i

Health Psychology

This accessible primer on health psychology covers the key

theories and models of the discipline. Through the use of real-​
life case studies and examples, it covers a broad range of topics
related to the field of health psychology including: health pro-
motion, risky health behaviour and health in healthcare settings.
It explains how health psychology serves to not only promote
positive health and reduce maladaptive health behaviours, but
also support those who are chronically ill.
Unlike medicine, health psychology takes a more holistic
approach through the interaction of psychological, social and
biological factors to improve health. This book outlines the
inter-​relationship between how we think and feel, our biological
systems and the social contexts in which we live. It discusses how
belief and attitude can shape behaviour, the pivotal role of stress
and how we can adjust to chronic illness. Drawing from experi-
ence, the authors answer important and common questions like
how can we stop people from smoking? Does stress really make us ill?
Why don’t people take their medication as prescribed? And how can we
support people to adjust to a chronic health condition? It also provides a
unique focus on children and adolescent health, which considers
how developmental changes impact health behaviours and sub-
sequent health.
It is an essential introductory text suitable for students,
professionals and general readers interested in this important and
emerging topic area. It also provides useful information for those
interested in working in the field by providing an overview of
ii

what health psychologists do, where they work and the pathways
available to become a registered health psychologist.

Dr Erica Cook is a Chartered Psychologist with the British

Psychological Society and a Registered Health Psychologist
with the UK Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC).
She is a senior lecturer and the course director for the Stage 1
Health Psychology programme at the University of Bedfordshire,
UK. Her research interests are focused on the intersection of
public health and health psychology with a particular interest in
improving health outcomes for marginalised and disadvantaged
groups.

Dr Lynne Wood is a Chartered Psychologist with the British

Psychological Society. She is a senior lecturer and the course dir-
ector of BSc Health Psychology at the University of Bedfordshire,
UK. Her research interests centre around preventing adolescent
risk behaviours and improving wellbeing in chronic illness.
iii

The Basics

The Basics is a highly successful series of accessible guidebooks

which provide an overview of the fundamental principles of a
subject area in a jargon-​free and undaunting format.
Intended for students approaching a subject for the first time,
the books both introduce the essentials of a subject and pro-
vide an ideal springboard for further study. With over 50 titles
spanning subjects from artificial intelligence (AI) to women’s
studies, The Basics are an ideal starting point for students seeking
to understand a subject area.
Each text comes with recommendations for further study
and gradually introduces the complexities and nuances within
a subject.

Health Psychology
Erica Cook and Lynne Wood

Women’s Studies (second edition)

Bonnie G. Smith

Sigmund Freud
Janet Sayers

Sustainability (second edition)

Peter Jacques

For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routledge.

com/​The-​Basics/​book-​series/​B
iv
v

Health Psychology
The Basics

Erica Cook and Lynne Wood

vi

First published 2021

by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 Erica Cook and Lynne Wood
The right of Erica Cook and Lynne Wood to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without
intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-​in-​Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data
Names: Cook, Erica, author. | Wood, Lynne, 1969– author.
Title: Health psychology : the basics / Erica Cook, Lynne Wood.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY Routledge, 2021. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2020033952 (print) | LCCN 2020033953 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781138213685 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138213692 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781315447766 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Medicine and psychology.
Classification: LCC R726.5 .C674 2021 (print) |
LCC R726.5 (ebook) | DDC 610.1/9–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020033952
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020033953
ISBN: 978-1-138-21368-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-21369-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-44776-6 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Newgen Publishing UK
vii
newgenprepdf

Contents

1 The development of health psychology  1

2 A bio/​psycho/​social approach to health and wellbeing 

31

3 Attitudes, beliefs and behaviour: models of health

behaviour change  74

4 Health behaviours of children and adolescents  111

5 Stress  145

6 Adjusting to chronic illness  182

7 Health psychology in healthcare settings  209

Glossary  242
Index  254
viii
1

1  he development of health
T
psychology

Contents
Introduction 2
Historical approaches to health: a biomedical model of
health and illness 2
Introduction to the biomedical model 2
Challenging the biomedical view of health 4
What is health? 5
What is health psychology? 8
Why do we need health psychology? 9
Health in the twenty-​first century: the role of lifestyle on population health 9
Health policy: the role of government action for
lifestyle change 11
Health psychology today, where are we now? 13
Research methods in health psychology 14
Qualitative studies 14
Quantitative studies 15
Systematic reviews and meta-​analysis 17
Careers in health psychology 18
What do health psychologists do and where do they work? 18
How to become a health psychologist 23
Stage one 24
Stage two 25
What can you expect to earn as a health psychologist? 26
Interested in health psychology, now what? 26
Final overview and summary 28
References 29
2

2 The development of health psychology

Introduction
This chapter focuses on establishing the context of health
psychology by explaining the changing patterns of disease and
describing the role of health psychology in understanding these
needs.
The chapter begins by setting the context of health psych-
ology. Going through a journey in time, we will explore histor-
ical views of health and illness from the adoption of the more
traditional biomedical model, where the mind and body are
viewed as separate entities, to the more modern perspective of
the biopsychosocial perspective, which considers a more holistic
approach to understanding health and illness.
We will be exploring public health trends and consider how
health psychology has evolved to meet the changing needs
of health and how this links to current health policy and to the
health of the nation. This chapter will explain current health
issues and how through policy and practice health psychology
can have a positive impact on population health.
Alongside uncovering the aims of health psychology this
chapter will end by answering common questions relating to
becoming a health psychologist ‘What do they do?’, ‘Where do
they work?’ and ‘how can I become a health psychologist?’.

