qaby — taey ar gee'y tady <> tdid'y Te by ey 42,bly dicy 5 V2) =5 The number of edges io 2 graphs are same ree &Cq) >> F CG>)= 4 Eq.) > ECGs) The degree sequences of au and qr are same degaiiv) = (253,38, 3,8) deg ga(v) = (218,3, 213) In the 2 graphs adjacency matnices are equal or Som abcde Gr O@fo | otro bli o | ot clo | oll d}i of 9 1 elo!1 1 0 wr are ot e blroo 1 ot clo! o1t a}ioot e1 eLotrt to v The given ? graphs are esomorphic ° Scanned with CamScanner* Bes ‘SH ©) Graph ra) Oe cle graph cq!) the following one-to-one —conespordence Hw The vertices of 2 groph Consicler axe! “eisdi - bea gay Ceo! d felaly, topy <> tegly Torey ar teicl'y ted «> quiely Tofyar voip — they <> telly Tefy <> taizly Tlify > Tolgty thay <> farcry — TeS¥ = tatpy Thicy<> taluy The number of vertex in 2 graphs are Same te, v(q) #6 vCgi)- & veg) = VEG) The number of edlges in > graphs ave same ve; eCg)e ecay = The clegree sequentes f § ard @ ae same deg giv) = 03.4 43/4 35) degay | + (3,473, 4,3,8) Scanned with CamScannerIn the 2 graphs adjacency matrices are equal ° sme a bedef a G: o loor4 bli ot tor cjo totort dio 1 1rort eft o ® toe FlLeororryo ron oot gt 1 rot eg Boil dF GH FTO 1 oo ty bhtoo 1 tot cle to tot dlo «ft ott fe} 1 0 o ft ot yl’ oe baivioa <. The given 2 graphs ‘ove isomorphic tw c tf 8 Net . 6 lh “NL sa 0) Graph ca) ®) graphtq) 4) a a b KP 2s e 6 Cc . a) graphed Scanned with CamScanner+ Walks and their classification : (vertex Degree) There ave 5 important subgrophs of a gpaph tn Wlalk @) Trail (8) Cereuit @ Path 4s) cycle Y Walk : Conpicler graph and having atieast one edge. In G, altenpting sequence of verkces and edges of the form Vi Oj Nig Cfat Meg2 Qja oo eRe Which begins and enels with vertices anel which incident er the ig such that each edlge in the sequence '5 vertices. such sequence. 19 called a walk: Jno walk, a verter ov 07 edge (or both) can appee™ more than onte- The number of edlges present iqa walk ig called as length- eg: In this graph / yee tete we oe Milk of length wy The sequen 3 (becouse, thie walk cor! Jn this walk ains 3 edges + 1, en,€6)* ap edge ic repeater no vertex and ip a B45 Ma C2 V3ES Wy Co VE vertex. ¥S is @) The sequence Vi ey Vs walk of lengih 5° Jo thie walk, Th opectedt 1 but no ecige 16 repeated Scanned with CamScanner© The sequence Vieivses\/s ea\atys *3 a alk of length 4. Jn this walk, the eclge > % Yeperted and the verter vs 1S svepeated « The verter with whicha walk begins ( called the “mittal verten" Cor the origin) ef the walk and the Veter with which a walk ends is called the * final vertex’ of the ualk- Closed walk : A walk that begins and ends at the some verlex is catled a closed walk: Openwolk: A walk thot 18 npt closed (3 called an oper walle €G: WervresNs eu = closed walk» - Wiel Vala V5e5 V5 > Open walk GQ) Trail and cinait : Trail « In a walk, vertices and edges may appear mae than once: Tf in an epen walk ne ectge oppears moe than ence, then walk iS ealle a trait Chcuit | A clesed walk in which no edge ’appears mae han ore called a ctwuit- eq: We ey ow ve % er 2 WK es 7 ey ee An ve a Ww te cay: Not a tari we Trail Scanned with CamScannerFrom the graphy nota trail re; the open walk we ¢ i 1a CaS C3 V2er Vax because e5 1 repeated» wipe and graph (b) is trail ve ow en No y 15 es e & Yes e o er * uke Ne ee MY vy ey from the above, the closed walk weivscovs & Vsenvut sey, i a ermauit Path and cycle Path: A Trail i9 which 90 vertex appears ee than one is called a path: cydle: . A cuit (9 which the ne vertex appears mere in ¢: pt ent wentirel once “is calle ‘a cycle el Ne No dle d es eo a i 1 wu vy ‘an ~~” ates * " SO va cay path tb) Not a path From the above, the hail % e103 Vs Og Va era fO7 ml th where as the ail wey ses ee apn eee t tn this we pia path (because in Vaesvs Cove Ute s(2)) PP frail, VS appears twice) Scanned with CamScannerve ee cd): Not a cycle (0) cyete The cvtrcwit Va eas es Ve O52 ( grapheey) #5 a eycle where O8 The circuit vs eivy ey Ve es Vs er Vy Co Ve Cau (9raph4) 15 mot a cycle (becuse in this eitutl Ve appears twice) s6) * Euler's ctruits and Euler's trails Qerper a cenaedled graph §- If the «© a col - That contains all the edges of q then that circuit 0 called Eulers cera! (or Eulernan ine or Eulertous) Euler trail : Tf there is a hail in @ that contains all the ey of G, then that hall 15 called an euler dratl (7 Unieuiaal lene) in q A connected graph: thet contains an * ‘euler cout © Caltedt Eulergraph cor) Eutercan graph Serni- Euler graph > A tonnected graph that contains on * eulertratl’ © #5 called a Semi Euler's graph . 