WHAT’S AHEAD

3.1 ▶ The Conservation of Mass,

Chemical Equations, and
Stoichiometry

3.2 ▶ Simple Patterns of Chemical

3
Reactivity: Combination,
Decomposition, and
Combustion

3.3 ▶ Formula Weights and

Elemental Compositions of
Substances

3.4 ▶ Avogadro’s Number and the

Mole; Molar Mass

3.5 ▶ Formula Weights and

Elemental Compositions of
Substances CHEMICAL
3.6 ▶ Reaction Stoichiometry
3.7 ▶ Limiting Reactants REACTIONS AND
STOICHIOMETRY
3.1 ∣ The Conservation of Mass,
Chemical Equations, and
 3.1 ∣ The Conservation of Mass,
Chemical Equations, and
Stoichiometry

Much of the energy that we use in our daily lives, including transportation, comes from
chemical reactions. In the internal combustion engine, fuel and air react to produce
energy, along with gaseous byproducts (mostly carbon dioxide and water) that exit the
exhaust pipes of vehicles, an issue that is central to discussions surrounding climate
change. Suppose we wanted to know how many molecules of CO2 are produced by burn-
ing a certain amount of fuel. The tools of chemistry we will learn in this section enable us
134
 SECTION 3.1 The Conservation of Mass, Chemical Equations, and Stoichiometry 135

to accurately determine how many molecules of hydrocarbon and oxygen are consumed
and how many molecules of byproducts are generated.
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

• Explain the law of conservation of mass in terms of reactants and products in a chem-
ical equation
• Balance chemical equations by writing out the chemical formulas (and appropriate
coefficients) of the reactants and products in chemical reactions

Stoichiometry (pronounced stoy-key-OM-uh-tree, roughly meaning “element mea-

sure” in Greek) is the area of study that examines the quantities of substances consumed
and produced in chemical reactions. Chemists and chemical engineers use stoichiome-
try every day in running the reactions of the worldwide chemical industry.
Stoichiometry is built on an understanding of atomic weights (Section 2.4), chem-
ical formulas, and the law of conservation of mass (Section 2.1). This important
principle tells us that: Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. The
changes that occur during any reaction merely rearrange the atoms. The same collection
of atoms is present both before and after the reaction.
We represent chemical reactions by chemical equations. When the gas hydrogen
(H2) burns, for example, it reacts with oxygen (O2) in the air to form water, H2O. We write
the chemical equation for this reaction as
Reactants Products
2 H2 + O2 ¡ 2 H2O [3.1]
We read the + sign as “reacts with” and the arrow as “produces.” The chemical for- 2 H2 1 O2 2 H2O
mulas on the left side of the arrow represent the starting substances, called reactants.
The chemical formulas on the right side of the arrow represent substances produced in
the reaction, called products. The numbers in front of the formulas, called coefficients,
indicate the relative numbers of molecules of each kind involved in the reaction. (As in
1
algebraic equations, the coefficient 1 is usually not written).
Because atoms are neither created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction, a bal-
anced chemical equation must have an equal number of atoms of each element on
 1
algebraic equations, the coefficient 1 is usually not written).
Because atoms are neither created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction, a bal-
anced chemical equation must have an equal number of atoms of each element on
each side of the arrow. On the right side of Equation 3.1, for example, there are two
▲ Figure 3.1 A balanced chemical equation.
molecules of H2O, each composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen
(Figure 3.1). Thus, 2 H2O (read “two molecules of water”) contains 2 * 2 = 4 H atoms
and 2 * 1 = 2 O atoms. Notice that the number of atoms is obtained by multiplying each
subscript in a chemical formula by the coefficient for the formula. Because there are four
H atoms and two O atoms on each side of the equation, the equation is balanced.

How to Balance Chemical Equations

Chemists write chemical equations to identify the reactants and products in a reaction.
To determine the amount of product that can be made, or the amount of a reactant that
is required, the equation needs to be balanced using stochiometry.
To construct a balanced chemical equation, we start by writing the formulas for
the reactants on the left-hand side of the arrow and the products on the right-hand side.
We balance the equation by determining the coefficients that provide equal numbers of
each type of atom on both sides of the equation. For most purposes, a balanced equation
should contain the smallest possible whole-number coefficients.
In balancing an equation, you need to understand the difference between coeffi-
cients and subscripts. As Figure 3.2 illustrates, changing a subscript in a formula—from
H2O to H2O2, for example—changes the identity of the substance. The substance H2O2,
hydrogen peroxide, is quite different from the substance H2O, water. Never change sub-
scripts when balancing an equation. In contrast, placing a coefficient in front of a formula
changes only the amount of the substance and not its identity. Thus, 2 H2O means two
molecules of water, 3 H2O means three molecules of water, and so forth.
136 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

▶ Figure 3.2 The difference

between changing subscripts
and changing coefficients in Changing coefficient Two molecules of water
chemical equations. changes amount. (contain four H atoms
2 H2O
and two O atoms)
H2O

Changing subscript
One molecule of hydrogen
H2O2 peroxide (contains two H
changes identity
and properties.
atoms and two O atoms)

A Step-by-Step Example of Balancing a Chemical Equation

when methane 1CH42, the principal component of natural gas, burns in air to produce
To illustrate the process of balancing an equation, consider the reaction that occurs

carbon dioxide gas 1CO22 and water vapor 1H2O2 (Figure 3.3). Both products contain
oxygen atoms that come from O2 in the air. Thus, O2 is a reactant, and the unbalanced
equation is:
CH4 + O2 ¡ CO2 + H2O 1unbalanced2 [3.2]
It is usually best to first balance those elements that occur in the fewest chemical

product, CO2. The same is true for H 1CH4 and H2O2. Notice, however, that O appears in
formulas in the equation. In our example, C appears in only one reactant, CH4, and one

one reactant 1O22 and two products 1CO2 and H2O2. So, let’s begin with C. Because one
molecule of CH4 contains the same number of C atoms as one molecule of CO2, the coef-
ficients for these substances must be the same in the balanced equation. Therefore, we
start by choosing the coefficient 1 (unwritten) for both CH4 and CO2.
molecule of CH4 contains the same number of C atoms as one molecule of CO2, the coef-
ficients for these substances must be the same in the balanced equation. Therefore, we
start by choosing the coefficient 1 (unwritten) for both CH4 and CO2.
Next we focus on H. On the left side of the equation we have CH4, which has four H
atoms, whereas on the right side of the equation we have H2O, containing two H atoms.
To balance the H atoms in the equation we place the coefficient 2 in front of H2O. Now
there are four H atoms on each side of the equation:
CH4 + O2 ¡ CO2 + 2 H2O 1unbalanced2 [3.3]
While the equation is now balanced with respect to hydrogen and carbon, it is not yet
balanced for oxygen: there are 2 O atoms on the left-hand side, and a total of 4 O atoms
on the right-hand side. Adding the coefficient 2 in front of O2 balances the equation by
giving four O atoms on each side:
CH4 + 2 O2 ¡ CO2 + 2 H2O 1balanced2 [3.4]
We can provide even more information in a chemical equation: the physical state of the
reactants, products, and more details about what conditions are required for the reaction
to proceed. We use the symbols (g), (l), (s), and (aq) for substances that are gases, liquids,
solids, and dissolved in aqueous (water) solution, respectively. Thus, Equation 3.4 is fully
written as:

CH41g2 + 2 O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2 [3.5]

Symbols that represent the conditions under which the reaction proceeds can appear
above or below the reaction arrow. One example that we will encounter later in this
chapter involves the symbol ∆ (Greek uppercase delta); a delta above the reaction arrow
indicates the addition of heat.
For Equation 3.5, Figures 3.3 and 3.4 provide molecular views of the reaction as it
would happen in a Bunsen burner and the balanced reaction, respectively.
 SECTION 3.1 The Conservation of Mass, Chemical Equations, and Stoichiometry 137

Go Figure In the molecular level views shown in the figure, how many C, H, and O atoms are
present as reactants? Are the same number of each type of atom present as products?

Reactants Products

CH4 O2
CO2 and H2O

▲ Figure 3.3 Methane reacts with oxygen in a Bunsen burner.

◀ Figure 3.4 Balanced chemical

equation for the combustion of
CH4.
1 1

CH4 1 2 O2 CO2 1 2 H2O

(1 C, 4 H, 4 O) (1 C, 4 H, 4 O)
 4 2 2 2

(1 C, 4 H, 4 O) (1 C, 4 H, 4 O)

Sample Exercise 3.1

Interpreting and Balancing Chemical Equations

The following diagram represents a chemical reaction in which the red spheres are oxygen atoms and the blue spheres are
nitrogen atoms. (a) Write the chemical formulas for the reactants and products. (b) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
(c) Is the diagram consistent with the law of conservation of mass?

SOLUTION the coefficients for NO and NO2 equal. Sometimes a trial-

and-error approach is required; we need to go back and forth
of molecules, those composed of two oxygen atoms 1O22 and
(a) The left box, which represents reactants, contains two kinds
several times from one side of an equation to the other,
changing coefficients first on one side of the equation and
those composed of one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom
then the other until it is balanced. In our present case, let’s
(NO). The right box, which represents products, contains only
start by increasing the number of O atoms on the right side of
atom and two oxygen atoms 1NO22.
one kind of molecule, which is composed of one nitrogen
the equation by placing the coefficient 2 in front of NO2:

O2 + NO ¡ 2 NO2 1unbalanced2
(b) The unbalanced chemical equation is
O2 + NO ¡ NO2 1unbalanced2
Now the equation gives two N atoms and four O atoms on the
right, so we go back to the left side. Placing the coefficient 2 in
An inventory of atoms on each side of the equation shows front of NO balances both N and O:
O2 + 2 NO ¡ 2 NO2 1balanced2
that there are one N and three O on the left side of the arrow
and one N and two O on the right. To balance O, we must
increase the number of O atoms on the right while keeping (2 N, 4 O) (2 N, 4 O)
Continued
138 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

(c) The reactants box contains four O2 and eight NO. Thus, the mo-
lecular ratio is one O2 for each two NO, as required by the bal-
anced equation. The products box contains eight NO2, which
means the number of NO2 product molecules equals the num-
ber of NO reactant molecules, as the balanced equation requires. ?
There are eight N atoms in the eight NO molecules
in the reactants box. There are also 4 * 2 = 8 O atoms
in the O2 molecules and 8 O atoms in the NO molecules,
giving a total of 16 O atoms. In the products box, we find
eight NO2 molecules, which contain eight N atoms and
The two reactants combine to form a single product, ammo-
8 * 2 = 16 O atoms. Because there are equal numbers of N
nia, NH3, which is not shown. Write a balanced chemical
and O atoms in the two boxes, the drawing is consistent with
equation for the reaction. Based on the equation and the
the law of conservation of mass.
contents of the left (reactants) box, how many NH3 mole-
cules should be shown in the right (products) box?
▶ Practice Exercise (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 6 (e) 9
In the following diagram, the white spheres represent hydrogen
atoms and the blue spheres represent nitrogen atoms.

Sample Exercise 3.2

Balancing Chemical Equations

Balance the equation

Na1s2 + H2O1l2 ¡ NaOH1aq2 + H21g2
SOLUTION
Begin by counting each kind of atom on the two sides of the arrow.
There are one Na, one O, and two H on the left side, and one Na, one
O, and three H on the right. The Na and O atoms are balanced, but

Na1s2 + 2 H2O1l2 ¡ NaOH1aq2 + H21g2

the number of H atoms is not. To increase the number of H atoms on
the left, let’s try placing the coefficient 2 in front of H2O:
 There are one Na, one O, and two H on the left side, and one Na, one
O, and three H on the right. The Na and O atoms are balanced, but

Na1s2 + 2 H2O1l2 ¡ NaOH1aq2 + H21g2

the number of H atoms is not. To increase the number of H atoms on
the left, let’s try placing the coefficient 2 in front of H2O:

Although beginning this way does not balance H, it does increase

the number of reactant H atoms, which we need to do. (Also, add-
ing the coefficient 2 on H2O unbalances O, but we will take care of

Na1s2 + 2 H2O1l2 ¡ 2 NaOH1aq2 + H21g2

that after we balance H.) Now that we have 2 H2O on the left, we
balance H by putting the coefficient 2 in front of NaOH:
Balancing H in this way brings O into balance, but now Na is

2 Na1s2 + 2 H2O1l2 ¡ 2 NaOH1aq2 + H21g2

unbalanced, with one Na on the left and two on the right. To
rebalance Na, we put the coefficient 2 in front of the reactant:
We now have two Na atoms, four H atoms, and two O atoms on
each side. The equation is balanced.

Comment Notice that we moved back and forth, placing a ▶ Practice Exercise
coefficient in front of H2O, then NaOH, and finally Na. In balanc- Balance these equations by providing the missing

(a) __ Fe1s2 + __O21g2 ¡ __Fe2O31s2

ing equations, we often find ourselves following this pattern of coefficients:
moving back and forth from one side of the arrow to the other,
(b) __ Al1s2 + __ HCl1aq2 ¡ __ AlCl31aq2 + __ H21g2
placing coefficients first in front of a formula on one side and

(c) __ CaCO31s2 + __ HCl1aq2 ¡ __ CaCl21aq2 +

then in front of a formula on the other side until the equation is

__ CO21g2 + __ H2O1l2
balanced. You can always tell if you have balanced your equation
correctly by checking that the number of atoms of each element
is the same on the two sides of the arrow, and that you’ve chosen
the smallest set of coefficients that balances the equation.

Self-Assessment Exercises
Here are a few problems designed to test your understanding of the material.

