him) and a distance
(for we just know Him by name). The “by-name-ness” of our knowledge of God
indicates the simultaneous intimacy and remoteness of our relationship to
Him. The names both veil and reveal God’s perfection, and although none of
the divine names and attributes can be fully known, exhausted, or reduced to
meaningless proper nouns, the more one begins to grasp the perfection of the
meanings of the divine names, the more one comprehends how short one has
fallen. The hierarchical degrees of knowledge and proximity attained by saints
and prophets are determined by their verification and knowledge of the prop-
erties, effects, and traces of His names:

Indeed, the more a servant comprehends the details of the objects of

God’s power and the wonders of His artisanry in the kingdom of the
heavens, the more plentiful is his share in knowing the attribute of di-
vine power, for the fruit is a proof of the tree. Similarly, the more a stu-
dent comprehends the details of his teacher’s knowledge and writings,
the more perfect is his knowledge of him, and the more complete is his
esteem for him.
al-Ghazālī 1971, 57; modified English trans., 45

As the ancient Greek philosopher Xenophanes (d. 475 BCE) said: “It takes a
wise man to recognise a wise man.” Echoing a similar sentiment, al-Ghazālī
illustrates his point with the following metaphor: both an advanced student
and a door keeper know that al-Shāfiʿī is arguably the greatest legal theorist
of Islamic history, but the student’s knowledge of al-Shāfiʿī surpasses that of
his door keeper. Thus, al-Ghazālī concludes, we can only truly understand the
maʿānī of the divine names in relation to a purified self. After all, the names
were coined by God in order for us to understand them from our subjective
standpoint. The verse nothing is as His like, and He is the Hearing, the Seeing
(Q 42:11) captures this fundamental paradox. Our experience of sight (baṣar)

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 191

communicates something of the divine name the All-Seeing (al-Baṣīr) by way

of metaphor (al-Ghazālī 1971, 117). The first part of the verse, which proclaims
God’s incommensurability, is immediately followed by commensurable maʿānī
of hearing and seeing.
Thus, for instance, God is the independent King (al-Malik) of all cre-
ation. He is independent in His Essence and His attributes from all existents.
Existents, for their part, are needful of Him in their essences and attributes.
The servant is forever needful of God, and does not share in God’s absolute
sovereignty. However, a true king among servants is one who is ruled and pos-
sessed by none other than God. Such a servant has no need for anyone else. His
“kingdom” consists of his heart and body. His appetites, anger, and passions are
his soldiers; his “subjects” are his tongue, eyes, ears, arms, legs, stomach, and
sexual organ (al-jawāriḥ). These soldiers and subjects obey a servant who has
attained the station of sovereignty. The Prophets, for their part, are the great-
est kings on earth, for all are in need of their guidance in this life and the next,
and they are followed by the scholars who are their heirs on earth (al-Ghazālī
1971, 70).

10 Reception of al-Ghazālī’s Doctrine of Takhalluq

For all its brilliance, the Maqṣad as an ethical project is not a particularly unique
or groundbreaking intervention in the divine names tradition. Sufi theologians
had been meditating on the ethical dictates of the divine names long before
and after Ḥujjat al-Islām’s meteoric rise to prominence.35 The Maqṣad might
not have acquired extraordinary fame had it not been for the well-merited
fame of its author. However, the commentary was widely read throughout the

35 Aside from meditations on the ethical applicability of the names in Qushayrī’s taḥbīr,
this theme is also found in the early writings of Abū Bakr al-Wāsiṭī (d. 331/942) who con-
sidered takhalluq bi-akhlāq Allāh to be the definition of Sufism itself (Shahzad 2004).
Moreover, as Atif Khalil notes, the concept of takhalluq is not only generated by medita-
tions on, and interactions with God through His divine names, but by early Sufi ethi-
cists who observe how humans interact with each other. Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī writes: “If
someone were to prepare a meal for you, and you found fault in it and criticised it, he
would detest that from you. Similarly, God detests that from you. And this falls into the
knowledge of [divine] attributes, and in the meaning behind what has been said, that
‘the one most knowledgeable of God is the one most knowledge of himself.’” Al-Makkī
concludes, “If you were to understand your own attributes through your interactions with
created beings, you would come to understand from them the attributes of your Creator”
(Khalil 2014). See also al-Makkī’s discussion of “assuming the character traits of lordship”
(al-takhalluq bi-akhlāq al-rubūbiyya) in Qūt al-qulūb (al-Makkī 2005, 2:362).