Historical approaches to health: a biomedical

model of health and illness

Introduction to the biomedical model

The history of medicine has shown us how society shapes both
our approach and understanding of health, illness and disease. To
do this we have to take a step back in history to understand how
our thinking of health and illness has changed over the years.
During the Greek classical period an ancient Greek physician,
called Hippocrates (460–​377 BC ) discovered humoral medicine.
This idea was then later disseminated by Roman Galen (129–​216
A D ), labelled as Galen’s Theory of Humours, which continued to
dominate western medicine up until the nineteenth century [1].
3

The development of health psychology 3

Based upon ancient medical works, the view was that we all
have four ‘humours’ (also referred to as principal fluids): black
bile, yellow bile, phlegm and blood, which were produced by
various organs in the body. It was proposed that humours existed
in cycles according to the seasons; i.e. an illness that occurred
in summer was associated with yellow bile, spring with blood,
autumn with black bile and winter with phlegm. Treatments
were therefore used to counteract the coldness or warmth,
for example warm illnesses i.e. those that occurred during the
summer were said to affect the yellow bile so cold treatments
were used. There was also said to be a strong association with
the natural elements: water, earth, fire and air and these with the
seasons provided us a useful understanding of how to preserve
balance within the body [2].
The idea, and a fundamental premise of this theory was
that our characteristics and our disposition defined our health.
This idea suggested that our wellbeing was defined by our per-
sonality, which in turn was associated with the four elements
and their relationship with the four ‘humours’. So, being able to
diagnose individuals was largely based on observing individ-
uals on their personalities in a bid to gain clues on what might
be wrong with them. An individual, for example who was bad
tempered and angry was believed to have an imbalanced yellow
bile, the humour associated with the summer season.
Treatment focused on balance and restoration. Treatments
were achieved by healing, either through physical (diet, medicine,
herbal remedies) or spiritual therapeutics (e.g. bloodletting using
leeches, clean bedding, prayer, music, relics of saint) [3].
People were beginning to challenge the idea the mind and body
were not separate; however, this was controversially challenged by
Galen, who argued that the organs were responsible for health.
Without any strong evidence to challenge Galen he was able to
instill this viewpoint for many centuries [4]. In the seventeenth
century René Descartes (1596–​1650) sustained this philosophy,
postulating the mind (non-​material)–​body (material also referred
to as a machine) dualism. The mind and body were viewed as
separate entities and illness was viewed as a malfunction of our
machine not the non-​material. It was not until the rise of the
4

4 The development of health psychology

Choleric
(Bad tempered, angry)

Fire
yellow bile

ry

H
D

ot
Summer

Earth Autumn

Spring
Melancholic Air Sanguine
(Despondent, black blood (Courageous,
sadness) bile amorous)

Winter
ld

M
Co

oi
Water
st
phlegm

Phlematic
(Calm, unemotional)

Figure 1.1 Diagram of The Four ‘Humours’

twentieth century in response to Freud’s psychodynamic theory

that this belief was finally challenged.

Challenging the biomedical view of health

Sigmund Freud (1856–​1939), a renowned neurologist was met
with numerous patients who were presented with ‘hysteria par-
alysis’, a condition where an individual suffers paralysis, which
after numerous medical tests were told there was nothing phys-
ically wrong. Freud proposed that our unconscious psycho-
logical conflict could directly impact on physical disturbance
or symptoms via the voluntary nervous system. For example,
if a patient has a memory of trauma, which they fail to con-
front this can be converted into physical symptoms. This was
later supported by Dunbar (1930s) and Alexander (1940s) who
argued that internal conflicts unconsciously produce anxiety and
take a physiological toll via the autonomic nervous system. This
shift in thinking therefore advocated that there was indeed a link
5

The development of health psychology 5

between our body and mind and that they were not separate
entities as once believed.
The emergence of the field of behavioural medicine also
challenged traditional beliefs that the mind and body are sep-
arate entities and work independently. Behavioural medicine
represented an interdisciplinary field drawing on elements from
psychology, sociology and health education. Defined as ‘the field
concerned with the development of behavioural science know-
ledge and techniques relevant to the understanding of phys-
ical health and illness and the application of this knowledge
and these techniques to prevention, diagnosis, treatment and
rehabilitation’ [5]. The careful addition of ‘behavioural’ was not
just about semantics, but arguably demonstrated an important
shift in thinking about how we understand health and illness.
A movement from thinking about our physical and our mental
health as separate, this definition argued for a more integrated
holistic perspective, one which considered the biological and
behavioural factors of health and illness.
As you can see the views of health were rapidly changing. It
was at this time that George Engel [6, 7] challenged traditional
biomedical thinking and suggested that in addition to the bio-
logical aspects (diseases), psychosocial dimensions should be
considered. Engel proposed a biopsychosocial model of health,
which considered that the cause, manifestation and outcome of
health and illness was formed by the interaction of biological
(our genes and biology), psychological (our beliefs, emotions
and coping resources) and social-​cultural factors (where we
live, our social support, our cultural background) (see Figure 1.2).

What is health?
Like our understanding of health and illness, how we have
defined health has also changed. Historically, health was viewed
as the absence of disease, a negative state, in other words you are
either healthy or not healthy.

