TOPIC 5: CALIBRATION SYSTEM

Calibration
- Calibration is the act or result of quantitative comparison between a known standard and the
output of the measuring system.
- If the output-input response of the system is linear, then a single-point calibration is
sufficient.
- However, if the system response is non-linear, then a set of known standard
inputs to the measuring system are employed for calibrating the corresponding outputs of
the system.
- Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of
measurement equipment.
- Instrument calibration is intended to eliminate or reduce bias in an instrument's readings
over a range for all continuous values.
 Precision is the degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditions
show the same result
 Accuracy is the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to its actual true
value.
- In general use, calibration is often regarded as including the process of adjusting the output
or indication on a measurement instrument to agree with value of the applied standard,
within a specified accuracy.
- There are three main reasons for having instruments calibrated:
1. To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other measurements.
2. To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.
3. To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted.
- Calibration is carried out by agencies of the metrological service, using reference standards
and base standards.
- Governmental calibration is obligatory for measuring devices used in reporting material
value, for government tests and expert examinations, and for recording national and
international sports records, and also for calibration of the original base standards.
- All other measuring devices are calibrated by the appropriate departments.

Calibration Standards
- Calibration Standards of measurements can be classified according to their function and
type of application as:

International standards
- International standards are devices designed and constructed to the specifications of an
international forum.
- They represent the units of measurements of various physical quantities to the highest
possible accuracy that is attainable by the use of advanced techniques of production
and measurement technology.
- These standards are maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at
Sevres, France. For example, the International Prototype kilogram, wavelength of Kr86
orange-red lamp and cesium clock are the international standards for mass, length and time,
respectively.
- However, these standards are not available to an ordinary user for purposes of day-to-day
comparisons and calibrations.

Primary standards
- Primary standards are devices maintained by standards organizations / national
laboratories in different parts of the world.
- These devices represent the fundamental and derived quantities and are calibrated
independently by absolute measurements.
- These are the most precise and accurate physical standards, which are derived from
international standards.
- They specify the most stringent conditions and are used only at rare intervals for
comparison with secondary standards.
- One of the main functions of maintaining primary standards is to calibrate / check and certify
secondary reference standards.
- Like international standards, these standards also are not easily available to an ordinary
user of instruments for verification / calibration of working standards. These standards are
not portable.

Secondary standards
- Secondary standards are basic reference standards employed by industrial measurement
laboratories.
- These are derived from primary standards. They are portable and are often used as national
standards.
- They are less precise than primary standards but are still very precise.
- They are used at rare intervals to calibrate tertiary and working standards. These are
maintained by the concerned laboratory.
- One of the important functions of an industrial laboratory is the maintenance and periodic
calibration of secondary standards against primary standards of the national standards
laboratory / organization.
- In addition, secondary standards are freely available to the ordinary user of instruments for
checking and calibration of working standards.

Working standards
- These are high-accuracy devices that are commercially available and are duly checked
and certified against either the primary or secondary standards.
- For example, a standard cell and a standard resistor are the working standards of voltage
and resistance, respectively.
- Working standards are very widely used for calibrating general laboratory instruments, for
carrying out comparison measurements or for checking the quality (range of accuracy) of
industrial products.

Calibration Procedure
- The process of calibration involves the estimation of uncertainty between the values
indicated by the measuring instrument and the true value of the input.
- Calibration may be called for:
 a new instrument
 after an instrument has been repaired or modified
 when a specified time period has elapsed
 when a specified usage (operating hours) has elapsed
 before and/or after a critical measurement
 after an event, for example
o after an instrument has had a shock, vibration, or has been exposed to an
adverse condition which potentially may have put it out of calibration or damage it
o sudden changes in weather
 whenever observations appear questionable or instrument indications do not match the
output of surrogate instruments
  As specified by a requirement, e.g., customer specification, instrument manufacturer
recommendation.
- There are four types of calibration:
 Primary calibration, which is performed when a measuring device is put into circulation
from production or returned from repair;
 Periodic calibration, which is conducted during use or storage of a device;
 Special calibration, which results from the need for immediate verification of the good
condition of a device; and
 Inspection calibration, which is performed during metrological inspections of
enterprises, supply centers, warehouses, and commercial organizations.

Calibration Concepts
- There are two fundamental operations involved in calibrating any instrument:
 Testing the instrument to determine its performance,
 Adjusting the instrument to perform within specification.
- Testing the instrument requires collecting sufficient data to calculate the instrument's
operating errors.
- This is typically accomplished by performing a multiple point test procedure that includes the
following steps.
 Using a process variable simulator that matches the input type of the instrument, set a
known input to the instrument.
 Using an accurate calibrator, read the actual (or reference) value of this input.
 Read the instrument's interpretation of the value by using an accurate calibrator to
measure the instrument output.
- By repeating this process for a series of different input values, you can collect sufficient data
to determine the instrument's accuracy.
- Depending upon the intended calibration goals and the error calculations desired, the test
procedure may require from 5 to 21 input points.
- The first test that is conducted on an instrument before any adjustments are made is called
the As-Found test.
- If the accuracy calculations from the As-Found data are not within the specifications for the
instrument, then it must be adjusted.
- Adjustment is the process of manipulating some part of the instrument so that its input to
output relationship is within specification. For conventional instruments, this may be zero
and span screws.
- For HART instruments, this normally requires the use of a communicator (handheld or PC)
to convey specific information to the instrument.
- After adjusting the instrument, a second multiple point test is required to characterize the
instrument and verify that it is within specification over the defined operating range. This is
called the As-Left test.

Error Calculations
- Error calculations are the principal analysis performed on the As-Found and As-Left test
data.
- There are several different types of error calculations, most of which are defined in the
publication "Process Instrumentation Terminology".
- They are usually expressed in terms of the percent of ideal span which is defined as:
% span = (reading - low range) / (high range - low range) x 100
- The first step in the data analysis is to convert the engineering unit values for input and
output into percent of span. Then for each point, calculate the error, which is the deviation of
the actual output from the expected output.
 The Maximum error is the most common value used to evaluate an instrument's
performance. If a computer program is not used to analyze the test data, it is often the
only error considered and is taken to be the largest deviation from the ideal output.
By itself, the maximum error does not give a complete indication of an instrument's
performance. With the availability of computer software to facilitate calculations, other
error values are gaining popularity including zero error, span error, linearity error, and
hysteresis error.
 Zero error is defined as the error of a device when the input is at the lower range value.
 Span error is defined as the difference between the actual span and the ideal span,
expressed as a percentage of the ideal span.
 Linearity error is a measure of how close the error of the instrument over its operating
range approaches a straight line. Unfortunately, there are three different methods used to
calculate this, resulting in an independent linearity, a terminal based linearity, and a zero
based linearity. In practice, it is best to choose one method and apply it consistently. Note
that the calculation of linearity error is also greatly facilitated by a curve fit of the error
data.
 Hysteresis error is a measure of the dependence of the output at a given input value
upon the prior history of the input. This is the most difficult error to measure since it
requires great care in the collection of data, and it typically requires at least 9 data points
to develop reasonable curves for the calculations. Thus a technician must collect at least
five data point traversing in one direction, followed by at least four more in the opposite
direction, so that each leg has five points, including the inflection point.
 If any of these errors is greater than or equal to the desired accuracy for a test, then the
instrument has failed and must be adjusted.