9 ae les 9 er R 8 w) “4 Scanned with CamScannerIn_ the graph (a), the close walk. Pei QerRespeySesree Teip 15 A Eulerecreuit 6 6 Dee The trail AeiBesDesceyAesD tn the’ graph is an Euler drail- This graph s a sem!-euler graph * Hamilton cycles and Hamilton paths: het G be a conneclect graph- Ty there a cytle 9 ‘that contains all the verkees of 4) then that cycle S called a '+tamilton cycle’ in q. A Hamilton eycle in @ graph of m vertices consists of exactly n edges: Recause, a cycle with m veittees has “edlges- A graph that contains 4 homitlonaycle 1 Called “Homilbon greiph" (or Hari Fenian graph) eg: * B D ec Ja the above graph, the cycle shown in thick Lines 5 a Homiltoncytle (observe that this cycle cleosno! anctude the elge 6): The graph cs therefore a hamilton Hat ArGiltroverse pain edge tA G oxoctly once strat A Scanned with CamScannerHamiltonpath « A path ina eanected graph which eelucles every verte Cbut not necessarily every edge) of The graph is called & “homilton/ homilten path in The graph © [4 Jn the above graph , the path shown in thick line hamilton path A Ey In above geoph the path ARLFEOGHI iS & hamilton paths We check that this graph cloes et cow? a hamilton cycle: Note: A path with q vertices hab n-1 edlges 4 — Gaph coloring: Given a planay o7 9o7-plaqar graph a wie assign colors (eoloura) to its vertices tm guch a way that have the samme colour, then we gay that the graph 15 properly co lourecl- In otherwords, proper eoloning of 0 graph such, that 04} wo adjacent vertices mean® t en assigning colouns to ds vertices RS vertices hove different colours: Scanned with CamScannerBlue green o fed ue Red Red Gueen Rect “es Yellow Rect veers eed plue Red are from the above graph » the fret 2 graphs properly coloured whereas the gd graph 1s not properly coloured: By examining the prs’ eo Propaly colored , we note the following more than one proper coloring properly colored graph pst two graphs, which ave HA graph ean have ajacent vertices nO b) Two mone can have the same colour Chromatic urbe’ that can be properly colourect DB. k-chvomatre greiph with colors bat pt aT a graph q ke ckpomatic, then k 5 be umber” of G 2 chromatic qumber ich the graph can be properly with 1266 than k Colors called the ~ ohrome Thus, th of graph #8 the minimen number of colors with wh ti - sora! the chromane number of a graph G 9 usually denoted by x4) Scanned with CamScanner') Find The chromatic number of each of the “following geaphss Ns : MI Ve ) @ () For the graph cay, let us assign a color x to the vertex vi then, for o proper colouring , we have t assign © dliffercolour to its neighbours v2) Vu, “7 Since V2, Vu Ve are mutually non acljacent wer tices + they have the same colour, say ps (which 1 different frown)» Since va, V5 are not adjacent te Vi, thes ean have the game colour as Wi, namely of: Thus, the graph con be property colored with atleas two colours. with the verh'ces wi, v3-Vs having °° colour % and ‘Va, Vy, V6 having a dgfferent color p>* Hence, the ekpomatt number of the graph & > tay For the graphis), tet us asign the colow a fe vertex vi then, for a proper colouring , its njeghbou Va, Neand vq cannot have the colour at but VS can have the colour d. Furthermore , V2, Va, 4 must have clifferent colours, say pp, %, 8. Thus , atieost four colours are required for a proper cdowing We graph Henke, the chromate number of the graph * * Scanned with CamScanner«Planar Graphs : A graph ¢ 