3.1 How many atoms of oxygen are represented by the notation 3.2 In the following diagram, the white spheres represent hydro-
3 Mg(OH)2? gen atoms and the blue spheres represent nitrogen atoms.
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 5 (e) 6
 SECTION 3.2 Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity: Combination, Decomposition, and Combustion 139

many NH3 molecules should be shown in the right

(products) box?
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 6 (e) 9
? 3.3 The unbalanced equation for the reaction between
methane and bromine is
__ CH41g2 + __Br21l2 ¡ __CBr41s2 + __HBr1g2
Once this equation is balanced with the smallest pos-
sible integers, what is the value of the coefficient in
The two reactants combine to form a single product, front of bromine, Br2?
ammonia, NH3, which is not shown. Write a balanced
chemical equation for the reaction. Based on the equa- (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 6
tion and the contents of the left (reactants) box, how

Exercises
3.4 Write “true” or “false” for each statement. (a) We balance 3.6 Balance the following equations:
chemical equations as we do because energy must be con- (a) CaS1s2 + H2O1l2 ¡ Ca1HS221aq2 + Ca(OH)21aq2
(b) NH31g2 + O21g2 ¡ NO1g2 + H2O1g2
served. (b) If the reaction 2 O3(g) S 3 O2(g) goes to comple-

(c) FeCl31s2 + Na2CO31aq2 ¡ Fe2(CO3)31s2 + NaCl1aq2

tion and all O3 is converted to O2, then the mass of O3 at
the beginning of the reaction must be the same as the mass
of O2 at the end of the reaction. (c) You can balance the (d) FeS21s2 + O21g2 ¡ Fe2O31s2 + SO21g2
“water-splitting” reaction H2O(l) S H2(g) + O2(g) by writing
3.7 Write balanced chemical equations corresponding to each
it this way: H2O2(l) S H2(g) + O2(g).
of the following descriptions: (a) Potassium cyanide reacts
3.5 Balance the following equations:
(a) SiCl41l2 + H2O1l2 ¡ Si1OH24(s) + HCl(aq)
with an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid to form hydrogen
cyanide gas. (b) When an aqueous solution of ammonium
(b) CO21g2 + H2O ¡ C6H12O6(s) + O2(g)
nitrite (NH 4NO 2) reacts with an aqueous solution of po-

(c) Al(OH)31s2 + H2SO41l2 ¡ Al2(SO4)3(s) + H2O(l)

tassium hydroxide, ammonia gas, water and metal nitrate

(d) H3PO41aq2 ¡ H4P2O7(aq) + H2O(l)

is formed. (c) When hydrogen gas is passed over solid hot
iron(III) oxide, the resulting reaction produces iron and gas-
eous water. (d) When liquid ethanoic acid (CH 3COOH) is
combusted, carbon dioxide and water are formed.
 (d) H3PO41aq2 ¡ H4P2O7(aq) + H2O(l) iron(III) oxide, the resulting reaction produces iron and gas-
eous water. (d) When liquid ethanoic acid (CH 3COOH) is
combusted, carbon dioxide and water are formed.

3.3 (d) 3.2 (d) 3.1 (e)

Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.2 ∣ Simple Patterns of Chemical

Reactivity: Combination,
Decomposition, and Combustion
140 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

One of the great triumphs of chemistry over the last hundred years is the development of
fertilizers that enable us to feed the world. Ammonia, NH3, is one of the principle chemi-
cals farmers use to increase crop yield. The industrial process that are used to convert the
elements nitrogen and hydrogen into ammonia is one of the most important chemical
reactions in the world.
In this section, we will learn about broad classes of chemical reactions. When you
finish this section, you should be able to:

• Recognize chemical reactions that are combination, decomposition, or combustion

reactions
• Predict the products of these reactions
• Balance chemical equations for these reactions

Combination and Decomposition Reactions

In combination reactions, two or more substances react to form one product, according to
A + B ¡ C [3.6]

For example, magnesium metal burns brilliantly in air to produce magnesium oxide.
This reaction is used to produce the bright white flame generated by flares and some fire-
works (Figure 3.5):
2 Mg1s2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 MgO1s2 [3.7]

A combination reaction between a metal and a nonmetal, as in Equation 3.7, produces

an ionic solid. Recall that the formula of an ionic compound can be determined from
the charges of its ions (Section 2.7). When magnesium reacts with oxygen, the magne-
sium loses electrons and forms the magnesium ion, Mg2 + .The oxygen gains electrons and
forms the oxide ion, O2 - . Thus, the reaction product is MgO.
You should be able to recognize when a reaction is a combination reaction, and to
predict the products when the reactants are a metal and a nonmetal.
 forms the oxide ion, O2 - . Thus, the reaction product is MgO.
You should be able to recognize when a reaction is a combination reaction, and to
predict the products when the reactants are a metal and a nonmetal.

Mg

Mg21
O2
O 22

The ribbon of magnesium metal is An intense flame is produced as the The reaction forms MgO, a
surrounded by oxygen gas in the air. Mg atoms react with O2. white, ionic solid.

Reactants Products
2 Mg(s) 1 O2(g) 2 MgO(s)
▲ Figure 3.5 Combustion of magnesium metal in air, a combination reaction.
 SECTION 3.2 Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity: Combination, Decomposition, and Combustion 141

Other examples of combination reactions include the formation of small gaseous

molecules such as CO2 and NH3 from their elements; and the reaction of calcium oxide
with water to produce calcium hydroxide:

C1s2 + O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 [3.8]

N21g2 + 3 H21g2 ¡ 2 NH31g2 [3.9]
CaO1s2 + H2O1l2 ¡ Ca1OH221aq2 [3.10]

In a decomposition reaction, a single substance undergoes a reaction to produce two

or more products:
C ¡ A + B [3.11]

An example of a decomposition reaction is when a metal carbonate decomposes to a

metal oxide and carbon dioxide upon heating:

CaCO31s2 ¡ CaO1s2 + CO21g2

∆
[3.12]

Industrially, the decomposition of calcium carbonate at high temperatures is quite im-

portant. Limestone and seashells, natural sources of calcium carbonate, are heated to pre-
pare calcium oxide, known as “quicklime” or “lime.” Tens of millions of tons of CaO are
used each year in making glass, in metallurgy to isolate metals from ores, in cement, and
in steel manufacturing to remove impurities.
Another important example of a decomposition reaction is the decomposition of
sodium azide, NaN3, to form sodium metal and nitrogen gas:

2 NaN31s2 ¡ 2 Na1s2 + 3 N21g2 [3.13]

This reaction is what you find in automobile airbags (Figure 3.6). Approximately 100 g of
NaN3, upon physical impact, will explosively produce about 50 L of nitrogen gas.
▲ Figure 3.6 Decomposition of sodium
azide, NaN3(s), produces N2(g) that inflates
air bags in automobiles.
NaN3, upon physical impact, will explosively produce about 50 L of nitrogen gas.
▲ Figure 3.6 Decomposition of sodium
azide, NaN3(s), produces N2(g) that inflates
air bags in automobiles.
Combustion Reactions
Combustion reactions are rapid reactions that produce a flame. Most combustion re-
actions involve O2 from air as a reactant. The combustion of hydrocarbons (compounds
that contain only carbon and hydrogen) in air, illustrated in Equation 3.5, is a major en-
ergy-producing process in our world. Go Figure
Hydrocarbons combusted in air react with O2 to form CO2 and H2O. The number of
Does this reaction produce or
molecules of O2 required, as well as the number of product molecules formed, depend on
consume thermal energy (heat)?
the composition of the hydrocarbon, which acts as the fuel in the reaction. For example,
the combustion of propane (C3H8, Figure 3.7), a gas used for cooking and home heating, is
described by the chemical equation

C3H81g2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 3 CO21g2 + 4 H2O1g2 [3.14]

TABLE 3.1 Combination and Decomposition Reactions

Combination Reactions
A + B ¡ C Two or more reactants combine to form a single
C1s2 + O21g2 ¡ CO21g2
product. Many elements react with one another

N21g2 + 3 H21g2 ¡ 2 NH31g2

in this fashion to form compounds.

CaO1s2 + H2O1l2 ¡ Ca1OH221aq2

Decomposition Reactions
▲ Figure 3.7 Propane burning in air.
C ¡ A + B A single reactant breaks apart to form two or
2 KClO31s2 ¡ 2 KCl1s2 + 3 O21g2
Liquid propane in the tank, C3H8, vaporizes
more substances. Many compounds react this and mixes with air as it escapes through the
PbCO31s2 ¡ PbO1s2 + CO21g2
way when heated. nozzle. The combustion reaction of C3H8

Cu1OH221s2 ¡ CuO1s2 + H2O1g2

and O2 produces a blue flame.
142 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

The state of the water in this reaction is listed as gas here, since the propane flame burns
at a high temperature; but depending on conditions, the water molecules that are pro-
duced could be in the gas or liquid phase.
Millions of compounds are made only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Notable
classes of such molecules are sugars and alcohols. Combustion of these oxygen-
containing derivatives of hydrocarbons in air also produces CO2, H2O and energy. Many

1C6H12O62, react with O2 to ultimately form CO2 and H2O. In our bodies, however, the
of the substances that function as energy sources in metabolism, such as the sugar glucose

reactions take place in a series of intermediate steps that occur at body temperature. These
reactions that involve intermediate steps are called oxidation reactions rather than combus-
tion reactions.

Sample Exercise 3.3

Writing Balanced Equations for Combination and Decomposition Reactions

Write a balanced equation for (a) the combination reaction between lithium metal and fluorine gas and (b) the decomposition
reaction that occurs when solid barium carbonate is heated (two products form, a solid and a gas).

SOLUTION for example, CaCO3 decomposes to form CaO and CO2.

Thus, we expect BaCO3 to decompose to BaO and CO2.
(a) With the exception of mercury, all metals are solids at
Barium and calcium are both in Group 2 in the periodic
Thus, the reactants are Li(s) and F21g2. The product will be
room temperature. Fluorine occurs as a diatomic molecule.
table, which further suggests they react in the same way:
composed of a metal and a nonmetal, so we expect it to be BaCO3(s) ¡ BaO(s) + CO2(g)
an ionic solid. Lithium ions have a 1 + charge, Li+ , whereas
fluoride ions have a 1 - charge, F - . Thus, the chemical
formula for the product is LiF. The balanced chemical
▶ Practice Exercise
equation is Which of the following reactions is the balanced equation
that represents the decomposition reaction that occurs when
2 Li1s2 + F21g2 ¡ 2 LiF1s2
(a) AgO1s2 ¡ Ag1s2 + O1g2 (b) 2 AgO1s2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + O21g2
silver(I) oxide is heated?
 equation is Which of the following reactions is the balanced equation
that represents the decomposition reaction that occurs when
2 Li1s2 + F21g2 ¡ 2 LiF1s2
(a) AgO1s2 ¡ Ag1s2 + O1g2 (b) 2 AgO1s2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + O21g2
silver(I) oxide is heated?

(c) Ag2O1s2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + O1g2 (d) 2 Ag2O1s2 ¡ 4 Ag1s2 + O21g2

(e)Ag2O1s2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + O21g2
(b) The chemical formula for barium carbonate is BaCO3. As
mentioned, many metal carbonates decompose to metal
oxides and carbon dioxide when heated. In Equation 3.7,

Sample Exercise 3.4

Writing Balanced Equations for Combustion Reactions

Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when methanol, CH3OH(l ), is burned in air.

SOLUTION Although this equation is balanced, it is not in its most conven-

tional form because it contains a fractional coefficient. However,
acts with the O21g2 in air to produce CO21g2 and H2O1g2. Thus, the
When any compound containing C, H, and O is combusted, it re-
multiplying through by 2 removes the fraction and keeps the
equation balanced:
2 CH3OH1l2 + 3 O21g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 4 H2O1g2
unbalanced equation is

CH3OH1l2 + O21g2 ¡ CO2(g) + H2O1g2

The C atoms are balanced, one on each side of the arrow. Because ▶ Practice Exercise
ethylene glycol, C2H41OH22, burns in air.
CH3OH has four H atoms, we place the coefficient 2 in front of Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when
H2O to balance the H atoms:
CH3OH1l2 + O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2 (a) C2H41OH221l2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 3 H2O1g2
(b) 2 C2H41OH221l2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 4 CO21g2 + 6 H2O1g2
(c) C2H41OH221l2 + 3 O21g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 3 H2O1g2
Adding this coefficient balances H but gives four O atoms in the
products. Because there are only three O atoms in the reactants,
we are not finished. We can place the coefficient 32 in front of O2 (d) C2H41OH221l2 + 5 O1g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 3 H2O1g2
to give four O atoms in the reactants 132 * 2 = 3 O atoms in 32 O22:
(e) 4 C2H41OH221l2 + 10 O21g2 ¡ 8 CO21g2 + 12 H2O1g2
CH3OH1l2 + 3
2 O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2
 SECTION 3.3 Formula Weights and Elemental Compositions of Substances 143

Self-Assessment Exercises
Here are a few problems designed to test your understanding of the material.

when ethylene glycol, C2H41OH22, burns in air.

