; 2 yw a Due to their shiny appearance they ean be Particular widely used for jewelry. In the Old days, mirrors were made of shiny’ metals ike silver. Silver isa very good It reflects abot Fhe light falling omit. All modem mirrors contain atin coating of metals Metals are mostly “Their hardness varies from one metal to another. 1 metals like sodium, potassium and ma ‘easy to cut. ©. . Metals, to ‘Most metals are malleable. Gold) and metals are metals. They can be hammered into , Thin ‘aluminium foils are widely used ing of medicines, chocolates and food materia rs ‘Metals ean be drawn Wires are made ane ani e _ Electric wires in our homes are made of aluminium asd ep Tey > electricity. Electricity =. ‘10. and i silver are used for electrical contacts in computers. used sp eecteal appliances while luminium is generally used for making electrical cables £ Metals are Cooking utensils and water boilers are y copper and aluminium, good conductors of heat. OSes, ‘Metals make a ‘Therefore, they are used for making, bells. Metal wires are used is cals have Wh pacity io GERBER bs than any other classes of f hac iron are very strong. Therefore, tis widely used in the(Gonstrletion| OF) ‘All metals except mercury ‘their form and shapes under normal conditions. |. (Elasticity. Metals Gas Be'sitetelied|to some degree without breaking Metals like tungsten have -ngth. id some are not. er tt For example, 1D Iron is magnetic and copper isn 1 Gold and Platinum are malleable and ductile but do not react with water. 1D Sodium is highly reactive and reacts vigorously with water to form a solution of sodium hydroxide. ‘a. When metals b. WARREN) Different metals react differently with water. Sodit with forming sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. Magnesium reacts th pe ne and iron react mildly with steam. Copper, gold and silver do not tal Most meats on rating wih jo mt ti pos Osan OBES. they combine with oxygen to formd. Metal actions. Metals dis, Mess ean displace other metals in a metallic compound when they Arrangement of Metal Rea Li_[K [Na [Ca [Mg[Al[Mn[Zn/ Cr[Fe Displace Hydrogen from Acids Displace Hydrogen from Steam T | Displace Hydrogen ‘on cold water ec the deterioration Of metals by an eleetrochemical process like rusting. of iron) and 2Fe(s) + Ox(g) + 41'(aq) > 2Fe* (aq) + 21150(1) 4Fe™ (aq) + Or(g) + (4+2x)H20(I) > 2Fe205-xH,0(s) + 8H pe forms layer of cpyerearvrate (COCO), » SH ARMOR ASD Suede sulfide (Ag2S) the surfice of the ion metal is made native ty eating i wth GR ONE EEE ate is used for radiators ‘such as nitric acid to form a thin oxide layer at the surface. Sodium chrom: and cooling systems. ‘metal with other metals to reduce its tendency to oxidize. layer of other metals like tin or zinc on the surface of the iron. ‘process in which metal that is to be protected from corrosion is made the cathode in what amounts to a galvanic cell. ‘Some pure metals — native metals example - gold (not reactive) Most -xample - iron oxide or from carbonates or sulfides converted to oxides © Sodium and oe ‘are isolated primarily from brines (solutions of NaCl and KCI was th 1 be prepared by electrolysis. . = ‘obtained mostly from the mineral spodumenc, LiAI(SiOs)2. 2 To convert an alkali metal ion into an alkali metal atom, the ion must{ taken an electron —< process of reduction. This is not easy with the alkali metals; they are excellent reducing agents. «Beis obtained by Ca or Mg reduction of the BeCh or BeF; salts. Ca, Sr, Ba are made on a small scale from the Cl salts by reduction with Na © Magnesium is produced by: Cao MgO + FeSi-+Mg +silicates of CaandFe or MgO +C © Mg +O at 2000°C ‘© Ca® and Mg” ions cause the hardness of water. These ions of hard water interfere with the action of detergents and form precipitate with soap. Those ions are removed by ion exchange with ion exchange resins. ‘= Commercial production of tungsten: WO3 (s) +3 H2 (g) > W (s) +3 H20 (g) |The Alkali Metals (Group 1A) (Physical Properties: Shiny Soft (They can all be cut easily with a knife ) lel reaetve st standard temper nd Press Jecause of their high reactivity, they