Hand-Held Device
- This is a mobile/portable device which is a small, handheld computing device, typically
having a display screen with touch input and/or a miniature keyboard and weighing less than
0.91kg.
- A handheld computing device has an operating system (OS), and can run various types
of application software.
- Most handheld devices can also be equipped with Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and GPS capabilities
that can allow connections to the Internet and other Bluetooth-capable devices, such as an
automobile or a microphone headset.
- It delivers messages and performance data to the operator and is used to support
installation, configuration, provisioning, calibration and maintenance and network
performance.

Advantages of handheld calibration

 No process interruption
o The main advantage of handheld calibration over other traditional methods is that it
allows meter verifications to be carried out directly in the process without additional costs
for removal of the instrument or process interruptions.
o As a result, downtime is minimized and critical processes can be verified and optimized
efficiently.
o By supporting and facilitating regular on-site verification, handheld equipment helps
users to quickly diagnose any failures and to swiftly remedy the situation.
 Time and cost savings
o Device verification using handheld equipment requires a maximum of 15-30 minutes per
instrument.
o The device does not need to be sent away to the calibration centre and production can,
therefore, resume faster than with any other method.
o After the process has been completed, the direct uploading of the device parameters
avoids time-consuming configuration.
o This method helps achieve optimum availability of plant equipment.
o The production does not need to be suspended resulting in considerable savings.
o What’s more, frequent test functions allow costly calibration cycles to be extended.

 Complete on-site verification

o Handheld electronic verification not only checks the accuracy of the device under test,
but also performs a complete check of the entire measurement chain.

 Simulation of the process

o As safety during operation is considered a ‘must’ for plant operators, testing the safety
and functionality of equipment in the process is often indispensable.
o Simulation of the measuring signals during calibration or verification processes can
achieve that.
o Handheld calibrators can simulate process states, in flow applications for example, even
without real flow.
o Handheld verification devices can simulate different flow rates in the process; high and
low limit values, receiving signal chains (operation of valves or control loops) and
different flow behaviour in piping, for example, such as flow curves in bottling machines.

Calibration Methods using Handheld Equipment

- Calibration is an important aspect of an instrument’s life cycle. However, it can be difficult to
choose the correct calibration method to suit your requirements and specification.
- Handheld devices are typically used to calibrate parameters including flow, pressure,
temperature and conductivity.
- Taken as a whole, the benefits of these systems are numerous and obvious in terms of
time, cost and convenience.
- Handheld equipment allows electronic verification and calibration in situations where inline
calibration is essential but mobile rigs may be impractical.
- Internal procedures or official requirements and conformity reasons might also stipulate that
certain instruments must be checked more frequently than others to verify that they are
working correctly in the process.

Calibrating a Conventional Instrument

- For a conventional 4-20 mA instrument, a multiple point test that stimulates the input and
measures the output is sufficient to characterize the overall accuracy of the transmitter.
- The normal calibration adjustment involves setting only the zero value and the span value,
since there is effectively only one adjustable operation between the input and output as
illustrated below.
- This procedure is often referred to as a Zero and Span Calibration. If the relationship
between the input and output range of the instrument is not linear, then you must know the
transfer function before you can calculate expected outputs for each input value.
- Without knowing the expected output values, you cannot calculate the performance errors.

Calibrating a Hart Instrument

- It is important to note that in most cases, proper calibration of a HART instrument requires
the use of a communicator (handheld or PC) that is capable of issuing device specific
commands (in layer 7).
- According to international standards, calibration is a comparison of the device under test
against a traceable reference instrument (a calibrator) and documentation of this
comparison.
- In order to do a calibration of a HART device, a traceable metrological reference device is
needed, which can be a handheld calibrator
- Configuration means using the digital communication protocol as a way to change settings
inside the field device from the device or from a remote location.
- Configuration can be done with a PC and configuration software or a handheld
communicator.
- It is important to remember that although a communicator can be used for configuration and
checking diagnostic information, it cannot be used for metrological calibration to check the
measurement (PV) accuracy of a field device.
- Configuring parameters of a HART transmitter with a communicator is not metrological
calibration and does not assure accuracy.
- For a real metrological calibration, a traceable reference standard is always needed.
- Calibration procedure for a HART instrument is significantly different than for a conventional
instrument. The specific calibration requirements depend upon the application.
- If the application uses the digital representation of the process variable for monitoring or
control, then the sensor input section must be explicitly tested and adjusted.
- Note that this reading is completely independent of the milliamp output, and has nothing to
do with the zero or span settings.
- The PV as read via HART communication continues to be accurate even when it is outside
the assigned output range.
- If the current loop output is not used (that is the transmitter is used as a digital only device),
then the input section calibration is all that is required.
- If the application uses the milliamp output, then the output section must be explicitly tested
and calibrated.
- Note that this calibration is independent of the input section, and again, has nothing to do
with the zero and span settings.
- If there is a desire to validate the overall performance of a HART transmitter, run a Zero and
Span test just like a conventional instrument.
- However, passing this test does not necessarily indicate that the transmitter is operating
correctly.
Past papers

KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL

PAST PAPERS

2521/202 INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

June/July 2013

6. a) i) State the four steps in the operation of programmable logic controller (PLC)
 There are four basic steps in the operation of all PLCs; Input Scan, Program Scan, Output Scan,
and Housekeeping. These steps continually take place in a repeating loop.
(i) Input Scan: Detects the state of all input devices that are connected to the PLC
(ii) Program Scan: Executes the user created program logic
(iii) Output Scan: Energizes or de-energize all output devices that are connected to the PLC.
(iv) Housekeeping: Operational commands to the controlled devices. This step includes
communications with programming terminals, internal diagnostics, etc...

ii) Explain with aid of examples the following PLC programming languages
I) Functional block diagrams
II) Instruction lists

(i) Function Block Diagram (FBD) - A graphical language for depicting signal and data flows
through re-usable function blocks. FBD is very useful for expressing the interconnection of
control system algorithms and logic

(ii) Ladder Diagram (LD): Traditional ladder logic is graphical programming language. Initially
programmed with simple contacts that simulated the opening and closing of relays, Ladder Logic
programming has been expanded to include such functions as counters, timers, shift registers, and
math operations