3.8 When Na and S undergo a combination reaction, what is the 3.10 Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs
chemical formula of the product?
(a) NaS (c) NaS2 (e) Na3S2 (a) C2H41OH221l2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 3 H2O1g2
(b) Na2S (d) Na2S3 (b) 2 C2H41OH221l2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 4 CO21g2 + 6 H2O1g2
3.9 Which of the following reactions is the balanced equation (c) C2H41OH221l2 + 3 O21g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 3 H2O1g2
for the decomposition of silver(I) oxide? (d) C2H41OH221l2 + 5 O1g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 3 H2O1g2
(a) AgO1s2 ¡ Ag1s2 + O1g2 (e) 4 C2H41OH221l2 + 10 O21g2 ¡ 8 CO21g2 + 12 H2O1g2
(b) 2 AgO1s2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + O21g2
(c) Ag2O1s2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + O1g2
(d) 2 Ag2O1s2 ¡ 4 Ag1s2 + O21g2
(e) Ag2O1s2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + O21g2

Exercises
3.11 (a) When the metallic element lithium combines with the combusted in air; (d) dimethylether, CH3OCH31g2, is com-
nonmetallic element chlorine, Cl2(g), what is the chemical busted in air.
formula of the product? (b) Is the product a solid, liquid, or 3.13 Balance the following equations and indicate whether
gas at room temperature? (c) In the balanced chemical equa- they are combination, decomposition, or combustion
tion for this reaction, what is the coefficient in front of the reactions:
(a) C7H161s2 + O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 + H2O1l2
product if the coefficient in front of Cl2(g) is 1?

occurs when (a) Mg(s) reacts with Cl21g2; (b) barium car- (b) Li3N1s2 + BN1s2 ¡ Li3BN21s2
3.12 Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction that

(c) Zn(OH)21s2 ¡ ZnO1s2 + H2O(l)

gas when heated; (c) the hydrocarbon styrene, C8H81l2, is
bonate decomposes into barium oxide and carbon dioxide
(d) Ag2O1s2 ¡ Ag1s2 + O2(g)

3.10 (b) 3.9 (d) 3.8 (b)

 (c) Zn(OH)21s2 ¡ ZnO1s2 + H2O(l)
gas when heated; (c) the hydrocarbon styrene, C8H81l2, is
bonate decomposes into barium oxide and carbon dioxide
(d) Ag2O1s2 ¡ Ag1s2 + O2(g)

3.10 (b) 3.9 (d) 3.8 (b)

Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.3 ∣ Formula Weights and Elemental

Compositions of Substances
144 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Sulfuric acid, H2SO41l2, is a common laboratory chemical that is used by the metric ton
in many reactions in the chemical industry. We can see from the molecular model on the
left that one molecule of H2SO4 contains one sulfur atom (yellow), four oxygen atoms

H2SO4, or more commonly, milliliters of its aqueous solution, H2SO41aq2. How can we
(red), and two hydrogen atoms (white). But in the lab, we dispense milliliters of liquid

connect the chemical equations that we write, which represent individual molecules,
to the reactions we do in the lab, where quantities are measured in grams or milliliters?
That is the topic we explore in this section.
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

• Calculate the formula weight of a substance from its empirical formula or it’s molec-
ular weight from its molecular formula
• Calculate the elemental composition of a substance from the mass percentages of the
elements that make up the substance

Formula and Molecular Weights

The formula weight (FW) of a substance is the sum of the atomic weights (AW) of the
atoms in the chemical formula of the substance. Using the atomic weights from the pe-
riodic table, we find, for example, that the formula weight of sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is 98.1
u (atomic mass units):

FW of H2SO4 = 21AW of H2 + 1AW of S2 + 41AW of O2

= 211.0 amu2 + 132.1 amu2 + 4116.0 amu2
= 98.1 amu

For convenience, we have rounded off the atomic weight to one decimal place, a practice
we will follow in most calculations in this book.
If the chemical formula is the chemical symbol of an element, such as Na, the for-
mula weight equals the atomic weight of the element (for Na, this would be 23.1 amu).
we will follow in most calculations in this book.
If the chemical formula is the chemical symbol of an element, such as Na, the for-
mula weight equals the atomic weight of the element (for Na, this would be 23.1 amu).
If the chemical formula is that of a molecule, like H2SO4, the formula weight can also be
called the molecular weight (MW).
Not all substances, though, are molecules. For instance, ionic substances such as cal-
cium chloride exist as three-dimensional arrays of ions (see Figure 2.18). In these cases,
the empirical formula is used as the formula unit, and the formula weight is the sum of
the atomic weights of the atoms in the empirical formula. For example, the formula unit
of CaCl2 consists of one Ca2 + ion and two Cl - ions. Thus, the formula weight of CaCl2 is

FW of CaCl2 = (AW Ca) + 2 (AW Cl) = 40.1 amu + 2(35.5 amu) = 111.1 amu

Elemental Compositions of Substances

Let’s say you are a forensic chemist, working in a crime lab. Your colleagues find a mys-
terious white powder at a crime scene. Is it salt, sugar, methamphetamine, cocaine or
something else?
One way to determine the identity of a substance is to measure its elemental
composition and compare it to the calculated elemental compositions of possible can-
didate substances. We do these calculations based on the masses of each element in the
compound:

a ba b
number of atoms AW
% mass composition of element of element
of element = * 100% [3.15]
FW of substance

The sum of all the mass percentages of each element in the compound must add up to
100%.
As an example, let’s calculate the mass percentage of sulfur in sulfuric acid. Based
on atoms we can see that for each H2SO4 molecule, one atom out of seven is sulfur. But
that does not mean that 1/7 of the mass of the compound is sulfur, since the atoms weigh
different amounts:
 SECTION 3.3 Formula Weights and Elemental Compositions of Substances 145

112132.1 amu2
% S in H2SO4 = * 100% = 32.7%
98.1 amu

So we find that almost a third of the mass of a given quantity of pure H2SO4 is due
to sulfur.

Sample Exercise 3.5

Calculating Formula Weights

Calculate the formula weight of (a) sucrose, C12H22O11 (table sugar); and (b) calcium nitrate, Ca1NO322.

SOLUTION 1 Ca atom = 1140.1 amu2 = 40.1 amu

(a) By adding the atomic weights of the atoms in sucrose, we find 2 N atoms = 2114.0 amu2 = 28.0 amu
the formula weight to be 342.0 amu: 6 O atoms = 6116.0 amu2 = 96.0 amu
12 C atoms = 12112.0 amu2 = 144.0 amu 164.1 amu
22 H atoms = 2211.0 amu2 = 22.0 amu
11 O atoms = 11116.0 amu2 = 176.0 amu
342.0 amu
(b) If a chemical formula has parentheses, the subscript outside ▶ Practice Exercise
Ca1NO322 we have
the parentheses is a multiplier for all atoms inside. Thus, for Calculate the formula weight of (a) Al1OH23, (b) CH3OH,
and (c) TaON.

STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS Problem Solving

Practice is the key to success in solving problems. As you practice, your plan may involve either a single step or a series of steps with
you can improve your skills by following these steps: intermediate answers.
1. Analyze the problem. Read the problem carefully. What does 3. Solve the problem. Use the known information and suitable
Practice is the key to success in solving problems. As you practice, your plan may involve either a single step or a series of steps with
you can improve your skills by following these steps: intermediate answers.
1. Analyze the problem. Read the problem carefully. What does 3. Solve the problem. Use the known information and suitable
it say? Draw a picture or diagram that will help you to visualize equations or relationships to solve for the unknown. Dimen-
the problem. Write down both the data you are given and the sional analysis (Section 1.7) is a useful tool for solving a great
quantity you need to obtain (the unknown). number of problems. Be careful with significant figures, signs,
2. Develop a plan for solving the problem. Consider a possi- and units.
ble path between the given information and the unknown. What 4. Check the solution. Read the problem again to make sure you
principles or equations relate the known data to the unknown? have found all the solutions asked for in the problem. Does your
Recognize that some data may not be given explicitly in the prob- answer make sense? That is, is the answer outrageously large or
lem; you may be expected to know certain quantities or look small or is it in the ballpark? Finally, are the units and significant
them up in tables (such as atomic weights). Recognize also that figures correct?

Sample Exercise 3.6

Calculating Percentage Composition

Calculate the percentage of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (by mass) in C12H22O11.

SOLUTION 122211.0 u2
%H = * 100% = 6.4%
342.0 u
1112116.0 u2
We’ll use the steps outlined in the Strategies For Success: Problem
Solving feature to answer the question.
%O = * 100% = 51.5%
342.0 u
Analyze We are given a chemical formula and asked to calculate
the percentage by mass of each element. Check Our calculated percentages must add up to 100%, which
they do. We could have used more significant figures for our
Plan We use Equation 3.10, obtaining our atomic weights from a
atomic weights, giving more significant figures for our percentage
periodic table. We know the denominator in Equation 3.10, the for-
composition, but we have adhered to our suggested guideline of
mula weight of C12H22O11, from Sample Exercise 3.5. We must use
rounding atomic weights to one digit beyond the decimal point.
that value in three calculations, one for each element.
Solve
1122112.0 u2
▶ Practice Exercise
What is the percentage of nitrogen, by mass, in calcium nitrate?
%C = * 100% = 42.1%
342.0 u (a) 8.54% (b) 17.1% (c) 13.7% (d) 24.4% (e) 82.9%
146 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Self-Assessment Exercises
Here are a few problems designed to test your understanding of the material.

3.14 Which of the following is the correct formula weight for cal- 3.16 A mysterious white powder found at a crime scene is ana-
cium phosphate? lyzed and contains 66.8 ; 0.5% carbon by mass. One of the
(a) 310.2 amu (b) 135.1 amu investigators hypothesizes that the substance is cocaine
(C17H21NO4). What percent carbon, by mass, is in cocaine?
(c) 182.2 amu (d) 278.2 amu
(a) 39.5% (b) 64.3%
(e) 175.1 amu
(c) 67.3 % (d) 70.6%
3.15 What is the percentage of nitrogen, by mass, in calcium nitrate? (e) 72.5%
(a) 8.54% (b) 17.1%
(c) 13.7% (d) 24.4%
(e) 82.9%

Exercises
3.17 Determine the formula weights of each of the following
H3CO H
compounds: (a) lead (IV) chloride; (b) copper(II) oxide;
(c) iodic acid, HIO 3 ; (d) sodium perchlorate, NaClO 4 ; C C O
(e) indium nitride, (f) phosphorus pentoxide, P 4 O 10 ; Vanillin
(g) boron trichloride. (b) HO C C C H (vanilla flavor)
3.18 Calculate the percentage by mass of oxygen in the following C C
compounds: (a) vanillin, C8H8O3; (b) isopropyl alcohol, C3H8O;
(c) acetaminophen, C8H9NO2; (d) cyclopropanone, C3H4O; H H
(e) dioxin, C12H4Cl4O2; (f) penicillin, C16H18N2O4S.
H H H O
3.19 Based on the following structural formulas, calculate the
percentage of carbon by mass present in each compound: (c) H3C C C C O C CH3
H H
H3C H H
C C O Isopentyl acetate
percentage of carbon by mass present in each compound: (c) H3C C C C O C CH3
H H
H3C H H
C C O Isopentyl acetate
Benzaldehyde (banana flavor)
(a) H C C C H (almond fragrance)
C C
3.16 (c) 3.15 (b) 3.14 (a)
H H
Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.4 ∣ Avogadro’s Number and

the Mole; Molar Mass
 SECTION 3.4 Avogadro’s Number and the Mole; Molar Mass 147

Even the smallest samples in the laboratory contain enormous numbers of atoms, ions
or molecules.For example, a teaspoon (about 5 mL) of water contains 2 * 1023 water
molecules, a number so large it defies comprehension. Chemists, therefore, have devised
a way to conveniently count such enormous numbers.
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

• Explain the mole and the origin of Avogadro’s number

• Calculate the molar mass for a compound and relate this to its formula weight
• Convert between grams, molecules, and moles of a substance

The Mole and Avogadro’s Number

In everyday life, we use counting units such as dozen (12 objects), score (20 objects), gross
(144 objects) or ream (500 objects).In chemistry, the counting unit for numbers of atoms,
ions, or molecules in a laboratory-size sample is the mole, abbreviated mol.One mole is
the amount of matter that contains as many objects as the number of atoms in exactly
12 g of isotopically pure 12C. From experiments, scientists have determined this number
to be 6.0221415 * 1023, which we usually round to 6.02 * 1023. Scientists call this value
Avogadro’s number, NA, in honor of the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–
1856), and it is often cited with units of reciprocal moles, 6.02 * 1023 mol-1.* The unit
(read as either “inverse mole” or “per mole”) reminds us that there are 6.02 * 1023 objects
per one mole.A mole of atoms, a mole of molecules, or a mole of anything else all contain
Avogadro’s number of objects:

1 mol 12C atoms = 6.02 * 1023 12C atoms

1 mol H2O molecules = 6.02 * 1023 H2O molecules
1 mol NO3- ions = 6.02 * 1023 NO3- ions

Avogadro’s number is so large that it is difficult to imagine.Spreading 6.02 * 1023

marbles over the Earth’s surface would produce a layer about 3 miles thick.Avogadro’s
 3 3

Avogadro’s number is so large that it is difficult to imagine.Spreading 6.02 * 1023

marbles over the Earth’s surface would produce a layer about 3 miles thick.Avogadro’s

lion13 * 10142 times.

number of pennies placed side by side in a straight line would encircle the Earth 300 tril-

Molar Mass
A dozen is the same number, 12, whether we have a dozen eggs or a dozen elephants.

ilarly, a mole is always the same number 16.02 * 10232, but 1 mol samples of different
Clearly, however, a dozen eggs does not have the same mass as a dozen elephants. Sim-

substances have different masses.

Compare, for example, 1 mol of 12C and 1 mol of 24Mg. A single 12C atom has a mass
of 12 amu, whereas a single 24Mg atom is twice as massive, 24 amu (to two significant fig-
ures).Because a mole of anything always contains the same number of particles, a mole
of 24Mg must be twice as massive as a mole of 12C. Because 1 mol of 12C has a mass of 12 g
(by definition), 1 mol of 24Mg must have a mass of 24 g.This example illustrates a general
rule relating the mass of an atom the mass of Avogadro’s number (1 mol) of these atoms:
The atomic weight of an element in atomic mass units is numerically equal to the mass in grams
of 1 mol of that element.

For example, Cl has an atomic weight of 35.5 amu; therefore, 1 mol of Cl atoms has a
mass of 35.5 g.
Au has an atomic weight of 197 amu; therefore, 1 mol of Au atoms has a mass of 197 g.

The same relationship holds for the formula weight or molecular weight of a sub-
stance and the mass of 1 mol of that substance:

H2O has a molecular weight of 18.0 amu; therefore, 1 mol of H2O has a mass of 18.0 g
NaCl has a formula weight of 58.5 amu; therefore 1 mol of NaCl has a mass of 58.5 g.

The mass in grams of one mole of a substance is called the molar mass of the sub-
stance.The units of molar mass are g/mol, or g mol-1.The molar mass in grams per mole of
any substance is numerically equal to its formula weight in atomic mass units.For NaCl, for
148 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Go Figure TABLE 3.2 Mole Relationships

What number do you get if you Name of Formula Molar Mass Number and Kind of
divide the mass of 1 mol of water Substance Formula Weight (amu) (g/mol) Particles in One Mole
by the mass of 1 molecule of water? Atomic nitrogen N 14.0 14.0 6.02 * 1023 N atoms

e
6.02 * 1023 N2 molecules
216.02 * 10232 N atoms
Molecular nitrogen
Single molecule N2 28.0 28.0
or “dinitrogen”
Silver Ag 107.9 107.9 6.02 * 1023 Ag atoms
Silver ions Ag+ 107.9a 107.9 6.02 * 1023 Ag+ ions
6.02 * 1023 BaCl2 formula units
1 molecule H2O • 6.02 * 1023 Ba2+ ions
216.02 * 10232 Cl - ions
Barium chloride BaCl2 208.2 208.2
(18.0 u)
aRecall
that the mass of an electron is more than 1800 times smaller than the masses of the proton and the
Avogadro’s number of water neutron; thus, ions and atoms have essentially the same mass.
molecules in a mole of water

Laboratory-size
sample

1 mol O2(g) has a mass of 32.0 g.

