Generating Station

Arrangements and
Generator Grounding

© SEL 2023

Technical literature supporting this section:

• IEEE Std C37.102-2006, IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection.
• IEEE Std C62.92.2-1989, IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electric
Utility Systems Part II − Grounding of Synchronous Generator Systems.
• IEEE Power Engineering Society, IEEE Tutorial on the Protection of Synchronous
Generators, IEEE Catalog Number 95 TP 102, 1995.
• D. Reimert, Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems. Taylor & Francis Group,
New York, 2006.

1
Objectives

1 Describe generator
connections 2 Describe generator
grounding methods
▪ Generator-transformer ▪ Resonant
(GT) units ▪ Isolated neutral
▪ Generators with ▪ High resistance
dual transformers
▪ Low resistance
▪ Cross-compound generators
▪ Low reactance
▪ Generators sharing
a transformer ▪ Effective
▪ Generators connected directly ▪ Hybrid
to a distribution system

2
Generator station
arrangements

3
GT unit: high-voltage breaker

In utility generating stations, generators are typically connected directly to the step-up transformer
as shown in the figure. This arrangement is referred to as a generator-transformer unit. One or two
unit auxiliary transformers (UATs) may also be connected to the generator terminals. The figure
shows a typical arrangement where there is no low-voltage breaker between the generator and the
step-up transformer. The units connects to the power system through high-voltage breaker(s).

Note that the UAT will influence the number of restraint windings necessary for overall
differential protection. The generator neutral grounding method and transformer winding
configurations shown are typical for this arrangement.

4
GT unit: high- and low-voltage breakers

The arrangement illustrated in the slide is a variation of the unit-connected generator-transformer

configuration. In this arrangement, a circuit breaker is installed between the generator terminals
and the delta windings of the generator step-up (GSU) transformer and the UAT. This
configuration allows fast removal of faults in the GSU transformer and the UAT. With this
arrangement, the UAT can be used as source for the start up of the plant.

In terms of ground fault protection, this arrangement requires an additional method for ground
detection during the period in which the generator is disconnected from the GSU transformer.
During this period, the delta windings and their associated bus are left ungrounded. A set of
grounded-wye/broken-delta voltage transformers is installed on the bus section between the circuit
breaker and the GSU transformer delta winding. A resistor is connected across the output of the
broken-delta connection to reduce the risk of ferroresonance occurrence. Should a ground fault
occur, 3V0 voltage will appear across the output of the broken-delta connection. A protective
relay with a voltage input connected across the output of the broken-delta connection can be
programmed to detect excessive 3V0 and provide tripping and/or alarm indication during a ground
fault. The process to determine the ohmic value of the resistor and the thermal rating of the voltage
transformers is out of the scope of this course.

5
GT unit: dual GSUs

The arrangement illustrated in the slide is a variation of the unit-connected generator-transformer

configuration. In this arrangement, two GSU transformers are used to connect the generator to the
power system. Each transformer is rated at approximately 50 percent of the generator rated MVA.
Circuit breakers are installed between the generator terminals and the delta windings of the GSU
transformer and the UAT.

As previously discussed, the presence of circuit breakers at the terminals of the generator allow for
fast removal of faults in the GSU transformer and the UAT. With this configuration, the UAT can
be used as plant start-up source.

In terms of ground fault protection, this arrangement requires an additional method for ground
detection during the period in which the generator is disconnected from the GSU transformer.
During this period, the delta windings and their associated bus are left ungrounded. A set of
grounded-wye/broken-delta voltage transformers is installed on the bus section between the circuit
breaker and the GSU transformer delta winding. A resistor is connected across the output of the
broken-delta connection to reduce the risk of ferroresonance occurrence. Should a ground fault
occur, 3V0 voltage will appear across the output of the broken-delta connection. A protective
relay with a voltage input connected across the output of the broken-delta connection can be
programmed to detect excessive 3V0 and provide tripping and/or alarm indication during a ground
fault. The process to determine the ohmic value of the resistor and the thermal rating of the voltage
transformers is out of the scope of this course.

