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Arab migrations to the Maghreb

The Arab migrations to the Maghreb[a]
Arab migrations to the Maghreb
involved successive waves of migration and
settlement by Arab people in the Maghreb region of
North Africa (excluding Egypt), encompassing
modern-day Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia.
The process took place over several centuries, lasting
from the early 7th century to the 17th century. The
Map depicting the routes Umayyad armies took
Arab migrants hailed from the Middle East,
during the Arab conquest of the Maghreb in the
particularly the Arabian Peninsula, with later groups
7th century
arriving from the Levant and Iraq.
Date c. 7th century — 17th century
The influx of Arabs to the Maghreb began in the 7th Location Maghreb, North Africa
century with the Arab conquest of the Maghreb, Cause See causes
when Arab armies conquered the region as part of
Participants Total unknown:
the early Muslim conquests. This initial wave of
Arab migration was followed by subsequent periods 150,000 (7th century)[1][2]
of migration and settlement, notably during the 1,000,000 (11th century)[3]
Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates and later Arab
Outcome Arab population growth,
dynasties. However, the most significant wave of
Arabization, Islamization and
Arab migration occurred in the 11th century with the
nomadization of the Maghreb
arrival of more Bedouin tribes from the Arabian
Peninsula, such as Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym, and
Maqil.[7] The last significant wave of Arab migration to the Maghreb was from Al-Andalus in the
17th century as a result of the Reconquista. These migrants established numerous Arab empires
and dynasties in the Maghreb, such as the Aghlabids, Idrisids, Sulaymanids, Salihids, Fatimids,
Saadians and 'Alawites.

The Arab migrations to the Maghreb had a profound impact on the demographics and culture of
the Maghreb. It resulted in significant Arab demographic growth, the Arabization of the Berber
populations and the spread of the Arabic language and Arab culture throughout the region. The
descendants of the Arab settlers in the Maghreb are known as Maghrebi Arabs.

History and migrations

Rashidun and Umayyad era (7th–8th century)

Arab migration to the Maghreb first started in the 7th century with the Arab conquest of the
Maghreb. This first started in 647 under the Rashidun Caliphate, when Abdallah ibn Sa'd led the
invasion with 20,000 soldiers from Medina in the Arabian Peninsula, swiftly taking over
Tripolitania and then defeating a much larger Byzantine army at the Battle of Sufetula in the same
year, forcing the new Byzantine Exarch of Africa to pay tribute.[8] Increasing Arab migration
towards the end of the 7th century finally overcame Berber and Byzantine resistance, gradually
converting the Berbers to Islam and incorporating the entire Maghreb into the Umayyad

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Caliphate.[9]Throughout the period of conquest, Arab migrants settled in all parts of the Maghreb,
coming as peaceful newcomers and were welcomed everywhere. Large Arab settlements were
established in many areas. A considerable portion of the Arab settlers belonged to the Najdi tribe
of Banu Tamim.[10] During the earliest Muslim conquests in the 7th to 8th centuries, about
150,000 Arabs settled in the Maghreb.[1][11][12][13]

Arabians arrived in the Maghreb in large numbers after an expedition by the Banu Muzaina tribe
to the Maghreb under the leadership of Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi in the 7th or 8th century.[14] The
Arab Muslim conquerors had a much more durable impact on the culture of the Maghreb than did
the region's conquerors before and after them, and by the 11th century, the Berbers had become
Islamized and Arabized.[15]

Upon arriving in the Maghreb, the Arabs had to decide between settling in existing Roman and
Byzantine towns or constructing new Arab towns in new locations. Archaeological and historical
evidence suggests that they did both. Arab groups settled in old Roman towns such as Setif and
Cherchell in Algeria and imposed their own architectural needs on the old, while other groups built
totally new towns such as Basra, Fez, Qsar es-Seghir and Sijilmasa in Morocco.[16]