(iii) Instruction List (IL): A low level “assembler like” language that is based on similar instructions
list languages found in a wide range of today’s PLCs.
LD
R1
MPC
RESET
LD
PRESS_1
ST
MAX_PRESS
RESET
LD 0
:
A_X43
ST

(iv) Structured Text (ST) – A high level text language that encourages structured programming. It has a
language structure (syntax) that strongly resembles PASCAL and supports a wide range of standard
functions and operators. For example;

If Speed1 > 100.0 then

Flow_Rate: = 50.0 + Offset_A1;
Else
Flow_Rate: = 100.0; Steam: =
ON
End_If;
 Sequential Function Chart (SFC): A method of programming complex control systems at a more
highly structured level. A SFC program is an overview of the control system, in which the basic
building blocks are entire program files. Each program file is created using one of the other types
of programming languages. The SFC approach coordinates large, complicated programming tasks
into smaller, more manageable tasks.

b) Write an instruction list for the ladder diagram provided in fig below

c) Design a ladder program for an industrial control system that:

- counts ten objects passing along a conveyer belt;
- closes a deflecting gate when that number has been deflected into a carton;
- Allows a time of 5 seconds between the tenth object counted and the closing of the
deflector.

7. a) Describe the following components used in a SCADA system

i) Remote Terminal unit (RTU)
ii) Human Machine Interface (HMI)
A SCADA system usually consists of the following components:
(i) Remote Terminal Unit (RTU):- RTU is a device installed at a remote location that
collects data, codes the data into a format that is transmittable and transmits the data back
to a central station, or master (supervisory system). An RTU also collects information
from the master device and implements processes that are directed by the master
 (ii) A human–machine interface or HMI is the apparatus or device which presents
processed data to a human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors and
controls the process. The HMI of a SCADA system is where data is processed and
presented to be viewed and monitored by a human operator. This interface usually
includes control where the individual can interface with the SCADA system
(iii) A supervisory (computer) system/ Master Terminal Unit (MTU):- gathering
(acquiring) data on the process and sending commands (control) to the process. This is
the servers and software responsible for communicating with the field equipment (RTUs,
PLCs, etc), and then to the HMI software running on workstations in the control room, or
elsewhere.
(iv)Programmable logic controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are more
economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs.
(v) Communication Network: Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory
system to the remote terminal units. The communication equipment needed to transfer the
data to and from different sites to the central station. The medium used can either be
cable or telephone. Remotes are usually not Accessible by telephone lines. The use of
radio offers an economical solution. Modems are used to connect the remote sites to the
host.
(vi)Field Instrumentation: refers to the devices that are connected to the equipment or
machines being controlled and monitored by the SCADA system .These are sensors for
monitoring certain parameters; and actuators for controlling certain modules of the
system.

b) Explain the following strategies used to develop SCADA security

i) Border router Firewalls
ii) Proxy server
(i) Border router is a router that is usually deployed in front of the organization's main
firewalls and performs some basic checks on network activity, such as ingress and egress
filtering that may be helpful in stopping some Internet-based worms from reaching the
organization's firewall. Although the firewall should also block such worms, having the
Internet border routers do so can take some load off the firewall. During a major worm
incident, organizations might need to reconfigure some of their Internet border routers to
block incoming worm activity so that the firewalls do not become overloaded.

(ii) Proxy server is a server (a computer system or an application) that acts as an

intermediary for requests from clients seeking resources from other servers. A client
connects to the proxy server, requesting some service, such as a file, connection, web
page, or other resource available from a different server and the proxy server evaluates
the request as a way to simplify and control its complexity. A proxy server is associated
with or part of a gateway server that separates the enterprise network from the outside
network and a firewall server that protects the enterprise network from outside intrusion.
Proxy servers have two main purposes:
- Improve Performance: Proxy servers improve performance for groups of users. This
is because it saves the results of all requests for a certain amount of time.
 - Filter Requests: Proxy servers can also be used to filter requests. For example, a
company might use a proxy server to prevent its employees from accessing a specific
set of Web sites.

c) A manufacturing company wants to develop a supervisory control and data acquisition

(SCADA) system in its establishment. Describe the five phases of creating a functional
SCADA system.
(i) Phase 1: The DESIGN of the system architecture includes the communication system. Also
involved in this initial phase will be any site instrumentation that is not currently in existence,
but will be required to monitor desired parameters. Design stage translate the design basis
document into a system design and document the design clearly and completely so that it can
be constructed properly, commissioned completely, and operated and maintained reliably and
efficiently.
(ii) Phase 2: The SUPPLY of RTU, communication, and HMI equipment, which consists of a
PC system and the required powerful graphic and alarm software programs.
(iii) Phase 3: The PROGRAMMING of the communication equipment and the powerful HMI
graphic and alarm software programs.
(iv) Phase 4: The INSTALLATION of the communication equipment and the PC system. The
stage involves installing and placing into operation the SCADA system hardware and
software in compliance with the design documents.
(v) Phase 5: The COMMISSIONING of the system, where communication and HMI
programming problems are solved, and the system is proven to the client, and operator
training and system documentation is provided. Commissioning is the formal process of
verifying and documenting that the installed SCADA system complies with and performs in
accordance with the design intent, as defined in the design documentation

8 a) State any two disadvantages of using network bridges in extending networks

(i) Bridging does not acquire any address placement related to the physical address of
the connected terminals. Thus a data packet is sent to every address.
(ii) All bridges are unable to read specific IP address; they are more concerned with the
MAC addresses.
(iii) Bridges cannot help to build a communication network between the networks of
different architectures.
(iv) Bridges transfer all types of broadcast messages, thus bridges are unable to limit the
scope of these messages.
(v) Extremely large networks cannot rely on bridges; therefore the large networks as
WAN which are IP address specific can not make use of it.
(vi) It is unable to handle more complex and variable data load such as occurring from
WAN.

b) Describe the following HART communication modes:

i) Master slave mode
ii) Burst mode
 (i) Master Slave Mode: This means that during normal operation, each slave (field device)
communication is initiated by a master communication device. Two masters can connect
to each HART loop. The primary master is generally a distributed control system (DCS),
programmable logic controller (PLC), or a personal computer (PC). The secondary
master can be a handheld terminal or another PC. Slave devices include transmitters,
actuators, and controllers that respond to commands from the primary or secondary
master.
(ii) Burst Mode: It enables faster communication (3–4 data updates per second). In burst
mode, the master instructs the slave device to continuously broadcast a standard HART
reply message (e.g., the value of the process variable). The master receives the message
at the higher rate until it instructs the slave to stop bursting. Use of burst mode enables
more than one passive HART device to listen to communications on the HART loop.

c) Cargo handling Company Limited is located in industrial area of Nairobi. In their

neighbourhood are other companies dealing with motor rewinding and lathe machining.
The company intends to implement a network in their offices and you have been
consulted to advice them on the merits of each of the following types of cables in order to
help them make informed decision on the right cable selection from the following:
i) UTP
ii) STP
iii) Fibre
What advice would you offer?