18 called plana, if.'t can be drawr on The plane in such a way that no two edges (0s each other at any point, except possibly at the comme endl verters such a drawing is called plane drawing. eg: : . ey Consider the graph ad shown in fig Graph cq) its plonow graphs ares A @& Cay plomar graph( Gr) ter planar graphCd) Niels ) Graphs F sequiay 0 ve vs vs ve (9) Cube Me Octahechon, Scanned with CamScanner% Region (or) face of a graph: Fp a connected, ploqar graph 1 drawa in The. some) plane, the plare i9 divided into the eontinguous regrons called faces. A face is ohovactertzed by the tycle that forms its boundary b | —e | 7 | Lo Ass a ae , Face & 19 bounded by the eyels lapncdia) face Rs is bounded by the cycle (¢, dre, Face Rs % bounced by the -eycle (evepic) ” The cutter 7egron ty i9 bounded by’ the cyte (a1br Cif ed, a) | Jrufaces , e+ Bedlges, ve b ver Hees ~s olegc es) 4 oe degik) 3 — olegies) = 3 . ~ leg ( eq) = 6 . ae? ° x Galers formula : “ Theorem oY aoa congected plane graph , then’ Nl lela IR] = 2 wo) / for any plana graph 4, nurnber of verkices~ number | eclges + number of regions= 2° Roof: given a conrected planar graph 4, then any drawing of G ta the plane,as plane graph will aluay® from [el = 1E]-|vl42 vegions , inctucling exterior reg" Scanned with CamScannerHere, IR} = number of regions TE| = Nurnber of edtges IML > Number of vertices: Fhe formula was cliscovead by Euler hence ther ‘nare Balers formula Now we will aiscuss This tn detail Stererment + sone Fy Ga comedled,groph , then vine] +18 |= we prove it by frst observing The result for a tee A tee determines only | region If the number Of werkices. in a tree are 9, the edges will be n-l- Therefor The fournula W-lEItIR) + halets goocl for He Fes Iuf-lelt ted en-Co + = pfnetitl eR Therefore, the results true for r=1, Suppose that the result 6 true for reyron® and suppose that 4 16 & Connected plore graph that had K+! negione* Delete ome eclge common to the bounday of {wo separate regione Then the wegulting graph Gi cl gne fewer 12 vertices, one fewer edge an # 4) - erlge. rakes ? into one 67? the deletion of 2” and {Ri} oe Thus , if re, [vel A regions for then has the scime number of jon because regions vespec tively the numer of eclge’, vertices rm Scanned with CamScannerte}= lel Ii = vl Iajs IRI-E Ivif-16) 4 0Ri) > vis (LEI + (ik I-1), > I= Lela lel * ti-le}a IR] we UMel=Le a) t1Ri| = [vp Leba RE By inductive hypothesis Wd - TE) tei <2 Lup = le] ete] 2 Thus , the theorem 15 provecl by mathemplical tpduction |> Dual of © planay Graph : | Cenpicler a connected planar graph q arpl a plane drawing - Suppose Ri, Ray Ry ete be the region® Ciqclucking the extenor region) in this drawing « det 5 new construct a Foph at following the procedur? given below ° 0) Cheose One point ‘insicle each Of the regions F1,% Ra,-- denotes these ‘point by ut vy veh These parts will be the vertices of qr. OH two regions Ri and Ry “are adjacent ie, hv” @ wmmon edge, Y ek), drow a bye et join The poinls v¥ and ye tha intersects the comm’ edge ex exactly once (of Uhpe 19 mow Than one edge common to &r ov Ry, daow one line tpt Ye the points vt and Wi" for each common edge ep, intersecting ep exact!) \ ence Scanned with CamScanner4) for an ec r drow we er lying entirely tn one region, Say Rr Fe al the point vi" Intersect exactly once i* intersecting er The gv , fe sere 4? 80 corshuctedl called ¥ geompl ne ual” ev just a. “cluat” of q: eg: J) Conpicler the graph § Shown in fig es ey . the fig, divides the plane into > we obsewe tat, of uhich Ry unbounded « regions Ri, Rand Rs Wie consbuct the cual @ of 4" of the construction © The step-by- Step descriphon gen below! > We choose 3 points vt, St imace the ve6pont Ri, Ra Ro respectively > The region’ Ri and Re have a common ecge ne drow @ |e et joining viand vi that eich a es exoclly once 2 common edges él ~ Ihe regions gp ood Re tove . x wd er: We draw 7 liqes et, ek Ole yp and v5 : 1 wilh e* ¢7088in9 only e; ond es* crossing} only a Scanned with