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192 Casewit

Islamic world, and despite critical reactions to it from a variety of theological

viewpoints, it is primarily due to the Maqṣad that so many subsequent com-
mentaries feature ethical discussions of the names. This is particularly true in
the Islamic West, where Ibn Ṭufayl (d. 581/1185) notes with some concern, that
the Maqṣad was a widely distributed treatise containing meditations on sensi-
tive matters (Griffel 2000, 401–62). The Maqṣad’s importance and originality
lies in the following: (1) being a widely accessible, well organised, unusually
succinct, and easily wielded reference work that most post-Ghazālian com-
mentators referred to. (2) al-Ghazālī’s commitment to the term “takhalluq” in
his introductory chapter; and (3) his tendency to (over)systematise the divine
names discourse.
Let us examine his commitment to the term takhalluq. It is interesting to
note that al-Ghazālī employs the term takhalluq extensively in the heart of his
theoretical introduction and concluding discussions about ethics. He usually
shies away from the term in the actual commentary on the ninety-nine names
where he privileges more nuanced and symbiotic expressions like the “share”
(ḥaẓẓ) of the servant, or his “access” to (madkhal fī) the name, or the “pos-
sible acquisition” of a trait (al-iktisāb al-mumkin) (al-Ghazālī 1971, 142, 143).
Al-Ghazālī readily admits that the term takhalluq is to be used with leniency
(tawassuʿ) and by way of metaphor (istiʿāra) (al-Ghazālī 1971, 162), and after his
commentary on the names, he adds a concluding apologia. It is clear that he
employs the term more as a catch-phrase than a scriptural prooftext, but the
usage of the term is nonetheless deconstructive. For similarly minded com-
mentators before al-Ghazālī, and many after him, were committed to discuss-
ing the ethical consequences of the names but avoided the term because it
sounds theologically risqué. Indeed, takhalluq implies a comparable similar-
ity between the qualities of the divine Essence and human character traits,
and al-Ghazālī’s terminological choice never escapes this stigma of affinity
(munāsaba) between the Eternal and the created. Takhalluq, moreover, im-
plies an active and one-sided struggle of the soul in achieving divine character
traits, and does not suggest divine grace in this process. Other commentators
chose other terms for good reason: al-Qushayrī prioritises the term “etiquette”
(adab) or “showing courtesy with respect to” a name (ta‌‌ʾaddub), while Ibn
Barrajān favours the term “practice of servanthood” (taʿabbud) with regard to
a particular name.
It seems that al-Ghazālī’s terminological commitment, not his theology,
raised a red flag in many circles. It gave certain authors the impression that
the Maqṣad failed to strike a balance between tashbīh and/or tanzīh. The
Maqṣad raised eyebrows of many later authors, including the Andalusī mystic

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 193

Ibn ʿArabī,36 and the Ḥanbalī champion Ibn Taymiyya.37 For the latter’s fol-
lowers, such as Ibn al-Qayyim, the term takhalluq indicates that the Maqṣad is
a philosophically contaminated text.38 The term, moreover, is reminiscent of
the terms al-ta‌‌ʾalluh, “deiformity” and al-tashabbuh bi-Llāh “striving to achieve
similarity with God” that are used by Avicenna in his writings.39 Many me-
dieval Islamic authors were also uncomfortable with philosophical ethics
because it suggests that ethics can be intellectually reasoned, and that one
can therefore dispense with revelation and prophecy. Complaints of this na-
ture are also echoed by Ibn Barrajān.40 To be sure, philosophical ethics was