6
Cross-compound generators

A compound turbine is a steam turbine with a high-pressure casing and a low-pressure casing that
operate together to extract energy from a single source of steam. The steam is partially expanded
in the high-pressure casing, then exhausted to the low-pressure casing. The rotor arrangement can
be either tandem-compound, in which the two axes are joined end to end, or cross-compound, in
which the two turbines have separate axes.

As mentioned before, a cross-compound steam turbine has two shafts. A high-pressure (HP)
turbine and an intermediate pressure (IP) turbine drive the first shaft at full speed (3,600 rpm at
60 Hz). The second shaft is driven by one or more low-pressure (LP) turbines at half speed (1,800
rpm at 60 Hz). The exhaust steam from the HP turbine passes through a reheater before flowing
through the IP turbine. The exhaust of the IP turbine flows through the LP turbine(s). In one
arrangement, each shaft drives a synchronous generator. The HP/IP shaft drives a two-pole
turbogenerator and the LP shaft drives a 4-pole turbogenerator. This cross-compound arrangement
utilizes two half-sized turbogenerators. This practice was an early response to the increase in
maximum rating of the new power plants, mainly because of the inability of the generator
manufacturers to increase the rating of the turbogenerators. Nowadays, tandem-compound steam
turbines are capable of driving a single 4-pole turbogenerator rated as high as 2,235 MVA at
50 Hz. As illustrated in the slide, the stator windings of the HP and LP generators are electrically
connected at the generator level. Only the HP generator is grounded, typically using the high-
resistance grounding method.

A detailed discussion about the starting process for a cross-compound turbogenerator is outside the
scope of this course. The protection engineer needs to be aware that excitation is applied to both
HP and LP generators at turning gear speeds. During the entire starting process, the V/Hz ratio is
limited to the rated value. The performance of the generator protective relays must be evaluated
under the off-nominal frequency operation experienced during the starting process.

7
Generator with dual windings

The slide shows a dual-winding generator, also called a double-winding or twelve-bushing

generator. This type of construction may be found in large generators when the current carrying
capability of the terminal bushings becomes a limiting factor. In other words, a single bushing
cannot carry the rated current of the generator.

In a dual-winding generator, each phase has two separate windings, for a total of six windings and
twelve bushings. The neutral bushings are connected to form two separate neutral points. The
terminal bushings are connected to form a single three-phase set of conductors.

Only one of the neutrals is grounded, typically using the high-resistance grounding method.

8
Generators sharing a transformer

In power plants with small hydroelectric or combustion-turbine generators, several generators

often share a step-up transformer. This figure shows a connection in which the generators are
connected in parallel and share a step-up two-winding transformer.

9
Generators sharing
a transformer

This figure shows an alternative connection in which the generators are connected to share a step-
up three-winding transformer.

10
Generators connected
directly to a
distribution system

This arrangement is typical for small generators connected directly to a distribution system.

According to IEEE 1547, IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric
Power Systems, this connection applies to aggregate capacity of 10 MVA or less.

The generator neutral grounding depends on the system grounding, which may or may not be
grounded effectively. There may also be special operating and performance requirements because
of the interconnection at distribution level.

11
Generator grounding

12
Synchronous generator grounding
IEEE C62.92.2
▪ Resonant grounded
(Petersen coil)
▪ Ungrounded
▪ High-resistance grounded
▪ Low-resistance grounded
▪ Low-reactance grounded
▪ Effectively grounded

This subsection follows the recommendations of IEEE C62.92.2, IEEE Guide for the Application
of Neutral Grounding in Electrical Utility Systems, Part II – Grounding of Synchronous Generator
Systems.

The six grounding classes considered in this guide are listed here.

13
Why ground the neutral?

▪ Minimize damage for internal

ground faults
▪ Limit mechanical stress for
external ground faults
▪ Limit temporary/transient
overvoltages
▪ Allow for ground fault detection
▪ Can coordinate generator protection
with other equipment requirements

Generator grounding should limit machine thermal and mechanical stress during internal and
external ground faults, limit temporary and transient overvoltages, provide a means for detecting
ground faults, and allow coordination of generator protection. In ungrounded generators, ground
faults can cause high transient overvoltages. In effectively grounded generators, ground fault
currents may be higher than three-phase fault currents and cause thermal or mechanical damage.
Therefore, the practice is to ground generators through an impedance. Typical generator grounding
methods are high-resistance, resonant, and low-impedance grounding.