The Umayyad conquest brought in 40,000 Arab troops who

had originally served in Egypt. These troops and their
descendants became a hereditary ruling class, with very few
elites being outsiders. These soldiers were rewarded with land
grants, creating an Arab aristocracy with substantial territory,
cultivated mostly by slaves from sub-Saharan Africa. An
example of these were the Fihrids, descendants of Uqba ibn
Nafi, who occupied a privileged position in Ifriqiyan (modern-
day Tunisia) and Andalusi society. There were other powerful
Arab settlers who briefly appeared in the sources, especially
those of Qurayshi ancestry.[18] Arab settlers mostly settled in
Dirham coin of caliph Hisham ibn
cities, such as Kairouan, until the migration of the nomadic Abd al-Malik. He is known for having
Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym in the 11th century.[19] During said "I will not leave a single Berber
this time, the majority of Maghrebi Arabs were Qahtanites compound without pitching beside it
from South Arabia.[20] a tent of a tribesman from Qays or
Tamim".[17]
The Umayyad Caliphate was aware of the importance of the
spread and settlement of Arabs in the Maghreb to the Caliph.
Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik swore that he would send a large army and added "I will
not leave a single Berber compound without pitching beside it a tent of a tribesman from Qays or
Tamim".[17]

Abbasid era (8th century)

During the rule of the Abbasid Caliphate, there was a great influx of Khurasani Arabs from Iraq to
the Maghreb. These were mostly North Arabian tribes, among them was the Najdi tribe of Banu
Tamim. This shifted the tribal balance of Ifriqiya in favor of the North Arabian Adnanite tribes who
became the majority, to the detriment of the formerly more numerous South Arabian Qahtanite
tribes.[20]

Aghlabid and Idrisid era (9th century)

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In 800, Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab was appointed as governor of

Ifriqiya by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. He founded the
Aghlabid dynasty, a dynasty of emirs from the tribe of Banu
Tamim. During this time, Arab migration increased in numbers
due to the anti-Kharijite wars against the Rustamid dynasty.
The number of Arab migrants of Ifriqiya concentrated in the
Aghlabid dinar issued during the
army and the cities, mainly Kairouan, has been estimated at
reign of Emir Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab
100,000. Most of the Arab migrants came from Syria and Iraq,
which from the start supplied numerous migrants to the
Maghreb.[21] The organization of the Aghlabid army was largely based on the Arab tribes who
settled in Ifriqiya in the late 7th and 8th centuries. The troops were paid at clearly defined times,
while cavalry received twice as much as infantry because of the greater cost of their horses and
equipment.[22] These troops were called the jund, descendants of Arab tribesmen who had
participated in the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. They often rebelled against the Aghlabid
regime.[23]

In 789, Ali ibn Abi Talib's descendant Idris ibn Abdallah fled from the Hejaz and arrived in Tangier
after the failed revolt against the Abbasids in the Battle of Fakhkh. He later moved to Walili and
founded the city of Fez in the same year. He founded the Hashemite Idrisid dynasty, which
established control over modern-day Morocco and western Algeria. The Idrisid dynasty played an
important role in the early Islamization of the area, and contributed to an increase in Arab
migration and Arabization in major urban centers of the western Maghreb.[24] Several Shia Arabs
rapidly flocked to Fez, Arabizing the region. Fez experienced large waves of Arab migration,
including one which involved 800 Arabs from Al-Andalus in 818 and one which involved 2,000
Arab families from Ifriqiya in 824.[25]

These Arab political entities, in addition to the Salihids and Fatimids, were influential in
encouraging Arabization by attracting Arab migrants and by promoting Arab culture. In addition,
disturbances and political unrest in the Mashriq compelled the Arabs to migrate to the Maghreb in
search of security and stability. Arab immigration from the Mashriq to the Maghreb increased
during periods of unrest and disorder.[17]

Arab tribes in the Maghreb (9th century)