CamScannerTrees Definition + : bet G- (WE) has be a loop. free, urplirected graph» the graph G is called a tree gf 4 is \coanected and contains | re cycles- , | eg: The graph 4, is tree, but the graph Go 6 tpt -a tree because tH contaiqs the taby, tocy, 1ay G é f Ga The graph ga ts pt connected, ‘so it tannot bea te Spanning trees © . : 4 subgraph aa of a graph 45, called a $ inning free BF ca) Hib & tree, onl () 41 contains all the vertices of g A spanning tree that is a alivected chee 5 “called & directed spanning tee of 4 Spanning tree can be generated by of a grph te Depth first search (DFS) o both the raver” yl Breadth po search + Scanned with CamScanner4 ‘find all spanning tees for the graph Gad shown in fq e a a . The graph ¢ is conrpcleds Ht has 6 edges and 6 verbies and hence each Spanning tree have nei edges 10s 6-15 ‘O. b = DIN Oo by e as a b c Note: tr general, if G % a connected graph with 7 vertees and mm edges,a Spanning hee of 4 must hove nt edlges Properties + . Tf arb ave distinct vertices tr. a tree T= (ye), then there is a uncque foth that connects these vertices. ©) Tf Ge (ye) 6 @ unelivected graph, then G os connected ard only f 4 has a spanning bee %) TH every hee Twe), tv}= left te; ven, Een (Gy For every tee TWO, Wwi>2, then + has atleast tivo _periclant vertices - ts) meas edges mpst be remover! fiom a congectedt graph with 9 vertices and m edges to procwe a Sproring Scanned with CamScannerexample : W Draw all The spanning trees of The tree graph. 4 1 a b This graph has m= 5 edges, o- + vertices e To obtain a Spanning tree we should vemeve ments S-Yytl= 2 edges . d A . 4s d £ . be b Sb a6 rr A de ° & a b ° a b Graph taversals Gen a graph qe (we) ond a vertex vin G wel ar interseted mm visiting all vertices in G that me reachable from (v) Cies all verhices connected to v) There ave 2 ways of doing this ty) Depth -fnst seach (ack tracking) &) Breadth first search () Depth first search : General procedure : Jet G- (Wie) be & connected guaph of onder 9 jwith vertices labelled vrjVp----Vn in dame specified ovcler The DF algorithrn specifies the following step? for cleber enining @ spanning bee T of 4 where tn the vorcable V Starels for The vertex being consiclered - Scanned with CamScannerYr Hepa: “Assign the first vertex vi to the vanable V angel iniftalize T at the tree consisting of just this veret: step2: Select the smallest eubscript KM gehen, such that CiZe E ond ve has not aledy been included so T Tf no such subsaipt i found, then 99 to step othenuiss perform the following t) Attach the edge {wives to T Ul) Assign YK to Vv (® Retnn to step2 mr vey , the tree T 16 the spanning tree for the order specified Stepy nt fpr VEN, backtrack from V- Tf 0 ts the jovent the verter assigned to v to T, then assign yetusn to step? u to vand crornple ) Obtoin & ope" DFS algprith a aning tee g a following graph using The PFS spanning ree a 4, f I j | J te bs fe 2 zs Scanned with CamScanner©) Breadth first search (8FS) Jn the algorithm a rooted 4vee will be construclai, and the underiying undirected graph Of this rooted fowns the spanning tree * The. tea of BFs 6 to visit all vertices on a given level before going fo The pit tevel - Procedure : Stepa: choose a verter and lesignate i a3 the roots Then add all edges incident to this vertex, Such thot The ccldition of edges does not produce any cycle Step2: The new verhes added’ at this stage become the Werkices at level 1 tn The spanning tree, anbitarily order them: Steps Nett, -for each vertex at level a, visited tnorler* add each edge incident to This vertex fo the bee ae tong as tt alocenot progkice any cycle Steps: (evel! Arbitarily orler the children of each verter lax This produces the vertices at (evel 2 inthe tee Steps: Qntinue the Same procedure until ail the vertice in the tree have been added Steps: 5 The procedure ends Since there ave orty a file number of edlges in the graph hove prducat Stept TA opanniny tree produced since we he tree without cyple corglaining every vertex