I would like to think that I am healthy. I mean I go swimming

two mornings a week and like to go on long walks at the
6

6 The development of health psychology

Biological
(bacterias, viruses)

Bio-social Bio-psycho
Bio
psycho
social
Sociological
(social class, culture, Psychological
l ia
-soc

religion, employment) (beliefs, coping,

stress, pain)
cho
Psy

Figure 1.2 
The biopsychosocial model showing the interrelationship
between the three dimensions adapted from Engel [6, 7]

weekend. Although, I am probably carrying a bit too much

weight, certainly my trousers are feeling a bit tighter than
they once did. I eat mostly well, but I can’t resist the tempting
puddings when we are eating out on a Saturday. I probably
stop at the drive thru café a bit too often, for my regular Chai
Latte and a chocolate brownie. Note to self, I should stick
to eating more fruit. My alcohol consumption is maybe a bit
higher than it should be, a few too many Pinot Grigio’s at
the weekend, but it is my down time, that is what I like to
say anyway.
(John aged 67)

John states that he feels healthy, but if he were to adopt this

definition, he would be classified as ‘diseased’, but is this a fair
reflection? It is argued that there is more to health than just
our physical state. It is claimed that our psychological and social
7

The development of health psychology 7

Wellness paradigm
Premature 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High level
death wellness
Treatment paradigm

Neutral Point
No evident illness or wellness

Figure 1.3 Health continuum according to Dr John Travis [10]

health, in other words the importance of being able to fulfil our

potential and obligations, manage our life and participate in social
activities including work are equally important [8]. As put by
Smith ‘health is the capacity to love and work’ [9].
The Illness-​Wellness Continuum, proposed by Dr John Travis
in 1972, supports the importance of both physical and emotional
health [10]. This also moved us away from thinking of ourselves
as either healthy or not healthy, but rather we are on a spec-
trum from the lowest 0, which indicates premature death (on
multiple medications, poor quality of life, limited function) to
the highest 10, which represents optimal health characterised
by 100 per cent function, activity participation and wellness
lifestyle. Travis argued that as Maslow argued for self actualisa-
tion optimal health should be something that we can strive to
achieve [10].
A more contemporary view of health was proposed by the
World Health Organization in 1948 ‘Health is a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-​being and not merely the absence of dis-
ease or infirmity’. This definition, profound in its time, has stayed
with us for many years and continues to be the most widely cited
definition of health [11]. However, this idea of health has not
withstood criticism. Some have argued that this idea of ‘complete
health’ is an illusion, unachievable; can anyone ever really truly
say that they are physically, emotionally and socially healthy all of
the time? It is argued that the idea of striving for completeness
has unintendedly led to the medicalisation of society.
8

8 The development of health psychology

As an aging population with an increasing burden of chronic
disease, it minimises the role of our ability to cope with the
challenges that we face or how we function in spite of a chronic
disease or disability [11]. More recently academics have proposed
a new definition which accounts for these factors and overcomes
these limitations ‘health is the ability to adapt and self-​manage in
the face of social, physical, and emotional challenges’ [12].

What is health psychology?

The movement from thinking about our mind and body as separate
to viewing health and illness from a biopsychosocial perspective
has been the catalyst for health psychology. Our understanding of
how the environment and our behaviour impact on our health,
the more holistic approach to conceptualising health along with
recent public health trends have made health psychology one of
the fastest growing disciplines of psychology in the UK.
Health psychology is described by Matarazzo as

the aggregate of the specific educational, scientific, and

professional contributions of the discipline of psychology
to the promotion and maintenance of health, the preven-
tion and treatment of illness, and the identification of etio-
logic and diagnostic correlates of health, illness, and related
dysfunction [13].
(p. 815)

The aim of health psychology is to understand the psycho-

logical processes which underpin health and illness and use this
knowledge to promote and maintain health, prevent illness and
disability and enhance outcomes for those who are ill [14].
Health psychologists therefore may ask the following questions:

• What is the role of behaviour in the aetiology of illness?

So, what lifestyle factors impact on disease progress, for example
smoking and coronary heart disease.
• How can we predict health behaviours? To be able to
intervene in health behaviour we have to understand why we
9

The development of health psychology 9

behave the way we do. Ultimately how can we make some-
body eat more healthily and do more physical activity. We dis-
cuss this in more detail in Chapter 3.
• What is the interaction between psychology and
physiology? How do our levels of stress affect our ability to
resist infections? What is the mechanism behind how these
processes work?
• What is the role of psychology in the experience of
illness? Can psychology be used to alleviate symptoms such as
pain, nausea and vomiting.
• What is the role of psychology in the treatment of illness?
How can psychology be used to assist treatment and rehabilita-
tion and be used to improve health outcomes, for example being
more physically active to improve symptoms and quality of life.

Why do we need health psychology?

Health in the twenty-​first century: the role of lifestyle on

population health
If you were born at the beginning of the twentieth century,
you would not be expected to live past your 48th birthday.
However, born today you could expect to add around 30 years
to your life, with the average survival age for males and females
being 79 and 83 years respectively [15]. Moreover, it is not
only how long we can expect to live that has changed but
how we die. For example, between 1901 and 1971 infectious
diseases accounted for two thirds of all deaths [15]. Infectious
diseases included airborne infections (e.g. respiratory tuber-
culosis, bronchitis, pneumonia and influenza, measles, Scarlett
Fever and whooping cough), water and food borne infections
(e.g. cholera, non-​respiratory tuberculosis and typhoid) among
many others. However, over the past century infectious diseases
have fallen dramatically, said to be the result improved nutri-
tion, improved safety of water and better sanitation, as well as
changes in our personal behaviour [16].
Fast forward to today, the biggest killers around us include pre-
ventable diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Together these
10

10 The development of health psychology

Table 1.1 Leading causes of deaths in males and females in England and
Wales in 2015 [19].