By the 3rd century AH (9th century CE), there were numerous Arab tribes in the Maghreb.
According to al-Ya'qubi, in the mountains near Cyrenaica were the Arab tribes of Azd, Lakhm,
Judham, al-Sadaf, and other Yemenite tribes on the eastern mountain, and Ghassan, Judham, Azd,
Tujayb and others on the western mountain. In Waddan, there was a group that claimed to be
Yemenite, and in Zawila, there were Arabs from the region of Khurasan and the cities of Basra and
Kufa.[17]

In Kairouan, there were Arabs from Quraysh and other tribes within the groupings of Mudar,
Rabi'a and Qahtan. In nearby Al-Jazira, there were Arabs from Banu Adi and other groups. In
Satfura, there were people from Quraysh and Quda'a, in Baja there were people from Banu
Hashim, and in Majjana there were people from Diyar Rabi'a.[17]

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In al-Zab, in its capital Tobna, there was Quraysh, and other Arabs. In Sétif, there were tribesmen
from Banu Asad ibn Khuzaymah. In Bilizma, the population consisted of tribesmen from Banu
Tamim. Al-Ya'qubi's information does not include the whole Maghreb, such as the western
Maghreb where the Idrisids arrived with Arab tribes and encouraged other Arabs to arrive.[17]

Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym (11th century)

The 11th century witnessed the most significant wave of Arab
migration, surpassing all previous movements. This event
unfolded when the Zirid dynasty of Ifriqiya proclaimed its
independence from the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. In
retribution against the Zirids, the Fatimids dispatched large
Bedouin Arab tribes, mainly the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym,
to defeat the Zirids and settle in the Maghreb. These tribes
followed a nomadic lifestyle and were originally from the Hejaz
Migration routes of Banu Hilal and
and Najd.[14] Banu Sulaym from the Arabian
Peninsula to Egypt
To persuade the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym to migrate to the
Maghreb, the Fatimid caliph gave each tribesman a camel and
money and helped them cross from the east to the west bank of the Nile River. The severe drought
in Egypt at the time also persuaded these tribes to migrate to the Maghreb, which had a better
economic situation at the time. The Fatimid caliph instructed them to rule the Maghreb instead of
the Zirid emir Al-Mu'izz and told them "I have given you the Maghrib and the rule of al-Mu'izz ibn
Balkīn as-Sanhājī the runaway slave. You will want for nothing." and told Al-Mu'izz "I have sent
you horses and put brave men on them so that God might accomplish a matter already enacted".[3]

Upon arriving in Cyrenaica, the Arab nomads found the region

almost empty of its inhabitants, except a few Zenata Berbers
that Al-Mu'izz had already mostly destroyed.[3] The number of
Hilalians who moved westward out of Egypt has been
estimated as high as 200,000 families.[26] Cyrenaica was left to
be settled by Banu Sulaym while the Hilalians marched
westwards. As a result of the settlement by Arab tribes,
Cyrenaica became the most Arab place in the Arab world after
Rare Arabic manuscript of the orally
the interior of Arabia.[26] According to Ibn Khaldun, the Arab transmitted epic poem about the
tribes were accompanied by their wives, children and stock. Bedouin Banu Hilal, by Hussein Al-
They settled in the Maghreb after repeatedly fighting battles Ulaimi, 1849 CE, origin unknown
against the Berbers, such as the Battle of Haydaran. The Zirids
abandoned Kairouan to take refuge on the coast where they
survived for a century. The Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym spread on the high plains of Constantine
where they gradually obstructed the Qal'at Bani Hammad as they had done to Kairouan a few
decades ago. From there, they gradually gained control over the high plains of Algiers and Oran. In
the second half of the 12th century, they went to the Moulouya valley and the Atlantic coast in the
western Maghreb to areas such as Doukkala.[27]