1 mol H2O
(18.0 g)
1 mol H2O(l) has a mass of 18.0 g.
▲ Figure 3.8 Comparing the mass of
 1 mol H2O
(18.0 g)
1 mol H2O(l) has a mass of 18.0 g.
▲ Figure 3.8 Comparing the mass of
1 molecule and 1 mol of H2O. Both masses
have the same number but different units
(atomic mass units and grams). Expressing
both masses in grams indicates their huge
difference: 1 molecule of H2O has a mass 1 mol NaCl(s) has a mass of 58.45 g.
of 2.99 * 10 -23 g, whereas 1 mol H2O
has a mass of 18.0 g.

▲ Figure 3.9 One mole each of a solid (NaCl), a liquid (H2O), and a gas (O2). In each case, the
mass in grams of 1 mol—that is, the molar mass—is numerically equal to the formula weight in
atomic mass units. Each of these samples contains 6.02 * 1023 formula units.

instance, the formula weight is 58.5 amu and therefore its molar mass is 58.5 g/mol.Mole
relationships for several substances are shown in Table 3.1, and Figures 3.8 and 3.9 illus-
trate 1 mol quantities of common substances.
The entries in Table 3.2 for N and N2 point out the importance of stating the chem-
ical form of a substance when using the mole concept. For instance, suppose you read
that 1 mol of nitrogen is used to make ammonia.You might interpret this statement to
mean that 1 mol of nitrogen atoms was used (14.0 g). Unless otherwise stated, however,
what is meant is 1 mol of nitrogen molecules, N2 (28.0 g), was used, because N2 is the
naturally occurring form of the element. To avoid ambiguity, it is important to explic-
itly state the chemical form being discussed.Using the chemical formula—N or N2, for
instance—avoids any confusion.

Converting Between Masses, Moles, and

Atoms/Molecules/Ions
Now we are ready to learn how to relate chemical equations to the amounts of chemicals
used and produced in reactions.We will use the mole concept with dimensional analysis
(Section 1.7) to help us (Figure 3.10).
 SECTION 3.4 Avogadro’s Number and the Mole; Molar Mass 149

Go Figure What units would you put under “molar mass” and “Avogadro’s number” on this diagram?

Use Use
Grams molar Moles Avogadro’s Formula units
mass number
▲ Figure 3.10 Procedure for interconverting mass and number of formula units. The number of moles of the substance is central to the calculation.
Thus, the mole concept can be thought of as the bridge between the mass of a sample in grams and the number of formula units contained in
the sample.

For example, let’s calculate how many copper atoms are in an old copper penny.
Such a penny has a mass of about 3 grams, and let’s assume for simplicity that the penny
is pure copper:

Number of Cu atoms = 13 g Cu2a ba b

1 mol Cu 6.02 * 1023 Cu atoms
63.5 g Cu 1 mol Cu
= 3 * 1022 Cu atoms

We have rounded the answer to one significant figure because we only used one signif-
icant figure for the mass of the penny. Notice how dimensional analysis provides a straight-
forward route from grams to number of atoms.The molar mass and Avogadro’s number are
used as conversion factors to convert grams to moles and then moles to atoms.Also notice
that our answer is a very large number: this makes sense, since there are enormous numbers
of atoms in a macroscopic sample we can pick up with our hands.Any time that you calculate
the number of atoms, ions, or molecules in a laboratory-scale sample, you should expect the
number to be very large.However, if you were to calculate number of moles in a laboratory
sample, the number may not be that large, and in fact might be less than 1.That is true for the
moles of copper in our old penny:
sample, the number may not be that large, and in fact might be less than 1.That is true for the
moles of copper in our old penny:

Moles of Cu = 13 g Cu2a b
1 mol Cu
63.5 g Cu
= 5 * 10 -2 mol Cu

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Glucose Monitoring

Our body converts most of the food we eat into glucose. After diges- small electrical current or a measurement of light produced in a
tion, glucose is delivered to cells via the blood. Cells need glucose to chemical reaction. Depending on the reading on any given day,
live, and the hormone insulin must be present in order for glucose a diabetic person may need to receive an injection of insulin or
to enter the cells. Normally, the body adjusts the concentration of simply limit his or her intake of sugar-rich foods for a while.
insulin automatically, in concert with the glucose concentration
after eating, so that normal blood glucose levels are 70–120 mg/dL.
However, in a diabetic person, either little or no insulin is produced
(Type 1 diabetes) or insulin is produced but the cells cannot take it up
properly (Type 2 diabetes). In either case the blood glucose levels are
higher than they are in a normal person. A person who has not eaten
for 8 hours or more is diagnosed as diabetic if his or her glucose level
is 126 mg/dL or higher.
Glucose meters work by the introduction of blood from a
person, usually by a prick of the finger, onto a small strip of pa-
per that contains chemicals that react with glucose. Insertion of
the strip into a small battery-operated reader gives the glucose
concentration ( Figure 3.11). The mechanism of the readout var-
ies from one monitor to another—it may be a measurement of a ▲ Figure 3.11 Glucose meter.
150 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.7

Estimating Numbers of Atoms

Without using a calculator, arrange these samples in order of increasing numbers of carbon atoms:
12 g 12C, 1 mol C2H2, 9 * 1023 molecules of CO2.

SOLUTION Because each CO2 molecule contains one C atom, the CO2 sample
contains 9 * 1023 C atoms.
Hence, the order is 12 g 12C 16 * 1023 C atoms2 6 9 * 1023 CO2
Analyze We are given amounts of three substances expressed in
molecules 19 * 1023 C atoms2 6 1 mol C2H2 112 * 1023 C atoms2.
grams, moles, and number of molecules and asked to arrange the
samples in order of increasing numbers of C atoms.
Plan To determine the number of C atoms in each sample, we Check We can check our results by comparing numbers of moles
12 23
must convert 12 g C, 1 mol C2H2, and 9 * 10 molecules CO2 to of C atoms in the samples because the number of moles is propor-
numbers of C atoms. To make these conversions, we use the defi- tional to the number of atoms. Thus, 12 g of 12C is 1 mol C, 1 mol
nition of mole and Avogadro’s number. of C2H2 contains 2 mol C, and 9 * 1023 molecules of CO2 contain
1.5 mol C, giving the same order as stated previously.
Solve One mole is defined as the amount of matter that
contains as many units of the matter as there are C atoms
in exactly 12 g of 12C. Thus, 12 g of 12C contains 1 mol of
C atoms = 6.02 * 1023 C atoms. ▶ Practice Exercise
One mol of C2H2 contains 6.02 * 1023 C2H2 molecules. Because Which of the following samples contains the fewest sodium atoms?
there are two C atoms in each molecule, this sample contains (a) 1 mol sodium oxide (b) 45 g sodium fluoride
12.04 * 1023 C atoms. (c) 50 g sodium chloride (d) 1 mol sodium nitrate

Sample Exercise 3.8

Converting Grams to Moles

Calculate the number of moles of glucose (C6H12O6) in a 5.380 g sample.

 Converting Grams to Moles

Calculate the number of moles of glucose (C6H12O6) in a 5.380 g sample.

SOLUTION Check Because 5.380 g is less than the molar mass, an answer less
than 1 mol is reasonable. The unit mol is appropriate. The original
Analyze We are given the number of grams of a substance and its data had four significant figures, so our answer has four significant
chemical formula and asked to calculate the number of moles. figures.
Plan The molar mass of a substance provides the factor for
converting grams to moles. The molar mass of C6H12O6 is
180.0 g>mol (Sample Exercise 3.9).

Solve Using 1 mol C6H12O6 = 180.0 g C6H12O6 to write the appro- ▶ Practice Exercise
priate conversion factor, we have How many moles of water are in 1.00 L of water, whose den-

Moles C6H12O6 = 15.380 g C6H12O62a b

1 mol C6H12O6 sity is 1.00 g/mL?
180.0 g C6H12O6
= 0.02989 mol C6H12O6

Sample Exercise 3.9

Converting Moles to Grams

Calculate the mass, in grams, of 0.433 mol of calcium nitrate.

the chemical formula for calcium nitrate is Ca1NO322. Adding the

SOLUTION Solve Because the calcium ion is Ca2 + and the nitrate ion is NO3- ,

weight of 164.1 u. Using 1 mol Ca1NO322 = 164.1 g Ca1NO322 to

Analyze We are given the number of moles and the name of a atomic weights of the elements in the compound gives a formula
substance and asked to calculate the number of grams in the
substance. write the appropriate conversion factor, we have
164.1 g Ca1NO322
Grams Ca1NO322 = 10.433 mol Ca(NO322) a b
1 mol Ca1NO322
Plan To convert moles to grams, we need the molar mass,
which we can calculate using the chemical formula and
atomic weights. = 71.1 g Ca1NO322
 SECTION 3.4 Avogadro’s Number and the Mole; Molar Mass 151

Check The number of moles is less than 1, so the number of grams

must be less than the molar mass, 164.1 g. Using rounded num- ▶ Practice Exercise
bers to estimate, we have 0.5 * 150 = 75 g, which means the What is the mass, in grams, of (a) 6.33 mol of NaHCO3 and
magnitude of our answer is reasonable. Both the units (g) and the (b) 3.0 * 10 -5 mol of sulfuric acid?
number of significant figures (3) are correct.

Sample Exercise 3.10

Calculating Numbers of Molecules and Atoms from Mass

(a) How many glucose molecules are in 5.23 g of C6H12O6?

(b) How many oxygen atoms are in this sample?

SOLUTION
Analyze We are given the number of grams and the chemical molecules of C6H12O6. The first conversion uses the molar mass of
formula of a substance and asked to calculate (a) the number C6H12O6, 180.0 g/mol, and the second conversion uses Avogadro’s
of molecules and (b) the number of O atoms in the substance. number.
(b) To determine the number of O atoms, we use the fact that there are
Plan (a) The strategy for determining the number of molecules in six O atoms in each C6H12O6 molecule. Thus, multiplying the number
a given quantity of a substance is summarized in Figure 3.12. We of molecules we calculated in (a) by the factor (6 atoms O>1 molecule
must convert 5.23 g to moles of C6H12O6 and then convert moles to C6H12O6) gives the number of O atoms.

Solve
Molecules C6H12O6 = 15.23 g C6H12O62a ba b
1 mol C6H12O6 6.02 * 1023 molecules C6H12O6
(a) Convert grams C6H12O6 to
180.0 g C6H12O6 1 mol C6H12O6
molecules C6H12O6.
= 1.75 * 1022 molecules C6H12O6

Atoms O = 11.75 * 1022 molecules C6H12O62a b

6 atoms O
(b) Convert molecules C6H12O6
molecule C6H12O6
to atoms O.
= 1.05 * 1023 atoms O
 Atoms O = 11.75 * 1022 molecules C6H12O62a b
6 atoms O
(b) Convert molecules C6H12O6
molecule C6H12O6
to atoms O.
= 1.05 * 1023 atoms O

Check
(a) Because the mass we began with is less than a mole, there ▶ Practice Exercise
should be fewer than 6.02 * 1023 molecules in the sample, How many chlorine atoms are in 12.2 g of CCl4?
which means the magnitude of our answer is reasonable. (a) 4.77 * 1022
A ballpark estimate of the answer comes reasonably close to the (b) 7.34 * 1024
answer we derived in this exercise: 5>200 = 2.5 * 10 -2 mol; (c) 1.91 * 1023
(2.5 * 10 -2)(6 * 1023) = 15 * 1021 = 1.5 * 1022 molecules. (d) 2.07 * 1023
The units (molecules) and the number of significant figures
(three) are appropriate.
(b) The answer is six times as large as the answer to part (a),
exactly what it should be. The number of significant
figures (three) and the units (atoms O) are correct.

Self-Assessment Exercises
Here are a few problems designed to test your understanding of the material.

3.20 Which of the following samples contains the fewest sodium 3.22 How many chlorine atoms are in 12.2 g of CCl4?
atoms? (a) 4.77 * 1022
(a) 1.0 mol sodium oxide (b) 7.34 * 1024
(b) 45 g sodium fluoride (c) 1.91 * 1023
(c) 50 g sodium chloride (d) 2.07 * 1023
(d) 1.0 mol sodium nitrate

3.21 A sample of an ionic compound containing iron and chlorine

is analyzed and found to have a molar mass of 126.8 g/mol.
What is the charge of the iron in this compound?
(a) 1 + (b) 2 + (c) 3 + (d) 4 +
152 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Exercises
3.23 (a) Write “true” or “false” for each statement. (a) A mole of (c) What is the mass, in grams, of 7.70 * 1020 molecules of
ducks contain a mole of feathers. (b) A mole of ammonia gas caffeine, C8H10N4O2?
has a mass of 17.0 g. (c) The mass of 1 ammonia molecule is
(d) What is the molar mass of cholesterol if 0.00105 mol has
17.0 g. (d) A mole of MgSO4(s) contains 4 moles of oxygen
a mass of 0.406 g?
atoms.
3.27 The molecular formula of saccharin, an artificial sweetener, is
3.24 Without doing any detailed calculations (but using a peri-
C7H5NO3S. (a) What is the molar mass of saccharin? (b) How
odic table to give atomic weights), rank the following sam-
many moles of sachharin are in 2.00 mg of this substance?
ples in order of increasing numbers of atoms: 0.5 mol BCl3
(c) How many molecules are in 2.00 mg of this substance?
molecules, 197 g gold, 6.0 * 1023 CCl4 molecules.
(d) How many C atoms are present in 2.00 mg of saccharin?
3.25 Calculate the following quantities:
(a) mass, in grams, of 0.105 mol sucrose 1C12H22O112
3.28 A sample of glucose, C6H12O6, contains 1.250 * 1021 carbon

(b) moles of Zn1NO322 in 143.50 g of this substance

atoms. (a) How many atoms of hydrogen does it contain?
(b) How many molecules of glucose does it contain? (c) How
many moles of glucose does it contain? (d) What is the mass
(c) number of molecules in 1.0 * 10 -6 mol CH3CH2OH
of this sample in grams?
(d) number of N atoms in 0.410 mol NH3
3.29 The allowable concentration level of vinyl chloride, C2H3Cl,
3.26 (a) What is the mass, in grams, of 2.50 * 10 -3 mol of in the atmosphere in a chemical plant is 2.0 * 10 -6 g>L.
ammonium phosphate? How many moles of vinyl chloride in each liter does this rep-
(b) How many moles of chloride ions are in 0.2550 g of resent? How many molecules per liter?
aluminum chloride?