must be stored under oi ent reaction with air suse of thee ie ys they red under oil to prevent reaction with Pe ery good conducors of heat and letiiy ve the ability to impart colour to the flame (used in their identification é Compared to other metal, ty have low density ow melting point low boiling potat (Ca MP. e =29 °C). Their density increases as we move from Li to F ‘Good reducing agents, have strong tendeney to oxidize.au The atom of any given alkali metal has only GG VAlGCECEERSAD ‘© The chemical reactivity of alkali meals increase from the top tothe bottom of the proup. * Like any other metals ization PolenGaD is ver(lGWM kali metas have the (GWEN TORAH) ‘GPotential among the elements of any given period of the periodic table. ‘Any alkali metal when comes in contact with air or oxygen, starts burning and oxides ae formed in the process. At the end of the chemical reaction, lithium gives Thiam monoxide (L40), sodium gives sodium peroxide (Na,O3) and other alkali motals give superoxides, The chemical reaction ofthe alkali metals with oxygen that forms the oxide is 4M (5)+02(¢) +220 6) “The chemical reaction that forms the peroxide is: 2M (s) + O2(e)—» M02 (s) ‘The chemical reaction that forms the superoxide is M (5) + 02(g) » M02() si ct withlWatePto a ind hydrogen gas is released in the process. reaction is so vigorous in nature that the hydrogen gas produced during the reaction catches fire. Lithium is the only alkali metal that reacts slowly with water. 2M (s)+2 H,0 (1) + 2MOH (aq) +H (g) (@PAIE REA react with elements of halogen group of the periodic table to form halides. 2M+X:+2MX, © CGI) the lightest of the alkali metals, is the only alkali metal which reacts with nitrogen at it smetal nitride. GLi(s) #Na(g)—> 2 LAN (6) PLICATIONS: Lithium is used in heat resistive ceramies and glasses. Lithium batteries are packed with a lot of energy as compared to other metals. 1 Lithium salts are used as mood stabilizing drug. 1 Sodium salts of fatty acids are used in soap. 1D Sodium compounds are used in paper, textile, petroleum and chemical industries. 0 Potassium chloride is essential for the growth of plants. It is used in fertilizers. 1 Potassium chlorate and potassium nitrate are used in explosives and fireworks. i Potassium nitrate is used as a food preservative. Group IIA Metals ‘* Group 2A elements are very reactive and not found free in nature. ‘© Valence electron configuration ns «Lose 2 valence electrons to form noble gas configuration «Form ionic compounds containing M”*cations © Oxides are basi: MO(}#+11,0(1) > Mo#(aq)+20H (aq) a, Sr, and Ba react vigorously with water: M(s)+2H20() > Mz#(aq)*20H4(aq)+H1(8) ‘ee form covalent bond because of small size and high electronegativity. . Mas {intermediate in its behaviour between Be and the other elements inthis group. ‘© ts chemistry is entirely ionic in nature. + Has high polarization ability© The hydroxide is slightly soluble in water and is a weak base. ‘+ The Oxide is basic. Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra They form a closely related group with the chan systematic change. ‘+ Electropositive nature increases from Ca->Ra. ‘+ Form only ionic substances ‘+ Hydration energy of salts increase. ‘+ Insolubility of most sats, especially sulfates increases inthe same way. ‘* Halides are crystalline ionic substances that are readily hydrated. Oxides are bases, hydroxides are strong bases, the solubility inereases with increasing atomic number. ngc in chemical and physical parameters follow a Beryllium and its compounds © Be metal is relatively unreactive. It does not react with water at red heat, and does not react with air below 600 deg C. ‘* Reaction with air only as fine powder -> BeO, BesN>. © Besalts do not lose their water molecules over strong desiccants (POs). ¢ Aqueous solutions of Be salts are acidic © The hydroxide of Be is slightly soluble in water. Group 13 (IITA) Metals ‘© Al is most abundant metal of carth’s crust (8%). Other Group 13 metals found in trace amounts ‘© Alimportant in containers and light weight parts # Altends to form 3+ ions Group 14 (IVA) Metals