They heavily transformed the culture of the Maghreb into Arab culture, and spread nomadism in
areas where agriculture was previously dominant.[14] It played a major role in spreading Bedouin
Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near the
Sahara.[17] In addition, they destroyed the Berber Zirid state and most of its cities, sparing only the

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Mediterranean coastal strip at al-Mahdiyya, and deeply weakened the neighboring Hammadid
dynasty and the Zenata. Their influx was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural, genetic and
ethnic Arabization of the Maghreb.[14] According to Ibn Khaldun, the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal
invaders had become desertified and turned into completely arid desert. The journey of Banu Hilal
is recounted in the Arabic oral poem of Sirat Bani Hilal.[14]

Sources estimated that the total number of Arab nomads who migrated to the Maghreb in the 11th
century was at around 1 million Arabs.[3] Historian Mármol Carvajal estimated that more than a
million Hilalians migrated to the Maghreb between 1051-1110, and estimated that the Hilalian
population at his time in 1573 was at 4,000,000 individuals, excluding other Arab tribes and other
Arabs already present.[28]

Almohad and Marinid era (12th–15th century)

To weaken resistance by Arab tribes in Ifriqiya, the
Almohad ruler Abd al-Mu'min transferred them to
Morocco in large numbers and settled them in the
Atlantic plains in the 12th century. The region was
formerly inhabited by the Barghawata tribal group,
however this area was largely destroyed and
depopulated by the Almoravids in their war against
the heretic Barghawata, and it was depopulated
again by an Almohad expedition in 1149–1150 and
again in 1197–1198 to suppress revolts against them Chaamba riding a camel in southern Tunisia, c.
in the region. [29] The Almohads helped the Arab 1934.
tribes pass the barriers of the Atlas Mountains, and
accelerated their expansion to Morocco to complete
the nomadic Bedouin predominance over the lowlands of the Maghreb as far as the Atlantic coastal
plains. The Arab tribes increasingly played an important role in the politics of the Almohad
Empire.[29]

The Almohad government thus helped the Arabs to overcome the barriers of the Atlas
mountains, and accelerated their expansion into Morocco to complete the nomads'
predominance over the lowlands of the Maghrib as far as the Atlantic. The appearance of
the Arabs added to the complexity of the ethnic composition of Morocco, and introduced
a significant non-Berber element to the population. The Arabs also increased pasture
lands at the expense of agriculture, which gradually became confined to the mountains.

— Roland Oliver, [29]

Abd al-Mu'min expected opposition from the Masmuda to whom he was a stranger, so he gained
Arab support to secure the succession of his son. With the decline of the Almohad army, the Arab
nomads became the most powerful force in the Moroccan plains, and no ruler could have held
authority there without their support.[29] The later 'Alawite dynasty came to power in the 17th
century with the help of these Arab tribes, who they mobilized against the powerful Berber
principality of Dila'iyyah.[30]

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Under the Marinid dynasty (1244–1465), the Arabs grew in importance in Morocco. Due to the
lack of Zenata supporters, they welcomed the support of Arab nomads who already began to
penetrate into the country under the Almohads. The Zenata were heavily assimilated into Arab
culture and the Marinid Makhzan (government) composed of both Arabs and Zenata. This led to
the expansion of Arab tribes into Morocco where they settled in the plains, and many Berber
groups were Arabized. Under the Marinids, Arabic became both the common and official
language.[31] Like the Marinids, the Zayyanid dynasty of the Kingdom of Tlemcen had to rely on
Arab nomads for soldiers.[32][33]

Ma'qil and Beni Hassan (13th–15th century)

The Ma'qilis also entered the Maghreb during this wave of Arabian tribal immigration in the 11th
century. They later allied with the Banu Hilal and entered under their protection.[34] They adapted
to the climatic desert conditions of the Maghreb, discovering the same way of life as in the Arabian
Peninsula.[35] In the 13th century, the Ma'qilis occupied southern Algeria, including the oasis
towns of Tuat and Gourara. For some authors, at this point, the Ma'qil had already split into many
tribes in the Maghreb and had given rise to the Beni Hassan along with other Ma'qili tribes.[36]