3.22 (c) 3.21 (b) 3.20 (c)

Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.5 ∣ Formula Weights and Elemental
Compositions of Substances

The empirical formula for a substance tells us the relative number of atoms of each ele-
ment in the substance. (Section 2.6) The empirical formula H2O shows that water con-
tains two H atoms for each O atom. This ratio also applies on the molar level: 1 mol of
 SECTION 3.5 Formula Weights and Elemental Compositions of Substances 153

H2O contains 2 mol of H atoms and 1 mol of O atoms. Conversely, the ratio of the num-
bers of moles of all elements in a compound gives the subscripts in the compound’s empirical
formula. Thus, the mole concept provides a way of calculating empirical formulas from
experimental data.
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

• Calculate the empirical formula of a compound from the mass percentages of the
elements that make up the compound.
• Calculate the molecular formula of a compound from its molar mass and empirical
formula.

Mercury and chlorine combine to form a compound that is measured to be 74.0%

mercury and 26.0% chlorine by mass. Thus, if we had a 100.0 g sample of the compound,
it would contain 74.0 g of mercury and 26.0 g of chlorine. (Samples of any size can be
used in problems of this type, but we will generally use 100.0 g to simplify the calculation
of mass from percentage.) Using atomic weights to get molar masses, we calculate the
number of moles of each element in the sample:

174.0 g Hg2a b = 0.369 mol Hg

1 mol Hg
200.6 g Hg

126.0 g Cl2a b = 0.732 mol Cl

1 mol Cl
35.5 g Cl

We then divide the larger number of moles by the smaller number to obtain the Cl:Hg
mole ratio:
moles of Cl 0.732 mol Cl 1.98 mol Cl
= =
moles of Hg 0.369 mol Hg 1 mol Hg

Because of experimental errors, calculated values for a mole ratio may not be whole
numbers, as in the calculation here. The number 1.98 is very close to 2, however, and so
we can confidently conclude that the empirical formula for the compound is HgCl2. The
empirical formula is correct because its subscripts are the smallest integers that express
 Because of experimental errors, calculated values for a mole ratio may not be whole
numbers, as in the calculation here. The number 1.98 is very close to 2, however, and so
we can confidently conclude that the empirical formula for the compound is HgCl2. The
empirical formula is correct because its subscripts are the smallest integers that express
the ratio of atoms present in the compound.
The general procedure for determining empirical formulas is outlined in Figure 3.12

Given: Find:
Assume Use
Mass % Grams of Moles of Calculate Empirical
100-g molar
elements each element each element mole ratio formula
sample mass

1 2 3

▲ Figure 3.12 Procedure for calculating an empirical formula from percentage composition.

Sample Exercise 3.11

Calculating an Empirical Formula

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) contains 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and 54.50% O by mass. What is the empirical formula of ascorbic acid?

SOLUTION
Analyze We are to determine the empirical formula of a compound Plan The strategy for determining the empirical formula involves
from the mass percentages of its elements. the three steps given in Figure 3.13.

Continued
154 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Solve
(1) For simplicity we assume we have exactly 100 g of material, although any other mass could also be used.

Assume Use
Mass % Grams of Moles of Calculate Empirical
100-g molar
elements each element each element mole ratio formula
sample mass

In 100.00 g of ascorbic acid we have 40.92 g C, 4.58 g H, and 54.50 g O.

(2) Next we calculate the number of moles of each element. We use atomic masses with four significant figures to match the precision
of our experimental masses.

Assume Use
Mass % Grams of Moles of Calculate Empirical
100-g molar
elements each element each element mole ratio formula
sample mass

Moles C = 140.92 g C2a b = 3.407 mol C

1 mol C
12.01 g C

Moles H = 14.58 g H2a b = 4.54 mol H

1 mol C
1.008 g H

Moles O = 154.50 g O2a b = 3.406 mol O

1 mol O
16.00 g O

(3) We determine the simplest whole-number ratio of moles by dividing each number of moles by the smallest number of moles.

Assume Use
Mass % Grams of Moles of Calculate Empirical
100-g molar
elements each element each element mole ratio formula
sample mass
 Assume Use
Mass % Grams of Moles of Calculate Empirical
100-g molar
elements each element each element mole ratio formula
sample mass

3.407 4.54 3.406

C: = 1.000 H : = 1.33 O : = 1.000
3.406 3.406 3.406
The ratio for H is too far from 1 to attribute the difference to experimental error; in fact, it is quite close to 113. This suggests we should
multiply the ratios by 3 to obtain whole numbers:
C : H : O = 13 * 1 : 3 * 1.33 : 3 * 12 = 13 : 4 : 32

Thus, the empirical formula is C3H4O3.

Check It is reassuring that the subscripts are moderate-size whole ▶ Practice Exercise
numbers. Also, calculating the percentage composition of C3H4O3 A 2.144-g sample of phosgene, a compound used as a chemical
gives values very close to the original percentages. warfare agent during World War I, contains 0.260 g of carbon,
0.347 g of oxygen, and 1.537 g of chlorine. What is the
empirical formula of this substance?
(a) CO2Cl6 (b) COCl2 (c) C0.022O0.022Cl0.044 (d) C2OCl2

Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas

For molecular substances, the empirical formula and the molecular formula are often dif-
ferent. For example, benzene has a molecular formula of C6H6, but it’s empirical formula
CH is the same as that of the gas acetylene, whose molecular formula is C2H2. Knowledge
of the empirical formula is not sufficient to differentiate these two very different com-
pounds. Fortunately, we can obtain the molecular formula for any compound from its
empirical formula if we know either the molecular weight of the compound, which can
be measured by a variety of methods, including mass spectrometry (link to Section 2.4).
The subscripts in the molecular formula of a substance are always whole-number multiples of
the subscripts in its empirical formula. (Section 2.6) This multiple can be found by dividing
the molecular weight by the empirical formula weight:
molecular weight
Whole@number multiple =
empirical formula weight
 SECTION 3.5 Formula Weights and Elemental Compositions of Substances 155

For example, the empirical formula of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is C3H4O3.. This means
the empirical formula weight is 3(12.0 amu) + 4(1.0 amu) + 3(16.0 amu) = 88.0 amu.
The experimentally determined molecular weight is 176 amu. Thus, we find the whole-
number multiple that converts the empirical formula to the molecular formula by
dividing
molecular weight 176 amu
Whole@number multiple = = = 2
empirical formula weight 88.0 amu
Consequently, we multiply the subscripts in the empirical formula by this multiple,
giving the molecular formula: C6H8O6.

Sample Exercise 3.12

Determining a Molecular Formula

Mesitylene, a hydrocarbon found in crude oil, has an empirical formula of C3H4 and an experimentally determined molecular
weight of 121 amu. What is its molecular formula?

SOLUTION Only whole-number ratios make physical sense because molecules

contain whole atoms. The 3.03 in this case could result from a
Analyze We are given an empirical formula and a molecular small experimental error in the molecular weight. We therefore
weight of a compound and asked to determine its molecular multiply each subscript in the empirical formula by 3 to give the
formula. molecular formula: C9H12.
Plan The subscripts in a compound’s molecular formula are Check We can have confidence in the result because dividing
whole-number multiples of the subscripts in its empirical molecular weight by empirical formula weight yields nearly a
formula. We find the appropriate multiple by using Equation 3.11. whole number.
Solve The formula weight of the empirical formula C3H4 is

3112.0 amu2 + 411.0 amu2 = 40.0 amu

▶ Practice Exercise
Next, we use this value in Equation 3.11 : Cyclohexane, a commonly used organic solvent, is 85.6% C
 3112.0 amu2 + 411.0 amu2 = 40.0 amu
▶ Practice Exercise
Next, we use this value in Equation 3.11 : Cyclohexane, a commonly used organic solvent, is 85.6% C
molecular weight and 14.4% H by mass with a molar mass of 84.2 g>mol.
Whole@number multiple = What is its molecular formula?
empirical formula weight
(a) C6H (b) CH2 (c) C5H24 (d) C6H12 (e) C4H8
121
= = 3.03
40.0

Combustion Analysis
One technique for determining empirical formulas in the laboratory is combustion
analysis, commonly used for compounds containing principally carbon and hydrogen.
When a compound containing carbon and hydrogen is completely combusted in
an apparatus such as that shown in Figure 3.13, the carbon is converted to CO2 and the
hydrogen is converted to H2O. (Section 3.2). From the masses of CO2 and H2O we can cal-
culate the number of moles of C and H in the original sample and thereby the empirical
formula. If a third element is present in the compound, its mass can be determined by
subtracting the measured masses of C and H from the original sample mass.

Sample combusted, H2O and CO2 are trapped ◀ Figure 3.13 Apparatus for combustion
producing CO2 and H2O in separate absorbers analysis.

Sample
O2

H2O absorber CO2 absorber

Furnace
Mass gained by each absorber corresponds to mass of
CO2 or H2O produced.
156 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.13

Determining an Empirical Formula by Combustion Analysis

2-propanol, sold as rubbing alcohol, is composed of C, H, and O. Combustion of 0.255 g of 2-propanol produces 0.561 g of CO2
and 0.306 g of H2O. Determine the empirical formula of 2-propanol.

SOLUTION
Analyze We are told that 2-propanol contains C, H, and O atoms Plan We can use the mole concept to calculate grams of C in the CO2
and are given the quantities of CO2 and H2O produced when a and grams of H in the H2O—the masses of C and H in the alcohol
given quantity of the alcohol is combusted. We must determine before combustion. The mass of O in the compound equals the mass
the empirical formula for 2-propanol, a task that requires us to cal- of the original sample minus the sum of the C and H masses. Once we
culate the number of moles of C, H, and O in the sample. have the C, H, and O masses, we can proceed as in Sample Exercise 3.13.

Solve Because all of the carbon in the sample is converted to CO2, we can use dimensional analysis and the following steps to calculate the
mass C in the sample.

Molar 1 C atom Molar

Mass CO2 Moles CO2 Moles of C Mass C in
mass CO2 per CO2 mass C
produced produced original sample original sample
44.0 g/mol molecule 12.0 g/mol

Using the values given in this example, the mass of C is

Grams C = 10.561 g CO22a ba ba b

1 mol CO2 1 mol C 12.0 g C
44.0 g CO2 1 mol CO2 1 mol C
= 0.153 g C

Because all of the hydrogen in the sample is converted to H2O, we can use dimensional analysis and the following steps to calculate the mass
H in the sample. We use three significant figures for the atomic mass of H to match the significant figures in the mass of H2O produced.

Molar 2 H atoms Molar

Mass H2O Moles H2O Moles H in Mass H in
mass H2O per H2O mass H
 Molar 2 H atoms Molar
Mass H2O Moles H2O Moles H in Mass H in
mass H2O per H2O mass H
produced produced original sample original sample
18.0 g/mol molecule 1.01 g/mol

Using the values given in this example, we find that the mass of H is

Grams H = 10.306 g H2O2a ba ba b = 0.0343 g H

1 mol H2O 2 mol H 1.01 g H
18.0 g H2O 1 mol H2O 1 mol H

The mass of the sample, 0.255 g, is the sum of the masses of C, H, and O. Thus, the O mass is
Mass of O = mass of sample - 1mass of C + mass of H2 = 0.255 g - 10.153 g + 0.0343 g2 = 0.068 g O

The number of moles of C, H, and O in the sample is therefore

Moles C = 10.153 g C2a b = 0.0128 mol C

1 mol C
12.0 g C

Moles H = 10.0343 g H2a b = 0.0340 mol H

1 mol H
1.01 g H

Moles O = 10.068 g O2a b = 0.0043 mol O

1 mol O
16.0 g O

To find the empirical formula, we must compare the relative number of moles of each element in the sample, as illustrated in Sample
Exercise 3.13.
0.0128 0.0340 0.0043
C: = 3.0 H : = 7.9 O : = 1.0
0.0043 0.0043 0.0043
The first two numbers are very close to the whole numbers 3 and 8, giving the empirical formula C3H8O.

▶ Practice Exercise 4.401 g CO2 and 1.802 g H2O. A separate experiment shows
The compound dioxane, which is used as a solvent in vari- that it has a molar mass of 88.1 g>mol. Which of the follow-
ous industrial processes, is composed of C, H, and O atoms. ing is the correct molecular formula for dioxane?
Combustion of a 2.203-g sample of this compound produces (a) C2H4O (b) C4H4O2 (c) CH2 (d) C4H8O2
 SECTION 3.5 Formula Weights and Elemental Compositions of Substances 157

Self-Assessment Exercises
Here are a few problems designed to test your understanding of the material.