Form +4, +2 oxidations states But not +4 ions, +4 oxidation number is associated with covalent compounds Generally form covalent compounds rather than ions - example PbCI4 is actually covalent. Group 3 12 (HIB —11B)- Transition Metals * High MP. and B.P. (Group 3 exception Zn, Cd, Hg) ‘+ Good conductors of electricity and heat (Group 11 are outstanding conductors Cu, Ag, Au) * Electronic configuration: Filling of d orbitals © Variety of oxidation states possible for transition metals © Relative Reactivity Observe that gold does not react in hydrochloric or nitric acid (a classic test for gold) ine reaets with both and copper wit only ni HCl(aq) HNO3(aq) Yes Yes Co No Yes Au No No >Cu>AuMetallurgical Processes Iron making - iron is reduced from its ores ‘Steel making — is when iron is refined to obtain desired purity and composition (alloying) Ore— are naturally occurring material from which pure metal may be extracted ‘Metallurgy — is the extraction of metals from ores and converting into usable form Raw Materials in Iron-making Iron Ore - Iron ores contain from 50% to around 70% iron, depending on grade (hematite is almost 70% iron). The principal ore used in the production or ron and ste i hematie (Fe:01). ‘Other iron ores include magnetite (Fe304), siderite (FeCOs), and limonite (FeOs-xH:0, where x is typically around 1.5). Scrap iron and steel are also widely used today as raw materials in iron- and steel making = Coke > Supplies heat for chemical reactions and produces carbon monoxide (CO) to reduce iron ore ‘© Limestone -> Used as a flux to react with and remove impurities in molten iron as slag ‘© Hot gases (CO, Ho, CO:, HzO, No, O2, and fuels) > Used to burn coke ‘Chemical reactions: Using hematite as the starting ore: FeO; +CO> 2FeO + CO» COp reacts with coke to form more CO: CO2+C (coke) > 2CO Final reduction of FeO to iron: FeO +CO > Fe + CO; Blast Furnace Process Blast furnace — a refractory-lined chamber with a diameter of about 9 to 11 m (30 to 35 f) at its widest and a height of 40 m (125 ft) To produce iron, a charge of ore, coke, and limestone are dropped into the top of a blast furnace. Hot gases are forced into the lower part of the chamber at high rates to accomplish combustion and reduction of the iron. Iron tapped from the blast furnace (called pig iron) contains over 4% C, plus other impurities: 0.3-1.3% Si, 0.5-2.0% Mn, 0.1-1.0% P, and 0.02-0.08% S |. A furnace called a cupola is commonly more closely Further refinement is required for cast iron and st used for converting pig iron into gray cast iron. For steel, compositions must be: controlled and impurities brought to much lower levels. ESP potcn or warring! tno von ro pet rot wonSteel Making 1. Basic oxygen furnace (WO) * Accounts for 70% of steel production in U.S * Adaptation of the Bessemer converter Bessemer process used air blown up through the molt ri Bee eens ip through the molten pig iron to burn of impurit © Typical BOF vessel is 5 m (16 N) inside diameter and can process 150 to 200 tons per heat ) takes 45 min . ; ij ‘The two most important processes TEE eee a eed (3) blowinigi(4) tapping the molten steel (5) pouring off the slag} Electric furnace ‘Accounts for 30% of sel prod Scrap iron and scrap stce! Capacities commonly range ben 25 and 100 tons per heat cis hr Usually vocal Noted for better quality s —eedy ingots or by continuous casting © Casting of ingot Mold {apered at top or bottom for removal of solid casting. eda stool. After solidification the mold is fi casting on the stool. 