The Beni Hassan expanded southwest and occupied

Sanhaja lands in the 13th century after invading and
defeating the Berber confederation.[36] The Sanhaja
has long had to pay tribute to the nomadic Bedouin
Hassani invaders.[36] The invasion was quick and
effective and happened around the year 1250, by the
end of the Almohad Caliphate. Additionally, the
Beni Hassan dominated the valleys of the
Moulouya, Draa, Sous, as well as the Tafilalt oasis Saharan family c. 1970 to 1974
region.[37]

Historical accounts report that these Hassani communities enriched themselves by collecting tolls
from trade caravans and extorting farming and herding villages settled in the oases.[38] This took
place during the Char Bouba War in modern day Western Sahara and Mauritania from 1644 to
1674, which after decades of confrontations ended up completely Arabizing the native Berber
population, destroying their language and culture and giving rise to the contemporary Sahrawi
people.[38][39][40]

The Moorish Sahara is the western extremity of the Arab World. Western it certainly is,
some districts further west than Ireland, yet in its way of life, its culture, its literature and
in many of its social customs, it has much in common with the heart lands of the Arab
East, in particular with the Hijaz and Najd and parts of the Yemen

— Harry T. Norris, [41]

Andalusi refugees (15th–17th century)

Starting from the late 15th century, a new wave of Arabs arrived as refugees from Al-Andalus in
response to the persecution they faced under Christian Spanish rule after the fall of Granada in the
Reconquista in 1492.[42] In 1609, Spain implemented the Expulsion of the Moriscos, which aimed
to forcibly remove all Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula, expelling about 275,000 to 300,000 of

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them.[43] Accustomed to urban life, they settled in urban cities in the Maghreb, including Fez,
Rabat and Tangier in Morocco, Tlemcen and Constantine in Algeria, and Kairouan, Tunis and
Bizerte in Tunisia. They brought with them the urban dialects of Andalusi Arabic, which they
introduced to the existing Bedouin Arabic dialects of the Maghreb.[44] This event greatly increased
the process of Arabization in the Maghreb from the 15th to the 17th century.[45] There were several
Arab tribes in Al-Andalus, of which the most prominent were Qays, Kilab, Uqayl, Mudar, Rabi'a,
Yaman, Tayy, Lakhm, Judham, Amilah, and Quda'a.[46]

Causes
There were multiple factors that caused Arabs to migrate to the Maghreb. The first Arabs arrived in
the 7th century with the goals of conquering Byzantine territories in the Maghreb and spreading
Islam to the local populations, as well as protecting Egypt "from flank attack by Byzantine Cyrene"
according to historian Will Durant.[47] The later Arabs that arrived in the 11th century were driven
by factors such as instability and political unrest in the Mashriq, compelling them to settle in the
Maghreb in search of security and stability. Arab immigration from the Mashriq to the Maghreb
increased during periods of unrest and disorder.[17] A notable example of this was during the
period of severe drought in Egypt due to a fall in the level of the Nile river, as well as plague and
economic crisis. This encouraged Arab Bedouin tribes such as Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym to
settle in the Maghreb, which enjoyed a better economic situation at the time. The Fatimid caliph
further persuaded them to march westwards by giving each tribesman a camel and money and
helping them cross from the east to the west bank of the Nile.[3]

Other Arab nomads were encouraged to settle in the Maghreb by local Arab dynasties, such as the
Idrisids, Aghlabids, Salihids and Fatimids, to fulfil the Arabization of the non-Arab populations.[17]
Commercial activities such as the Trans-Saharan trade boosted the expansion of Islam and spread
of Arabic, and trade with the Mashriq brought several Arab groups to the Maghreb.[17] The Arab
emigrants to the Maghreb from the 15th to the 17th century were largely refugees from Al-Andalus
who left Christian Spanish persecution following the Fall of Granada in 1492.[42]