36 See Addas for a discussion of Ibn ʿArabī’s understanding of takhalluq (Addas 2015, 24).
One of Ibn ʿArabī’s earlier works is a commentary on the names which follows tripar-
tite division “realisation, self-characterisation, and attachment” (taḥaqquq, takhalluq,
taʿalluq), entitled Kashf al-Maʿnā ʿan Sirr Asmāʾ Allāh al-Ḥusnā. (Ibn ʿArabī 2010). He re-
stricts himself to the ninety-nine names mentioned by al-Ghazālī in the Maqṣad. In his
later Futūḥāt, however, Ibn ʿArabī uses the term takhalluq quite regularly but expresses
some discomfort with it, especially insofar as it is used by al-Ghazālī because he felt that
it inevitably implied a tashbīh, or correspondence between the eternal Lord and the cre-
ated servant: “If I ever ascribed correspondence (munāsaba) [between servant and Lord]
as Imām Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī does in his books and elsewhere, it is a sort of forced
explanation (takalluf ) and a far cry from the realities [that we intend to express], for what
correspondence is there between the temporally originated and the eternal, and how can
one compare anything to that which resists all comparison?” The passage in question is
found in the first “part” or faṣl of the Futūḥāt, known as al-faṣl al-awwal, fī l-Maʿārif, which
is spread over the first 73 chapters; see Chapter Three (al-bāb al-thālith), entitled Fī tanzīh
al-Ḥaqq.
37 Ibn Taymiyya criticises the term takhalluq for being a carry-over from philosophy, and had
a strong distaste for Ghazālī’s hyper-theologised understanding of God’s attributes and
his doctrine of takhalluq. Ironically, he critiques the anti-anthropopathism of Ashʿarīs
and accuses them of taʿṭīl, or denying essential attributes of God that He ascribes to
Himself, such as mercy, love, and anger. (Ibn Taymiyya 2005, 7:413–416).
38 Ibn al-Qayyim objected to the project as it seems to build off philosophical ethics of
Miskaway’s Tahdhīb al-Akhlāq (“Refinement of Character Traits”).
39 See Avicenna’s Risāla fī l-ʿishq (“Treatise on Love”) where he speaks of achieving confor-
mity with qualities of the Necessary Being as a process of “deiformity” (ta‌‌ʾalluh). He de-
scribes the Necessary Being as the True Lover, and the process of becoming characterised
by its qualities as an actualisation of Necessary Being’s love for beauty, and affirms that
the attributes of the Necessary Being (unity, generosity, wisdom, eternity etc.) can be con-
formed to (Chittick 1995).
40 Ibn Barrajān (d. 536/1141), who did not read the Maqṣad when writing his own massive
and seminal commentary on the divine names, had theological misgivings about the
term takhalluq because ascribing “character traits” to God struck him as anthropomor-
phic, and he found such discourse to be uncomfortably close to philosophical discourse.
(Casewit 2017, 136–55). For a study of theological responses to this theological problem
(see Gimaret 1997).

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194 Casewit

certainly part and parcel of the educational background that al-Ghazālī inher-
ited, and Greek ethics easily lends itself to Islamic ethics. Like so many authors,
it impacts how he formulates, codifies, and classifies ethics. He found Plato’s
tripartite division of the faculties of the soul in The Republic, the four cardinal
virtues, and Aristotle’s virtue as a golden mean between excess (ifrāṭ) and de-
ficiency (tafrīṭ) to be a useful way of discussing and framing the virtues. But
despite common terms and the use of parallel formulations in philosophical
ethics and takhalluq discourse, as well as al-Ghazālī’s demonstrable familiar-
ity with philosophical ethics in the Iḥyāʾ, this accusation is a red herring that
distracts from the core theological concerns and dynamics that undergird
al-Ghazālī’s Maqṣad.41
Hesitations over using the term takhalluq are expressed by al-Ghazālī’s own
student, Abū Bakr b. al-ʿArabī. The latter is alert to the problematic nature of
the term takhalluq in his ethical meditations on the names, and expresses his
reservations in his remarkable commentary, al-Amad al-Aqṣā (“The Furthest
Limit”) (Ibn al-ʿArabī, 2015, 1:230–231). Tellingly, Ibn al-ʿArabī introduces his
ethical discussion with a section devoted to “the exclusively divine traits of
God” (ikhtiṣāṣāt ilāhiya), and under the heading: “supreme station of the Lord”
(al-manzila al-ʿulyā lil-Rabb) in contrast to the “lowly station of the servant”
(al-manzila suflā lil-ʿabd).42
It seems that this terminological use incited the ire of the Tunisian Mālikī
jurist al-Māzirī (d. 536/1141).43 Al-Ghazālī is the first to concede that some
“shares” of a servant in names is by way of a “far-fetched metaphor” (majāz