The type of grounding class selected depends on the relative importance to the user of each of the
five objectives listed on the slide.

Temporary overvoltages are fundamental frequency voltages. Transient overvoltages consist of

natural frequency overvoltages superimposed on fundamental frequency overvoltages. As the
names imply, temporary overvoltages last longer than transient overvoltages. As an example,
consider a phase-to-ground fault on a three-phase system. At fault inception, a natural frequency
transient occurs on the unfaulted phases but decays quickly. However, the elevated fundamental
frequency voltages on the unfaulted phases persist for as long as the fault is present.

These overvoltages stress the generator insulation and their magnitudes determine surge arrestor
ratings.

14
Why ground through an impedance?

▪ Minimize damage for internal ground faults

▪ Limit mechanical stress for external ground faults

Generator grounding should also limit machine thermal and mechanical stress during internal and
external ground faults. In effectively grounded generators, ground fault currents may be higher
than three-phase fault currents and cause thermal or mechanical damage.

Therefore, the practice is to ground generators through an impedance. Typical generator grounding
methods are high-resistance, resonant, and low-impedance grounding.

The type of grounding class selected depends on the relative importance to the user of each of five
objectives listed on the previous slide and this slide.

15
Analysis of the single-phase-to-ground fault
Generator
Fault
N External
System

ZE

Grounding
Impedance RF

The figure shows the typical three-phase model used to analyze power systems neutral grounding
systems. A simple source (it might be a generator or the secondary side of a transformer) with a
neutral point, N, is connected to the system earthing ground electrode through an impedance ZE.
The value of this impedance determines the type of neutral grounding scheme.

To study the behavior of the system, we determine the source currents and voltages for a close-in
single-phase-to-ground fault. We consider a fault resistance (RF) for the most general case and, in
the case of high-impedance-grounded systems, we must consider the influence of the system
capacitance.

In the model shown, all the system capacitances around the source are concentrated in a simple set
of three single-phase capacitances.

16
Sequence component analysis

VNOM 3Z E
External External External
+ System
V2 System
V0 System
Z G1 ZG 2 ZG 0
− jX C1 − jX C 2 − jX C 0
+
+

Fault Fault Fault

RF RF RF

Total Capacitive Reactances: XC1 = XC2 = XC0 = XC

The figure shows the sequence network connection for the fault described on the previous slide.

Notice that the sequence networks of the connected system are represented by generic blocks. This
sequence network connection is fundamental to understand the sequence voltage and current
distribution on different parts of the system.

17
Disregarding the external system influence

VNOM 3Z E
+ V1 V2 V0
Z G1 ZG 2 ZG 0
− jX C − jX C − jX C
+ + +

I1 I2 I0
Fault Fault Fault

RF RF RF

Networks Are Simplified According to ZE Value

To simplify the analysis, the effect of the system is not considered in this diagram; however, the
effect of the system can be determined using the superposition principle.

In general, XC is estimated at several kilohms. This value is much greater than the magnitudes of
the generator impedances ZG1, ZG2, and ZG0. Therefore, the only impedance that can be comparable
to XC is ZE.

This is true only for high-impedance grounding. This explains why the effect of the capacitances
to ground is considered only when you are analyzing high-impedance and isolated neutral systems.

18
Grounding for unit-connected generators

▪ Single generator is commonly connected to a delta-wye

step-up transformer
▪ Neutral grounding method is chosen for maximum
generator protection
Step-Up
Transformer

Generator

The delta-connected low-voltage winding of the step-up transformer isolates the generator zero-
sequence network from the rest of the system. This allows selection of a grounding method that
maximizes generator protection—very low ground fault currents.

19
Resonant grounding

▪ Variable reactor tunes to system capacitance (Petersen coil)

▪ Most temporary ground faults self-extinguish because of
low-fault current
▪ Grounding is used on large utility units and critical process
industrial generators
Petersen Coil

XC

Resonant grounding is an alternative for generators connected to the system through a dedicated
step-up transformer. In this method, the generator is grounded through a high-impedance reactor,
ideally tuned to the overall system phase-to-ground capacitance. The variable impedance reactor is
called a Petersen coil after its inventor. It is also known as an arc-suppression coil or a ground
fault neutralizer. Systems with this type of grounding are referred to as resonant-grounded or
compensated systems. When the coil reactance matches the system capacitive reactance, the
system is fully compensated or at 100 percent tuning. If the coil reactance is greater than the
system capacitive reactance, the system is overcompensated. If the coil reactance is smaller than
the system capacitive reactance, the system is undercompensated.