Impact

Arabization
A major effect of the Arab migrations to the Maghreb was the Arabization of its population. With
the large-scale arrival of Arab migrants, the indigenous Berber population underwent a process of
Arabization, in which they adopted Arab culture and language. The early wave of migration prior to
the 11th century contributed to the Berber adoption of Arab culture. Furthermore, the Arabic
language spread during this period and drove Latin into extinction in the cities. The Arabization
took place around Arab major towns through the influence of Arabs in the cities and rural areas
surrounding them.[17]

The migration of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym in the 11th century had a much greater influence on
the process of Arabization than the migration beforehand. It played a major role in spreading
Bedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas
near the Sahara.[17] It also heavily transformed the culture of the Maghreb into Arab culture, and
spread Bedouin nomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant.[14] These Bedouin
tribes accelerated and deepened the Arabization process, since the Berber population was

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gradually assimilated by the newcomers and had to share with them pastures and seasonal
migration paths. By around the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had already been
almost completely Arabized.[48]

Islamization
The Umayyad Caliphate played a significant role in the Islamization of the Maghreb during their
rule. Umayyad campaigns into the Maghreb were highly successful. In 705, Musa ibn Nusayr
launched a great campaign to the western Maghreb and seized most cities there. This allowed him
to impose his authority over the entire Maghreb, so he then continued the program of spreading
Islam and the Arabic language through missionary activity and chose seventeen religious scholars
to convert the locals. Many people became Muslims at the hands of these scholars and the
inhabitants of the Maghreb gradually converted to Islam.[3] Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz sent to
the governor of Ifriqiya Ismail ibn Abdallah all scholars and men of culture, who were ordered to
teach the religion of Islam.[3] They were distributed around the regions of the Maghreb. In less
than one century, the great majority of Christians converted to Islam with 'great zeal that they
sought martyrdom', and the final conversions took place in the first two centuries after the
hijrah.[3] The Berbers were the only people to be incorporated into the Umayyad armies and to
have converted to Islam on such a large scale.[20]

Nomadization
The influx of Arab tribes of the 11th century into the Maghreb
significantly contributed to the desertification and
nomadization of the Maghreb. The Banu Hilal conquered lands
which they largely destroyed, whose cultivation then began to
decline, leading to the rise of nomadism. According to Ibn
Khaldun, the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become
desertified and turned into completely arid desert. As Arab
nomads spread, the territories of the local Berber tribes moved A group of Bedouins in Libya
and shrank. The Zenata were pushed to the west and the
Kabyles were pushed to the north. The Berbers took refuge in
the mountains whereas the plains were Arabized.[49] The arrival of the Banu Hilal, followed by the
Banu Sulaym in the 12th century, broke the balance between nomads and sedentary populations in
favor of the nomads. For strategic reasons, the Almohads gave over the Atlantic plains of the
western Maghreb to them.[50]

Genetics
A study from 2002 revealed that the second most-frequent Haplogroup in the Maghreb was
Haplogroup J1-M267 (Eu10), which originated in the Middle East (the highest frequency of 30%–
62.5% has been observed in Muslim Arab populations in the Middle East).[51] The study found out
that the majority of Eu10 chromosomes in the Maghreb are due to the recent gene flow caused by
the Arab migrations to the Maghreb in the first millennium CE.[51] Both southern Qahtanite and
northern Adnanite Arabs added to the heterogenous Maghrebi ethnic melting pot. Therefore it has
been established that the Eu10 chromosome pool in the Maghreb is derived not only from early
Neolithic dispersions but to a much greater extent from recent expansions of Arab tribes from the
Arabian Peninsula.[51] The results of a more recent study from 2017 suggested that the Arab
migrations to the Maghreb were mainly a demographic process that heavily implied gene flow and
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remodeled the genetic structure of the Maghreb,

