The Early Middle Ages

After the collapse of Rome, Western Europe entered a period of political, social, and economic decline. From about 500 to 1000, invaders swept across the
region, trade declined, towns emptied, and classical learning halted. For those reasons, this period in Europe is sometimes called the “Dark Ages.”
However, Greco-Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions eventually blended, creating the medieval civilization. This period between ancient times and
modern times – from about 500 to 1500 – is called the Middle Ages.

The Frankish Kingdom

The Germanic tribes that conquered parts of the Roman Empire included the Goths, Vandals, Saxons, and Franks. In 486, Clovis, king of the Franks,
conquered the former Roman province of Gaul, which later became France. He ruled his land according to Frankish custom, but also preserved much of
the Roman legacy by converting to Christianity. In the 600s, Islamic armies swept across North Africa and into Spain, threatening the Frankish kingdom
and Christianity. At the battle of Tours in 732, Charles Martel led the Frankish army in a victory over Muslim forces, stopping them from invading France
and pushing farther into Europe. This victory marked Spain as the furthest extent of Muslim civilization and strengthened the Frankish kingdom.

After Charlemagne died in 814,

Charlemagne his heirs battled for control of the
In 786, the grandson of Charles Martel became king of the Franks. He briefly united Western
empire, finally dividing it into
Europe when he built an empire reaching across what is now France, Germany, and part of
three regions with the Treaty of
Italy. He became known as Charlemagne, or Charles the Great. He was also declared a new
Verdun. Although Europe lost its
Roman emperor, when in 800 the pope in Rome placed a crown on his head as a show of
unity, Charlemagne left a lasting
gratitude for helping put down a rebellion. This act linked the Germanic Frankish kingdom
legacy of extending Christian
with the Christian Church in Rome. Charlemagne then set out to create a united Christian
civilization into northern Europe
Europe by spreading Christianity to conquered people. Charlemagne viewed education as
and setting up a strong
another way to unify his kingdom. He revived Latin learning throughout his empire by
government.
creating local schools and bringing the best scholars of Europe to his court at Aachen.

Viking Raiders
The Vikings broke the last threads of unity in Charlemagne’s empire. They were expert sailors, and starting in the late 700s,
they burst out of Scandinavia – a northern region that now includes Norway, Sweden, and Denmark – and began attacking
communities along the coasts and rivers of Europe. They were also traders and explorers who sailed around the
Mediterranean Sea and across the Atlantic Ocean. Around the year 1000 they set up a short-lived colony in North America.
Vikings opened trade route that linked Europe to Mediterranean lands. They also settled in England, Ireland, northern
France, and Russia. As a result of the threat that Vikings posed, Europe developed a system of rule in which local lords had a
great deal of power in order to protect their people. This system became known as feudalism.
 Feudalism and the Manor Economy
Feudalism
A new decentralized political and economic system governed European life during the Middle Ages.
Feudalism was a loosely organized system of rule in which powerful local lords divided their landholdings
among lesser lords. In exchange, these lesser lords, or vassals, pledged service and loyalty to the greater Loyalty Land
lord. The political and economic relationship between lords and vassals was based on the exchange of
land for loyalty and military service. Under this system, a powerful lord granted his vassal a fief, or estate.
The fief included land, peasants that lived and worked on the land, and towns and buildings within it. As
part of this agreement, the lord promised to protect his vassal and the vassal pledged military service and
money to the lord.

Manors: A Self-Sufficient World

The Manor: A Lord’s Estate The heart of the feudal economy was the manor, or lord’s estate. Most manors included one or more villages
and the surrounding lands. Peasants, who made up the majority of the population in medieval society, lived and
worked on the manor. Most peasants on a manor were serfs, bound to the land. Peasants and their lords were
tied together by mutual rights and obligations. Peasants had to farm the lord’s land, repair parts of the town, ask
the lord’s permission to marry, and pay taxes. In return for their labor peasants had the right to food, housing,
and land, and were protected during war. During the Middle Ages, the manor was generally self-sufficient. The
peasants who live there produced almost everything they needed. A typical manor included a village, a water
mill to grind grain, a church, and the lord’s manor hose. The fields surrounding the village were divided into
strips for each family to farm. Beyond that lay pastures for animals and forests for hunting. Most peasants did
not leave the manor and had education or knowledge of the outside world.