Older installations use a low-cost, fixed-value reactor. In these systems, the tuning condition
(under- or overcompensated) changes with the network configuration. Tap-changing reactors
permit manual or automatic control of the tuning conditions. Modern installations include a
moving-core (plunger) reactor equipped with a control system to provide almost 100 percent
tuning for all system operating conditions. These plunger systems also provide a smooth means of
system tuning.

System resonant grounding can reduce the ground fault current to approximately 3 to 10 percent of
that for an ungrounded system. For 100 percent tuning, the active coil losses, system harmonics,
and system active leakage current determine the fault current magnitude.

Because ground faults in compensated systems do not affect the phase-to-phase voltage triangle, it
is possible to continue operating the system in the faulted condition. A permanent phase-to-ground
fault produces a very low value of fault current (virtually zero), which effectively limits the
burning of the stator iron core. The voltage to ground in the unfaulted phases will raise to the
phase-to-phase value.

Therefore, the system must have a phase-to-phase insulation level and all loads must be connected
phase to phase. Generator resonant grounding is much less used than high-resistance grounding.

20
Isolated neutral generator

▪ No intentional connection to ground

▪ Maximum ground fault current higher than for
resonant grounded
▪ Excessive transient overvoltages (may result)
Voltage Transformer

R XC

An isolated neutral system has no intentional connection to ground: the system is connected to
ground through the line-to-ground capacitances. Single-line-to-ground faults shift the system
neutral voltage but leave the phase-to-phase voltage triangle intact. Hence, these systems can
remain operational during sustained, low-current faults. The system must have a phase-to-phase
insulation level and all loads are connected phase to phase. The main drawback of isolated neutral
systems is that ground faults can cause high transient overvoltages on the unfaulted phases.

The fault current for isolated neutral systems has a magnitude equal to the capacitive current
produced by connecting one of the phases to ground.

Zero-sequence line-to-ground capacitance and fault resistance are the major factors limiting the
ground fault current magnitude in ungrounded systems. The low-fault current values require
sensitive fault detection devices.

A voltage transformer can be connected from neutral to ground. The load on the VT secondary
will determine the maximum ground fault current.

This grounding method is used rarely in the United States.

21
High-resistance grounding
▪ Low-value resistor is
connected to distribution
transformer secondary
▪ Resistor value is selected to
limit transient overvoltages
▪ Single-phase-to-ground
fault current: 5 to 15 A

High-resistance grounding is common in generators connected to the system through a dedicated

step-up transformer (a generator-transformer unit arrangement). As shown on the slide, this
method uses a transformer (a distribution transformer, for example) connected between the
generator neutral and ground, and a resistor connected to the transformer secondary. The
resistance value as seen from the primary N2RG (where N is the transformation ratio) is typically
equal to or slightly less than one-third the per-phase capacitive reactance to ground XC of the
generator and other equipment connected to the generator terminals. Typically, the high resistance
limits ground fault currents to 15 A or less.

Generally, the transformer primary voltage rating is 1.5 times the rated phase-to-neutral voltage of
the generator. The transformer kVA rating depends upon whether the user alarms or trips when a
ground fault is detected.

A sensitive overvoltage relay, tuned to the fundamental frequency, is connected to the transformer
secondary to provide stator ground fault protection for about 90 percent of the winding. This
means that ground faults in the 10 percent of the winding near the neutral will not be detected.
However, other protection techniques allow detection of these faults.

Resonant grounding is another alternative for generators connected to the system through a
dedicated step-up transformer. Resonant grounding uses a transformer connected between the
generator neutral and ground, and a tunable reactor connected to the transformer secondary. The
reactor impedance is adjusted to one-third the per-phase capacitive reactance to ground. For
ground faults, the system is in resonance and the fault current is typically below 1 A. Generator
resonant grounding is used much less than high-resistance grounding.