of th geoph. ad Scanned with CamScannerezarnple® a) Obtain The spannin tee of. BFS algorithm J of: following graph using t ) Choose the verter ‘od to be the 7oot “a Add edges teident with all vertices adgacent #0 2% 9 that edges farey, 12 cy are added The two verhtces band € are on level! tn the tree b ae c Cl) Add edges from these vertices verkves not ailveady io the tree- 15 added» The vertex d 6 th level at [evelt to aad jocent tlence the edge jody c vela +0, adjccertt vertices et taey and taigy me cin Add eye fiom a in le alseady (0 the 4700 the edtges “added: Hence © and 9 me in level Scanned with CamScannerBe oo WD Add edge fom e at levels to adjacent vertices npt | already in the tree ard tence terfy is added | This ig vequived PFS ¥ Spanning Trees Minimal Spanning trees + A_ minimal Spanning tree G@ gs a Spanning tree in “hich the sum of the ‘weights agsecialed with all edyes fy it 15 rfnienuen, ‘ Algorithm for minimal Spanning trees:: There ave Several methods available for actually feling a minimal Spanning tee in a given gioph: Te find a eran spanning tree fora Connected wueig fied graph, there ave 2 algprithry® wy Krruskal’s algor'then ©) pris Algovithry W Kauskal’s Algorithm The working wile of the kwskals method (usually tailed kyuskalé algorithm) may be stated as follow’ Steps: Given @ connectecl , weighted graph G with vee Hist the edges of G in the onder of mon-decieis® weights Step2 Starting with a srpillest weighted edge. proceed sequentually by selecting one elge at a time gich that ae eycle is foun Scanned with CamScannerr Steps Stop the process of step2, when mt eciges are selected - These n-! edges constitute a menial Spanning tree ‘ y foblems Find The minimal spanning bee for the following graph using kyuskals algou'thm + Werghted graphCa) thio graph contains 6 vertices and thus we obtain a Spanning tree with 5 ectges « Now, we anange the edges of the graph in tereasing order of their wieights Weights of ectges Stepa» dist the edges ‘a npn clecreasing orcler of Ther weights Cae) (cd) (arb) (bf) leg) (be) (ad) terf) 1 2 3 4 5 6 4 8 edlge Weiry ht tag) (be) ed) 9 0 " Scanned with CamScannerNow, a minimal spanning tree 18 constructed as Step2: select the edge (aye) since it has the smallest weeght, include it tT a Steps i APE select on edge with the next Smallest wetg ht (9.6) Since it doesnot form tytle with the existing edges in Ty 60 Include te tT: e to ® b SPY! select an edge with. the nert smallest weght ( Since it doesnot form cycle with the existing edge” Ts $0 inctude i on T oe 3 b wy bit Ce Steps+ select an eclge with the next smallest weg Since it cloesnot form Cycle with existing eclyes tr T 60 tactude it in Tt e a 3 b c es T ad Scanned with CamScannerYr eps * p select on edge with the next smpllest weight Cor) Bite # doesnot form cycle with the exsting eges 77 G inelucde it in T Sie G contain 6 vertices aqd we have choosen § eclges, we stop the algorithn and the meaimal $pannrg tree 15 produced - Mleights of the menimal spanning tree perp aruts © 15 units ; ® find he minimal spannieg tee of The following 7aPh 48ing_kruskal’s algorithm q b is The graph consists of + vertices and we obtain 8 spanning tree with 6 edges ee 08 the edges in rpa alecieasing order of their weights , : cages cae) Chit) (0g) (be) (AG) (de) (4,2) (ad) i 2 oS 4 5 6 4 a Weight Cab) (aif) Cerf) Gq) a 10 " In Scanned with CamScannerStep2s / «| “select the edlge (acc) since it has the Smallest weight , include tt in T- a a Step 3: | select the adge (cid) with the, next Smallest werght, singe it doesnot fom cycle with the existing edges int. 30 dude it in T- a L c 4 d Sepa: select the odge (ae) b / cA Step5* select an edge (bie) PORN cq 4 . SPE select an eclge (2.9) 7 a 6 ° ! aN e c+ 3 Scanned with CamScannerSteps: t Select an edge Coif) , 7 vertices ant we obtain 6 ectges Siqce q contains the minimal spanning tree Ne stop the algorithm and i6 produced: The weight of minteral Spanning tree 15 14 2¢ d+ ut 4rlO® 24 Scanned with CamScanner