Males % Females %

Heart disease 14.2 Dementia & 15.3

Alzheimer’s disease
Dementia & Alzheimer’s 8 Heart disease 8.8
disease
Lung cancer 6.5 Stroke 7.5
Chronic lower 6.2 Influenza & 6
respiratory disease pneumonia
Stroke 5.6 Chronic lower 6
respiratory diseases
Influenza & pneumonia 5.1 Lung cancer 5.1
Prostate cancer 4.2 Breast cancer 3.7
Colorectal and 3 Colorectal cancer 2.4
anal cancer
Leukaemia and 2.6 Kidney disease 1.9
lymphomas
Cirrhosis and other liver 1.9 Leukaemia and 1.9
diseases lymphomas

account for two thirds of all deaths. Put another way two out of
three people can expect to die from a heart related condition or
cancer. Well, you might arguably say, ‘we have to die from some-
thing don’t we?’ and yes perhaps you are right, but the problem
we have is that many of the reasons people are dying in modern
Britain isn’t because they do not have access to medicines and
good healthcare or are subject to poor sanitation, but rather they
are caused by our risky lifestyle behaviours (see Table 1.1). In
fact recent data suggests that approximately one quarter of all
deaths in the UK are considered avoidable [17]. We have there-
fore moved from the communicable diseases of the twentieth
century to diseases of lifestyle from the twenty-​first century. As
put by the Director of the World Health Organization (WHO)

in many ways, the world is a safer place today. Safer from

what were once deadly or incurable diseases. Safer from
daily hazards of waterborne and food-​related illnesses. Safer
from dangerous consumer goods, from accidents at home, at
11

The development of health psychology 11

work, or in hospitals. But in many other ways the world is
becoming more dangerous. Too many of us are living dan-
gerously –​whether we are aware of that or not.
(World Health report, 2002, p3) [18]

Health policy: the role of government action for

lifestyle change
The question is what should we do about it? We know that this
is not a medical problem, not caused by lack of medicine or poor
medical care. Instead it is behavioural, it is the individual’s health
behaviour which is having a negative impact on their health. In
that case, should we then just explain this as ‘individual choices’?
The answer is yes and no. Whilst we need to encourage, motivate
and support individuals to engage in a healthy lifestyle we also
need policies and interventions that address the social and eco-
nomic environment that help shape our behaviour.
To help address this problem the UK government have
launched a series of health policy papers (see Figure 1.4). Health
policy provides us with a strategic framework, think of it as a
road map helping us to get to the final destination, heathy living.
This ‘map’ enables us to set our priorities, provides us a vision for
what we want to work towards and then establishes short-​and
medium-​term targets to help us obtain that vision.
The first white paper ‘The Health of the Nation’ was published
in 1992 [20]. This report was the first of its kind focused on
reducing alcohol consumption and smoking, two risky health
behaviours which were slowly taking force.The message was clear:
the reduction of these high-​r isk behaviours would provide wider
national benefit for all. Despite this, public support remained
low with scepticism appearing from all sides. Some argued that
the government were interfering in their own personal choices,
the movement towards a ‘nanny state’. On the other side, others
argued that this policy was victim blaming. There was limited
focus on health prevention or how to support people to change,
but rather about curing those who were ill.
In response to this the ‘Our Healthier Nation’ white paper
was launched. This policy moved away from victim blaming
‘good health is no longer about blame, but about opportunity
 12

Securing good health for

the whole of the population Healthy Lives, Healthy
Our Heathier Nation Wanless Review People

1992 2002 2004

12 The development of health psychology

1999 2004 2010

Securing our future: Taking

Health of the Nation a long term View Choosing Health: making
Wanless Review healthier choices easier

Figure 1.4 Timeline of health policy in the UK

13

The development of health psychology 13

and responsibility’ [21] and instead focused on the importance of
creating healthy environments.
This policy along with two influential independent reviews
[22, 23] shifted the focus from cure to an emphasis on preven-
tion, ‘re-​activating a dormant duty of NHS-​to promote good
health, not just treat people when they fall sick’ [21]. More recent
health policy ‘Health Lives, Healthy People’ has been focused on
‘empowering’ not only individuals but the communities where
they reside, providing the public tools to address their own par-
ticular needs and address change where needed [24].

Health psychology today, where are we now?

There have been major public health achievements over the
recent decades. People can expect to live longer, healthier and
lead more productive lives than ever before. The most notable
achievements have centred on improvements in vaccine prevent-
able with fewer infectious diseases. We have also seen improved
levels of physical activity, and large reductions in alcohol and
drug use. There have been strong attempts to tackle food
manufactures with improving nutrition for the wider popula-
tion. There has also been a notable reduction of smokers year on
year, supported through the implementation of smoke free legis-
lation banning smoking in all enclosed workplaces and public
spaces [25]. Health policy has also gone some way in reducing
health inequalities [26].
Health psychologists are well placed in contributing to health
policy and practice in the UK. At a theoretical level there is an
increased attempt to understand the modifiable determinants
of health and illness and how we can design interventions to
change health behaviours at an individual, group and com-
munity level (see Chapter 3). Health psychology has also
contributed to policy development, providing the evidence
base on what approaches appear to have the most potential in
public health contexts. On a practice level health psychology
can present evidence-​ based strategies to support healthcare
professionals who can supporting populations in many different
healthcare contexts [27].
14

14 The development of health psychology

Research methods in health psychology

Our choice of what methods to use often comes from prior
questions such as what is my research question? What is my epis-
temology? Or rather what is my theoretical assumptions to what
I am interested in? We can then start working out what methods
may be the most suitable (Figure 1.5). In health psychology we
use a range of both qualitative and quantitative methods. It is
important to note that there is no one perfect research method,
they each have advantages and disadvantages.Therefore, you have
to make an informed decision, choosing the best method avail-
able to meet your desired objectives.