3.30 A 2.144-g sample of phosgene, a compound used as a chem- 3.32 The compound dioxane, which is used as a solvent in vari-
ical warfare agent during World War I, contains 0.260 g of ous industrial processes, is composed of C, H, and O atoms.
carbon, 0.347 g of oxygen, and 1.537 g of chlorine. What is Combustion of a 2.203-g sample of this compound produces
the empirical formula of this substance? 4.401 g CO2 and 1.802 g H2O. A separate experiment shows
(a) CO2 that it has a molar mass of 88.1 g/mol. Which of the follow-
ing is the correct molecular formula for dioxane?
(b) COCl2
(a) C2H4O
(c) C0.022O0.022Cl0.044
(b) C4H4O2
(d) C2OCl2
(c) CH2
3.31 Cyclohexane, a commonly used organic solvent, is 85.6% (d) C4H8O2
carbon and 14.4% hydrogen by mass, with a molar mass of
84.2 g/mol. What is its molecular formula?
(a) C6H
(b) CH2
(c) C5H24
(d) C6H12
(e) C4H8

Exercises
3.33 Give the empirical formula of each of the following com- (c) Monosodium glutamate (MSG), a flavor enhancer in
pounds if a sample contains (a) 0.052 mol C, 0.103 mol certain foods, contains 35.51% C, 4.77% H, 37.85% O,
H, and 0.017 mol O; (b) 2.10 g nickel and 0.58 g oxygen; 8.29% N, and 13.60% Na, and has a molar mass of
(c) 26.56% K, 35.41% Cr, and 38.03% O by mass. 169 g>mol.
3.34 Determine the empirical formulas of the compounds with 3.38 (a) Combustion analysis of toluene, a common organic
the following compositions by mass: solvent, gives 5.86 mg of CO2 and 1.37 mg of H2O. If the
 H, and 0.017 mol O; (b) 2.10 g nickel and 0.58 g oxygen; 8.29% N, and 13.60% Na, and has a molar mass of
(c) 26.56% K, 35.41% Cr, and 38.03% O by mass. 169 g>mol.
3.34 Determine the empirical formulas of the compounds with 3.38 (a) Combustion analysis of toluene, a common organic
the following compositions by mass: solvent, gives 5.86 mg of CO2 and 1.37 mg of H2O. If the
(a) 74.0% C, 8.7% H, and 17.3% N compound contains only carbon and hydrogen, what is its
empirical formula? (b) Menthol, the substance we can smell
(b) 57.5% Na, 40.0% O, and 2.5% H in mentholated cough drops, is composed of C, H, and O.
(c) 41.1% N, 11.8% H, and the remainder S A 0.1005-g sample of menthol is combusted, producing
0.2829 g of CO2 and 0.1159 g of H2O. What is the empiri-
3.35 A compound whose empirical formula is XF3 consists of 65% cal formula for menthol? If menthol has a molar mass of
F by mass. What is the atomic mass of X? 156 g>mol, what is its molecular formula?
3.36 What is the molecular formula of each of the following 3.39 Valproic acid, used to treat seizures and bipolar disorder, is
compounds? composed of C, H, and O. A 0.165-g sample is combusted
(a) empirical formula CH, molar mass 5 78.0 g/mol to produce 0.166 g of water and 0.403 g of carbon dioxide.
(b) empirical formula OH, molar mass 5 34.0 g/mol What is the empirical formula for valproic acid? If the molar
mass is 144 g>mol, what is the molecular formula?
3.37 Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of each of
the following substances: 3.40 Washing soda, a compound used to prepare hard water for
washing laundry, is a hydrate, which means that a certain
(a) Styrene, a compound used to make Styrofoam® cups and
number of water molecules are included in the solid struc-
insulation, contains 92.3% C and 7.7% H by mass and
ture. Its formula can be written as Na2CO3 # xH2O, where x is
has a molar mass of 104 g>mol.
the number of moles of H2O per mole of Na2CO3. When a
(b) Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, contains 49.5% C, 2.558-g sample of washing soda is heated at 125 °C, all the
5.15% H, 28.9% N, and 16.5% O by mass and has a molar water of hydration is lost, leaving 0.948 g of Na2CO3. What is
mass of 195 g>mol. the value of x?

3.32 (d) 3.31 (d) 3.30 (b)

Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

158 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

3.6 ∣ Reaction Stoichiometry

When a chemical reaction is carried out, it’s vital to understand how much of each
product will be produced and how much of each reactant will be consumed. To carry
out chemical reactions without this knowledge can lead to unintended consequences.
Maybe an expensive reactant will be wasted because much more of it was added than was
needed. A reaction might generate more gas than the reaction container can hold, lead-
out chemical reactions without this knowledge can lead to unintended consequences.
Maybe an expensive reactant will be wasted because much more of it was added than was
needed. A reaction might generate more gas than the reaction container can hold, lead-
ing to an explosion. In some reactions, particularly those involving solids, it can be diffi-
cult to separate the desired product from excess reactants. In this section, you will learn
how to calculate the quantities of reactants consumed and products produced, given a
balanced chemical equation representing the reaction.
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

• Determine the number of grams (or moles) of a product formed in a chemical reaction
given the number of grams (or moles) of the reactants, and vice versa

The coefficients in a chemical equation represent the relative numbers of molecules in

a reaction. The mole concept allows us to convert this information to the masses of the
substances in the reaction. For instance, the coefficients in the balanced equation:
2 H21g2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 H2O1l2 [3.16]
indicate that two molecules of H2 react with one molecule of O2 to form two molecules
of H2O. It follows that the relative numbers of moles are identical to the relative numbers
of molecules:
2 H21g2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 H2O1l2
2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules
23 23
216.02 * 10 molecules2 116.02 * 10 molecules2 216.02 * 1023 molecules2
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol

We can generalize this observation to all balanced chemical equations: The coefficients in a
balanced chemical equation indicate both the relative numbers of molecules (or formula units) in
the reaction and the relative numbers of moles. Figure 3.14 shows how this result corresponds
to the law of conservation of mass.
 SECTION 3.6 Reaction Stoichiometry 159

Chemical ◀ Figure 3.14 Interpreting a balanced

2 H2(g) 1 O2(g) 2 H2O(l) chemical equation quantitatively.
equation:

2 molecules H2 1 molecule O2 2 molecules H2O

Molecular
interpretation:

Mole-level 2 mol H2 1 mol O2 2 mol H2O

interpretation:
Convert to grams (using molar masses)

4.0 g H2 32.0 g O2 36.0 g H2O

Notice the conservation of mass

(4.0 g + 32.0 g = 36.0 g)

The quantities 2 mol H2, 1 mol O2, and 2 mol H2O given by the coefficients in
Equation 3.16 are called stoichiometrically equivalent quantities. The relationship
between these quantities can be represented as
2 mol H2 ] 1 mol O2 ] 2 mol H2O
where the ] symbol means “is stoichiometrically equivalent to.” Stoichiometric relations
such as these can be used to convert between quantities of reactants and products in a chemi-
cal reaction. For example, the number of moles of H2O produced from 1.57 mol of O2 is

Moles H2O = 11.57 mol O22a b = 3.14 mol H2O

2 mol H2O
1 mol O2
 Moles H2O = 11.57 mol O22a b = 3.14 mol H2O
2 mol H2O
1 mol O2

As an additional example, consider the combustion of butane 1C4H102, the fuel in

disposable lighters:

2 C4H101l2 + 13 O21g2 ¡ 8 CO21g2 + 10 H2O1g2 [3.17]

Let’s calculate the mass of CO2 produced when 1.00 g of C4H10 is burned. The coefficients
in Equation 3.17 tell us how the amount of C4H10 consumed is related to the amount of
CO2 produced: 2 mol C4H10 ] 8 mol CO2. To use this stoichiometric relationship, we
must convert grams of C4H10 to moles using the molar mass of C4H10, 58.0 g>mol:

Moles C4H10 = 11.00 g C4H102a b

1 mol C4H10
58.0 g C4H10
= 1.72 * 10 -2 mol C4H10
We then use the stoichiometric factor from the balanced equation to calculate moles of CO2:

Moles CO2 = 11.72 * 10 -2 mol C4H102a b

8 mol CO2
2 mol C4H10
= 6.88 * 10 -2 mol CO2

Finally, we use the molar mass of CO2, 44.0 g>mol, to calculate the CO2 mass in grams:

Grams CO2 = 16.88 * 10 -2 mol CO22a b

44.0 g CO2
1 mol CO2
= 3.03 g CO2

This conversion sequence involves three steps, as illustrated in Figure 3.15. These three
conversions can be combined in a single equation:

Grams CO2 = 11.00 g C4H102a ba ba b

1 mol C4H10 8 mol CO2 44.0 g CO2
58.0 g C4H10 2 mol C4H10 1 mol CO2
= 3.03 g CO2
160 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Given: Find:
Use Use coefficients Use
Grams of Moles of Moles of Grams of
molar from balanced molar
substance A substance A substance B substance B
mass of A equation mass of B

1 2 3

▲ Figure 3.15 Procedure for calculating amounts of reactants consumed or products formed in a reaction. The number of grams of a reactant
consumed or product formed can be calculated in three steps, starting with the number of grams of any reactant or product.

To calculate the amount of O2 consumed in the reaction of Equation 3.17, we

again rely on the coefficients in the balanced equation for our stoichiometric factor,
2 mol C4H10 ] 13 mol O2:

Grams O2 = 11.00 g C4H102a ba ba b

1 mol C4H10 13 mol O2 32.0 g O2
58.0 g C4H10 2 mol C4H10 1 mol O2
= 3.59 g O2

Many chemical reactions either consume or produce heat (Figure 3.7). This heat is
also a stoichiometric quantity. For instance, if a reaction of a given number of reactant
moles produces 100 J of energy in the form of heat, performing the reaction with twice
the number of reactant moles will produce 200 J of heat. We will explore these ideas
further in Chapter 5.

Sample Exercise 3.14

Calculating Amounts of Reactants and Products

Determine how many grams of water are produced in the oxidation of 1.00 g of glucose, C6H12O6:
 Calculating Amounts of Reactants and Products

Determine how many grams of water are produced in the oxidation of 1.00 g of glucose, C6H12O6:

C6H12O61s2 + 6 O21g2 ¡ 6 CO21g2 + 6 H2O1l2

SOLUTION (1) Convert grams of C6H12O6 to moles using the molar mass of
C6H12O6.
Analyze We are given the mass of a reactant and must determine
(2) Convert moles of C6H12O6 to moles of H2O using the stoichio-
the mass of a product in the given reaction.
metric relationship 1 mol C6H12O6 ] 6 mol H2O.
Plan We follow the general strategy outlined in Figure 3.16 : (3) Convert moles of H2O to grams using the molar mass of H2O.

Solve
(1) First we convert grams of C6H12O6 to moles using the molar mass of C6H12O6.

Use Use coefficients Use

Grams of Moles of Moles of Grams of
molar from balanced molar
substance A substance A substance B substance B
mass of A equation mass of B

Moles C6H12O6 = 11.00 g C6H12O62a b

1 mol C6H12O6
180.0 g C6H12O6

(2) Next we convert moles of C6H12O6 to moles of H2O using the stoichiometric relationship 1 mol C6H12O6 ] 6 mol H2O.

Use Use coefficients Use

Grams of Moles of Moles of Grams of
molar from balanced molar
substance A substance A substance B substance B
mass of A equation mass of B

Moles H2O = 11.00 g C6H12O62a ba b

1 mol C6H12O6 6 mol H2O
180.0 g C6H12O6 1 mol C6H12O6
 SECTION 3.6 Reaction Stoichiometry 161

(3) Finally, we convert moles of H2O to grams using the molar mass of H2O.

Use Use coefficients Use

Grams of Moles of Moles of Grams of
molar from balanced molar
substance A substance A substance B substance B
mass of A equation mass of B

Grams H2O = 11.00 g C6H12O62a ba ba b

1 mol C6H12O6 6 mol H2O 18.0 g H2O
180.0 g C6H12O6 1 mol C6H12O6 1 mol H2O
= 0.600 g H2O

Check We can check how reasonable our result is by doing a ▶ Practice Exercise
ballpark estimate of the mass of H2O. Because the molar mass of Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form sodium
glucose is 180 g>mol, 1 g of glucose equals 1>180 mol. Because carbonate and water:
2 NaOH1s2 + CO21g2 ¡ Na2CO31s2 + H2O1l2
1 mol of glucose yields 6 mol H2O, we would have 6>180 =
1>30 mol H2O. The molar mass of water is 18 g>mol, so we have
1>30 * 18 = 6>10 = 0.6 g of H2O, which agrees with the full cal-
culation. The units, grams H2O, are correct. The initial data had three How many grams of Na2CO3 can be prepared from 2.40 g of
significant figures, so three significant figures for the answer is correct. NaOH? (a) 3.18 g (b) 6.36 g (c) 1.20 g (d) 0.0300 g

Sample Exercise 3.15

Calculating Amounts of Reactants and Products

Solid lithium hydroxide is used in space vehicles to remove the carbon dioxide gas exhaled by astronauts. The hydroxide reacts
with the carbon dioxide to form solid lithium carbonate and liquid water. How many grams of carbon dioxide can be absorbed
by 1.00 g of lithium hydroxide?

SOLUTION Solve

11.00 g LiOH2a ba ba b
Analyze We are given a verbal description of a reaction and asked 1 mol LiOH 1 mol CO2 44.01 g CO2
to calculate the number of grams of one reactant that reacts with 23.95 g LiOH 2 mol LiOH 1 mol CO2
1.00 g of another. = 0.919 g CO2
 11.00 g LiOH2a ba ba b
Analyze We are given a verbal description of a reaction and asked 1 mol LiOH 1 mol CO2 44.01 g CO2
to calculate the number of grams of one reactant that reacts with 23.95 g LiOH 2 mol LiOH 1 mol CO2
1.00 g of another. = 0.919 g CO2
Plan The verbal description of the reaction can be used to write a
24 g LiOH>mol * 2 mol LiOH = 48 g LiOH, and 144 g CO2 >mol2>
balanced equation:
Check Notice that 23.95 g LiOH>mol ≈ 24 g LiOH>mol,

2 LiOH1s2 + CO21g2 ¡ Li2CO31s2 + H2O1l2 148 g LiOH2 is slightly less than 1. Thus, the magnitude of our answer,
0.919 g CO2, is reasonable based on the amount of starting LiOH. The
We are given the mass in grams of LiOH and asked to calculate
number of significant figures and units are also appropriate.
the mass in grams of CO2. We can accomplish this with the three

the molar mass of LiOH 16.94 + 16.00 + 1.01 = 23.95 g>mol2.

conversion steps in Figure 3.15. The conversion of Step 1 requires
▶ Practice Exercise
The conversion of Step 2 is based on a stoichiometric relationship Propane, C3H8 (Figure 3.7), is a common fuel used for cooking
from the balanced chemical equation: 2 mol LiOH ] 1 mol CO2. and home heating. What mass of O2 is consumed in the com-
For the Step 3 conversion, we use the molar mass of bustion of 1.00 g of propane?
CO2 : 12.01 + 2116.002 = 44.01 g>mol. (a) 5.00 g (b) 0.726 g (c) 2.18 g (d) 3.63 g

Self-Assessment Exercises
Here are a few problems designed to test your understanding of the material.