41 Our author was surely aware of al-Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī’s Kitāb al-Dharīʿa ilā Makārim
al-Sharīʿa, a book that influenced al-Ghazālī’s Mīzān al-ʿAmal on science of the soul, the
house, and society. It may have also played a role in informing al-Ghazālī’s takhalluq,
since it mentions the notion of “emulating God to the extent of one’s ability” (al-iqtidāʾ
bi-Llāh bi-qadr al-ṭāqa). Miskawayh’s Tahdhīb al-akhlāq would have been known to him
as well.
42 Abū Bakr b. al-ʿArabī devotes a section to the distinctive features of God’s akhlāq
(ikhtiṣāṣāt ilāhiya) to stress the Lord’s transcendence (al-manzila al-ʿulyā lil-Rabb) in con-
trast to the lowly station of the servant (manzila suflā lil-ʿabd). The Amad is structured
much like the Maqṣad with theological introductions, and commentaries on Qurʾānic
verses like the Taḥbīr of al-Qushayrī. The names are listed in degrees of ascent (taraqqī)
in devotion. Each name receives four separate commentaries: 1) scriptural root (mawrid);
2) philological analysis (lugha); 3) theological analysis tracing each name’s relation to the
attributes and Essence; 4) divine assumption of traits (takhalluq) and al-manzila al-ʿulyā
lil-ʿabd; to address how God shares in the character trait without being anthropopathic,
followed by 5) human share in the name.
43 See Ibn Taymiyya 2010, 6:124–126. According to Ibn Taymiyya, Makkī’s discussions of
takhalluq in the Qūt al-Qulūb were also refuted by the Shāfiʿī Sufi traditionist Abū l-Bayān
al-Dimashqī, known as Ibn al-Ḥamrāwī (d. 551/1156).

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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 195

baʿīd), such as the Creator (al-Khāliq) and the Author (al-Bāriʾ); we employ
our power in light of our knowledge, just like God. For al-Māzīrī, the names
of majesty are specific to God, by consensus, and the servant has no share in
them. One can emulate the character traits of the Prophet but not of God, for
nothing is as His like (Q 42:11). Hence holy sayings such as “Majesty is My cloak,
and greatness is My robe, and he who competes with Me in respect of either of
them, I shall punish.”44 When discussing the servant’s share in God’s name the
Compeller (al-Jabbār), he states that the Prophet embodies this name because
he is followed, emulated, obeyed, imitated, peerless in rank and in behaviour,
for he cannot be matched by anyone (al-Ghazālī 1971, 78–79).
Al-Māzirī’s criticism foregrounds the criticism of traditionalist Ahl al-Ḥadīth
scholars. The latter, who are not committed to the Ashʿarī doctrine, raise objec-
tions regarding the extent to which takhalluq can be applied to all the names.
Can the servant acquire a share in all divine character traits, including those
of majesty and grandeur? Generally speaking, most scholars accept that the
servant can take on some characteristics of God. But while the principle of
takhalluq is generally accepted, extending it to all the names including those
of majesty and transcendence is criticised by many as being a “forced explana-
tion,” or a stilted exercise in enforced clarity (takalluf ).45 From the perspec-
tive of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, for instance, al-Ghazālī’s theological
systematisation of takhalluq in the language of Ashʿarī volitionism failed to
make a convincing case for how all the divine names—including the names
of majesty and transcendence—can be used as a source of moral guidance.
Ahl al-Ḥadīth authors were wary of the Maqṣad’s heavy layer of Ashʿarism and

44 Ibn Māja, Sunan, kitāb al-zuhd, no. 4314.

45 Al-Ghazālī applies takhalluq to each name, and it works theologically within the Ashʿarī
volitionist framework. For the Ahl al-Ḥadīth who reject the theological underpinnings
of this discourse, this is criticised for being a stretch. However, he also holds that there is
no possible takhalluq for the name Allāh for a few reasons. First, as we saw above, he is
inclined to consider this name, as well as the name the All-Merciful (al-Rāḥmān), to “fol-
low the pattern of proper nouns” (ʿalā majrā asmāʾ al-ʿalam) and that Allāh does not have
an etymological root. Second, it is the all-encompassing name and thus it is hallowed
beyond the reach of the servant. Here, al-Ghazālī is aligning himself with the early Sufi
tradition. In al-Sulamī’s Qurʾān commentary, Ḥaqāʾiq al-Tafsīr, the possibility of taking on
the character traits of all the names except for the divine name Allāh is articulated, and is
attributed to early Sufi Abū Bakr al-Wāsiṭī (d. 331/942). For Allāh is the all-encompassing
name that brings together attributes of Divinity, Lordship and Reality. If one may speak
of a “share” of a servant in this name, it is to have a heart that is completely immersed in
God, to aspire to Him alone, to see none but Him, to fear none but Him, to recognise that
everything other than Him, including oneself, is passing away here and now and is only
real insofar as it is sustained by Him (al-Sulamī 2001, 1:31). For pre-Qushayrian discussions
of takhalluq see (Massignon 1999, 284; 1922, 3:142, 287).