10-12 hr may be required for easting to soidy. nn Nes Having the © Continuous casting ~a semi-continuous process Continuous cas Widely applied noteworthy application Huminu and copper production, butts most Continuous casting reduc ion time by an order of maguede nt MESA. Steel is poured into tundish and flows into a water-cooled i as it travels down in mold continuous mold; it solidifies Steel > an alloy of iron containing from 0.02% and 2.11% carbon by weight It oten includes other alloying elements: manganese, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum Steel alloys can be grouped into four categories: 1. Plain carbon steels = Carbon is the principal alloying element, with only small amounts of other elements (about 0.5% manganese is normal) * Strength of plain carbon steels increases with carbon content, but ductility is reduced = High carbon stecls can be heat treated to form martensite, making the steel very hard and strong 1. Low carbon steels - contain less than 0.20% C, used in automobile shect-metal parts, plate steel for fabrication, railroad rails - 2. Medium carbon stels- range between 0:20% and 0.50% C, used in machinery components and engine parts such as crankshafts and connecting a 3. High carbon sttls - contin carbon in amounts greater than 0.50%, used in springs, cuting tools and blades, wear-resistant parts 2. Low alloy steels ; a ronearbon alloys that contain additional alloying clements in amounts totaling less than 5% wt- ‘= Mechanical properties superior to plain carbon stecls for given applications * Higher strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear resistance, toughness, combinations of these properties ‘+ Heat treatment is often required to achieve these improved propertics 3. Stainless steels = Highly alloyed steels designed for corrosion resistance _ = Principal alloying clement is chromium, usually greater than 15% — Cr "oxide film that protects surface from corrosion ‘Nickel (Ni) is another alloying ingredient in certain SS to increase corrosion protection Carbon is used to strengthen and harden SS, but high C content reduces corrosion protection © resistance, stainless steels are noted for their combination of strength a0 and more desirable forms a thin impervious x bile desirable in many applications, these properties generally make SS difficult to work in ry a mpertics g¢ = Significantly more expensive than plain C or low alloy steels since chromium carbide forms reduce available free Crr = Traditional staintes steels developed in early 1900s Several additional high alloy stests have been developed and are also classified as stainless 4. Precipitation hardening stainless ~ typical composition = 17% Cr and 796Ni, with additional mall nounts of alloying element i, and Mo. 5. Duplex stainless - mixture of aust ougyequlamoie nt Me ite and ferrite in roughly equal amounts 4, Tool steels — is a class of (usually) highly alloyed steels designed for use as industrial cuting tools, dies, and molds. ‘Yo perform in these applications, they must possess high strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear resistance, and toughness under impact, Tool steels are heat treated, Designation Scheme for Steels - developed by An ‘Automotive Engineers (SAE), so designation often expressed as AISI or SAE Specified by a 4-digit number system YYXX, the first two numbers YY represent the alloying, ‘elements and the last two numbers XX represent the earbon % in hundredths of percentage points Plain Carbon Steel 10XX Low alloy Steels ind Steel Institute (AISI) and Society of 13XX 20XX Nickel-chrome steel 31xx ‘Molybdenum steel 40x Chee Example: 1020 st molybdenum steel 41XX isa plain carbon stec! that contains 0.20% C. rst digit indicates general type, and last two Stainless Steels — three-digit AISI numbering scheme; digits give specific grade within type “Type 302 Austenitic SS (18% Cr, 8% Ni, 2% Mn, 0.15% C) erttic SS (17% Cr, 0% Ni, 1% Mn, 0.12% C) SS (17% Cr, 0% Ni, 1% Mn, 0.65% C) achining for forging, extrusion, and die-casting for sheetmetal, pressworking, cold TM High-speed tool steels - cutting tools i H Hot-working tool stects - hot-working D Cold-work tool sicels - cold working exinision and forging oer. Water-hardening tool steels - high carbon but little el $ ASSESS et stele = fools nedng gh toghnet, in shetmeta punching and bending ‘Mold steels - molds for molding plastics and rubber ~ Cast Iron — iron alloys containing from 2.1% to about 4% carbon and from 1% to 3% sili ‘© highly suitable as casting metals tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of all other cast metal parts combined, ‘excluding cast ingots in stecl-making that are subsequently