Qualitative studies
Qualitative methods are particularly useful for understanding
subjective meanings and experiences surrounding health and
illnesses. We can use a range of methods such as interviews and

Develop research
queson/hypothesis

Data analysis & Research Design

interpretaon (Sampling/procedure)

Data collecon

Figure 1.5 The research process

15

The development of health psychology 15

focus groups to collect qualitative data from participants. Focus
groups are particularly useful when you want to see if there
are any common group similarities in their attitudes and how
they feel about something. Qualitative data is then subjective to
data analysis procedures with common approaches such as the-
matic analysis, narrative analysis and interpretative phenomeno-
logical analysis (IPA). There are certainly a number of advantages
to using qualitative methods. They can allow for a valuable
insight into the participant’s world, letting them say how they
feel in a non-​directive way. This of course can provide us with
rich and valuable data, which would not be possible from quan-
titative methods. However, there are some limitations which we
would need to consider. Interviews and focus groups can be very
time consuming, once you factor in the time it takes to recruit
participants and interview them we also have the time taken to
transcribe the data, which, dependent on the length of the inter-
view or focus group can be particularly time consuming.
The interviewer is a crucial part of this process; they need to
be experienced and be skilled in facilitating interviews and focus
groups. Further, the interviewers’ influence and social position in
relation to the participants cannot be ignored.

Quantitative studies
Quantitative studies involve the collection of numerical data
through a range of methods most commonly, including:
questionnaires, experiments and cohort studies.
Questionnaires are a self-​report research instrument where
participants are asked to respond to a series of questions or
statements. Questionnaires that seek to obtain quantitative data
will use closed questions, i.e. the participant can only respond to
using a pre-​determined answer. The responses can be placed into
categories, called nominal data, which can be dichotomous, for
example ‘yes’ or ‘no’, or can include more options. Questions can
also provide ordinal (or ranked) data, which often using Likert
rating scales to measure the strength of something, for example
I enjoy going to the gym (1) ‘strongly agree’, (2) ‘slightly agree’,
(3) ‘neither agree or disagree’, (4) ‘disagree’ and (5) ‘strongly
16

16 The development of health psychology

disagree’. Questionnaires have been successfully used to measure
many things including psychological theories, levels of stress,
intelligence and personality and many more. The other advan-
tage is that they are cheap and quick to administer and a useful
method particularly if you want to obtain information from a
large population. The questionnaires are also standardised, so all
participants are asked the same question in the same order and
so we can be confident that the results are consistent. However,
they also come with some limitations. Have you ever answered
a questionnaire to something and wanted to give more detail?
Whilst they ask for a fixed answer, they do not allow us to pro-
vide a justification or reason to why we picked the answer we did.
We also do find that response rates can be low, we refer to this as
the non-​response bias. Imagine we wanted to assess stress levels in
the general population, so we sample people from all social classes,
genders and ethnicities. It may well be that only the wealthier
White British respond and suggest that stress levels are generally
low. However, when we have a low response rate (viewed as 60%
or lower) it may be that the data we hold is not representative of
the wider sample we wanted to recruit from. Another common
issue we have to consider in using questionnaires is the impact
of social desirability bias. This is where people respond in a way
that makes them look better than they really are. So, if we asked
someone how much alcohol they consume, they may put less
than they actually do.
A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study which samples
a cohort (a group of people who share a defining character-
istic) over a period of time. They are particularly useful in the
field of medicine and epidemiology and can establish risk of dis-
ease over an extended period of time. One of the most famous
cohort studies was that of Doll and Hill in 1951, who sent out a
questionnaire about smoking habits to all the doctors who were
registered on the British Medical Register [28]. They collected
34,440 questionnaires from male doctors born before 1900–​
1919 and then followed them up to observe mortality. Even by
the time of the first set of preliminary results were analysed in
1954, there was evidence to link smoking with lung cancer and
increased mortality. This breakthrough evidence was enough to
17

The development of health psychology 17

challenge existing beliefs that smoking was not harmful and sub-
sequently has influenced health policy and governmental action
regarding the advertising of nicotine products.
Experiments are particularly useful when we are trying to
support or refute a hypothesis, and can provide insight into cause
and effect, for example does playing classical music cause a reduc-
tion in pain. They typically include sophisticated designs and
controls which can minimise the effects of variables outside of
the independent variable. Experiments and trials play a particu-
larly important role in determining the effectiveness of behav-
iour change interventions. However, we should be aware of some
criticisms related to experiments. Sometimes we can see positive
results but then when we do the same intervention (or experi-
ment) to another population we find the results are not positive.
The reason for this is the transportation problem, i.e. what works
in one situation might not work in another. Another issue, particu-
larly in relation to testing the effectiveness of behaviour change
interventions is the issue of dose and fidelity. Behaviour change
interventions are complex, it is not as simple as giving one para-
cetamol to a patient who has a headache to see if it helps reduce
the symptoms. Let’s say we wanted to see if patients who received
behaviour change counselling were more likely to lose weight
compared to those who did not. Many factors may influence
this; how many times the counsellor saw the patient, how many
different counsellors there were, if counsellors followed the same
approach, counsellor effects (gender, age, ethnicity, experience etc.),
and so forth. Controlling for these factors is not easy and so often
we need additional methods to help us determine this.