(i) UTP
PRO: Most flexible; cheapest cable (but requires expensive support components); easy to
install; easy to add users; may be able to use existing phone cable if data grade
CON: Shortest usable cable length; susceptible to electrical interference; unsecure; generally
not good for use between buildings
(ii) Shielded twisted pair (STP) is similar to UTP except it contains a copper braid jacket to ‘shield’ the
wires from electrical interference. It can support transmissions over greater distances than UTP.
(iii) Fiber-Optic
PRO: Fastest transmission rate; not susceptible to electrical interference; secure; good for
use between buildings
CON: Most expensive; relatively difficult to work with
(iv) Coaxial Cable
 PRO: Flexible and easy to install; relatively good resistance to electronic interference;
electronic support components are relatively inexpensive
CON: Short cable length; more expensive than UTP; unsecure; hard to change
configuration; thinnet generally not good for use between buildings

d) With aid of a diagram, describe the mesh topology used in industrial networks and state its
advantage.
In a mesh network, devices are connected with many redundant
interconnections between network nodes. In a true mesh topology every
node has a connection to every other node in the network. There are two
types of mesh topologies:
(i) Full mesh topology occurs when every node has a circuit
connecting it to every other node in a network. Full mesh is
very expensive to implement but yields the greatest amount of
redundancy, so in the event that one of those nodes fails, network traffic can be directed
to any of the other nodes. Full mesh is usually reserved for backbone networks.
(ii) Partial mesh topology is less expensive to implement and yields less redundancy than
full mesh topology. With partial mesh, some nodes are organized in a full mesh scheme
but others are only connected to one or two in the network. Partial mesh topology is
commonly found in peripheral networks connected to a full meshed backbone.
Advantages
- Point-to-point line configuration makes identification and isolation of faults easy.
- Messages travel through a dedicated line, directly to the intended recipient; privacy and
security are thus enhanced.
- Should a fault occur in a given link, only those communications between that specific
pair of devices sharing the link will be affected.
- Dedicated links ensure that each connection carries its own data load, thereby preventing
the sort of traffic problems that may arise in shared-link architectures.
Disadvantages
- The more extensive the network, in terms of scope or of physical area, the greater the
investment necessary to build it will be, due, among other considerations, to the amount
of cabling and the number of hardware ports it will require. For this reason, such
networks are uncommon.
- Because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.
2521/202 INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
Oct/Nov 2012
6 a) Draw a labeled block diagram of the internal architecture of a Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC) and state the function of each block
 b) Describe the following Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) system styles
i) Unitary
ii) Modular
iii) Rack Mounting
(i) Unitary: The Unitary PLC is typically the smallest and least expensive. It would be used in a
small machine or fixed application such as overhead door controls or a stand-alone parts
inspection system. They are not expandable so the application is limited to on-board I/O.
There are, however, some very powerful units available with built in GSM, color screens,
and web servers. Most have 1 or 2 analog I/O channels as well as a high speed input and
pulse train output for simple motion control.
(ii) Modular: The Modular PLCs start with a processor with a few or no on-board I/O. They
typically mount to a DIN rail and sometimes require a separate power supply. Additional I/O
as well as specialty modules also snap onto the DIN rail and plug into the processor or
adjacent module. Modular PLCs are used in applications where a higher I/O count is needed
or when using specialty modules such as quadrature encoders, thermocouple inputs, etc.
They are also useful in small applications that have options or “upgrades” available to the
end user. Systems can be expanded (within certain limits) without adding additional rack
space.
(iii) Rack Mounting PLCs are usually more expensive, expandable, and powerful than
unitary or modular PLCs. The rack provides a power and communication backplane that
greatly increases the communication rate between the processor and the modules as well as
allowing some specialty modules to communicate with each other without the processor. In
some brands, multiple processors can be in the same rack and share the inputs. Racks also
allow for redundant processors for critical systems such as waste water pumps or fire control
systems. The types of modules available for rack systems are far more extensive than
modular systems. The number of available I/O points is also much higher in the rack
systems. Around 1000 for some modular PLCs versus over 100,000 for the same brand of
rack system

c) State any two programming languages used in PLC

Part 3 of IEC 61131 deals with programming languages and defines two graphical and
two textual PLC programming language standards:
(i) Ladder diagram (LD), graphical
(ii) Function block diagram (FBD), graphical
(iii) Structured text (ST), textual
(iv) Instruction list (IL), textual
(v) Sequential function chart (SFC), has elements to organize programs for sequential
and parallel control processing.

7 a) With the aid of a block diagram, explain how a PLC process input from the sensors
Input scan: During the input scan, the current status of every input module is stored in the
input image (memory) table, bringing it up-to-date. Thus all the status of the input devices
(which in turn is connected to the input module) is updated in the input memory table.
 Program scan: Following the input scan, the CPU enters its user program execution, or
program scan. The execution involves starting at the program's first instruction, then
moving on to the second instruction and carrying out its execution sequence. This
continues to the last program instruction. Throughout the user-program execution, the CPU
continually keeps its output image (memory) table up-to-date.

Output scan: During program scan, the output modules themselves are not kept
continually up to date.
Instead, the entire output image table is transferred to the output modules during the output
scan which comes after the program execution. Thus the output devices are activated
accordingly during the output scan.

b) i) Define a SCADA system

SCADA refers to the combination of telemetry and data acquisition. SCADA
encompasses the collecting of the information, transferring it back to the central site,
carrying out any necessary analysis and control and then displaying that information on a
number of operator screens or displays. The required control actions are then conveyed
back to the process.

ii) State any three advantages of using PLC in a SCADA system

The advantages of the PLC / DCS SCADA system are:
 Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
 Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
 Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
 Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
 Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure.
 The computer can record and store a very large amount of data.
 The data can be displayed in any way the user requires.
 Thousands of sensors over a wide area can be connected to the system.
 The operator can incorporate real data simulations into the system.
  Many types of data can be collected from the RTUs.
 The data can be viewed from anywhere, not just on site.