rolled into bars, plates, and similar stock ‘overall production of cast iron is second only to steel among metals ‘Most important is gray cast iron : : Other types inelude ductile iron, white cast iron, malleable iron, and various alloy cast irons Ductile and malleable irons possess chemistries similar to the gray and white cast irons, respectively, but result from special processing treatments ‘Nonferrous Metals - metal elements and alloys not based on iron ‘Most important engincering metals in nonferrous group are aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and zinc, and their alloys. Although not as strong as steels, certain nonferrous alloys have corrosion resistance and/or strength-to-weight ratios that make them competitive with steels in ‘moderate-to-high stress applications. Many nonferrous metals have properties other than mechanical that ‘make them ideal for applications in which stcel would not be suitable,‘The Light Metals: Aluminum and Magnesium Aluminum Production of Aluminum > Principal ore is bauxite - mostly hydrated aluminum oxide (AljOy-H,0) + other oxides > Extraction of Al from bauxite consists of: © Washing and crushing the ore into fine powders = Bayer process -conversion of bauxite into pure alumina (Al,0s) * Electrolysis ~separation of alumina into aluminum and oxygen gas (Os) Properties of Aluminum = High electrical and thermal conductivity Corrosion resistance is excellent due to formation ofa hard thin oxide surface film = Very ductile metal, noted for its formability = Pure aluminum is relatively low in strength, but it can be alloyed and heat treated to compete ‘with some steels, especially when weight is taken into consideration. > Properties of Al alloys are influenced by work hardening and heat treatment, so temper must be designated in addition to composition. This designation is attached to the 4-digit code, separated by a hyphen, to indicate treatment or no treatment. ‘Temper treatments that specify strain hardening do not apply to the cast alloys Designations of Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys (Partial List) Alloy group Wrought code Cast code ‘Aluminum ~99.0% purity IXXX XXX Copper alloy 2XXX 2XXX Manganese alloy 3XXX Silicon alloy AXXX 4XXX Zinc alloy TXXX TAXX Tin alloy 8XXX ‘Temper Description FAs fabricated -no special treatment H Strain hardened (wrought aluminums) © Annealed to relieve strain hardening and improve ductility T Thermal treatment to produce stable tempers other than F, H, or 0 Magnesium and Its Alloys Lightest of the structural metals “Available in both wrought and cast forms Relatively easy to machine In all processing of magnesium, small particles of the metal (such as small metal cutting chips) oxidize rapidly, and care must be taken to avoid fire hazards Properties As a pure metal, magnesium is relative soft and lacks sufficient strength for most engineering applications but it can be alloyed and heat treated to achieve strengths comparable to aluminum alloys ‘Its strength-to-weight ratio is an advantage in aircraft and missile components ‘Magnesium Production ‘Sea water contains about 0.13% MgCl - source of most commercially produced magnesium. Sea water is mixed with milk of lime - calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH). The resulting reaction precipitates magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH),) that settles and is removed asa slury. The slurry is then fered to increase (Mg(OH):) content. The slury is mixed with hydrochloric acid (HCI), which reacts with the hnydroxide 2 ie concent MgCl, Eleetoysis is wsed to compose sat into magnesium (Mg) and chlrne ie (Ch). Magasin is then cast into ingots for subsequent processing, Chlorine is recycled to Designation Scheme for Magnesium (Three-to‘ive characte alphanumeric code) Fis characters = letters that identify principal alloying clements (up to two= Followed by a two-digit number that indicates, respectively, the amounts of the (wo alloying ingredients to nearest perce Example: AZ63A aluminum 6%, zinc 3%, magnesium 93% . Last symbol is a leter that indicates variation