22
High-resistance grounding

The figure illustrates the secondary resistor sizing to limit transient overvoltages. The resistance
value, as seen from the primary N2RE, is typically equal to or slightly less than one-third of the per-
phase capacitive reactance to ground XC of the generator and other equipment connected to the
generator terminals. Typically, the high resistance limits the ground fault currents to 15 A or less,
which significantly reduces damage to the stator core laminations for ground faults.

Z E = RE = X C / 3
I FAULT = I A = E / RE + 3• E / ( − jX C ) = ( 3• E / X C ) • (1 + j ) = 3 2 E / X C • e j 45

Generally, the primary voltage rating of the distribution transformer is 1.5 times the rated phase-
to-neutral voltage of the generator. The kVA rating of the distribution transformer depends on
whether the user chooses to alarm or trip when a ground fault is detected.

23
Properly sized neutral resistor

▪ Makes the resistive component of the ground fault current

equal to or greater than the capacitive component
▪ Shifts the phase angle of the ground fault current to less
than 45 degrees
▪ Increases the power factor of the ground fault current
▪ Prevents high transient overvoltages

24
Grounding transformer ratings

▪ kVA rating for continuous operation

kVA rating ≥ Rated secondary voltage times maximum
secondary current
▪ kVA rating for short-time operation
IEEE C62.92.2 provides guidance for safe and reasonable
overloads for short periods of time
▪ Minimum primary voltage rating
1.05 times generator rated phase-to-ground voltage

25
Example 1
Grounding resistor calculation
VNOM = 13.8 kV

N1 8, 000 V
=
N2 120 V

C = 1 F

1 1 1
XC = = = = 2, 652.58 
C 2 •  • f • C 2 •  • 60 •1•10−6

26
Example 1 RE =
X C 2, 652.58
= = 884.19 
3 3
Grounding
resistor N 
2
 120 
2

calculation RE =  2  • RE =   • 884.19 = 0.1989   0.2 

 N1   8, 000 

PR = RE • I R2

e e

VNOM  N  13,800  120 

• 2  • 
ER 3  N1  = 3  8, 000 
I R = e

= = 597.56 A
e

RE RE 0.2

PR = 0.2 • 597.562 = 71.5 kW

e

27
Low-resistance grounding

▪ Limits ground fault current to

hundreds of amperes to allow
selective and sensitive
protection operation
▪ Has low transient overvoltages
▪ Ground faults may cause stator
core lamination damage

Low-impedance grounding uses either a resistor or an inductor connected between the generator
neutral and ground. For resistance grounding, fault current is usually no higher than 150 percent of
generator rated current. This limit is related to the required power rating of the resistor. High
power ratings translate to high cost. For reactance grounding, the fault current is normally between
25 percent and 100 percent of the three-phase fault current. Low-impedance grounding is typical
in small generators that supply their load without a transformer and is also used in generators that
are connected in parallel and share a step-up transformer.

The main disadvantage of generator low-impedance grounding is that the high ground fault current
can cause significant stator core lamination damage, which increases the cost of the generator
repair. For internal faults, the fault current continues flowing from the generator winding to the
stator core even after the machine main breaker is open because the machine field remains
magnetized and the rotor spins for several seconds. The voltage induced in the stator winding
sustains the fault current for a relatively long time until the induced voltage decreases to zero.

The grounding resistance RE can be calculated as:

RE = VNOM / IF

where:
VNOM is the generator rated phase-to-neutral voltage
IF is the desired ground fault current.

28
Example 2
Grounding resistor calculation
VNOM = 13.8 kV
I F = 300 A

VNOM 13,800
RE = = = 26.6 
IF 3 • 300

PR = RE • I F2 = 26.6 • 3002 = 2.4 MW

e

29
Low-reactance grounding

▪ Similar to low-resistance grounding

▪ Generally applied when the cost of the grounding resistor
becomes excessive

Reactor

Low-reactance grounding uses an inductor connected between the generator neutral and ground.
For reactance grounding, fault current is normally between 25 percent and 100 percent of three-
phase fault current. Low-reactance grounding is typical in small generators that supply their load
without a transformer and is also used in generators that are connected in parallel and share a step-
up transformer. This method is typically applied when the cost of the grounding resistor becomes
excessive.

The major disadvantage of low-resistance and low-inductance grounding is that high fault currents
increase the risk of iron core damage for internal ground faults.