3.41 In this section, we learned that when 1.00 g of butane 3.43 Propane, C3H8, is a common fuel used for cooking and home
(C4H10) reacts with 3.59 g of oxygen (O2) it produces 3.03 g heating. What mass of O2 is consumed in the combustion of
of carbon dioxide (CO2). True or False: Is it possible using 1.00 g of propane?
only addition and/or subtraction, to calculate the number of (a) 5.00 g
grams H2O produced. (b) 0.726 g
3.42 Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form sodium (c) 2.18 g
carbonate and water: (d) 3.63 g
2 NaOH1s2 + CO21g2 ¡ Na2CO31s2 + H2O1l2 3.44 Calcium hydride reacts with water to form calcium hydrox-
How many grams of Na2CO3 can be prepared from 2.40 g of ide and hydrogen gas. How many grams of calcium hydride
NaOH? are needed to form 4.50 g of hydrogen?
(a) 3.18 g (a) 1.11 g
(b) 6.36 g (b) 2.25 g
(c) 1.20 g (c) 46.9 g
(d) 0.0300 g (d) 93.8 g
162 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Exercises
3.45 Hydrofluoric acid, HF(aq), cannot be stored in glass bottles (a) How many moles of N2 are produced by the decomposi-

by the HF(aq). Sodium silicate 1Na2SiO32, for example, reacts

because compounds called silicates in the glass are attacked tion of 1.50 mol of NaN3?
(b) How many grams of NaN3 are required to form 10.0 g of
as follows:
Na2SiO31s2 + 8 HF1aq2 ¡ H2SiF61aq2 + 2 NaF1aq2 + 3 H2O1l2
nitrogen gas?
(c) How many grams of NaN3 are required to produce
(a) How many moles of HF are needed to react with 0.300 10.0 ft3 of nitrogen gas, about the size of an automotive
mol of Na2SiO3? air bag, if the gas has a density of 1.25 g/L?
(b) How many grams of NaF form when 0.500 mol of HF
3.49 A piece of aluminum foil 1.00 cm2 and 0.550-mm thick is
reacts with excess Na2SiO3?
allowed to react with bromine to form aluminum bromide.
(c) How many grams of Na2SiO3 can react with 0.800 g of HF?

3.46 Several brands of antacids use Al1OH23 to react with stomach

acid, which contains primarily HCl:
Al1OH231s2 + HCl1aq2 ¡ AlCl31aq2 + H2O1l2

(a) Balance this equation.

(b) Calculate the number of grams of HCl that can react
with 0.500 g of Al1OH23.
(c) Calculate the number of grams of AlCl3 and the number
of grams of H2O formed when 0.500 g of Al1OH23 reacts.
(d) Show that your calculations in parts (b) and (c) are con-
sistent with the law of conservation of mass.
3.47 Aluminum sulfide reacts with water to form aluminum hydr- (a) How many moles of aluminum were used? (The density of
oxide and hydrogen sulfide. (a) Write the balanced chemical aluminum is 2.699 g>cm3.) (b) How many grams of aluminum
equation for this reaction. (b) How many grams of aluminum bromide form, assuming the aluminum reacts completely?
hydroxide are obtained from 14.2 g of aluminum sulfide?
3.50 The complete combustion of octane, C8H18, produces 5470 kJ
3.48 Automotive air bags inflate when sodium azide, NaN3, of heat. Calculate how many grams of octane is required to
rapidly decomposes to its component elements: produce 20,000 kJ of heat.
 3.50 The complete combustion of octane, C8H18, produces 5470 kJ
3.48 Automotive air bags inflate when sodium azide, NaN3, of heat. Calculate how many grams of octane is required to
rapidly decomposes to its component elements: produce 20,000 kJ of heat.

2 NaN31s2 ¡ 2 Na1s2 + 3 N21g2

3.44 (c) 3.43 (d) 3.42 (a) 3.41 True

Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.7 ∣ Limiting Reactants

 SECTION 3.7 Limiting Reactants 163

Often, the reactants used in a chemical reaction are not present in precise stoichiometric
amounts. For example, a natural gas-fired power plant generates electricity by produc-
ing hot gases that drive turbines, predominantly through the following combustion
reaction:

CH41g2 + 2 O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2 [3.18]

Power plants typically operate with an excess of O2(g) to achieve the maximum energy
from the hydrocarbon fuel and minimize production of harmful byproducts, like car-
bon monoxide, that result from incomplete combustion. Consequently, the amount of
CH4 introduced determines how much CO2 and H2O water are produced, as well as the
amount of energy released. In this section, we will learn how to do quantitative calcula-
tions for reactions where the reactants are not present in stoichiometrically equivalent
quantities.
When you have completed this section, you should be able to:

• Identify limiting reactants and calculate amounts, in grams or moles, of reactants

consumed and products formed in chemical reactions.
• Calculate the percent yield of a chemical reaction from the actual yield and the quan-
tities of each reactant.

Suppose you wish to make several sandwiches using one slice of cheese and two slices of
bread for each. Using Bd = bread, Ch = cheese, and Bd2Ch = sandwich, we can repre-
sent the recipe for making a sandwich like a chemical equation:

2 Bd + Ch ¡ Bd2Ch [3.19]

If you have ten slices of bread and seven slices of cheese, you can make only five sand-
wiches and will have two slices of cheese left over. The amount of bread available limits
the number of sandwiches.
An analogous situation occurs in chemical reactions when one reactant is used up
before the others. The reaction stops as soon as any reactant is totally consumed, leaving
the excess reactants as leftovers. Suppose, for example, we have a mixture of 10 mol H
the number of sandwiches.
An analogous situation occurs in chemical reactions when one reactant is used up
before the others. The reaction stops as soon as any reactant is totally consumed, leaving
the excess reactants as leftovers. Suppose, for example, we have a mixture of 10 mol H2
and 7 mol O2, which react to form water:

2 H21g2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 H2O1g2 [3.20]

Because 2 mol H2 ] 1 mol O2, the number of moles of O2 needed to react with all the H2 is

Moles O2 = 110 mol H22a b = 5 mol O2

1 mol O2
2 mol H2

Because 7 mol O2 is available at the start of the reaction, 7 mol O2 - 5 mol O2 = 2 mol O2
is still present when all the H2 is consumed.
The reactant that is completely consumed in a reaction is called the limiting
reactant because it determines, or limits, the amount of product formed. The other
reactants are sometimes called excess reactants. In our example, shown in Figure 3.16, H2
is the limiting reactant, which means that once all the H2 has been consumed, the reac-
tion stops. At that point some of the excess reactant O2 is left over.
There are no restrictions on the starting amounts of reactants in any reaction.
Indeed, many reactions are carried out using an excess of one reactant. The quantities
of reactants consumed and products formed, however, are restricted by the quantity of
the limiting reactant. For example, when a combustion reaction takes place in the open
air, oxygen is plentiful and is therefore the excess reactant. If you run out of fuel while
driving, the car stops because the fuel is the limiting reactant in the combustion reaction
that moves the car. Before we leave the example illustrated in Figure 3.16, let’s summarize
the data:

2 H21g2 + O21g2 i 2 H2O1g2

Before reaction: 10 mol 7 mol 0 mol
Change (reaction): - 10 mol - 5 mol + 10 mol
After reaction: 0 mol 2 mol 10 mol
164 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Go Figure If the amount of H2 is doubled, how many moles of H2O would

have formed?

Before reaction After reaction

10 H2 and 7 O2 10 H2O and 2 O2 (no H2 molecules)

▲ Figure 3.16 Limiting reactant. Because H2 is completely consumed, it is the limiting reactant.
Because some O2 is left over after the reaction is complete, it is the excess reactant. The amount
of H2O formed depends on the amount of limiting reactant, H2.

The second line in the table (Change) summarizes the amounts of reactants con-
sumed (where this consumption is indicated by the minus signs) and the amount of
the product formed (indicated by the plus sign). These quantities are restricted by the
quantity of the limiting reactant and depend on the coefficients in the balanced equa-
tion. The mole ratio H2:O2:H2O = 10:5:10 is a multiple of the ratio of the coefficients

change quantities for each column. The amount of the limiting reactant 1H22 must be
in the balanced equation, 2:1:2. The after quantities are found by adding the before and

zero at the end of the reaction. What remains is 2 mol O2 (excess reactant) and 10 mol
H2O (product).

Sample Exercise 3.16

 2

Sample Exercise 3.16

Calculating the Amount of Product Formed from a Limiting Reactant

reaction of N2 and H2 to form ammonia 1NH32:

The most important commercial process for converting N2 from the air into nitrogen-containing compounds is based on the

N21g2 + 3 H21g2 ¡ 2 NH31g2

How many moles of NH3 can be formed from 3.0 mol of N2 and 6.0 mol of H2?

SOLUTION Notice that we can calculate not only the number of moles of
NH3 formed but also the number of moles of each reactant
Analyze We are asked to calculate the number of moles of product, remaining after the reaction. Notice also that although the
NH3, given the quantities of each reactant, N2 and H2, available in initial (before) number of moles of H2 is greater than the final
a reaction. This is a limiting reactant problem. (after) number of moles of N2, H2 is nevertheless the limit-
ing reactant because of its larger coefficient in the balanced
Plan If we assume one reactant is completely consumed, we can cal-
equation.
culate how much of the second reactant is needed. By comparing the
calculated quantity of the second reactant with the amount avail- Check Examine the change row of the summary table to see that
able, we can determine which reactant is limiting. We then proceed the mole ratio of reactants consumed and product formed, 2:6:4,
with the calculation, using the quantity of the limiting reactant. is a multiple of the coefficients in the balanced equation, 1:3:2.
We confirm that H2 is the limiting reactant because it is completely
Solve
consumed in the reaction, leaving 0 mol at the end. Because
The number of moles of H2 needed for complete consumption of 6.0 mol H2 has two significant figures, our answer has two
3.0 mol of N2 is significant figures.

Moles H2 = 13.0 mol N22a b = 9.0 mol H2

3 mol H2 Comment It is useful to summarize the reaction data in a table:

N21g2 3 H21g2 i 2 NH31g2

1 mol N2
+
Because only 6.0 mol H2 is available, we will run out of H2 before the
N2 is gone, which tells us that H2 is the limiting reactant. Therefore, Before reaction: 3.0 mol 6.0 mol 0 mol
we use the quantity of H2 to calculate the quantity of NH3 produced: Change (reaction): - 2.0 mol - 6.0 mol + 4.0 mol

Moles NH3 = 16.0 mol H22 a b = 4.0 mol NH3

2 mol NH3 After reaction: 1.0 mol 0 mol 4.0 mol
3 mol H2
 SECTION 3.7 Limiting Reactants 165

(a) 9 mol CH3OH1l2 (b) 10 mol CO21g2 (c) 10 mol CH3OH1l2

▶ Practice Exercise many moles of it remains at the end of the reaction?

in the combustion reaction 2 CH3OH1l2 + 3 O21g2 ¡ (d) 14 mol CH3OH1l2 (e) 1 mol O21g2
When 24 mol of methanol and 15 mol of oxygen combine

2 CO21g2 + 4 H2O1g2, what is the excess reactant and how

Sample Exercise 3.17

Calculating the Amount of Product Formed from a Limiting Reactant

The reaction
2 H21g2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 H2O1g2

is used to produce electricity in a hydrogen fuel cell. Suppose a fuel cell contains 150 g of H21g2 and 1500 g of O21g2 (each
measured to two significant figures). How many grams of water can form?

SOLUTION with the given H2 mass, 150 g, but we can save a step by starting
with the moles of H2, 74 mol, we just calculated:
Analyze We are asked to calculate the amount of a product,

Grams H2O = 174 mol H22a ba b

given the amounts of two reactants, so this is a limiting reactant
2 mol H2O 18.0 g H2O
problem.
2 mol H2 1 mol H2O
Plan To identify the limiting reactant, we can calculate the
number of moles of each reactant and compare their ratio with = 1.3 * 102 g H2O
the ratio of coefficients in the balanced equation. We then use the
quantity of the limiting reactant to calculate the mass of water Check The magnitude of the answer seems reasonable based on
that forms. the amounts of the reactants. The units are correct, and the
number of significant figures (two) corresponds to those in the
Solve From the balanced equation, we have the stoichiometric values given in the problem statement.
relations
Comment The quantity of the limiting reactant, H2, can also be
used to determine the quantity of O2 used:
2 mol H2 ] 1 mol O2 ] 2 mol H2O

Grams O2 = 174 mol H22a ba b

1 mol O2 32.0 g O2
Using the molar mass of each substance, we calculate the number
of moles of each reactant: 2 mol H2 1 mol O2
 used to determine the quantity of O2 used:
2 mol H2 ] 1 mol O2 ] 2 mol H2O

Grams O2 = 174 mol H22a ba b

1 mol O2 32.0 g O2
Using the molar mass of each substance, we calculate the number
of moles of each reactant: 2 mol H2 1 mol O2
= 1.2 * 103 g O2
Moles H2 = 1150 g H22a b = 74 mol H2
1 mol H2
2.02 g H2 The mass of O2 remaining at the end of the reaction equals the
starting amount minus the amount consumed:

Moles O2 = 11500 g O22a b = 47 mol O2

1 mol O2 1500 g - 1200 g = 300 g.
32.0 g O2

The coefficients in the balanced equation indicate that the reaction ▶ Practice Exercise
requires 2 mol of H2 for every 1 mol of O2. Therefore, for all the Molten gallium reacts with arsenic to form the semiconductor,
O2 to completely react, we would need 2 * 47 = 94 mol of H2. gallium arsenide, GaAs, used in light–emitting diodes and
Since there are only 74 mol of H2, all of the O2 cannot react, so it is solar cells:
the excess reactant, and H2 must be the limiting reactant. (Notice
that the limiting reactant is not necessarily the one present in the Ga1l2 + As1s2 ¡ GaAs1s2
lowest amount.) If 4.00 g of gallium is reacted with 5.50 g of arsenic, how many
We use the given quantity of H2 (the limiting reactant) to calcu- grams of the excess reactant are left at the end of the reaction?
late the quantity of water formed. We could begin this calculation (a) 1.20 g As (b) 1.50 g As (c) 4.30 g As (d) 8.30 g Ga

Theoretical and Percent Yields

The quantity of product calculated to form when all the limiting reactant is consumed
is called the theoretical yield. The amount of product actually obtained, called the
actual yield, is almost always less than (and can never be greater than) the theoretical
yield. There are many reasons for this difference. Some of the reactants may not react,
for example, or they may react in a way different from that desired (side reactions). In
addition, it is not always possible to recover all of the product from the reaction mixture.
The percent yield of a reaction is the actual yield divided by the theoretical yield, mul-
tiplied by 100 to convert to percent:

actual yield
Percent yield = * 100%
theoretical yield
166 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Sample Exercise 3.18

Calculating Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield

Adipic acid, H2C6H8O4, used to produce nylon, is made commercially by a reaction between cyclohexane 1C6H122 and O2:

2 C6H121l2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 2 H2C6H8O41l2 + 2 H2O1g2

(a) Assume that you carry out this reaction with 25.0 g of cyclohexane and that cyclohexane is the limiting reactant. What is the
theoretical yield of adipic acid? (b) If you obtain 33.5 g of adipic acid, what is the percent yield for the reaction?