in composition or simply chronological order in which alloy became commercially availability + Magnesium alloys also require specification of a temper, aluminum is used for magnesium alloys ‘and the same basic scheme for Copper One of the oldest metals known to man | seal conductor = Low electrical resistivity - commercially pure copper is widely used as an electrical con excellent thermal conductor * One of the noble metals (gold and silver are also noble n Production of Copper = Inancient times, copper nate as fee aa ) * Today, copper is extracted from ores such as chalcopyrite (CuFeS) © Tho ore is crush ntrated by flotation, and then smelted (melted or fused, often with 2 chemical reaction to separate the metal from its ore) (© Resulting copper is 98% to 99% pure (0. Electrolysis is used to obtain higher purity levels for commercial use Properties of Copper = Strength and hardness of copper is relatively lo al - a ally ~90% Cu, 10% Sn), widely used today and in ancient Bronze - alloy of copper and tin (typic ») ; times (Le. the Bronze Age). Additional bronzes include aluminum bronzes and silicon bronzes Brass - alloy of copper and zinc (typically ~65% Cu, 35% Zn). Highest strength alloy is bryllium-copper (only about 2% Be), which can be heat treated to high strengths and used for springs metals), 50 it is corrosion resistant (0 improve strength, copper is frequently Designation Scheme for Copper “Hpased on the Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS), which uses a five digit ‘umber preceded by the leticr C (C for copper) «includes both wrought and cast copper and its alloys Examples: C10100-99.99% pure copper €17000-98% Cu, 1.7% Be (beryllium-copper) €24000 -80% Cu, 20% Zn (brass) €52100 -92% Cu, 8% Sn (bronze) Nickel and Its Alloys similar to iron in some respects: = Magnetic = Modulus of elasticity is approximately same for iron and steel Much more corrosion resistant - widely used as (1) an alloying element in steel, e.g., stainless steel, and (2) asa plating metal on metals such as plain carbon steel ‘= High temperature properties of alloys are superior * Alloys of nickel are commercially important and are noted for corrosion resistance and high temperature performance + Inaddition, a number of superalloys are based on nickel Production of Nickel The ore ((Ni,Fe)sS1), is crushed and ground with water, and flotation is used to separate sulfides from other minerals in the ore Nickel sulfide is then hated to burn off sulfur, followed by smelting to remove iron and silicon Further refinement is done to yield high-concentration nickel sulfide (NiS) Electrolysis is then used to recover high-purity nickel from NiS ‘Titanium and Its Alloys ~ density of Ti is between aluminum and iron= light weight and good strength-to-weight ratio (thus used in aerospace applic Production of Titanium ‘= Principal ores are rutile (98%-99% TiO;) and ilmenite (combination of FeO and TiO) = TiO) is converted to titanium tetrachloride (TiCl) by reacting with chlorine gas + Removal of impurities thru distillation = Reduction of concentrated TiCly to metallic titanium by reaction with magnesium, known as the Kroll process = Casting of ingots of titanium and its alloys Properties of Titanium Coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively low among metals Stiffer and stronger than Al Retains good strength at clevated temperatures Pure Ti is reactive, which presents problems in processing, especially in molten state ‘At room temperature Ti forms a thin adherent oxide coating (TiO) that provides excellent corrosion resistance Applications of Titanium In the commercially pure state, Ti is used for corrosion resistant components, such as marine ‘components and prosthetic implants | = Titanium alloys are used as high strength components in temperatures ranging from ambient to above 550°C (1000°F), especially where its excellent strength-to-weight ratio is exploited + Alloying elements used with titanium include aluminum, manganese, ti, and vanadium ms) Zine and Its Alloys | + Low melting point makes it attractive asa casting metal, especialy die casting