The disadvantages are:

 The system is more complicated than the sensor to panel type.
 Different operating skills are required, such as system analysts and programmer.
 With thousands of sensors there is still a lot of wire to deal with.
 The operator can see only as far as the PLC.

c) Describe the following communication systems used in a SCADA system.

i) Ethernet
ii) Device Net
iii) Profibus
(i) Ethernet works on the principle of media access controlled by a collision detection
mechanism. Each station is identified by a unique key, or MAC address, to ensure that every
computer on an Ethernet network has a different address. This technology known as Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) ensures that only one station
can transmit a message on the medium at a time. Successive Ethernet upgrades have given
rise to the IEEE 802.3 standard which only defines the characteristics of the physical layers;
the way the data accesses the network and the data frame must be defined by further layers.
(ii) DeviceNet is a network system used in the automation industry to interconnect control
devices for data exchange. It uses Controller Area Network as the backbone technology and
defines an application layer to cover a range of device profiles. Typical applications include
information exchange, safety devices, and large I/O control networks.
(iii) PROFIBUS (Process Field Bus) is a standard for fieldbus communication which is a
widely accepted international networking standard, commonly found in process control and
in large assembly and material handling machines in automation technology.
- It supports single-cable wiring of multi-input sensor blocks, pneumatic valves, complex
intelligent devices, smaller sub-networks (such as ASi), and operator interfaces.
- It is an open, vendor independent standard. It adheres to the OSI model, ensuring that
devices from a variety of different vendors can communicate easily and effectively.
- The bus interfacing hardware is implemented on ASIC (Application Specific Integrated
Circuit) chips produced by multiple vendors, and are based on RS-485 as well as the
European EN50170 Electrical specification.
- ProfiBus uses 9-Pin D-type connectors (impedance terminated) or 12mm round (M12-
style) quick-disconnect connectors. The number of nodes is limited to 127.
- The distance supported is up to 24km (with repeaters and fiber optic transmission), with
speeds varying from 9600bps to 12Mbps. The message size can be up to 244 bytes of
data per node per message (12 bytes of overhead for a maximum message length of 256
bytes), while the medium access control mechanisms are polling and token passing.
- ProfiBus supports two main types of devices, namely, masters and slaves.
 Master devices control the bus and when they have the right to access the bus, they may
transfer messages without any remote request. These are referred to as active stations
 Slave devices are typically peripheral devices i.e. transmitters/sensors and actuators.
They may only acknowledge received messages or, at the request of a master, transmit
messages to that master. These are also referred to as passive stations.
There are two variations of PROFIBUS in use:
o PROFIBUS DP (Decentralized Peripherals) is used to operate sensors and actuators via a
centralized controller in production (factory) automation applications.
o PROFIBUS PA (Process Automation) is used to monitor measuring equipment via a
process control system in process automation applications. This variant is designed for
use in explosion/hazardous areas (Ex-zone 0 and 1). The Physical Layer (i.e. the cable)
conforms to IEC 61158-2, which allows power to be delivered over the bus to field
instruments, while limiting current flows so that explosive conditions are not created,
even if a malfunction occurs. The number of devices attached to a PA segment is limited
by this feature. PA has a data transmission rate of 31.25 kbps.

d) Differentiate between centralized and distributive approaches used in designing a SCADA

system.
There have been two main approaches to follow in designing the SCADA system:
 Centralized, where a single computer or mainframe performs all plant monitoring and all
plant data is stored on one database which resides on this computer.
 Distributed, where the SCADA system is shared across several small computers (usually
PCs).

8. a) Describe the following network connection giving examples in each case.

i) LAN
ii) Internet
(i) Local Area Network LAN –is a computer network that interconnects computers in a
limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building using network
media.
(ii) Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve several billion users worldwide. It is a
network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive
range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents
of the World Wide Web (WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer
networks.

b) Using OSI reference model diagram indicate different encapsulation process at every peer-
to peer communication layer of two Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) of a SCADA system
starting with the top most down to the lowest layers.
c) An Alarm system is used in conjunction with an automated bottling system in a milk
bottling plant. A conveyer belt carries empty bottles that are to be filled with milk. The
alarm goes off in any of the conditions occurs.
- Milk tank is empty and bottles are in conveyor belt.
- There are no bottles in the conveyer and there is milk in the tank.
- There is milk in the tank and bottles on the conveyor belt but electric power is off.
- There is no milk in the tank, no bottles on the conveyor belt and electric power is off.
i) Write down a Boolean expression for the alarm system.
ii) Implement this system using a PLC ladder diagram.

Tank with no – 0, Bottles in conveyer – 1 A.B = X

Tank with milk – 1, No bottle in conveyer – 0 A.B = X
Tank with Milk – 1, Bottles in conveyer – 1, Power off – 0 A.B.C = X
Tank with Milk – 0, No Bottles in conveyer – 0, Power off – 0
A.B.C = X

A.B + A.B+ A.B.C + A.B.C = X

2601/201 CONTROL SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLERS
Oct/Nov 2012

5 a) Define the term ‘Programmable Logic Controller’

A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is an industrial computer control system that
continuously monitors the state of input devices and makes decisions based upon a
custom program, to control the state of devices connected as outputs.

b) State two advantages of Programmable Logic Controller

(i) Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
(ii) Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
(iii) Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
(iv)Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
(v) Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure.

c) With the aid of a block diagram, describe the construction of a Programmable Logic
Controller
In the figure, the heart of the “PLC” is in the center, i.e., the Processor or CPU (Central
Processing Unit).

 The CPU regulates the PLC program, data storage, and data exchange with I//O
modules.
 Input and output modules are the media for data exchange between field devices and
CPU. It tells CPU the exact status of field devices and also acts as a tool to control
them.
  A programming device is a computer loaded with programming software, which
allows a user to create, transfer and make changes in the PLC software.
 Memory provides the storage media for the PLC program as well as for different data.
OR
 CPU or processor: The main processor (Central Processing Unit or CPU) is a
microprocessor-based system that executes the control program after reading the status
of field inputs and then sends commands to field outputs.
 I/O section: I/O modules act as “Real Data Interface” between field and PLC CPU.
The PLC knows the real status of field devices, and controls the field devices by means
of the relevant I/O cards.
 Programming device: A CPU card can be connected with a programming device
through a communication link via a programming port on the CPU.
 Operating station: An operating station is commonly used to provide an "Operating
Window" to the process. It is usually a separate device (generally a PC), loaded with
HMI (Human Machine Software).