Society during the Middle Ages

For medieval nobles, warfare was a way of life. Many nobles began training in boyhood to be a knight. After years of strict training in combat and
discipline, a knight was ready to fight. They usually fought on horseback using swords, axes, and lances. Knights lived within a lord’s castle and were
sworn to protect him, as well as serve with bravery and honor. This code of conduct for knights was called chivalry. Knights were also expected to protect
the weak, including peasants and noblewomen. Noblewomen played active roles in medieval society. While her husband or father was off fighting, the
“lady of the manor” took over his duties. However, women’s rights were generally restricted during this time, and although women could inherit land,
usually land was passed to the eldest son in a family. Daughters of nobles were sent away for training in weaving, spinning, and sometimes even reading
and writing, and were expected to be dutiful to their husband. Life for peasants was harsh; men, women, and children all worked long hours in the field.
As a result of their poor diet and living conditions on the manor, peasants rarely lived over the age of 35.
 The Age of Faith
During the Middle Ages, two distinct churches emerged: the Orthodox Christian Church in the east and the Roman Catholic Church in the west. The
Roman Catholic Church became the main stabilizing force in Western Europe, as strong government no longer existed after the fall of Rome. The Church
provided both religious and secular leadership, and played a key role in reviving and preserving learning.

The Power of the Church

The main responsibility of the Church was to serve the spiritual needs of medieval society. Local priests instructed peasants and townspeople in the faith
and provided comfort to them in troubled time. They provided sacraments, or sacred spiritual rituals that were required to achieve salvation. During the
Middle Ages the Church also filled many secular, or worldly roles. It was the largest landholder in Europe, which gave it great economic power, and had its
own set of laws, called canon law. The leaders of the Church claimed papal supremacy, or authority over all the kings and queens of Europe. Individuals or
leaders who went against the church could be excommunicated, or denied the sacraments. Whole towns or kingdoms could be denied the sacraments via
an interdict. Essentially, not receiving sacraments condemned one to hell.
Social Economic Political
 Set up local churches  Tithe  Canon law
 Provided care for the sick and poor  10% tax paid to the church  Inquisition – Church court
 Excommunication  Largest landholder in Europe  Papal Supremacy
 Festivals and ceremonies  Agricultural and commercial activity in  Interdict
 Mass, wedding, baptism, burial monasteries  Crusades

Church Hierarchy
At the head of the Roman Catholic Church was the pope, whom followers believed to be the
spiritual representative of God on earth. Below the pope came archbishops, bishops, and
local priests. Parishioners are those that worship in and belong to a specific church.

Monastic Orders
Some men and women became monks or nuns, leaving worldly society and devoting their lives to God. They entered monasteries and
convents, communities where Christian men or women focused on their spiritual lives. Monks and nuns took vows to live in poverty
and chastity, or purity. Monks and nuns fulfilled many social needs, such as tending to the sick, helping the poor, and educating
children. Many of them also became missionaries, spreading the Christian faith to other lands.
 The Commercial Revolution
Changes in Europe by 1000 A.D. set the foundation for economic prosperity throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. Peasants adopted new farming
technologies, such as the iron plow, and new techniques, such as the three-field system. With more food available, the population began to grow. Trade
also increased to meet a growing demand for goods. Trade organizations, such as the Hanseatic League in Northern Europe, were
formed to protect trading interests. As food surplus, population, and trade all increased, cities and towns also grew throughout Europe.

The Commercial Revolution

As trade revived, the use of money increased. In time, the need for capital, or money for investment,
stimulated the growth of banks. Many new ways of doing business were also developed. Credit was extending
by merchants to be paid back at a later time. Groups of merchants joined together in partnerships, where
funds were pooled to finance large-scale ventures that would be too costly for an individual businessman.
Merchants also developed a system of insurance to protect their interests. These new business practices were
part of a commercial revolution that transformed the medieval economy. It also transformed medieval society
by undermining the feudal system. The use of money changed the relationship between feudal lord and the
serfs living on the land, eventually leading to serfs leaving the land for cities and other jobs.

The Rise of the Middle Class

In towns, the old social order of nobles, clergy, and peasants gradually changed. By the year 1000, merchants, traders, and artisans formed a new social
group called the middle class. In medieval towns, the middle class gained economic and political power. Merchants and artisans formed guilds,
associations that represented workers in one occupation and protected their interests. It took years to become a member of a guild. At an early age, an
apprentice would begin training with a guild master to learn a specific trade. The guild master paid no wages, but was required to give the apprentice
food and housing. After many years of work a guild member might be able to own their own business.

Town and City Life

Medieval towns and cities were surrounded by high, protective walls. As a city
grew, it became overcrowded and there were very poor conditions for the city
dwellers. There were no garbage collections or sewer systems in medieval
Europe, instead people threw their waste into the street. Towns were filthy,
smelly, noisy, and crowded. Disease quickly spread in this environment. As a
result of the close houses and other buildings, fires also spread quickly and often
whole cities were burned.