Also provides corrosion protection when coated onto steel or iron The term galvanized steel refers to stcel coated with zine © Widely used as alloy with copper (brass) Tine lente 7 (cine sulfide (208) Zine blende or sphalerite is principal zine ore (zine sulfide ci eae Oe of ZnS in the or, sphaletite must be concentrated by fist crushing, then nding with water to create a slurry ‘The concentrated 20S is then roasted, s0 zine oxide (Za0) is formed from reaction Znis then liberated from ZnO by thermochemical processes or electrolysis Lead and Tin . ten considered together because of their low melting temperatures and use as soldering alloys. Lead - dense, low melting point; low strength, low hardness, high ductility, good corrosion resistance ‘Applications: solder, plumbing pipes, bearings, ammunition, type metals, x-ray shielding, storage batteries, and vibration damping even lower melting point than lead; low strength, low hardness, good ductility “Applications: solder, bronze, “tin cans" for storing food Refractory Metals - Metals capable of enduring high temperatures - maintaining, high strength and hardness at elevated temperatures poi strong, good high temperature strength © Used as a pure meta (99.94% Mo) and alloyed © Applications: heat shields, heating elements, electrodes for resistance welding, dies for high temperature work (e.., die casting molds), and parts for rocket and jet engines © Also widely used as an alloying ingredient in steels and superalloys ‘+ Tungsten © Properties: highest melting point among metals, one of the densest, also the sti (highest modulus of elasticity) and hardest of all pure metals * ousFs: Superalloys - high-performance alloys de resistance to surface degradation at high service temperatures (© Applications typically characterized by high operating temperatures: filament wire in incandescent light bulbs, parts for rocket and jet engines, and electrodes for arc welding © Also widely used as an clement in tool steels, heat resistant alloys, and tungsten carbide = Columbium = Tantalum gned to meet demanding requirements for strength and = Many superalloys contain substantial amounts of three or more metals, rather than consisting of ‘one base metal plus alloying elements ‘Commercially important because they are very expensive Technologically important because of their unique properties Room temperature strength properties are good but not outstanding, High temperature performance is excellent ~ tensile strength, hot hardness, ereep resistance, and corrosion resistance at very elevated temperatures ‘Operating temperatures often in the vicinity of 1100°C (2000°F) strengthening is done by precipitation hardening “Applications: gas turbines - jet and rocket engines, steam turbines, and nuclear power plants ~ systems in which operating efficiency increases with higher temperatures ‘Three Groups of Superalloys 1. Iron-based alloys - in some cases iron is less than 50% of total composition 2. Nickel-based alloys - better high temperature strength than alloy steels Other elements: Cr, Co; also: Al, Ti, Mo, and Fe 3. Cobalt-based alloys - 640% Co and £:20% chromium, ‘Other alloying elements include Ni, Mo, andl W 1g, Assembly, and Finishing Processes for Metals F'Metals are shaped by all of the basie processes: casting, powder metallurgy, deformation, and material removal © Metal paris are joined to form assem fastening reat treating is performed to enhance properti Finishing processes (c.g, electroplating and painting) are commonly used to improve appearance of metal parts and/or t provide corrosion protection by welding, brazing and soldering, and mechanical Methods to Enhance Mechanical Properties in Metals ‘= Alloying - important technique to stengthen metals. = Cold working - strain hardening during deformation to increase strength (also red ili {Seenthning ofthe met cer as byproduct ofthe forming cretion are = Heat treatment ~ heating and cooling cycles performed 0 ren ng eyeles performed on a metal to beneti They operate by altering the microstructure ofthe metal, which in tum determines properties lly change its