6. a) Define the term ‘Computer networking’

Computer networking is the interconnection, as over communication lines, of computer
systems. This involves connecting computers and peripherals using pieces of equipment;
switches and routers etc to enable the devices that are connected to your network to
communicate with each other, as well as with other networks.

b) Describe the following types of computer networks

i) LAN
ii) WAN
iii) MAN
(i) Local Area Network LAN – These types of computer networks connect network devices
over a relatively short distance. Quite often, a networked office building, home or school
contains a single LAN although it is normal to come across a building that contains a few
small LANs. On a few occasions, a LAN may also span over a group of nearby buildings.
Such computer networks are usually owned by one organization.
(ii) Wide Area Network WAN – As the name suggests, a WAN spans over a large physical
distance. It may be regarded as a collection of LANs dispersed over a geographical area.
The internet is a very good example of a WAN. LANs are connected to a WAN through a
device referred to as a router. In IP networking, both the LAN and WAN addresses are
maintained by the router. Most WANs exist under distributed or collective ownership and
management and unlike the LANs, are not necessarily owned by one organization.
(iii) Wireless Local Area Network WLAN – These types of computer networks refer to
LANs that are based on Wi-Fi wireless network technology.
(iv) Metropolitan Area Network MAN – This is a network that spans over a physical area
like a city that is smaller than a WAN but larger than a LAN. Quite often, such computer
networks are owned and operated by single entities such as government bodies or large
corporations

c) With the aid of diagram, explain the following topologies:

i) Bus
 ii) Star
Bus Topology
A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file server,
workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.

Advantages of a Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Bus Topology
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Star Topology
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly
to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator.
Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its
destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also
acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can
also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.
Advantages of a Star Topology
 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

Ring Network Topology: A local-area network (LAN) whose topology is a ring. That is, all
of the nodes are connected in a closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with each
node reading those messages addressed to it. One of the advantages of ring networks is that
 they can span larger distances than other types of networks, such as bus networks, because
each node regenerates messages as they pass through it.
Mesh network Topology: The mesh network topology employs either of two schemes, called full
mesh and partial mesh. In the full mesh topology, each workstation is connected directly to each of
the others. In the partial mesh topology, some workstations are connected to all the others, and some
are connected only to those other nodes with which they exchange the most data.
Tree Network Topology: The tree network topology uses two or more star networks connected
together. The central computers of the star networks are connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree
network is a bus network of star networks.

7 a) Describe ‘SCADA’ system

A SCADA (or supervisory control and data acquisition) system means a system
consisting of a number of remote terminal units (or RTUs) collecting field data connected
back to a master station via a communications system. The master station displays the
acquired data and also allows the operator to perform remote control tasks.

b) Define the following terms in reference to SCADA

i) Human machine Interface
ii) Programmable Logic Controller
(i) A human–machine interface or HMI is the apparatus or device which presents
processed data to a human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors
and controls the process. The HMI of a SCADA system is where data is processed
and presented to be viewed and monitored by a human operator. This interface
usually includes control where the individual can interface with the SCADA system
(ii) Programmable logic controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are more
economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs.

c) Explain the functions of the following parts of a SCADA system:

i) Remote Terminal unit
ii) Supervisory station
(i) Remote Terminal Unit (RTU):- RTU is a device installed at a remote location that
collects data, codes the data into a format that is transmittable and transmits the data
back to a central station, or master (supervisory system). An RTU also collects
information from the master device and implements processes that are directed by the
master
(ii) A supervisory (computer) system/ Master Terminal Unit (MTU):- gathering
(acquiring) data on the process and sending commands (control) to the process. This
is the servers and software responsible for communicating with the field equipment
(RTUs, PLCs, etc), and then to the HMI software running on workstations in the
control room, or elsewhere.

d) With the aid of a ladder program and a process control figure, explain how a converter can
be used in a machine to direct 6 products to a packaging box and 12 products to another
box simultaneously.
 The control of a machine which is required to direct 6 products along one path for
packaging in a box and then 12 products along another path the packaging in another
box.
  A deflector plate might be controlled by a photocell sensor which gives an output every
time a product passes it. Thus the numb rod pulse from the sensor has to be counted and
used to control the deflector.
 On rung 1, each time the photo sensor is triggered it causes C1’s count to increase.
When C1, the six product counter, reaches six it causes the deflector to activate.
 On rung 3, while the deflector is activated C2, the 12 products counter, and starts
counting the products. On rung 4, after 12 products are counted the counters are reset
and the process starts again.
 The process can also be reset at anytime using the start button.

8) a) Explain how fault-finding is carried out in PLC systems

 With any PLC controlled plant, by far the greater percentage of the faults are likely to be
with sensors, actuators and wiring rather than within the PLC itself.
 Of the faults within the PLC, most are likely to be in the input/output channels or power
supply rather than in the CPU.
 The actual fault finding starts once the actual status has been established and compared
with the required status. This comparison frequently leads to the discovery of the error
source, if the fault is visible (e.g. mechanical damage to a signal generator), audible (e.g.
leakage on a valve), detectable by smell (e.g. cable burnt out). If this is not the case, the
fault can only be found and eliminated by means of a systematic procedure.
 Many PLCs provide built-in fault analysis procedures which carry out self-testing and
display fault codes, with possibly a brief message, which can be translated by looking up
the code in a list to give the source of the fault and possible methods of recovery. For
example, the fault code may indicate that the source of the fault is in a particular module
with the method of recovery given as replace that module or perhaps switch the power off
and then on.
b) Describe the following fault detection techniques in reference to PLCs:
i) time checks
ii) Replication
Fault Detection Techniques
(i) Timing checks: The term watchdog is used for a timing check that is carried out by the
PLC to check that some function has been carried out within the normal time. If the
function is not carried out within the normal time then a fault is assumed to have occurred
and the watchdog timer trips, setting off an alarm and perhaps closing down the PLC. As
part of the internal diagnostics of PLCs, watchdog timers are used to detect for faults.
The watchdog timer is preset to a time slightly longer than the scan time would normally
be. They are then set at the beginning of each program scan and if the cycle time is as
normal they do not time out and are reset at the end of a cycle ready for the next cycle.
However, if the cycle time is longer than it would normally be, the watchdog timer times
out and indicate that the system has a fault.
Time checks can also be built into the ladder logic program. This is where additional
ladder rungs might be includes so that when a function starts a timer is started. If the
function does not complete when the timer finishes a fault is signaled.
(ii) Last output set: This technique involves the use of status lamps to indicate the last output
that has been set during a process which has come to a halt. Such lamps are built into the
program so that as each output occurs a lamp comes on. The lamps on thus indicate
which outputs are occurring. The program has to be designed to turn off previous status
lamps and turn on a new status lamp as each new output is turned on.
(iii) Replication: Where there is concern regarding safety in the case of a fault
developing, checks may be constantly used to detect faults. One technique is replication
 checks which involves duplicating, i.e. replicating, the PLC system. This could mean that
the system repeats every operation twice and if it gets the same result it is assumed there
is no fault. This procedure can detect transient faults. A more expensive alternative is to
have duplicate PLC systems and compare the results given by the two systems. In the
absence of a fault the two results should be the same, a fault showing up as a difference.
(iv) Expected value checks: Software errors can be detected by checking whether an
expected value is obtained when a specific input occurs. If the expected value is not
obtained then a fault is assumed to be occurring.

c) i) Define the term calibration with reference to PLCs.