Systematic reviews and meta-​analysis

We should also not underestimate the importance of systematic
reviews and meta-​analysis in synthesising evidence. If you have a
research question the chances are that someone has tried to answer
it. Let’s imagine you wanted to see if telling young children the
risks of smoking would reduce their chances of smoking in the
future.You could design an experimental study; in one secondary
school you could attend classes of all students and tell them of the
18

18 The development of health psychology

dangers of smoking and in another you do nothing, and this would
be your control. You could then compare students’ smoking rates
before the study, after the study and then follow them up every
year thereafter. In principle this sounds like a great idea, except that
we have forgotten to see if anyone else has done this, but more
importantly if this intervention worked. Research is very expen-
sive and let’s not forget the children’s (and school’s) time we are
taking up. It would be a shame if we did this unnecessarily.
So, let’s say we look at the literature and after a quick look
at Google we find a similar study conducted in the North of
England that found that this intervention didn’t work. So, feeling
disheartened you look to change your intervention. However,
what about if this study did not work, not because of the inter-
vention, but because it was poor quality. For example, perhaps
they did not have a control group, so we do not know if the
intervention reduced smoking initiation when compared to
those who did not receive the intervention. Or perhaps they
only included a small number of children, too small to detect a
meaningful difference. This is where systematic reviews come in.
They are a type of literature review that uses systematic methods
to collect secondary data, critically appraise research studies, and
synthesise findings qualitatively or quantitatively. They help us to
the answer the research question ‘will providing children the risks
of smoking reduce the uptake of smoking?’ using a comprehen-
sive and complete summary of all the current evidence available.
Meta-​analysis is a way of synthesising evidence using statistical
procedures to combine the data derived from a systematic review.
So, using our example, we could do a systematic review com-
bining all the numerical data from multiple randomised con-
trolled trials, which used the intervention we are interested in to
see how effective this intervention is.

Careers in health psychology

What do health psychologists do and where do

they work?
Health psychologists use their knowledge to promote general
well-​being and understand illness. They are specially trained to
19

The development of health psychology 19

help people deal with the psychological and emotional aspects
of health and illness alongside supporting those who are chron-
ically ill.
Health psychologists promote healthier lifestyles and try to find
ways to encourage people to improve their health.With expertise
in behaviour change they have extensive knowledge of how to
design, implement and evaluate evidence-​ based interventions
to change health behaviour, which can be used to target indi-
viduals, social groups or communities. Health psychologists can
also add value in the improvement of healthcare delivery, from
training healthcare professionals to communicate more effect-
ively with their patients through to changing patient behaviour
in healthcare settings (e.g. improving hand hygiene in hospitals).
Health psychologists work in a variety of settings including
hospitals, universities and public health agencies. See below for

Government
•Advise on policy making
•Developing effec ve popula on interven ons
•Proposing na onal adver sing strategies.

Universies: Teaching and Research

• Teaching health psychology and related fields to undergraduate and postgraduate
students
• Supervising and suppor ng students through their health psychology training
• Conduc ng health psychology research

Healthcare sengs
• Working in local hospitals: involvement in mul disciplinary treatment of long-term
health condi ons such as coronary heart disease and pain management
• Working in primary care: suppor ng pa ents to manage long-term health
condi ons, suppor ng lifestyle changes and stress management

• Community and local authories

• Suppor ng community ini a ves to promote healthy living in local popula ons
(e.g. smoking, diet, physical ac vity, drugs and alcohol services)
• Improve uptake to public health screening programmes (e.g. NHS Health Checks)
• Design and deliver targeted interven ons to improve health outcomes in the
community

• Private and third sector agencies

• Providing exper se to support voluntary and community groups to improve health
outcomes of those they support

Figure 1.6 Examples of health psychology roles

20

20 The development of health psychology

some examples of where a health psychologist might work and
the roles ofr which they could be responsible.
Health psychologists normally choose to work in either an
applied or in an academic setting. To help you understand how
their roles may differ two example job roles are provided. Job
advert 1 is looking for a health psychologist to work in an NHS
setting and join a pain management multi-​disciplinary team.
They are seeking help and support to develop interventions to
support patients and families with chronic pain management. In
academic settings, commonly universities, health psychologists
are employed in lecturing, supervision and research roles related
to their field. Job advert 2 is looking for a health psychologist to
work in a university to join the academic team to support the
curriculum in health psychology. Universities will often ask for
a PhD, although being a Registered Health Psychologist and
Chartered member of the BPS will often suffice.
It would be difficult for us to give you an example of every
health psychology job role. As you have learnt, these roles are
diverse, taking place in many different organisations working
with numerous population groups. However, we can provide an
insight of a practicing health psychologist, Dr Sabrina Robinson,
who shares how she became a health psychologist and what a
typical day for her may look like.

A day in the life of a health psychologist

Dr Sabrina Robinson
I am a Chartered Psychologist registered with the British
Psychological Society (BPS) and a health psychologist
registered with the UK Health and Care Professions Council
(HCPC). I became a registered health psychologist in 2016
having completed my BSc Human Psychology at De Montfort
University Leicester, MSc Health Psychology at the University
of Bedfordshire and finally my Professional Doctorate in Health
Psychology at London Metropolitan University.
I am passionate about using psychological approaches to
develop sustainable health and wellbeing in the workplace and
have supported a wide range of organisations over the years to
explore ways they can support the wellbeing of their workforce.
21

The development of health psychology 21

Box 1.1 Job advert 1: Health psychologist

practitioner
We are pleased to be able to offer this exciting oppor-
tunity to work with one of the world leaders in innovative
pain management services. We are a multidisciplinary team
(consultants, clinical nurse specialists, physiotherapists and
administrators) who are developing the worldwide research
and clinical benchmarking protocols in pain management
interventions. The team are dedicated to developing ser-
vices which deliver first class care and support to clients
experiencing chronic pain and their families and highly
value the role of psychology in this care pathway.
We are looking for a dedicated, innovative and skilled
HCPC registered health psychologist who wants to expand
their knowledge of developing clinical services to support
those who experience chronic pain. The post holder
would be working as part of the multi-​disciplinary team
to support clients and families by taking a lead on the pain
management programme, developing outpatient psych-
ology clinics and pathways and providing direct clinical
and research support to the pain management programme.
The post holder will be skilled in a range of therapeutic
approaches relevant to health psychology which can be
applied to direct and indirect working.