rather than a mere cultural replacement as claimed
by older studies.[52] Haplogroup J1-M267 accounts
for around 30% of Maghrebis and is assumed to
have spread out of the Arabia Peninsula into North
Africa, second after E1b1b1b which accounts for
45% of Maghrebis. According to a study from 2021,
the highest frequency of the Middle Eastern
component ever observed in North Africa so far was
observed in the Arabs of Wesletia in Tunisia, who
had a Middle Eastern component frequency of Distribution of Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)
71.8%. [53] According to a study from 2004,
Haplogroup J1 had a frequency of 35% in Algerians
and 34.2% in Tunisians.[54] Recent genome-wide analysis of North Africans found substantial
shared ancestry with the Middle East, and to a lesser extent sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. This
recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations increased genetic similarities between North
Africans and Middle Easterners.[55]

Contemporary demographics

Arab tribes
These Arab tribes settled in the Maghreb and emerged into several contemporary sub-tribes. The
most notable Arab tribes of Morocco include Abda, Ahl Rachida, Azwafit, Banu Ma'qil, Banu
Tamim, Beni Ahsen, Beni 'Amir, Beni Guil, Beni Ḥassān, Banu Hilal, Beni Khirane, Beni Mathar,
Beni Moussa, Banu Sulaym, Beni Zemmour, Chaouia, Doukkala, Hyayna, Khlout, Mzab, Oulad
Delim, Oulad Tidrarin, Oulad Zyan, Rahamna, Sless, Zaër, Zyayda. There are several tribes of
Bedouin origin throughout Tunisia, such as Banu Hudhayl and Shammar, however they are not
very nomadic nowadays and they mostly live in towns. The major Arab tribes in Libya are
Qadhadhfa, Magarha, Warfalla, Firjan, Saʿada and Murabtin, Masamir, Zuwayya, Awlad Busayf,
Awlad Sulayman and Abaydat. The most well known Arab tribes of Algeria are Chaamba,
Dhouaouda, Doui-Menia, Ghenanma, Beni Hassan, Ouled Djerir, Awlad Sidi Shaykh, Banu
Tamim, Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym, Thaaliba, Ouled Nail, Beni Amer, Hamyan and many more.
Bedouin tribes in Algeria primarily live in the Algerian Desert.[56]

Arabic dialects
The Arab migrations led to the emergence of
Bedouin dialects in the Maghreb, commonly known
as Hilalian dialects. These dialects are spoken in
various regions, including the Atlantic plains in
Morocco, the High Plains and Sahara regions in
Algeria, the Sahel in Tunisia, and the regions of
Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in Libya. The Bedouin
dialects can be classified into four primary varieties:
Sulaymi dialects (Libya and southern Tunisia), Map of the dispersion of the Arabic language
Eastern Hilalian dialects (central Tunisia and
eastern Algeria), Central Hilalian dialects (south

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and central Algeria), Ma'qili dialects (western Algeria and Morocco) and Hassaniya dialects
(Mauritania, Western Sahara and southern Morocco; also classified as Maqil).[57][58] In Morocco,
Bedouin Arabic dialects are spoken in plains and in recently founded cities such as Casablanca.
Thus, the city Arabic dialect shares with the Bedouin dialects gal 'to say' (qala); they also represent
the bulk of modern urban dialects, such as those of Oran and Algiers.[59]

Demographics
Today, the Arabs make up the majority of the population of the countries of the Maghreb,
comprising 70%[60] to 80%[61] of Algeria, 92%[62] to 97%[63] of Libya, 67%[64] to 70%[65] of
Morocco and 98% of Tunisia.[66]

See also
History of the Arabs
Spread of Islam

Notes
a. also referred to as the Arab migrations to North Africa, Arab invasions of the Maghreb,[4]
Arab settlement of the Maghreb[5] or the Arabization of the Maghreb.[6]

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