Calibration is the process of checking PLC/field devices and making sure that values
used in measurements remain at standard points. It is the process of verifying the PLC
and I/O devices work and performance within a set of specifications.
Calibration is defines as determination of the experimental relationship between the
quantity being measured and the output of the device which measures it; where the
quantity measured is obtained through a recognized standard of measurement. There are
two fundamental operations involved in calibrating any instrument:
- Testing the instrument to determine its performance,
- Adjusting the instrument to perform within specification.

ii) Describe the following characteristics of calibration:

I) Tolerance
II) Accuracy
Tolerance: Permissible deviation from a specified value; may be expressed in
measurement units, percent of span, or percent of reading.
Accuracy: The ratio of the error to the full scale output or the ratio of the error to the
output, expressed in percent span or percent reading, respectively.

d) Explain how zero and span errors are corrected in measuring instruments
Zero and span errors are corrected by performing a calibration. Most instruments are
provided with a means of adjusting the zero and span of the instrument, along with
instructions for performing this adjustment.
- The zero adjustment is used to produce a parallel shift of the input-output curve.
- The span adjustment is used to change the slope of the input-output curve.
- Linearization error may be corrected if the instrument has a linearization adjustment.
If the magnitude of the nonlinear error is unacceptable and it cannot be adjusted, the
instrument must be replaced.
2601/201 CONTROL SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
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Oct/Nov 2011

5. a) i) Define a programmable Logic Controller (PLC’s)

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a microcomputer-based controller that uses
stored instructions in programmable memory to implement logic, sequencing, timing,
counting, and arithmetic functions through digital or analogue input/output modules, for
controlling machines and processes. PLCs are used in a large variety of scenarios, both in
process industries and discrete manufacturing.

ii) Distinguish between supervisory control and data acquisition and distributed control
system
 A DCS is a process-oriented system and it treats the control of the process, (the
chemical plant, refinery or whatever) as its main task, and it presents data to operators
as part of its job.
 A SCADA system is data gathering oriented; and the control center and operators are its
focus. However, the remote equipment is merely there to collect the data - though it
may also do some very complex process control.
 A DCS operator station is intimately connected with its input/output signals (I/O)
through local wiring, communication buses (e.g. Field Bus, networks) etc. When the
DCS operator wants to see information he/she usually makes a request directly to the
field I/O and gets a response. Field events can directly interrupt the system and advise
the operator.
 A SCADA system must continue to operate when field communications have failed.
The ‘quality’ of data shown to the operator is an important facet of SCADA system
operation. SCADA systems often provide special ‘event’ processing mechanisms to
handle conditions that occur between data acquisition periods.
There are many other differences, but they tend to involve a lot of detail. The underlying points
are:
 A SCADA system needs to transfer secure data and control signals over a potentially
slow, unreliable communications medium, and needs to maintain a database of ‘last
known good values’ for prompt operator display. It frequently needs to do event
processing and data quality validation. Redundancy is usually handled in a distributed
manner.
 A DCS is always connected to its data source, so it does not need to maintain a database
of ‘current values’. Redundancy is usually handled by parallel equipment, not by
diffusion of information around a distributed database.

b) With the aid of a diagram, explain how PLC’s can be used to control water level in a tank

c) Explain why user interface is necessary in PLC’s

A user interface is the system by which people (users) interact with a machine. The user
interface includes hardware (physical) and software (logical) components. User interfaces
exist for various systems, and provide a means of:
 Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system
 Output, allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation
6) i) Define ladder logic control system
It is a control system whish uses ladder logic to manage, command, directs or regulates
the behavior of other device(s) or system(s).

ii) With aid of a labeled block diagram, explain the hardware architecture of a SCADA
system
 Basic layers in a SCADA system can be classified in two parts generally: the “client layer”
which caters for the man machine interaction and the “data server layer” which handles most
of the process data control activities. The data servers communicate with devices in the field
through process controllers.
 Process controllers, e.g. PLCs, are connected to the data servers either directly or via
networks or fieldbuses. Data servers are connected to each other and to client stations via an
Ethernet LAN.
 The RTU connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the
equipment to digital values such as the open/closed status from a switch or a valve, or measurements
such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to
equipment the RTU can control equipment, such as opening or closing a switch or a valve, or setting
the speed of a pump.
 Supervisory Station; The term “Supervisory Station” refers to the servers and software responsible for
communicating with the field equipment (RTUs, PLCs, etc), and then to the HMI software running on
workstations in the control room, or elsewhere.
 In smaller SCADA systems, the master station may be composed of a single PC. In larger SCADA
systems, the master station may include multiple servers, distributed software applications, and
disaster recovery sites.
 To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-
redundant or hot-standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a
server failure.

b i) State and explain four user configurable open system (UCOS) components
UCOS is a control system that employs object-oriented techniques at every level of its system
architecture. It includes a number of subsystems which segment the functionality of UCOS.
This includes an Engineering Workstation Subsystem, an Operator Workstation Subsystem,
and a Field Control Unit (FCU) Controller Subsystem. The subsystems communicate via a
Control Network.
 Engineering Workstation (EWS) used for project development. The EWS is the
development tool where control schemes are configured then downloaded to the OWS,
FCU, and SDS. The entire project is configured using a single integrated tool based on
graphical Windows standards. Graphical techniques are also used to define the logical
relationships among the devices in a process area. Project configuration begins by defining
the system architecture: workstations, field control units (FCUs), I/O, networking, etc.
Graphical techniques are also used to define the logical relationships among the control
elements for multiple devices.
 Operator Workstation (OWS) for operator interface. This is used to monitor and control
the process. It uses the project screens created during project development and animates
them based on real-time data received from field control units and field data servers.
Authorized operators can monitor detailed activities for many types of devices and send
commands using standard faceplate command windows and group displays.
 Field Control Unit (FCU) for control logic execution and direct scanning of I/O. The
FCU provides I/O services by monitoring and controlling I/O across standard networks and
data highways. The FCU can provide simultaneous support for multiple vendors’ I/O and
I/O networks. The variety of platform and form-factor options supported by the FCU
allows incorporation of distributed, distinct I/O subsystems into common control
strategies.