In particular I am interested in the impact that workplace practices

(both organisational and individual) can have on employee health
status, work-​life balance and performance with their role. My
belief is that in order for organisations to thrive they must first
support their greatest asset –​their employees. In doing so a cen-
tral element of this is the health and wellbeing of employees.
Whereby there should be a focus on creating positive workplace
environments, preventing excessive work-​based stress, building
individual and team resilience and supporting people to flourish
and reach their full potential.
22

22 The development of health psychology

Box 1.2 Job advert 2: Academic health

psychologist
An exciting opportunity has arisen in the School of
Psychology to recruit a highly motivated academic to
support the research strength and teaching capacity in the
area of health psychology.
The successful candidate will have a PhD in health psych-
ology or a related field and/​or be a HCPC Registered
Health Psychologist and full chartered member of the
British Psychological Society. The candidate should have
an established research profile, and experience of super-
vising research students, tutorials and practicals.
The role will encompass involvement and/​or respon-
sibility for developing the health psychology methods
curriculum on both our undergraduate and postgraduate
programmes, alongside our education academics, depending
on experience and seniority.

I am currently Wellbeing Lead at Essex County Council,

working within their Organisation Development and People &
Service Transformation function driving the wellbeing agenda
for their 7,500 employees. The purpose of my role as Wellbeing
Lead is to build our employee wellbeing strategy, action plan and
infrastructure, focusing on four keys pillars of wellbeing: mental,
physical, social and financial wellbeing.
Utilising psychological principles and with a focus on health
behaviour change the purpose of this strategy is to ensure that
the health and wellbeing of our people is woven through every-
thing that the council does. The focus is on evaluating practices
around policies and procedures, day-​to-​day operations, perform-
ance and productivity, absence and presenteeism rates, leadership
and management styles, employee morale and recruitment and
retention rates. Based on this evaluation developing a work-
force wellbeing strategy that: improves employee sense of health
and wellbeing; increases employee engagement and motivation;
23

The development of health psychology 23

improves performance, development and productivity; fosters
better employee relationships and ultimately puts the council in
a stronger position to reach its ambitions.
The day to day in my role can really vary and that is probably
what I enjoy most. A core focus for me at present is on strategy
development and creating a corporate approach to workforce
wellbeing. This involves consultation and stakeholder engage-
ment –​gaining views from across the workforce on how the
strategy should be shaped and what the desired outcomes are for
the organisation. A significant proportion of my role therefore is
focused on collaboration and building professional relationships
across teams and functions. As wellbeing affects all within the
organisation it is about agreeing a corporate approach in which
benefits can be seen by individuals, teams, functions and the wider
community. At present I am working on a range of multidiscip-
linary projects for which day-​to-​day tasks can include conducting
brief literature reviews, virtual team meetings, meetings with
providers, presenting findings and recommendations to leader-
ship and presenting across the workforce around wellbeing and
the current offer. Other regular tasks include: administrative
activities, management meetings, training design and delivery
including taking part in live events and also working on my own
professional development including taking advantage of both
formal and informal learning opportunities (webinars have been
very useful of late!).
I am proud to be representing the rapidly developing field of
health psychology and to be utilising the knowledge and skills
I have gained over the years in both my academic and profes-
sional life to encourage individuals in a work environment to
improve their health.

How to become a health psychologist

To practice as a health psychologist in the UK you must be
registered with the Health Care Professions Council (HCPC).
The HCPC is a regulator of all health and care professions in the
UK including all practitioner psychologists.
24

24 The development of health psychology

Graduate Basis for BPS accredited

degree or conversion
Chartered course
Membership (GBC)

BPS accredited
Stage 1 Masters in Health
Psychology

Qualificaon in Doctorate in Health

Health Psychology Psychology
Stage 2 2 years Typically 3 years
INDEPENDENT TAUGHT

Figure 1.7 Flow chart demonstrating the different stages on how to

become a health psychologist

To begin with you will need to gain Graduate Basis for

Chartered Membership (GBC), which is achieved through
completing a psychology degree accredited by the British
Psychological Society (BPS) or through the successful comple-
tion of a BPS accredited conversion course. The BPS provide a
full list of all GBC courses available.
Once you have achieved GBC status you then need to com-
plete postgraduate training. This is broken down into two stages.

Stage one
Stage one involves the completion of a BPS accredited master’s
degree in health psychology. This stage is focused on developing
the theoretical and academic aspects of the discipline. You will
cover a wide range of topics as part of this course, some of which
will include: health behaviour change, biological mechanisms of
health and disease, stress, chronic health and illness, applications
of health psychology and research methods.
This course will take one year to complete (two years part
time). There are many institutions that offer this course, and the
25

The development of health psychology 25

BPS provide a full list of all accredited courses available in the
UK. Entry requirements can vary among universities, however,
a 2:1 degree classification or above is often desirable, sometimes
essential.