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196 Casewit

critiqued al-Ghazālī for excessive tanzīh, or denying the attributes (taʿṭīl) by

reducing names such as the Loving-Kind (al-Wadūd) to the divine will.
The second distinguishing feature of the Maqṣad is thus its enforcement of
an over-systematised and hyper-theologised hermeneutics. Al-Ghazālī demon-
strates a consistent, rigorous, and rigid theological commitment to the concept
of takhalluq as an ethical principle, and he binds himself to his self-prescribed
hermeneutical principles. It is interesting that Ibn ʿArabī and some of his fol-
lowers, including his disciple al-Qūnawī, generally adopted al-Ghazālī’s theory
that each name has one overarching meaning in their commentaries on the
divine names. In contrast, similarly-minded Ashʿarī commentators who en-
gaged with the Maqṣad usually pushed against his hermeneutics and valued
methodological leniency. Abū Bakr b. al-ʿArabī avoids synonymity in al-Amad
al-Aqṣā but not as consistently as al-Ghazālī. Likewise, Ibn al-Uqlīshī affirms
polysemy and synonymity in his commentary and states that al-Ghazālī’s rigid
hermeneutics pre-emptively close doors of our understanding of the names
(Ibn al-Uqlīshī 2017, 1: 244).

11 Conclusion

Meditations on the significance of the divine names can be traced back to the
earliest period of Islamic thought. However, by the Islamic Middle Period, the
divine names genre takes on a life of its own, as evidenced by the composi-
tion of independent commentaries rather than sections of larger theological
works. These commentaries, moreover, tended to be meditative texts pro-
duced at the hands of well-rounded and senior scholars. By their very nature,
the divine names tradition falls somewhat outside the realm of formal theol-
ogy. It attracts less polemics and is not primarily concerned with establishing
tight theological proofs. For the commentators, “reckoning the names” (iḥṣāʾ
al-asmāʾ) was often understood as a door to paradise by applying all of one’s
learning and spiritual training to understand an aspect of God’s relation to the
human soul and creation.
Al-Ghazālī’s drive for systematisation produced a commentary that was
both valued for its concision and clarity, as well as criticised for the limits it
placed on interpreting the divine names. Despite its heavy-going theological
concerns, however, it should be emphasised that the Maqṣad was also written
with devotional ends in mind. Al-Ghazālī often sets aside polemics and tech-
nical theological debates.46 But in affirming the divine roots of human ethics,

46 Al-Qushayrī too has theological arguments and refutations in his Taḥbīr, but they are sec-
ondary to his purpose (e.g., al-Qushayrī 1986, 103). Abū Bakr b. al-ʿArabī also refutes the
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Al-Ghazālī ’ s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names 197

he can never fully put his theological concerns to rest. He employs the theo-
logical, philosophical, and juridical (uṣūlī) tools at his disposal to systematise
the analogical process of reasoning about the divine names. This Ghazālian
drive in the Maqṣad (completed ca. 495–499/1101–1105) is also detectable in
his approach to the Qurʾānic exegetical tradition in his Qānūn al-Ta‌‌ʾwīl (“The
Rule of Interpretation,” completed ca. 490/1097). For in the Qānūn, he seeks
to determine the correct reading of the Qurʾān, just as in the Maqṣad he seeks
to determine the only correct meaning of a name by laying out “rules of inter-
pretation” of the names.47 These hermeneutical principles guide his approach
to acquiring character traits of God through analogical knowledge. Al-Ghazālī
thus approaches virtue ethics almost as a legal theorist (uṣūlī) would, by draw-
ing analogy from the visible (i.e., the human ethical share in the meaning of a
name) for the unseen (the transcendent maʿnā of the name) (qiyās al-shāhid
ʿalā al-ghāʾib). But in the end, the transcendent names are resistant to such
meta-hermeneutics and cannot be confined to neat rational categories.

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