 Control Network. System supports redundant and non-redundant fiber optic and Ethernet
local networks using the TCP/IP networking protocol for standardized, advanced
application connectivity. The LAN/WAN can be extended to other sites inside or outside
the plant using such remote communications technologies as satellite, radio, microwave,
and dial-up running such standard protocols as TCP/IP, Modbus, OPC, DDE
 I/O Subsystem supporting I/O from all industry standard suppliers. The same logic can be
solved to manipulate different I/O subsystems from different manufacturers without having
to change any of the programming or operational parameters of the configured system.
  SCADA Data Server (SDS) for interfacing data from intelligent devices, such as PLCs,
Fieldbus technologies, RTUs, PLC I/O, and other third-party devices
 Process Historical Archiver (PHA) for storing and retrieving historical data collected by
the FCU, SDS or any other intelligent device in the system
 microFCU: is a small, low-powered PLC that executes sequential and regulatory logic and
directly scans onboard I/O. It can replace RTUs at a significant reduction in cost and power
consumption – plus it can provide local intelligent control of devices, which RTUs can't
do.

ii) Distinguish between data hacking and cracking

Hacking, is the act of stealing personal or private data, without the owner's knowledge or
consent, it could also include other things like stealing passwords, creating a bot net, or
pretty much any act that breaches someone's privacy, without their knowledge, or
consent.
Hacking is any technical effort to manipulate the normal behavior of network
connections and connected systems
Cracking is where edit a program's source code, or you could create a program, like a
key generator (more commonly known as a 'keygen'), patch, or some sort of application
that tricks an application in to thinking that a particular process has occurred.

7 a) i) Define the term computer network

A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that
allows computers to exchange data. In computer networks, networked computing
devices (network nodes) pass data to each other along data connections. The
connections (network links) between nodes are established using either cable
media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.
A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware
devices that are linked together through communication channels to facilitate
communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users. Networks are
commonly categorized based on their characteristics.

ii) Distinguish between internet and Ethernet

 Ethernet is a local area network used to connect computers near one another.
Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area
networks (LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of the ether. Ethernet
is a set of standards for physically connecting computers in a local area network. In
terms of OSI network layers, Ethernet provides only the physical layer and the data
link layer. It defines a number of wiring and signaling standards for the Physical
Layer of the OSI networking model, through means of network access at the Media
Access Control (MAC) /Data Link Layer, and a common addressing format. Ethernet
is standardized as IEEE 802.3.
 Internet is a global network of interconnected computers, enabling users to share
information along multiple channels. Typically, a computer that connects to the
Internet can access information from a vast array of available servers and other
computers by moving information from them to the computer's local memory. The
 same connection allows that computer to send information to servers on the network;
that information is in turn accessed and potentially modified by a variety of other
interconnected computers

iii) Describe the following cables used in networking

I) Coaxial cable
II) Fibre optic cable

Networking cables are used to connect one network device to other network devices or
to connect two or more computers to share resources. Different types of network cables
like Coaxial cable, Optical fiber cable, Twisted Pair cables are used depending on the
network's topology, protocol and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g.
via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet).
Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which pairs of wires (the forward and
return conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of
canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from other wire pairs and from
external sources. This type of cable is used for home and corporate Ethernet
networks. There are two types of twisted pair cables: shielded, unshielded. STP is
commonly used in Token Ring networks and UTP in Ethernet networks where it is
referred to as "10baseT and above." Transmission rates vary between 10-1000
Mbps.
Fiber-optic cable consists of a thin cylinder of glass surrounded by glass cladding,
encased in protective outer sheath. Fiber-optic cable is very fast (100 -1000
Mbps). It can transmit over long distances (2 km +) but is expensive.
Coaxial cable has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal
shield helps to block any outside interference. Coaxial cable comes in two
versions: Thinnet and Thicknet. Thinnet is about 1/4 inch in diameter and is very
flexible and easy to work with. In contrast, Thicknet is about 1/2 inch in diameter
and not very flexible. Coax transmits at 10 Mbps.

b) With the aid of diagram, describe the following types of topologies

i) Star
ii) Bus

 Star topology: This is the Ethernet topology, the most common at management and shop floor
levels. It has the advantage of being very flexible to run and repair. The end stations are linked
together via an intermediate device (repeater, switch). Failure of a node does not prevent the
network as a whole from working, though the intermediate device linking the nodes together is
a point of weakness.
 Bus topology: This is one of the simplest layouts; all the elements are wired together along the
same transmission line. The word bus refers to the physical line. This topology is easily
implemented and the failure of a node or element does not prevent the other devices from
working. Machine and sensor level networks, otherwise known as field buses, use this system.
The bus topology is implemented by linking devices together in a chain or to the main cable via
a connection box (TAP)

8 a) Define the following network components:

i) Repeater
ii) Switch
iii) Bridge
 Repeater: a device which amplifies or regenerates digital signals received while sending
them from one part of a network into another. It works on OSI layer 1.
 Switch: a device that allocates traffic from one network segment to certain lines
(intended destination(s)) which connect the segment to another network segment. Unlike
a hub, a switch splits the network traffic and sends it to different destinations rather than
to all systems on the network. It works on OSI layer 2.
 Bridge: a device that connects multiple network segments along the data link layer. It
separates two or more network segments within one logical network (e.g. a single IP-
subnet). It works on OSI layer 2.
 Hub: a device that connects multiple Ethernet segments, making them act as a single
segment. When using a hub, every attached device shares the same broadcast domain and
the same collision domain. Therefore, only one computer connected to the hub is able to
transmit at a time. Depending on the network topology, the hub provides a basic level
1 OSI model connection among the network objects (workstations, servers, etc.). It
provides bandwidth which is shared among all the objects, in contrast to switches, which
provide a connection between individual nodes. It works on OSI layer 1.

b) i) State three factors which necessitate calibration

Calibration is defined as “a test during which known values of measure and are applied to
the transducer and corresponding output readings are recorded under specified
conditions.” The definition includes the capability to adjust the instrument to zero and to
set the desired span. There are three main reasons for having instruments calibrated:
 To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other measurements.
 To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.
 To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted.

ii) Describe the following communication devices:

I) RS232
II) HART
 RS-232 is a standard communication protocol for linking computer and its peripheral
devices to allow serial data exchange. It is an interface between Data terminal equipment
 (DTE) and Data communication equipment (DCE). It defines the voltage for the path used
for data exchange between the devices. It specifies common voltage and signal level,
common pin wire configuration and minimum, amount of control signals.
 HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) is a master-slave communication
protocol, which means that during normal operation, each slave (field device)
communication is initiated by a master communication device. Two masters can connect to
each HART loop. The primary master is generally a distributed control system (DCS),
programmable logic controller (PLC), or a personal computer (PC). The secondary master
can be a handheld terminal or another PC. Slave device include transmitters, actuators, and
controllers that respond to commands from the primary or secondary master.

c) With aid of a diagram explain the importance of calibration of equipment and products.
 To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other measurements.
 To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.
 To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted.

d) Explain how CAN works

 CAN (Controller Area Network) is a serial bus based on a publisher/subscriber model in
which a publisher sends a message to subscribers. CAN was developed with broadcast
architecture.
The sender (publisher) sends the message with an identifier. The recipients (subscribers) filter
messages from the bus based on their send