Stage two
This stage is focused on gaining work experience and prac-
titioner skills. You will be required to take part in at least two
years of structured supervision practice and build upon the
academic components of your Masters. You will need to dem-
onstrate skills related to the delivery of professional practice,
psychological interventions, research, consultancy and teaching
and training. Importantly, the completion of Stage two will
enable you to become a Chartered Psychologist. This allows
you to use the designated and highly regarded title ‘CPsychol’.
This title reflects the highest standard of psychological know-
ledge and expertise.
There are multiple routes to completing Stage two, which are
outlined below:

• Option 1: Completion of a Society accredited Doctorate in

Health Psychology at an accredited university. This route is
often referred to as the ‘taught’ route and may be selected by
those who would prefer to attend and complete their Stage
two at a university setting.
• Option 2: Completion of the Society’s Qualification in
Health Psychology (QHP), which involves a minimum of
two years of structured supervised practice. This is often
referred to as the ‘independent route’ and is most suitable for
those who choose not to, or are unable to attend, a univer-
sity based Society-​accredited Stage two training programme.
• Option 3: Another option, and not uncommon, is for PhD
students to complete the option 2 ‘independent route’ along-
side their PhD. The reason being is that many of the skills
they have to demonstrate overlap, for example, conducting
research, delivering interventions as examples.
26

26 The development of health psychology

What can you expect to earn as a health psychologist?

In the NHS, a newly qualified health psychologist enters the
NHS at band 7 with progression to band 8a a few years after
qualification. Progression through the NHS grades is typically
achieved through applying for new roles. Grade 8b/​c/​d roles are
for a Consultant Health Psychologist role, with typically six or
more years of practice experience. Posts do go up to band 9 in
the NHS for Heads of Psychology Services. Details of the most
recent salary scales can be found on the NHS Careers website
www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/​working-​health/​working-​nhs/​nhs-​
pay-​and-​benefits/​agenda-​change-​pay-​rates.
In a university, a newly qualified lecturer (via PhD, doctorate)
will normally be appointed as lecturer dependent on experience.
Universities differ in how the job progression works and the job
titles used. In some universities, you will progress from lecturer,
to senior lecturer to reader, to professor. However, if you have a
teaching background there is also a teaching progression route.
Some universities refer to roles such as associate professor roles,
these are similar to the senior lecturer/​reader role. Progression
is attained through either evidencing a strong research profile
(research publications, attracting grant income) or demonstrating
a strong contribution to the teaching learning and administration
within the department.

Interested in health psychology, now what?

If you are interested in health psychology and want more infor-
mation then please visit the British Psychological Society careers
page https://​careers.bps.org.uk/​area/​health. There is also a range
of useful organisations and networks that you should consider
joining for added benefits, provided below.
The British Psychological Society (BPS) www.bps.org.
uk is a registered charity, which acts as the representative body
for psychology and psychologists in the UK. It is made up of
members from all walks of life whose primary interest is in the
development and application of psychology for the greater public
good. The Society comprises several divisions, each dedicated to
27

The development of health psychology 27

a specialty, and is responsible for the promotion of excellence and
ethical practice in the science, education and practical applications
of psychology.
You can join the BPS as a student member, this is open to
everyone studying on a BPS accredited undergraduate degree or
conversion course. You will get a host of benefits from joining,
including access to The Psychologist and PsychTalk, membership
to your local branch, providing you with networking oppor-
tunities and valuable information for your studies, access to
the BPS Student online community where you can engage,
interact and network with other psychology students as well as
learn from industry professionals, exclusive discounts on books,
events, e-​learning and not to mention free online access to the
Society’s archive of academic journals. Once you graduate you
can become a graduate member of the BPS, which is a pre-
requisite for many of the accredited post-​g raduate and Doctoral
programmes.
The British Psychological Society also has a Division of
Health Psychology, which promotes the professional interests
of health psychologists and assists its members with the develop-
ment of their professional skills in research, consultancy, teaching
and training. They offer lots of useful resources including: adver-
tising relevant events, provide careers advice and support and you
will also receive a regular edition of the Health Psychology Update,
a publication edited by the Division of Health Psychology. Join
to become a student member by visiting www.bps.org.uk/​
member-​microsites/​division-​health-​psychology.
There are also local health psychology networks that you may
find useful:
Midlands Health Psychology Network www.mhpn.co.uk/​,
which operates as a professional forum for health psychology
enthusiasts across the East and West Midlands to share clinical
and research experiences and information. They host numerous
events for all members throughout the year including: an annual
conference, CPD workshops, training and networking events. All
members will also receive a quarterly newsletter where members
are kept up to date with local health psychology events, job and
training opportunities.
28

28 The development of health psychology

The Behavioural Science and Public Health Network
www.bsphn.org.uk/​is also a useful organisation, which aims
to bring together professionals (and students) with an interest
in behavioural and social science and public health. Benefits
include: discounted fees for events, workshops and CPD sessions,
annual conference, publications and dissemination from events
and regular updates.

Final overview and summary

• Health has been recently defined as ‘the ability to adapt
and self-​manage in the face of social, physical, and emo-
tional challenges’ [12]. Whilst there has been debate on how
health should be conceptualised it remains clear that there is
increased focus on the importance of our social and emo-
tional health.
• Across time there has been a shift from the more traditional
biomedical view, where the mind and body were viewed
as separate entities, to the more contemporary viewpoint,
where the mind-​body are entwined and suggests that behav-
ioural factors can influence our health and illness. This
biopsychosocial approach proposes that biological, psy-
chological and social factors act together to determine an
individual’s health or vulnerability to disease.
• Health psychology aims to understand the psychological
processes that underpin health and illness and use this
knowledge to promote and maintain health, prevent illness
and disability and enhance outcomes for those who are
ill[14].
• Whilst in recent decades we have seen major public health
achievements, one death in every four still could be prevented.
Health psychologists are well placed to address this through
their knowledge of the modifiable determinants of health
and illness, and development and evaluation of interventions
to change health behaviours at an individual, group and
community level. Understanding health behaviour will also
serve to reduce the ever-​increasing health inequalities that
exist in our society.
29

References 29
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