SOLUTION Plan
(a) The theoretical yield, which is the calculated quantity of
Analyze We are given a chemical equation and the quantity of the
adipic acid formed, can be calculated using the sequence of
limiting reactant (25.0 g of C6H12). We are asked to calculate the
conversions shown in Figure 3.15.
theoretical yield of a product H2C6H8O4 and the percent yield if
only 33.5 g of product is obtained. (b) The percent yield is calculated by using Equation 3.14 to com-
pare the given actual yield (33.5 g) with the theoretical yield.

Solve
Grams H2C6H8O4 = 125.0 g C6H122a ba ba b
1 mol C6H12 2 mol H2C6H8O4 146.0 g H2C6H8O4
(a) The theoretical yield is:
84.0 g C6H12 2 mol C6H12 1 mol H2C6H8O4
= 43.5 g H2C6H8O4

actual yield 33.5 g

(b) The percent yield is: Percent yield = * 100% = * 100% = 77.0%
theoretical yield 43.5 g

Check We can check our answer in (a) by doing a ballpark calcula- ▶ Practice Exercise
tion. From the balanced equation we know that each mole of cy- If 3.00 g of titanium metal is reacted with 6.00 g of chlorine
clohexane gives 1 mol adipic acid. We have 25>84 ≈ 25>75 = 0.3 gas, Cl2, to form 7.7 g of titanium(IV) chloride in a combina-
mol hexane, so we expect 0.3 mol adipic acid, which equals about tion reaction, what is the percent yield of the product?
0.3 * 150 = 45 g, about the same magnitude as the 43.5 g (a) 65% (b) 96% (c) 48% (d) 86%
obtained in the more detailed calculation given previously. In
addition, our answer has the appropriate units and number of sig-
 gas, Cl2, to form 7.7 g of titanium(IV) chloride in a combina-
mol hexane, so we expect 0.3 mol adipic acid, which equals about tion reaction, what is the percent yield of the product?
0.3 * 150 = 45 g, about the same magnitude as the 43.5 g (a) 65% (b) 96% (c) 48% (d) 86%
obtained in the more detailed calculation given previously. In
addition, our answer has the appropriate units and number of sig-
nificant figures. In (b) the answer is less than 100%, as it must be
from the definition of percent yield.

STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS Design an Experiment

One of the most important skills you can learn in school is how to you might have used in a biology lab, spin your sample, and observe
think like a scientist. Questions such as: “What experiment might if any solids collect at the bottom of the centrifuge tube; large mole-
test this hypothesis?”, “How do I interpret these data?”, and “Do cules can be separated in this way from a mixture. Measurement of
these data support the hypothesis?” are asked every day by chemists the mass of the solid at the bottom of the tube is a way to obtain a
and other scientists as they go about their work. value for the % solids in milk and also tells you that milk is indeed a
We want you to become a good critical thinker as well as an mixture.
active, logical, and curious learner. For this purpose, starting in this Keep an open mind: Lacking a centrifuge, how else might you
chapter, we include at the end of each chapter a special exercise separate solids in the milk? You could consider using a filter with re-
called “Design an Experiment.” Here is an example: ally tiny holes in it or perhaps even a fine strainer. You could propose
Is milk a pure liquid or a mixture of chemical components in water? that if milk were poured through this filter, some (large) solid com-
Design an experiment to distinguish between these two possibilities. ponents should stay on the top of the filter, while water (and really
You might already know the answer—milk is indeed a mixture small molecules or ions) would pass through the filter. That result
of components in water—but the goal is to think of how to demon- would be evidence that milk is a mixture. Does such a filter exist? Yes!
strate this in practice. Upon thinking about it, you will likely realize But for our purposes, the existence of such a filter is not the point:
that the key idea for this experiment is separation: You can prove The point is, can you use your imagination and your knowledge of
that milk is a mixture of chemical components if you can figure out chemistry to design a reasonable experiment? Don’t worry too much
how to separate these components. about the exact apparatus you need for the Design an Experiment ex-
Testing a hypothesis is a creative endeavor. While some exper- ercises. The goal is to imagine what you would need to do, or what
iments may be more efficient than others, there is often more than kind of data you would need to collect, in order to answer the ques-
one good way to test a hypothesis. Our question about milk, for tion. If your instructor allows it, you can collaborate with others in
example, might be explored by an experiment in which you boil a your class to develop ideas. Scientists discuss their ideas with other
known quantity of milk until it is dry. Does a solid residue form in scientists all the time. We find that discussing ideas, and refining
the bottom of the pan? If so, you could weigh it and calculate the per- them, makes us better scientists and helps us collectively answer im-
centage of solids in milk, which would offer good evidence that milk portant questions.
is a mixture. If there is no residue after boiling, then you still cannot The design and interpretation of scientific experiments is at the
distinguish between the two possibilities. heart of the scientific method. Think of the Design an Experiment
What other experiments might you do to demonstrate that milk exercises as puzzles that can be solved in various ways, and enjoy
is a mixture? You could put a sample of milk in a centrifuge, which your explorations!
 SECTION 3.7 Limiting Reactants 167

Self-Assessment Exercises
Here are a few problems designed to test your understanding of the material.

in the combustion reaction 2 CH3OH1l2 + 3 O21g2 ¡

3.51 When 24 mol of methanol and 15 mol of oxygen combine If 4.00 g of gallium reacted with 5.50 g of arsenic, how many

2 CO21g2 + 4 H2O1g2, what is the excess reactant and how

grams of the excess reactant are left at the end of the reaction?
(a) 1.20 g As
many moles of it remains at the end of the reaction?
(b) 1.50 g As
(a) 9 mol CH3OH1l2
(b) 10 mol CO21g2
(c) 4.30 g As
(d) 8.30 g Ga
(c) 10 mol CH3OH1l2
3.53 If 3.00 g of titanium metal is reacted with 6.00 g of chlorine
(d) 14 mol CH3OH1l2
(e) 1 mol O21g2
gas, Cl2, to form 7.7 g of titanium(IV) chloride in a combina-
tion reaction, what is the percent yield of the product?
3.52 Molten gallium reacts with arsenic to form the semiconduc- (a) 65%
tor, gallium arsenide, GaAs, used in light–emitting diodes (b) 96%
and solar cells: (c) 48%
Ga1l2 + As1s2 ¡ GaAs1s2 (d) 86%

Exercises
3.54 (a) Define the terms limiting reactant and excess reactant. limiting reactant? (b) How many grams of carbon dioxide
(b) Why are the amounts of products formed in a reaction form? (c) How many grams of the excess reactant remain
determined only by the amount of the limiting reactant? after the limiting reactant is completely consumed?
(c) Why should you base your choice of which compound is
the limiting reactant on its number of initial moles, not on
its initial mass in grams?
3.55 Consider the mixture of ethanol, C2H5OH, and O2 shown in
the accompanying diagram. (a) Write a balanced equation
for the combustion reaction that occurs between ethanol
and oxygen. (b) Which reactant is the limiting reactant?
3.55 Consider the mixture of ethanol, C2H5OH, and O2 shown in
the accompanying diagram. (a) Write a balanced equation
for the combustion reaction that occurs between ethanol
and oxygen. (b) Which reactant is the limiting reactant?
(c) How many molecules of CO2, H2O, C2H5OH, and O2 will
be present if the reaction goes to completion?

3.58 Solutions of sodium carbonate and silver nitrate react to

form solid silver carbonate and a solution of sodium nitrate.
A solution containing 3.50 g of sodium carbonate is mixed
with one containing 5.00 g of silver nitrate. How many
grams of sodium carbonate, silver nitrate, silver carbonate,
and sodium nitrate are present after the reaction is complete?
3.59 When benzene 1C6H62 reacts with bromine 1Br22, bromo-
benzene 1C6H5Br2 is obtained:
3.56 Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide as follows:

2 NaOH1s2 + CO21g2 ¡ Na2CO31s2 + H2O1l2

C6H6 + Br2 ¡ C6H5Br + HBr
Which is the limiting reactant when 1.85 mol NaOH and
(a) When 30.0 g of benzene reacts with 65.0 g of bromine, what
1.00 mol CO2 are allowed to react? How many moles of
is the theoretical yield of bromobenzene? (b) If the actual yield
Na2CO3 can be produced? How many moles of the excess of bromobenzene is 42.3 g, what is the percentage yield?
reactant remain after the completion of the reaction?
3.60 Hydrogen sulfide is an impurity in natural gas that must be
3.57 The fizz produced when an Alka-Seltzer tablet is dissolved
removed. One common removal method is called the Claus
1NaHCO32 and citric acid 1H3C6H5O72:
in water is due to the reaction between sodium bicarbonate process, which relies on the reaction:
8 H2S1g2 + 4 O21g2 ¡ S81l2 + 8 H2O1g2
3 NaHCO31aq2 + H3C6H5O71aq2 ¡
3 CO21g2 + 3H2O1l2 + Na3C6H5O71aq2
Under optimal conditions the Claus process gives 98% yield of S8
from H2S. If you started with 30.0 g of H2S and 50.0 g of O2, how
In a certain experiment 1.00 g of sodium bicarbonate and many grams of S8 would be produced, assuming 98% yield?
1.00 g of citric acid are allowed to react. (a) Which is the

3.53 (b) 3.52 (a) 3.51 (d)

Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

168 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Chapter Summary and Key Terms

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS (INTRODUCTION AND SECTION 3.1) units of that substance. The mass of a mole of atoms, molecules, or ions
The study of the quantitative relationships between chemical (the molar mass) equals the formula weight of that material expressed
formulas and chemical equations is known as stoichiometry. One of in grams. The mass of 1 molecule of H2O, for example, is 18.0 u,
the important concepts of stoichiometry is the law of conservation so the mass of 1 mol of H2O is 18.0 g. That is, the molar mass of
of mass, which states that the total mass of the products of a chem- H2O is 18.0 g>mol.
ical reaction is the same as the total mass of the reactants. The same
numbers of atoms of each type are present before and after a chem-
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM ANALYSIS (SECTION 3.5) The em-
ical reaction. A balanced chemical equation shows equal numbers of pirical formula of any substance can be determined from its percent
composition by calculating the relative number of moles of each
atoms of each element on each side of the equation. Equations are
atom in 100 g of the substance. If the substance is molecular in na-
balanced by placing coefficients in front of the chemical formu-
ture, its molecular formula can be determined from the empirical
las for the reactants and products of a reaction, not by changing the
formula if the molecular weight is also known. Combustion analysis
subscripts in chemical formulas.
is a special technique for determining the empirical formulas of com-
SIMPLE PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIVITY (SECTION 3.2) pounds containing only carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen.
Among the reaction types described in this chapter are (1) combination
reactions , in which two reactants combine to form one product;
QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION FROM BALANCED EQUATIONS
(2) decomposition reactions, in which a single reactant forms two or AND LIMITING REACTANTS (SECTIONS 3.6 AND 3.7) The mole
more products; and (3) combustion reactions in oxygen, in which a concept can be used to calculate the relative quantities of reactants
substance, typically a hydrocarbon, reacts rapidly with O2 to form and products in chemical reactions. The coefficients in a balanced
CO2 and H2O. equation give the relative numbers of moles of the reactants and
products. To calculate the number of grams of a product from the
FORMULA WEIGHTS (SECTION 3.3) Much quantitative infor- number of grams of a reactant, first convert grams of reactant to
mation can be determined from chemical formulas and balanced moles of reactant. Then use the coefficients in the balanced equa-
chemical equations by using atomic weights. The formula weight of a tion to convert the number of moles of reactant to moles of product.
compound equals the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in its Finally, convert moles of product to grams of product.
formula. If the formula is a molecular formula, the formula weight is A limiting reactant is completely consumed in a reaction. When
also called the molecular weight. Atomic weights and formula weights it is used up, the reaction stops, thus limiting the quantities of prod-
can be used to determine the elemental composition of a compound. ucts formed. The theoretical yield of a reaction is the quantity of prod-
uct calculated to form when all of the limiting reactant reacts. The

any substance contains Avogadro’s number 16.02 * 10232 of formula

AVOGADRO’S NUMBER AND THE MOLE (SECTION 3.4) A mole of actual yield of a reaction is always less than the theoretical yield. The
percent yield compares the actual and theoretical yields.
any substance contains Avogadro’s number 16.02 * 10232 of formula
AVOGADRO’S NUMBER AND THE MOLE (SECTION 3.4) A mole of actual yield of a reaction is always less than the theoretical yield. The
percent yield compares the actual and theoretical yields.

Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Balance chemical equations. (Section 3.1) • Calculate the empirical and molecular formulas of a com-
Related Exercises: 3.5, 3.70 pound from percentage composition and molecular weight.
• Predict the products of simple combination, decomposition, and (Section 3.5) Related Exercises: 3.37, 3.90
combustion reactions. (Section 3.2) Related Exercises: 3.12, 3.74 • Identify limiting reactants and calculate amounts, in grams or
• Calculate formula weights. (Section 3.3) Related Exercises: 3.17, 3.76 moles, of reactants consumed and products formed for a reac-
tion. (Section 3.6) Related Exercises: 3.47, 3.96
• Convert grams to moles and vice versa using molar masses.
(Section 3.4) Related Exercises: 3.25, 3.81 • Calculate the percent yield of a reaction. (Section 3.7)
Related Exercises: 3.59, 3.105
• Convert number of molecules to moles and vice versa using
Avogadro’s number. (Section 3.4) Related Exercises: 3.27, 3.83

Key Equations
a ba b
number of atoms atomic weight
% mass composition of element of element
• of element = * 100% [3.15] This is the formula to calculate the mass percentage
formula weight of compound of each element in a compound. The sum of all the
percentages of all the elements in a compound should
add up to 100%.

actual yield
• Percent yield = * 100% This is the formula to calculate the percent yield of a
theoretical yield
reaction. The percent yield can never be more than
100%.