30
Effective grounding

▪ High ground fault currents

▪ Low transient overvoltages

Effective grounding complies with (X0 / X1)  3 and (R0 / X1)  1, where X0 and R0 are the zero-
sequence reactance and resistance, and X1 is the positive-sequence reactance of the power system.
In practice, effectively grounded systems have all or most of power system neutrals directly
connected to earth (or ground) without any intentional impedance between the neutral and earth.

Ground faults on these systems may produce high-magnitude currents. Effective grounding
reduces the risk of overvoltages during ground faults. These faults do not shift the system neutral.
Thus, the system does not require as high a voltage insulation level as does an isolated neutral
system.

This grounding method is not used in large generators, but it is used in very small generators
(under 2 MW) and in some low-voltage applications.

The risk for a generator stator-core damage during an internal phase-to-ground fault is
significantly increased compared to low-resistance and low-reactance grounding. For this reason,
this grounding method is rarely used.

The current for a single-phase-to-ground fault is solely limited by the source internal impedances
and the fault resistance. For bolted ground faults:

I FAULT = 3 • E / ( Z G1 + Z G 2 + Z G 0 )

In certain situations, the single-phase-to-ground fault current can exceed the three-phase fault
current magnitude, depending on generator design.

31
Disadvantage of generator
low-impedance grounding

The main disadvantage of generator low-impedance grounding is that the high ground fault current
can cause significant stator core lamination damage, which increases the cost of the generator
repair. For internal faults, the fault current continues flowing from the generator winding to the
stator core even after the machine main breaker is open because the machine field remains
magnetized and the rotor spins for several seconds. The voltage induced in the stator winding
sustains the fault current for a relatively long time until the induced voltage decreases to zero.

The grounding resistor must be specified to withstand this current for the time needed for the
machine to dampen all voltages to zero.

There are essentially two ways to accelerate the fast reduction of the remaining fault current:
• Install a breaker in the neutral grounding resistor to be tripped for ground faults at the same
time as the main breaker.
• Use special demagnetizing circuits to force the flux to decay to zero in a very short time.

The power rating and insulation requirements of the grounding resistor may make the low-
resistance grounding method relatively expensive. An additional breaker further increases the cost.

32
Hybrid grounding

▪ Low-impedance grounded
under normal operation
▪ Switches to high-impedance
grounding for internal
ground faults after the
generator breaker opens

In systems where limited downstream protection sensitivity requires high ground fault current to
detect faults, a hybrid grounding system can be used. High-resistance and low-resistance
grounding schemes are connected in parallel. Once the high fault current resulting from the low-
resistance grounding has been available for enough time to detect the fault, the low-resistance
grounding is removed from service by opening the breaker shown in the figure. This action leaves
only the high-resistance grounding, which protects the stator windings from damage due to
extended exposure to high ground fault currents.

Hybrid grounding schemes are always found on generators directly connected to a medium-
voltage system where a delta-wye transformer is not used and, therefore, there is not ground fault
isolation.

33
Grounding for directly connected generators

System grounding and feeder protection requirements

determine the generator grounding method

When more than one generator is directly connected to the medium-voltage system and several
feeders are connected to the same bus, high-impedance grounding should not be used unless an
additional grounding system is provided, as will be shown later.

If the two generators in the figure were high-impedance grounded, a ground fault on one of the
feeders would produce a small current that could be detected by the sensitive generator protection
but that could not be detected by the feeder ground fault relays (unless the feeder relays also have
sensitive ground overcurrent elements). The result would be a nonselective trip of the generators.

For this reason, when the industrial system grounding is provided only by generators directly
connected to the medium-voltage system, these generators typically have low-resistance
grounding. As a result, the generators are exposed to significant stator core damage for ground
faults.

34
Review

▪ Which are the typical generator

connections in large utility power
stations and industrial facilities?
▪ Mention the reasons for power
system grounding
▪ Describe typical generator
grounding methods

35
Summary

▪ Grounding is a trade-off between

limiting equipment damage,
preventing overvoltage, and
providing selective fault detection
▪ Proper generator grounding
minimizes damage for ground faults
▪ Effective ground fault protection must
consider the grounding method

36
Questions?

37